System and method for electrolytic production of hydrogen

Abstract

Systems and methods for generating hydrogen by electrolysis of water using electricity produced using a vortex generator that results in cavitation and implosion processes in a vortex. The vortex generator can produce conditions within the vortex generator that can allow deuterium molecules naturally occurring in water to acquire sufficient kinetic energy to overcome the Coulomb barrier so that their nuclei can get close enough to each other to undergo various nuclear reactions, discharging a large amount of nuclear energy at the microstate, imparting energy to the water, which can be used to drive a turbine to generate electricity, and the resulting electricity can be used at least in part for the electrolysis of water.

Description

SYSTEM AND METHOD FOR ELECTROLYTIC PRODUCTION OF HYDROGEN

[0001] RELATED APPLICATIONS

[0002] Benefit of priority is claimed to U.S. Provisional Application No. 63 / 653,527to Tatiana Svetlana LEON CAMACHO, titled "SYSTEM AND METHOD FOR ELECTROLYTIC PRODUCTION OF HYDROGEN," filed May 30, 2024, the subject matter of which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety.

[0003] TECHNICAL FIELD

[0004] The invention relates to a system and method for producing hydrogen in anelectrolytic cell. The system and method produces hydrogen with little to no carbon dioxide emissions, and thus is an effective way to produce “green” hydrogen to meet the world’s growing demands for hydrogen while having little to no impact on the environment, and can help to reduce global production of greenhouse gases.

[0005] BACKGROUND

[0006] In this specification where a document, act, or item of knowledge is referred toor discussed, this reference or discussion is not an admission that the document, act or item of knowledge or any combination thereof was at the priority date, publicly available, known to the public, part of common general knowledge, or otherwise constitutes prior art under the applicable statutory provisions, or is known to be relevant to an attempt to solve any problem with which this specification is concerned.

[0007] Growing concerns over global warming and environmental impacts of burningfossil fuels has led to research for the production of clean renewable energy. Hydrogen has been identified as a possible source of clean energy, and can be used in power generation, heating, fuel cells, and for synthesis of other chemicals. Global production of hydrogen typically relies on steam reforming of fossil fuels. Thus, development of greener, carbon neutral, sustainable methods for producing hydrogen without using fossil fuels is needed.

[0008] Hydrogen can be produced in conjunction with oxygen using water electrolysis,which proceeds according to the following reactions: At the Anode: 2 H2O → O2 + 4 H++ 4 e-At the Cathode: 4 H++ 4 e- → 2 H2

[0009] Hydrogen production by polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) water electrolysisand alkaline electrolyzer hydrolysis is known in the art (e.g., see U.S. Pat. Nos. 8,999,135 (Hinatsu et al., 2015) and 10,622,659 (Manabe et al, 2020)). However, increasing hydrogen production capacity results in increased equipment cost and increases in electric power operation costs. Thus, there is a need to increase the operating current of the plant to increase the hydrogen conversion of the electrolysis without significantly increasing electricity operating costs, or to provide a more economical and greener source of electricity.

[0010] Much of the world’s production of electricity is dependent on fossil fuels, such ascoal and natural gas. Electricity generation using fossil fuels has been identified as one of the largest contributors of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. Rising CO2 and other greenhouse gas levels have been implicated in global warming and climate change. Increased awareness of the environmental impact of burning fossil fuels, and coal in particular, has raised concern and has led to investigations into greener ways of producing electricity, including solar and wind. Hydroelectric power and geothermal power (e.g., see U.S. Pat. 10,598,160B2 (Sumrall, 2020)) also has been suggested as alternatives to generation of electricity powered by fossil fuels, but there usually are limitations on where such plants could be located. There is a growing need for sustainable energy use, as well as a greater awareness of resource conservation and carbon emission reduction, and thus the search for alternative energy sources has become a critical priority.

[0011] U.S. Pat. No. 10,611,633 (Redwine, 2020) teaches generating electric power viaconversion of water to hydrogen and oxygen. U.S. Pat. No.7,872,366B2 (Gray, 2011) teaches generating electricity using air and / or water currents. U.S. Pat. App. Pub. US2009 / 0155638A1 (Cui et al., 2009) teaches generating electricity with a solid oxide fuel cell system.

[0012] Cavitation is known to initiate and accelerate numerous reactions and processes.For example, U.S. Pat. No. 8,042,989B2 (Gordon et al., 2011) discloses a method for processing a fluidic mixture in a multi-stage hydrodynamic cavitation device. In the mixture, cavitation is induced in several zones, using a device with a generallycylindrical housing with an inlet, an outlet, a flow path therebetween, and a plurality of cavitation zones along the flow path. Each channel includes expansions and contractions of its cross-sectional area along its length. The invention relates to modifying complex fluids composed of a number of different compounds and utilizes cavity implosion energy to improve the fluids' viscosity and / or other physical characteristics, alter their chemical composition by converting compounds, and obtain upgraded, more valuable products.

[0013] U.S. Pat. No. 7,762,715B2 (Gordon et al., 2010) discloses a method and devicefor mixing and manipulating fluids in a multi-stage flow hydrodynamic cavitation system. A cylindrical device having a flow path in spiral guides, a vortex generator and an atomizing cone arranged sequentially therein for inducing cavitation characteristics in a fluid mixture is disclosed. The invention discloses that acoustic or hydrodynamic cavitation initiate and accelerate numerous reactions and processes. Enhancing the reaction and processes by means of the energy released upon the collapse of cavities in the flow has found applications for mixing, pumping, and expediting chemical conversions.

[0014] Chinese Patent Application CN103545009 (Peng Weiming, 2014) discloses adouble-vortex vortex nuclear reaction method characterized in that one or more kinds of fluid (including liquid and gas) respectively flow through a double-vortex vortex generating device at a certain velocity to be mixed and are discharged after centripetal vortex motion of double vortexes, and a new nuclear reaction product is formed. The double-vortex vortex generating device is of a hopper-shaped structure composed of a main container and a double-vortex vortex pipe which are connected. The application states that a quantity of nuclear energy is released during the process, and a new nuclear reaction product (fluid) carries the energy away and is discharged from a lower end port of the double-vortex vortex pipe.

[0015] However, none of these references describes use of cavitation and implosion forthe generation of electricity and the production of hydrogen. Thus, there is an urgent need for alternate systems and methods for generating hydrogen that do not depend on fossil fuels.

[0016] SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

[0017] In light of the foregoing, it has been discovered that the above-noted deficienciesin conventional methods of generating electricity and hydrogen can be addressed, and certain advantages attained, by the present invention, and further, an inventive aspect of this application is a system for generating electricity using a vortex generator to transform mechanical and nuclear energy into hydraulic energy that drives a turbine to generate electricity, and using a portion of the generated electricity to produce hydrogen.

[0018] This invention relates to a system and method for generating “green hydrogen”having substantially zero or very low CO2 emissions from the use of fossil fuels. One embodiment of the present invention is a system that utilizes a vortex generator that can be used to generate electricity and hydrogen, which can be either sequestered or utilized for a beneficial purpose (such as fuel production).

[0019] Provided herein is a system for electrolytically generating hydrogen from water.The system includes a metal powder dispenser for dispensing metal powder into water to release hydrogen and heat by reacting with the water; a vortex generator that receives the water treated with the metal powder and produces cavitation and implosion processes in a vortex of the treated water, and thereby produces an aqueous thermal hydraulic fluid; an angular speed multiplier box attached to the vortex generator; a motor attached to the angular speed multiplier box; an Archimedes turbine that receives and is driven by the thermal hydraulic fluid from the vortex generator; an electricity generator attached to and driven by the Archimedes turbine; and one or more than one electrolyzer comprising a plurality of electrolysis cells each comprising an anode electrode and a cathode electrode for electrolysis of water into hydrogen and oxygen. The system can include two or more electrolyzers. The electrolyzers can be selected from among a fullerene cell electrolyzer, an alkaline electrolyzer, a polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) electrolyzer, and combinations thereof. In some configurations, the system can include a fullerene cell electrolyzer, an alkaline electrolyzer, and a polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) electrolyzer.

[0020] In the systems provided herein, a fullerene cell electrolyzer can include at leastone electrode having a surface that includes a coating of fullerene or a carbon allotrope or a combination thereof on at least a portion of the surface of the electrode. The carbonallotropes can be selected from among graphene, graphite, carbon nanotubes, carbon nanofibers, carbon microfibers, nano carbon black, and a combination thereof. The electrolyzer can include an alkaline electrolyzer that includes at least one a hydrogen / oxygen separator for separating the hydrogen from the oxygen. The electrolyzer can include a fullerene cell electrolyzer or an alkaline electrolyzer or a combination thereof in fluid communication with the vortex generator, and the electrolyzer can use at least a portion of the aqueous thermal hydraulic fluid produced by the vortex generator as the water for electrolysis into hydrogen and oxygen. In the systems provided herein, the electrolyzer can include a PEM electrolyzer that include a polymer electrolyte membrane that includes or is made from: (a) a polymer or copolymer comprising one or more anionic functional groups selected from among sulfonic acid groups, amide groups, carboxylic acid groups, imide groups, and combinations thereof; or (b) a copolymer of sulfonated tetrafluoroethylene-based fluoropolymers or polybenzimidazole copolymers or combinations thereof; or (c) a polysulfonated polymer; or (d) a polymer or copolymer containing one or more perfluorosulfonic acid groups and / or one or more perfluorosulfonimide acid groups; or (e) a perfluorinated hydrocarbon sulfonate ionomer product; or (f) a sulfonated tetrafluoroethylene based fluoropolymer-copolymer; or (g) a copolymer of tetrafluoroethylene and 1,1,2,2-tetrafluoro-2-((1,1,1,2,3,3-hexafluoro-3-((1,2,2- trifluorovinyl)oxy)propan-2-yl)oxy)-ethanesulfonic acid. In the systems, the electrolyzer can be designed to have turbulent flow conditions of the water within the electrolysis cells.

[0021] In the systems provided herein, the electrolyzer is in electrical communicationwith the electricity generator for the electricity generator to provide an electrical current sufficient to convert at least a portion of the water to hydrogen on the cathode electrode and oxygen on the anode electrode. The system can further include a variable volume storage tank for storing the hydrogen; a hydrogen compressor for compressing the hydrogen; an oxygen storage tank; an oxygen compressor for compressing the oxygen; a liquid / gas separator for separating the hydrogen or the oxygen or both from a liquid; or any combination thereof.

[0022] In the systems provided herein, the anode electrode or the cathode electrode orboth can be made of or include a stainless steel, carbon steel, nickel, molybdenum, anickel-molybdenum alloy, a Raney nickel, a nickel-iron alloy, a nickel-copper alloy, a nickel-cobalt alloy, a nickel-cobalt-zinc (NiCoZn) alloy, a nickel-copper-cobalt (NiCuCo) alloy, platinum, platinum black, titanium, graphite, or any combination thereof. In some systems, the anode electrode or the cathode electrode or both are made of or include a stainless steel alloy selected from among SS 304L, SS 316, SS 316L, SS 409, SS 410, SS 430, and duplex grades DSS 2304, DSS 2205, DSS 2507, and DSS 2906.

[0023] In the systems provided herein, the anode electrode or the cathode electrode orboth can include a coating on a portion of a surface, or on one surface, or on both surfaces. The coating can include a noble metal, a carbon material, a catalyst, or a combination thereof. When the coating includes a noble metal, the noble metal can be selected from among gold, silver, platinum, iridium, rhenium, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, osmium, a combination thereof, and an alloy thereof. In some configurations, the cathode can include platinum as a catalyst on a surface, and the anode can include iridium as a catalyst on a surface thereof. When an electrode includes a coating of a carbon material, the carbon material can be selected from among fullerene, graphene, graphite, carbon nanotubes, carbon nanofibers, carbon microfibers, nano carbon black, and a combination thereof. In some systems, the carbon material can be a support for a catalyst.

[0024] In the systems provided herein, the metal powder dispenser can include a solid-gas mixing system comprising a cyclone mixer, a Venturi mixer, or combination thereof, to fluidize the metal powder for delivery to the fluid. In some configurations, the metal powder dispenser can include a storage hopper containing the metal powder and including an outlet that can be opened and closed by an actuator to dispense the metal powder; a motor; a rotator connected to and driven by the motor; a housing enclosing the rotator and configured to receive the metal powder from the outlet of the storage hopper; and a metering device. The rotator can be a screw-type conveying device selected from among an auger, a drill, and a screw rod. The metering device can include load cells configured to measure a weight of the metal powder.

[0025] In the systems provided herein, the vortex generator can include a casing and arotor contained within the casing, wherein the rotor includes a shaft that traverses through the casing and is coupled to an angular speed multiplier box. The rotor can bemade of a material selected from among stainless steel, cast iron, titanium, titanium alloy, anodized aluminum, and a composite material comprising carbon fiber. The rotor can include a plurality of furrows in a surface thereof. The furrows can be arranged concentrically, helically, or radially. The furrows can have a cross-sectional shape that is a rectangular shape, a U-shape, or a V-shape. In some configurations, the rotor can include a plurality of ridges on a surface thereof. The ridges can be arranged concentrically, helically, or radially. The ridges can have a cross-sectional shape that is a rectangular shape, a U-shape, or a V-shape.

[0026] The rotor can have an angle of inclination in the range of 0° to 65°. The rotor canhave one surface that is flat, and an opposite surface that is angled from the center to the outer edge, such that a thickness of the rotor at the center is greater than a thickness of the rotor at the outer edge. The casing can be made of a material selected from among stainless steel, cast iron, titanium, titanium alloy, anodized aluminum, and a composite material comprising carbon fiber.

[0027] The systems provided herein can include one or more monitoring devices selectedfrom among a pressure gauge, a flow meter, and a thermal sensor. The system can include a pump to initiate a flow of the fluid to the vortex generator. The system can include a storage tank for containing the fluid, which can be water. The system can include a series of pipes to provide a path for fluid flow from the storage tank, to the pump, to the vortex generator, to the Archimedes turbine, and back to the storage tank. The system can include a diverter for directing a portion of the aqueous thermal hydraulic fluid from the vortex generator to the electrolyzer. In the systems herein, a traditional Archimedes turbine can be used. In the systems herein, a modified Archimedes turbine can be used. In the modified Archimedes turbine, the device includes an inlet and an outlet, and a diameter of the Archimedes turbine at the inlet is larger than a diameter of the of the Archimedes turbine at the outlet.

[0028] In the systems herein, the angular speed multiplier box can be configured to rotatethe rotor to a speed of from about 8,000 rpm to about 55,000 rpm. The rotating rotor creates a vortex and the cavitation and implosion processes in the vortex allows deuterium molecules naturally occurring in the water to acquire sufficient kinetic energy to overcome the Coulomb barrier so that their nuclei can get close enough to each other to undergo a nuclear reaction releasing nuclear energy.

[0029] Also provided herein are methods for electrolytically producing hydrogen fromwater. The methods include treating water with a metal to produce a metal hydroxide, hydrogen, and heat to yield a treated water; providing the treated water to a vortex generator comprising a rotor; rotating the rotor of the vortex generator at a speed to induce cavitation and implosion in the treated water in the vortex generator to form a thermal hydraulic fluid; outputting the thermal hydraulic fluid from the vortex generator to an Archimedes turbine attached to an electricity generator to cause the Archimedes turbine to rotate, whereby the rotating Archimedes turbine causes the electricity generator to rotate and produce electricity; and providing the electricity from the electricity generator to a plurality of electrolytic cells of an electrolyzer to convert water by electrolysis to hydrogen on a cathode and oxygen on an anode. The electrolyzer is one or more than one electrolyzer selected from among a fullerene cell electrolyzer, an alkaline electrolyzer, a polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) electrolyzer, and combinations thereof.

[0030] In some methods, two or more electrolyzers selected from among a fullerene cellelectrolyzer, an alkaline electrolyzer, a polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) electrolyzer, and combinations thereof are used for the electrolysis of the water. In some methods, a combination of a fullerene cell electrolyzer, an alkaline electrolyzer, and a polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) electrolyzer can be used. A fullerene cell electrolyzer or an alkaline electrolyzer or a combination of both, can be in fluid communication with the vortex generator and can use at least a portion of the thermal hydraulic fluid as the water for electrolysis to produce hydrogen and oxygen. The methods can include collecting the hydrogen gas and storing it in a variable volume storage container; or collecting the hydrogen gas and compressing the hydrogen gas and storing the compressed hydrogen gas. The methods can include collecting the oxygen gas and storing it in a storage container; or collecting the oxygen gas and compressing the oxygen gas and storing the compressed oxygen gas.

[0031] In the methods provided herein, the electrolysis can be performed at a temperaturebetween about 20°C to 110°C. The electrolysis can be performed at atmospheric pressure or at an elevated pressure. The anode side of the electrolytic cells and the cathode side of the electrolytic cells can be operated at substantially equal pressures. The anode side of the electrolytic cells and the cathode side of the electrolytic cells canbe operated at different pressures. The methods can include collecting fluid from the anode side of the electrolytic cells and treating the fluid in a degasser to separate the oxygen from the fluid, producing a degassed fluid. The methods can include cooling the water prior to hydrolysis.

[0032] In the methods provided herein, the rotor can be rotating at a speed of about 8,000rpm to about 55,000 rpm. The rotor can include (a) a plurality of ridges on a surface thereof; or (b) a plurality of furrows in a surface thereof. The ridges can be arranged concentrically, helically, or radially; or the furrows can be arranged concentrically, helically, or radially. The ridges can have a cross-sectional shape that is a rectangular shape, a U-shape, or a V-shape; or the furrows can have a cross-sectional shape that is a rectangular shape, a U-shape, or a V-shape.

[0033] In the methods provided herein, the metal added to the water to produce a metalhydroxide can be any one or a combination of Al, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, and Fr. The metal can have a particle size of 10 nm to about 1,000 nm.

[0034] In the methods provided herein, the cavitation and implosion processes in thevortex within the vortex generator allows deuterium molecules naturally occurring in the water to acquire sufficient kinetic energy to overcome the Coulomb barrier so that their nuclei can get close enough to each other to undergo a nuclear reaction releasing nuclear energy.

[0035] BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS

[0036] These and other features of this invention will now be described with referenceto the drawings of certain embodiments, which are intended to illustrate and not to limit the invention. The figures are for the purpose of illustrative discussion and no attempt is made to show structural details of an embodiment in more detail than is necessary for a fundamental understanding of the invention. For the sake of clarity, some objects depicted in the figures are not to scale, and components within the figures may be depicted not to scale with each other.

[0037] FIGS.1 and 2 are representative illustrations to explain the processes of cavitationand implosion.

[0038] FIG. 3 is an illustration of an exemplary rotor with furrows in concentric circles.

[0039] FIG. 4 is an illustration of an exemplary rotor with furrows in a helical pattern.

[0040] FIG. 5 is an illustration of an exemplary rotor with radial furrows.

[0041] FIG.6 is an illustration of exemplary geometric parameters of a rotor of the vortexgenerator provided herein.

[0042] FIG. 7A is a schematic illustration of an exemplary embodiment of the rotorinside the rotor casing, which is shown in cross-section in FIG. 7B. FIG. 7C shows a three-dimensional cutaway view. FIG. 7D is an illustration of an exemplary water distributor for providing water to the casing of the vortex generator.

[0043] FIG. 8 is a schematic illustration of an exemplary embodiment of a dispensingdevice for delivering a metal powder for a thermochemical reaction.

[0044] FIG. 9 is a schematic representation of an embodiment of the dispensing device.

[0045] FIG. 10A shows a cross-sectional view of the modified Archimedes turbine.

[0046] FIG. 10B shows a cross-sectional three-dimensional view of the modifiedArchimedes turbine.

[0047] FIG. 10C shows a front view (facing the inlet) of the modified Archimedesturbine.

[0048] FIG. 11 is a schematic representation of an embodiment of an exemplaryconfiguration of the electrolytic portion of the hydrogen-producing system provided herein.

[0049] FIG. 12 is an isometric illustration of an exemplary configuration of theelectrolytic portion of the hydrogen-producing system provided herein containing an alkaline electrolyzer.

[0050] FIG. 13 is an illustration of an exemplary single cell of a polymer electrolytemembrane (PEM) cell of a PEM electrolyzer.

[0051] FIG.14 is a schematic illustration of an exemplary configuration of the hydrogen-producing system provided herein.

[0052] FIG. 15 is an isometric illustration of an exemplary configuration of theelectricity-producing portion of the hydrogen-producing system provided herein.

[0053] DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

[0054] Further aspects, features and advantages of this invention will become apparentfrom the detailed description which follows. It should be understood that the variousindividual aspects and features of the present invention described herein can be combined with any one or more individual aspect or feature, in any number, to form embodiments of the present invention that are specifically contemplated and encompassed by the present invention. Furthermore, any of the features recited in the claims can be combined with any of the other features recited in the claims, in any number or in any combination thereof. Such combinations are also expressly contemplated as being encompassed by the present invention.

[0055] Definitions

[0056] As used herein, the singular forms “a”, “an” and “the” are intended to include theplural forms as well, unless the context clearly indicates otherwise.

[0057] As used herein, “about” is a term of approximation and is intended to includeminor variations in the literally stated amounts, as would be understood by those skilled in the art. Such variations include, for example, standard deviations associated with techniques commonly used to measure the amounts of the constituent elements or components of an alloy or composite material, or other properties and characteristics. All of the values characterized by the above-described modifier “about,” are also intended to include the exact numerical values disclosed herein, as well as acceptable variance of such values. Moreover, all ranges include the upper and lower limits of the ranges.

[0058] Unless indicated otherwise, each of the individual features or embodiments of thepresent specification are combinable with any other individual feature or embodiment that are described herein, without limitation. Such combinations are specifically contemplated as being within the scope of the present invention, regardless of whether they are explicitly described as a combination herein.

[0059] Technical and scientific terms used herein have the meaning commonlyunderstood by one of skill in the art to which the present description pertains, unless otherwise defined. Reference is made herein to various methodologies and materials known to those of skill in the art.

[0060] As used herein, “furrow” refers to a narrow groove or trenchlike depression in asurface.

[0061] As used herein, a “thermal hydraulic fluid” refers to a fluid that has been subjectedto cavitation and implosion in a vortex generator.

[0062] As used herein, an “angle of inclination” refers to the angle measured from theupper inside surface of the rotor at the junction with the shaft to the upper surface at the outer perimeter of the rotor, as shown in numeral 4 of FIG.6.

[0063] As used herein, “cell” or “electrolysis cell” refers to a structure including acathode half-cell and an anode half-cell. A membrane can be included, and when present, the membrane can be located between the cathode and anode. The membrane can define one side of each half-cell. The other side of each half-cell can be defined by an electronically conducting solid plate, typically comprised of metal, carbon, carbon- polymer composite, or combinations thereof, and generally known as a bipolar plate. The functionality of the bipolar plate is to maintain and separate the fluids in adjacent half-cell chambers of adjacent cells.

[0064] As used herein, a “half-cell” refers to a structure that includes one electrode andits corresponding chamber that provides space for fluid flow, such as gas, liquid, or gas- liquid out of the half-cell. The term “cathode half-cell” refers to a half-cell containing a cathode, and the term “anode half-cell” refers to a half cell containing an anode.

[0065] As used herein, “polymer electrolyte membrane cell” or “proton exchangemembrane cell” or “PEM cell”, used interchangeably, refer to an electrolytic cell where the half-cells (anode and cathode) are separated by a polymer electrolyte membrane.

[0066] As used herein, “polymer electrolyte membrane” or “proton exchangemembrane” or “PEM”, used interchangeably, refers to a solid polymer membrane acting as an electrolyte, the membrane conducting the flow of protons, separating the electrodes, providing electrical insulation, and separating product gases. Exemplary membranes are those made of copolymers of sulfonated tetrafluoroethylene based fluoropolymers or polybenzimidazole copolymers.

[0067] As used herein, a “cell stack” refers to a plurality of cells, in which the cellstypically are electrically connected in series. A cell stack can include bipolar plates physically separating but electrically connecting adjacent cells.

[0068] As used herein, an “electrolyzer” refers to a system for electrolytically producinghydrogen and oxygen from water. The electrolyzer can include one or a plurality of electrolysis cells.

[0069] As used herein, a “polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) electrolyzer” refers toan electrolyzer that performs electrolysis of water utilizing a polymer electrolyte membrane.

[0070] As used herein, a “fullerene cell electrolyzer” refers to an electrolyzer thatperforms electrolysis of water utilizing at least one electrode that includes a coating of fullerene on at least one surface thereof, or that includes at least one electrode that includes a carbon-based coating material including fullerene, graphene, graphite, carbon nanotubes, carbon nanofibers, carbon microfibers, nano carbon black, or any combination thereof at least one surface thereof.

[0071] Hydrogen Generating System

[0072] In order to produce “green” hydrogen, provided herein is a system that includesan electricity generating system component in communication with and attached to an electrolytic hydrogen producing system component. The electricity generating component produces little to no carbon dioxide emissions, and thus has little to no impact on the environment, and the electricity-generation system provided herein can be used to provide the electricity to produce hydrogen from water catalytically. The electricity generating component uses a vortex generator to transform mechanical and nuclear energy into hydraulic energy that drives a turbine to generate electricity. The vortex generator provided herein results in cavitation and implosion processes in a vortex, which can allow deuterium molecules naturally occurring in water to acquire sufficient kinetic energy to overcome the Coulomb barrier so that their nuclei can get close enough to each other to undergo various nuclear reactions, discharging a large amount of nuclear energy at the microstate.

[0073] Designing a vortex

[0074] A two-equation mathematical model that describes the phenomena observed inthe vortex generator of this invention is discussed below. A characteristic feature of the two-equation model is a fifth-order nonlinear aerodynamic damping term. Likewise, this model can be used for qualitative analysis, with additional experiments contemplatedfor quantitative analysis. Based on the two-equation mathematical model, the specific parameters and conditions that create the vortex were designed, as described herein.

[0075] The two-equation mathematical model includes Equations A and B:

[0076] Equation A

[0077] Equation B

[0078] In a flow field with velocity distribution u, andrepresents the of a field. In Equation B, Γ is defined as a circulationfunction of a fluid, is an arbitrary curved surface. The primary characteristics of the vortices present in a fluid are:

[0079] Vorticity at a point in a fluid is a vector. The component of vorticity in a particulardirection ( ) is twice the angular velocity of either of two line segments in the fluid thatare mutually orthogonal with . Vorticity is therefore a measure of how fast the fluid rotates.

[0080] Just because a flow field is rotating on a large scale, it does not mean that inthe flux is non-zero (in order to obtain a Γ different from 0, should be non-zero at least at one point or in a finite region for a viscous fluid).

[0081] Even if the current lines of a flow are not curved, the flow itself can be rotational,i.e., “vortex lines are material lines”.

[0082] Vortex lines are lines that are tangential to the local vorticity vector. Vortex tubesare the set of all vortex lines that pass through a finite area.

[0083] The circulation around a vortex tube is constant, regardless of the shape andlocation of the contour.

[0084] As long as a fluid is barotropic, is subject to environmental forces, and onlysubject to potential corporeal forces, the circulation around any loop of material in the fluid is independent of time.

[0085] Vorticity is improved by stretching along the axes of rotation of the fluid element.

[0086] Viscosity causes vorticity to diffuse away from lateral lines.

[0087] Baroclinity can generate vorticity within a fluid.

[0088] When the flow is rotational, the vorticity of a fluid element is directly proportionalto its density, and the compression of the fluid increases the vorticity.

[0089] Designing cavitation and implosion processes in a vortex.

[0090] A model for the onset of cavitation and implosion in a vortex is described here.In this model, a simplified Rayleigh-Plesset single-bubble implosion model is used. The degree of cavitation development is characterized by a non-dimensional parameter known as the cavitation number , which is defined by:

[0091] ,

[0092] pressure of the liquid, pv is the actual pressure of theliquid, ρ is the fluid density, and V is the flow velocity.

[0093] The Rayleigh-Plesset equation is a second-order differential equation used tocalculate the behavior of the bubble volume as a function of its radius R(t):

[0094] ,

[0095] where is the difference between the applied pressure and thevaporterm of the bubble evolution. The second term of this equation is the contribution of the non-condensable gas, where the constant mass of the gas is assumed to follow a polytropic thermodynamic behavior characterized by a given polytropic coefficient k. S is the surface tension coefficient expressed in N / m or J / m2.

[0096] Based on the above-described Rayleigh-Plesset model, the specific parametersand conditions that create the vortex, and resulting cavitation and implosion processes of this application were designed, as described herein.

[0097] The design of the vortex generator described herein for use in the electricity-producing component maximizes the implosion phenomenon, maximizes stiffness to prevent the system from reaching its elastic limits and makes it possible to reuse the system, imparts safety, and minimizes manufacturing, maintenance, and operating costs.

[0098] In an exemplary embodiment, the rotor of the vortex generator is rotated at arotational speed of about 8,000 rpm to about 55,000 rpm. The rotational speed can beequal to any integer value or values this range, including the end-points of these ranges, and any appropriate variances. For example, the rotor can operate at speeds of 8,000 rpm, 9,000 rpm, 10,000 rpm, 11,000 rpm, 12,000 rpm, 13,000 rpm, 14,000 rpm, 15,000 rpm, 20,000 rpm, 25,000 rpm, 30,000 rpm, 35,000 rpm, 40,000 rpm, 45,000 rpm, 50,000 rpm, or 55,000 rpm.

[0099] The initial pressure inside the vortex generator during the cavitation andimplosion process can be from about 50 kPa to about 105 kPa. The pressure can be equal to any integer value or values within this range, including the end-points of these ranges, and any appropriate variances. At a pressure within these ranges, the energy of the macrostates of water increases. During the implosion process, the localized pressure of the microstates of water existing in the vicinity of the implosion can reach about 0.2 GPa to about 3 GPa and the localized temperature of the microstates can be at least 5000 K.

[0100] Within these ranges, the vortex generator described herein creates the cavitationand implosion processes at the required energy to allow deuterium molecules naturally occurring in water to acquire sufficient kinetic energy to overcome the Coulomb barrier so that their nuclei can get close enough to each other to undergo various nuclear reactions, discharging a large amount of nuclear energy at the microstate.

[0101] The following is a description of the fluid dynamics that form the basis forcreating the vortex of this invention.

[0102] Speed distribution of a Rankine vortex with a central radius a and a maximumcirculation Γ is: r ≤ a

[0103] Thelength contained within a radius 0 is:

[0104] Thethat:

[0105] r ≤ ri(Steam) r ≥ ri (Liquid).

[0106] The vortex of this invention generates an environment of microstates, whichfacilitate cavitation and implosion processes resulting in a localized pressure, calculated to be about 0.2 GPa to about 3 GPa and a localized temperature, calculated to be at least 5000 K in the water that allows deuterium molecules naturally occurring in water to acquire sufficient kinetic energy to overcome the Coulomb barrier so that their nuclei can get close enough to each other to undergo various nuclear reactions, discharging a large amount of nuclear energy at the microstate.

[0107] These aforementioned conditions generate pressure and temperature changes inthe vortex that make viable the processes of initiation, collision, growth, cavitation cloud, loss of coherence, cavitation cloud growth, collision and implosion. These processes can generate temperatures at the microstate of around 10,000 (K). Consequently, thermolysis of water can occur in the microstates created in the water.

[0108] Description of the Components of the Hydrogen Generating System

[0109] The hydrogen generating system herein includes an electricity generating systemcomponent in communication with and attached to an electrolytic hydrogen producing system component.

[0110] Electricity Generating System Component of the System

[0111] The electricity generating system component of the hydrogen producing systemprovided herein includes a vortex generator that is a device that produces cavitation and implosion and results in nuclear reactions at the microstate. The vortex generator includes a rotor that produces cavitation and implosion of bubbles by creating a vortex in water within the system. These bubbles form because the local pressure of the fluid drops below its vapor pressure, causing instantaneous evaporation and bubble formation. In the case of the vortex, the low pressure in the vortex can cause vapor bubbles to form in the water. When the vortex in the water is accelerated sufficiently by the rotor, cavitation can occur.

[0112] The phenomenon of cavitation is known in the art (e.g., see Ozonek et al., “Effectof different design features of the reactor on hydrodynamic cavitation process”,Archives of Materials Science and Engineering 52(2): 112-117,2011). Cavitation describes a phenomenon that occurs inside a liquid when a pressure field is subjected to changes in time and distance. These changes depend on the properties of the liquid which causes the formation of voids, filled with the fluid in its vapor phase, which are then violently compressed, reaching gaseous phases at high pressure and temperature. Due to this process, there is a rapid transfer of energy between a zone where there was previously a vacuum and where the water changes in density. This phenomenon is caused by a difference in static pressure and vapor pressure of a fluid. When the static pressure of a fluid (pressure of a fluid at rest) is lower than its vapor pressure, small vapor-filled cavities can be present in the fluid. Increasing the pressure on the fluid results in implosion or collapse of these cavities, thereby generating waves of energy emanating from the site of the implosion(s).

[0113] Thus, cavitation is the rapid formation and collapse of vapor bubbles in a liquiddue to decreased pressure. Cavitation is related to fluid pressure and temperature. The pressure required to initiate cavitation depends on the temperature and the type of fluid. There is an inverse relationship between the vapor pressure of a fluid and its temperature: as the temperature increases, the vapor pressure decreases. Therefore, at higher temperatures, a lower pressure is required to initiate cavitation. These vapor bubbles are unstable and eventually collapse due to the sudden increase in pressure in the surrounding water. During collapse, the bubbles release a large amount of energy in the form of shock waves and microjets, resulting in a phenomenon known as implosion. The implosion generated by cavitation produces high-intensity forces.

[0114] During cavitation and implosion within the vortex generator of the electricity-producing component, the liquid is subjected to localized temperatures that can be above 5000°C and pressures that can be above 10 MPa. These temperature and pressure values are achieved from the potential energy of an implosion of water-vapor bubble and the kinetic energy of the fluid. The potential energy is established based on the specific pressure and volume parameters of each molecule, and is equal to the work generated by a pressure difference Pd - Pv on its vapor volume throughout the collapse of the cavitation bubble, wherein Pd is the impeller (rotor) pressure and Pv is the vapor pressure of the cavitation bubble. The implosion energy of an undisturbed vapor bubble is equal to the ambient pressure p∞, as shown in Function 1:

[0115]

[0116] as for cavitation implosion loads Physics ofFluids”, 31, S. Schenke, T. Melissaris, and T. J. C. van Terwisga, 2019 (Schenke 2019).

[0117] In Function 1, the potential energy of the bubble, R0 is the initial radiusof the bubble, (p∞, ) are ambient pressure and vapor pressure respectively, and this function is valid for an undisturbed spherical bubble.

[0118] A representative schematic of this process is shown in FIG. 1. In FIG. 1, onecavitation bubble 3200 is shown under normal pressure conditions (prior to exposure to a pressure gradient). When cavitation bubble 3200 is subject to baroclinity (ρ × p1) at a point and converges with an area having a different pressure gradient (p2), the cavitation bubble 3200 is subjected to a shock wave that moves through the fluid due to the difference in the pressure gradients. This causes the cavitation bubble 3200 to implode and form an imploded cavitation bubble 3300, which generates additional energy. Baroclinity, generally denoted by ρ× p, where ρ is a density gradient and p is a pressure gradient of a fluid, is a measure of the misalignment between the density and pressure gradients of a fluid.

[0119] Another schematic representation of this process is shown in FIG.2. As illustratedin FIG.2, cavitation bubbles 3200 appear within the fluid when a vortex is generated in a fluid at a velocity V0 by the action of a rotor 3000. As these cavitation bubbles 3200 encounter the pressure differential created by the vortex along isobaric lines 3400, the cavitation bubbles implode into an elliptical-shaped imploded cavitation bubble 3300.

[0120] Is has been discovered that vacuum energy and cavitation and implosion in thevortex generator of the electricity-producing component of the system provided herein can allow some of the water molecules, and in particular deuterium molecules naturally occurring in water, to acquire sufficient kinetic energy to overcome the Coulomb barrier so that their nuclei can get close enough to each other to undergo various nuclear reactions, discharging a large amount of nuclear energy at the microstate. The reaction can occur at the microstate between two deuterium atoms.

[0121] For clarity, the two main states, the macrostate and the microstate, aredistinguished.

[0122] A macrostate refers to the macroscopic variables that characterize a system, suchas temperature, pressure, enthalpy, entropy, volume, internal energy, among others. These variables describe the average state of the system as a whole. For example, if we have a gas in a container, the macrostate can be described by the temperature and pressure of the gas in the container. On the other hand, a microstate refers to the microscopic or individual configurations of the particles that make up a system. These configurations describe the positions and velocities of the particles at a given time. For the example of the gas in a container, a microstate would be a specific configuration of the particles, where each particle has a given position and velocity, understanding the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, which states that there are fundamental limits to the precision with which certain properties of a subatomic particle can be known.

[0123] In a macroscopic system, there are many possible microstates corresponding tothe same macroscopic state. For example, for a gas in a container, there are innumerable ways in which the particles can be distributed in space as long as they maintain the same macroscopic characteristics, such as temperature and pressure.

[0124] Understanding this, nuclear fusion at the microstate in the present invention canbe described as in microsteps, whereby the sum of implosions and chemical reactions can bring protium and deuterium atoms to nuclear fusion temperatures, while macrosteps should not reach temperatures above 1000°C. Nuclear fusion of deuterium at the macrostate, though, occurs at extremely high temperatures (depending on specific conditions, it can approach 100 million Kelvin or higher).

[0125] Vacuum energy is a fundamental concept in quantum physics and field theory.Although the vacuum has traditionally been considered to be the total absence of energy, modern physics reveals that the vacuum is filled with quantum fluctuations that give rise to a form of intrinsic energy known as vacuum energy or zero-point energy.

[0126] The quantum vacuum is a description of space-time on the smallest possible scale,where subatomic particles and quantum fields interact. According to quantum field theory, even in the absence of particles and classical fields, the quantum vacuum is filled with energy fluctuations. These fluctuations, called vacuum fluctuations, arise due to theHeisenberg uncertainty principle, which states that the position and momentum of a particle cannot be known precisely at the same time. The uncertainty principle implies that there are energy fluctuations in the vacuum, which leads to the existence of virtual particles. These virtual particles are temporary fluctuations of energy that appear and disappear in very short times, following the laws of quantum physics. Since these virtual particles have mass and associated energy, they contribute to the total energy of the vacuum, which is known as vacuum energy or zero-point energy.

[0127] One of the most notable effects of vacuum energy is the Casimir effect,discovered by the Dutch physicist Hendrik Casimir in 1948. This effect occurs when two parallel metal plates are placed in a vacuum close to each other. The energy fluctuations of the vacuum generate a net pressure that pushes the plates together. This phenomenon has been verified experimentally and provides indirect evidence for the existence of vacuum energy.

[0128] Within the vortex generator, energy is transferred from the rotating rotor to thefluid, generally water. The high kinetic energy of the rotor is responsible for providing the kinetic energy to the fluid and providing space for the formation of the cavitation and implosion process. The rotating rotor within the vortex generator can create a zone of high vacuum and, due to the thermodynamic properties of water, the water is violently converted from the liquid to the gaseous phase, and this conversion generates a high amount of energy. The bubbles formed during cavitation collapse upon themselves, resulting in implosion, generating a vacuum pressure on the system. In this process, energy is transferred violently and concentrically at various locations because of the creation of a vacuum in the area. This process occurs at a local pressure of about 100 MPa and a temperature of about 5000 K, which are generated within the water during the cavitation and implosion processes. At this high temperature, deuterium atoms can acquire enough kinetic energy to overcome mutual electrostatic repulsion and fuse with a protium or another deuterium atom, but typically another deuterium atom, releasing a large amount of energy. A layer of water molecules closest to the collapse and implosion zone changes its phase and becomes a gas, which in turn, raises the temperature and the pressure of the fluid.

[0129] The rotor of the vortex generator is designed to generate the necessary motion toallow the transport of fluids through a system and to promote cavitation and implosion.These rotors include a central shaft around which are arranged a series of blades, vanes or propellers that may or may not be fused to the shaft. The blades, vanes, or propellers can be separated elements arranged about the central shaft, or can be an integral part of a disc that can be attached to the central shaft. The rotor can be a centrifugal rotor that can include furrows and / or blades or ridges of varying geometries and configurations. When the rotor of the vortex generator is driven, whether by an electric motor, internal combustion engine, or other drive mechanism, the rotor furrows and / or blades or ridges induce a flow of fluid, either liquid or gas, from the inlet of the casing and the vortex generator transforms mechanical and nuclear energy into hydraulic energy towards its outlet. In cross-section, the furrows can have a rectangular shape, or can be U-shaped or V-shaped.

[0130] The shape, size and arrangement of the rotor of the vortex generator and itsfurrows / blades / ridges / vanes / propellers can vary according to the type and size of that system that transforms mechanical and nuclear energy into hydraulic energy. In some applications, a centrifugal type rotor can be advantages in terms of efficiency, capacity and adaptability to different types of fluids and operating conditions.

[0131] The rotor of the vortex generator converts the mechanical energy provided by amotor (it can be electric or combustion motor) of the system to the rotor shaft that drives the rotor and transforms that mechanical energy to kinetic energy moving the water with the rotor, producing implosions and nuclear energy that is transformed into hydraulic or flow energy, which allows the displacement of the fluid through the system. This displacement of the resulting high energy water can be used to generate electricity.

[0132] The rotor of the vortex generator can transfer the mechanical energy to the waterresulting in nuclear energy and vacuum energy in the fluid. The mechanical energy transfer results in increased speed and pressure of the water. This is crucial to overcome hydraulic resistances in the system, such as friction in pipes and fittings.

[0133] The geometry and arrangement of the furrows / blades / vanes / propellers(hereinafter referred to collectively as furrows for brevity, with the understanding the “furrows” can be replaced with any of blades, ridges, vanes, propellers or the like) of the rotor of the vortex generator influence the direction and control of the flow. This allows the fluid to be efficiently directed from the machine inlet to the outlet, causingturbulence that could increase machine performance due to the formation of cavitation and implosion that promotes the increase in temperature and pressure necessary for nuclear energy and vacuum energy utilization.

[0134] Different rotors impart different flows on the fluid in which they rotate. Forexample, centrifugal rotors typically have curved blades that induce a spinning motion to the fluid, while axial rotors have straight blades that direct the flow in the same direction as the rotor axis. Exemplary rotors are shown in FIGS.3-5, but the rotor is not limited to such designs or configurations.

[0135] FIG. 3 is an illustration of an exemplary rotor with concentric furrows. FIG. 4 isan illustration of an exemplary rotor with helical furrows. FIG.5 is an illustration of an exemplary rotor with radial furrows. The number and arrangement of furrows on the rotor have a significant impact on system performance. A larger number of furrows can improve machine efficiency by reducing recirculations and improving flow distribution and implosion zones. In addition, the arrangement of the furrows, such as their pitch angle and spacing, can be optimized to maximize energy transfer to the fluid. The length and profile of the furrows are important, because longer swaths can increase system capacity and machine efficiency by providing a larger surface area for interaction with the fluid. The profile of the furrows, such as their curvature and thickness, can influence flow velocity and pressure, as well as turbulence generation and energy losses.

[0136] When the concentrically grooved rotor rotates, the fluid is pushed outward fromthe center of the rotor towards the periphery, increasing its velocity and pressure, which, due to the geometry perpendicular to the flow, increases the pressure difference between the surface and leads to the generation of jumps that drive the generation of implosion and cavitation. Helical groove rotors have grooves that are arranged parallel to the axis of rotation, improving fluid velocity but not favoring the generation of implosion and cavitation. Straight-row rotors have furrows that are arranged parallel to the axis of rotation, and the fluid flow through the rotor is predominantly in a direction parallel to the axis of rotation. In these rotors the flow is of high capacity and medium pressure, which puts it in an intermediate of the two previous ones.

[0137] The geometric parameters influences thermodynamic performance. Referring toFIG. 6, the diameter 1 of the rotor determines the fluid swept area and, therefore, itscapacity. Rotors with larger diameters can handle higher flow rates and generate higher pressures, but may also require more powerful motors, and increase the overall size of the machine. Rotor length 2 is the axial distance from the rotor inlet to the rotor outlet, or the top to the bottom of the rotor. This parameter affects system capacity and system efficiency. Longer rotors can provide a larger surface area of interaction with the fluid, which can improve machine efficiency at a higher input energy cost. The number of rotor furrows 3 affects the hydrodynamic performance of the machine because more furrows can improve machine efficiency by reducing recirculation and improving flow distribution. However, an excessive number of furrows can increase friction and turbulence losses. The angle of inclination 4 of the furrows affects the direction and speed of flow through the rotor, as well as the efficiency of the system. The angle of inclination can be in the range of 0° to 65°. The angle of inclination can be 0°, 5°, 10°, 15°, 20°, 25°, 30°, 35°, 40°, 45°, 50°, 55° , 60° or 65°, or any angle between these values. The furrow spacing 5 is the distance between adjacent furrows in the rotor. The spacing can be uniform or non-uniform, as long as the non-uniform spacing does not result in an imbalance in the rotor as it rotates. This parameter influences the distribution of fluid flow and the minimization of recirculation and turbulence to a desired level.

[0138] In some embodiments, the rotor does not include furrows or ridges. It has beendetermined that at the high speeds at which the rotors of the device provided herein rotate, the surface roughness of the rotor can be sufficient to have the effect of inducing cavitation and implosion. The lower the roughness or the furrows results in a lower capacity to generate cavitation and implosion. Rotors relying only on surface roughness are able to form a vortex resulting in high turbulence and zones of cavitation and implosion of high energy.

[0139] The rotor is rotated to a speed of 8,000 to 55,000 rpm. Adiabatic and isothermalprocesses were used to model the behavior of the transported fluid during its passage through the system provided herein. Adiabatic processes occur without heat transfer, while isothermal processes keep the temperature constant. These models are useful for predicting the temperature and energy variation of the fluid during the actuation of the system of the invention. The results from tests on the system show that pressures in excess of 1.2 GPa can be achieved with these models, regardless of the temperature of these processes due to the nature of the simulation.

[0140] The rotor of the vortex generator is made of a material able to withstand the forcesgenerated by the high speeds of rotation, the high pressure, and the temperature within the system. The rotor materials of construction are selected to ensure performance, durability and resistance to the specific operating conditions of the system. Any material known in the art suitable for high speed revolutions, such as materials used for rotors of ultracentrifuges, can be used for the rotor of the system provided herein.

[0141] Exemplary materials include stainless steel, cast iron, titanium, titanium alloy,and composite materials. Stainless steel exhibits corrosion resistance, durability, and ability to withstand aggressive environments. Cast iron exhibits abrasion- and corrosion- resistance, but it is susceptible to corrosion, which can require coating of the rotors to protect them from aggressive fluids and microstate processes. Titanium is a corrosion- and erosion-resistant material, and is suitable for rotors operating in highly corrosive environments or at high temperatures. Anodized aluminum also is suitable, as it often is used in high-speed centrifuge rotors. Composite materials offer a unique combination of strength, lightweight and corrosion resistance. These materials are used in applications where superior performance is required under demanding conditions. The composite materials can include carbon fibers. Carbon fiber rotors are corrosion resistant and have lighter weight than rotors made only of metal. Exemplary titanium alloys are alloys that include titanium and any one or a combination of Al, V, and Mo, such as Ti– 6Al– 4V alloy and Ti–3Al–5V–5Mo alloy (also known as Ti355).

[0142] Another important variable when selecting rotor material is thermal stability,therefore, selecting materials with high thermal stability can help to ensure structural rigidity over time. Materials such as stainless steel and titanium are known for their thermal stability and resistance to deformation at high temperatures. The thermal conductivity of the material can influence heat transfer within the system rotor and the ability of the device to dissipate heat generated during operation. Materials with high thermal conductivity can be selected to improve heat dissipation and prevent overheating of the rotor.

[0143] In some embodiments, the rotor is made of stainless steel. In some embodiments,the rotor is made of titanium. In some embodiments, the rotor is made of anodized aluminum. In some embodiments, the rotor is a carbon fiber composite material.

[0144] Regardless of the material selected, the rotor of the vortex generator is designedto correct any imbalance. Balancing refers to the uniform distribution of mass around the axis of rotation of the rotor. A properly balanced rotor will prevent excessive vibrations that could damage the system or any of its components, as well as cause premature wear. The balancing process involves identifying and correcting imbalances by adding or removing mass at strategic points on the rotor. Any method known in the art for balancing a rotor can be used. Specialized equipment, such as rocker arms and dynamic balancing machines, can be used to perform the balancing accurately and efficiently.

[0145] Excessive vibrations can cause damage to bearings, seals and other componentsof the system, reducing system life. In addition, vibrations can negatively affect thermodynamic efficiency by generating energy losses due to friction and turbulence. Therefore, the aim is to improve hydraulic performance by reducing this phenomenon caused by an imbalance in the rotors as it can affect the flow of the fluid through the system, resulting in a non-uniform distribution of the fluid and reduced hydraulic efficiency.

[0146] Smooth, vibration-free operation allows the transfer of mechanical energy for theproduction of nuclear and vacuum energy to drive hydraulic energy of the device to operate more efficiently, resulting in lower energy consumption. A properly balanced rotor reduces dynamic loads on bearings and other components of the device that, which can decrease flow resistance and minimize energy losses, thus contributing to higher thermodynamic efficiency.

[0147] Seals are used to prevent leakage along the rotating shaft of the rotor. They helpmaintain system integrity and prevent contamination of the pumped fluid. Any suitable seal known in the art suitable for the temperature and pressures expected in the device can be used. The seals can be of different types according to the need of the system, such as mechanical seals and / or packing seals, each designed for specific applications and operating conditions. Selection of the proper seal type depends on factors such as the type of fluid being pumped, temperature, pressure, and operating speed. A defective seal can result in fluid leakage, loss of pressure and contamination of the environment, which can affect the efficiency and safety of the device provided herein, whichtransforms mechanical and nuclear energy into hydraulic energy that can drive a turbine to produce electricity.

[0148] The vortex generator provided herein also includes bearings. Bearings arecomponents that support and guide the axis of rotation of the rotor, allowing a smooth and frictionless movement. For the vortex generator provided herein, the bearings can be of different types, such as ball bearings, roller bearings, friction bearings, and fluid bearings, each with their own characteristics and applications. In some instances, the bearings also includes seals.

[0149] Proper lubrication is crucial for efficient operation and long bearing life. Anylubricant known in the art suitable for the material, temperature, and degree of expected friction can be selected and used. Lubricant selection and regular maintenance are important to prevent premature wear and bearing failure. Poor bearing performance can result in excessive vibrations, premature rotor wear and damage to other components of the system provided herein that transforms mechanical and nuclear energy into hydraulic energy, which can significantly affect the efficiency and reliability of the system.

[0150] In the vortex generator provided herein, the rotor is contained within a rotorcasing. The rotor casing is the structure that surrounds and protects the rotor and is where the reactions, including cavitation, implosion, and nuclear fusion at the microstate, take place. It is made of resistant materials, such as cast iron or stainless steel, to withstand the working conditions and protect the internal components. The design of the rotor casing is closed to maintain homogeneity of the pressure distribution.

[0151] The rotor casing can be made of any material able to withstand the high pressureand the temperature within the system. The rotor casing material can be selected to ensure performance, durability and resistance to the specific operating conditions of the system. Exemplary materials include stainless steel, cast iron, titanium, and composite materials, or any combination thereof. Stainless steel exhibits corrosion resistance, durability, and ability to withstand aggressive environments. The interior surfaces of the rotor casing optionally can be heat treated or otherwise surface treated to improve the resistance of the surface to corrosion or improve durability.

[0152] Fluid flow within the rotor casing of the vortex generator caused by the rotor,such as through the rotor furrows, can be turbulent and highly three-dimensional due tothe complex geometry of the rotor and the interaction between the furrows and the fluid. Fluid flow direction, velocity, and pressure vary along the length of the furrows and can influence machine performance. The movement of fluid through the rotor furrows generates hydrodynamic forces acting on the rotor and other machine components. These forces can include pressure forces and drag forces, which can affect the stability and efficiency of the rotor and the system as a whole.

[0153] Flow phenomena such as boundary layer separation, vortex formation, andcavitation, can occur in the rotor furrows, and can have a significant impact on the performance on the transformation of mechanical energy into and nuclear energy and vacuum energy that drives the increase of hydraulic energy. Boundary layer separation can cause energy losses and decrease the efficiency of the mechanical energy transfer to the water and thus loss of potential hydraulic energy.

[0154] The rotor casing can have an interior designed to accommodate or promote vortexformation when the rotor rotates. The interior can include a parabolic shape to accommodate or promote vortex formation when the rotor rotates. The casing can have a flat portion towards which the surface of the rotor containing the furrows or ridges faces. The inside edges of the casing at both ends facing the edges of the rotor can have a semi-circular cross-section, and angle to meet, forming a parabolic or parabolic-like shape. In some configurations of the casing, the interior side semi-circular edges angle and connect to a central round-nose bullet-shaped chamber, with the rounded end facing away from the side of the rotor that does not include furrows. The inside shape of the casing promotes formation of a vortex when the rotor rotates.

[0155] Computational Flow Analysis (CFD) can be used for accurate and detailedmodeling of the fluid flow through the rotor furrows of the device provided herein. CFD allows the simulation of complex phenomena such as turbulence, boundary layer separation, and vortex formation, which affect the performance and efficiency of the system. With CFD, different rotor design configurations can be evaluated, and CFD allows an engineer to predict how a given rotor in the device will affect fluid flow and system efficiency. Modifications to the furrow geometry, such as changes in profile, pitch angle, and spacing, can be made to optimize the performance of the system that to transform mechanical energy into nuclear energy and vacuum energy to drive hydraulic energy, which then used is used to drive a turbine to produce electricity. CFD also allowsdetailed analysis of performance parameters such as pressure, flow rate, efficiency and flow distribution. This provides information on how to adapt the system to different size needs and / or to modify rotor design to maximize efficiency and / or meet application requirements. CFD also can be used to help identify critical areas in redesign that can negatively affect efficiency, such as the formation of recirculations, boundary layer separations, or undesirable zones when modifications are made to the system. This information allows adjustments to be made to improve performance in the system.

[0156] The rotor of the vortex generator can be selected for use in systems of differentsizes and different operating conditions: Scale up, such as for large scale industrial use, or scale down, such as for individual home use, can be accomplished by selecting a rotor designed to perform in a variety of operating conditions, such as different flow rates, pressures and fluid viscosities. This provides versatility to the system and makes the system adaptable.

[0157] The rotor design can contribute to lower energy consumption and lower operatingcosts over time. If this efficiency is measured in a traditional way, the efficiency could exceed 100%, however, taking into account the thermodynamic nuclear potential, this efficiency would decrease in order to comply with the basic laws of thermodynamics.

[0158] The relative distances between the rotor and the casing can vary depending on thepower required, and relative sizes of the rotor and casing. Working ranges for the distance from the casing to the upper surface and / or the casing to a side edge of the rotor can be from 1 mm up to 40 mm. Larger distances can be used depending on the size and the type of rotor.

[0159] The vortex generating device includes pipes to deliver fluid, such as water, intoand out of the rotor casing. The pipes can be of any material compatible with the fluid, and the temperature and pressure of the fluid entering and exiting the rotor casing. The thickness of the pipes can be selected to accommodate the pressure of the system.

[0160] An exemplary embodiment of the rotor inside the rotor casing of the vortexgenerator provided herein is shown schematically in FIG.7A, shown in cross-section in FIG. 7B (along line A—A shown in FIG. 7A), and three-dimensional cross-section in FIG.7C. Pipes A, B, C, and D shown in FIG.7C deliver fluid, such as water, into and out of the rotor casing. As shown in FIGS.7A-7C, the rotor 510 connected to the centralshaft of the rotor 520 is contained within the casing 550. As shown in FIGS.7B and 7C, an exemplary embodiment of the rotor casing 550 includes a flat surface 555 facing the angled surface of rotor 520. The rotor casing 550 includes a first rounded surface 560 at one end facing an edge of the rotor 520 and a second rounded surface 561 at the opposite end facing an edge of the rotor 520. The first rounded surface 560 extends at an angle outward away from rotor 520 forming a side 565 that intersects and connects to a round-nose bullet-shaped chamber 570, and the second rounded surface 561 extends at an angle outward away from rotor 520 forming a side 566 that intersects and connects to the same round-nose bullet-shaped chamber 570. Round-nose bullet-shaped chamber 570 includes a first section 571 having a constant diameter 572, and a second section 576 having a parabolic shape terminating in an opening having a diameter 576, where the constant diameter 572 is larger than the diameter 576 at the small end of the parabolic shape. The inside shape of the casing 550 housing the rotor 520 promotes formation of a vortex when the rotor 520 rotates.

[0161] Referring to FIG. 7C, water is delivered via pipe C and enters the casing 550through a water distributor. The water distributor is affixed to casing 550 to form an integral part thereof, such as by using screws, bolts, or flanges. An exemplary water distributor is shown in FIG.7D. The water distributor 580 includes holes as water entry ports (6 are shown in FIG. 7D, but only two are labelled as 585 and 585') distributed concentrically around a central hole 590 that accommodates the rotor shaft 520. Water does not flow through central hole 590. The number of water entry ports can vary, and can be from 2 to 12, but the upper limit could be higher if a large diameter rotor is used. The number of water entry ports can be an even or an odd number. The water entry ports 585 are spaced evenly and concentrically around the central hole 390 to provide a uniform distribution of water entering casing 550. Once the water enters the casing, it is directed toward rotor 510. Depending on the specific design of the rotor and casing, the water can pass through channels or conduits within the casing to be directed towards the rotor.

[0162] The water is imparted kinetic energy by the rotating rotor 510 causing cavitationand implosion, which can result in nuclear fusion of deuterium atoms, releasing energy. The water with increased temperature, pressure, and velocity is expelled from the casing 550 via an outlet in the central part of the housing. This outlet is connected to pipes thatconvey the water along the path to the turbine, and can pass various sensory devices, such as flow meters, thermocouples, and pressure gauges.

[0163] Valves can be positioned throughout the system. For example, valves can bepositioned at the inlet and outlet of different portions of the system. The valves can be configured to control the flow of the liquid, or configured to allow the pressure and direction of flow to be regulated, or any combination thereof. Valves can be included to allow isolation of the rotor casing from fluid, such as when maintenance of the rotor is needed.

[0164] The rotor inside the rotor casing of the vortex generating device is connected bythe central shaft of the rotor to the output shaft of an angular speed multiplier box. The output shaft of the angular speed multiplier box provides the rotational energy to rotate the rotor, and is responsible for the mechanical energy imparted to the rotor that generates fluid flow and pressure when the rotor is rotating at high speed. The angular speed multiplier box (also known as speed multiplier), is a device that allows increasing the rotational speed of the motor and decreasing the output torque. The angular speed multiplier box consists of gears of different sizes and gear ratios to adapt the motor speed to the conditions required by the rotor. The angular speed multiplier box allows the increase of the motor linear speeds to achieve rotational speeds of 8,000 rpm to 55,000 rpm. Angular speed multiplier boxes are known in the art, and can be configured to achieve the desired increase in rotational speed through known combinations of gears and gear ratios.

[0165] The angular speed multiplier box is connected to a motor to provide power to theangular speed multiplier box to drive the rotor. Any motor can be used. The motor can be electric, internal combustion, or hydraulic, depending on the external power source. When an electric motor is used, is can be run using solar power, wind power, or a hydrogen fuel cell to reduce or eliminate any need for use of electricity generated using fossil fuels, thereby reducing, or eliminating, the carbon footprint of the device provided herein. The motor provides the mechanical energy for the angular velocity multiplier box, which is necessary to drive the system.

[0166] The use of an angular speed multiplier box allows the motor speed to be adaptedto the needs, which increases the energy efficiency of the system.

[0167] The angular speed multiplier box also provides the ability to adjust the rotationalspeed of the rotor by modifying the gear ratio. This allows performance to be tailored to different flow and pressure requirements. Angular speed multiplier boxes are constructed of strong and durable materials, such as cast iron or stainless steel, giving them a high resistance to adverse conditions and a long service life. Including an angular speed multiplier box in the system provided herein allows the system to be adapted to a wide range of fluids, from common water to fluids with higher or lower viscosity.

[0168] The electricity generating system provided herein transforms mechanical andnuclear energy into hydraulic energy also includes a fluid source to provide fluid to the vortex generator and drive the system. In some configurations, the system can include a storage tank as a fluid source. Typically the fluid is water. When the fluid is water, the water can be provided by a domestic source, such as a community water system. Water also can be pumped from an environmental source, such as a spring, a river, or a lake. Typically fresh water is used to avoid corrosion that can occur when salt water is used. In areas where only salt water or seawater is readily available, a reverse osmosis system can be used to reduce the amount of salt in the water prior to it being introduced into the system. The fluid is provided to the storage tank for use as a fluid source. The storage tank can include a lid to close the storage tank to make it a closed system.

[0169] The storage tank can be a container made of any material compatible with thefluid and can be used to store fluid. Deuterium naturally occurs in many water samples. Natural water often contains about 150 ppm deuterium. The amount of deuterium can be augmented by adding heavy water (D2O). The storage tank can be used to both mix heavy water (D2O) with regular water, and to store the mixture to maintain and provide a constant supply of fluid to the system. In the system provided herein, after the water has traversed the system to generate electricity, the water can be discarded, or it recycled back to the storage tank. For water conservation, the water typically is recycled back to the storage tank. When recycled back to the storage tank, heavy water can be added to replace the deuterium lost during the implosion and nuclear fusion reactions within the device provided herein.

[0170] The storage tank can be connected to a thermochemical reaction device. Thethermochemical reaction device uses a combination of a metal and water to generate thermal energy, resulting in the liberation of heat and hydrogen gas. In someconfigurations, the storage tank can be used as the vessel in which the thermochemical reaction occurs. The alkaline earth metals (Group 2 on the periodic table, such as magnesium, calcium, strontium, and barium) can react exothermically with water to yield a metal oxide and hydrogen. Aluminum and gallium also can react with water to produce a metal oxide and hydrogen. The alkali metals (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, and Fr) also react with water to produce a metal oxide and hydrogen. When the alkali metals are used, the reactions can be explosive, and handling the alkali metals requires special training and safety considerations. Thus, while the alkali metals can be used for the thermochemical reaction, preferred metals are the alkaline earth metals and aluminum.

[0171] The reaction of metal powder (magnesium will be discussed as a representativeexample, understanding that the other metals mentioned above behave similarly) with water is an exothermic chemical reaction in which magnesium metal reacts with water molecules to form magnesium hydroxide and release hydrogen gas. When a piece of magnesium is immersed in water, a layer of magnesium oxide forms on the surface of the metal due to the high reactivity of magnesium. This oxide layer is impermeable and protects the remaining magnesium from the reaction. However, if the oxide layer is broken or removed, magnesium reacts rapidly with the water molecules. During this reaction, the magnesium first reacts with water to form an oxide and hydrogen gas, and then the magnesium oxide reacts with water to produce hydroxide and release hydrogen gas (H2).

[0172] Magnesium (Mg) is a very active element and reacts with water at lowtemperatures to produce magnesium oxide and hydrogen. The reaction can be shifted to producing magnesium hydroxide instead of magnesium oxide by increasing the amount of water. The general chemical equation of the reaction is as follows:

[0173] Mg (s) + H2O (l) ^ MgO (s) + H2 (g)+ H2 (g)

[0175] In this equation, "(s)" represents the solid state of magnesium, "(l)" the liquid stateof water, "(aq)" the aqueous state of magnesium hydroxide and "(g)" the gaseous state of hydrogen. Typically, if a metal reacts with cold water, a metal hydroxide is produced, while if a metal reacts with steam, the metal oxide is formed. This is because the metalhydroxides thermally decompose to the oxide and water. Thus, in cold water, a metal X generally reacts as follows:

[0176] X (s) + 2 H2O (l) ^ X(OH)2 (aq) + H2 (g)oxide and hydroxide,^^are

[0178] ^^^^(^^^^)

[0179] ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^^^^

[0180]

[0181] ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^^^^

[0182] As that magnesium oxide ormagnesium hydroxide are exothermic. This means that a small amount of magnesium can release a significant amount of energy in the form of heat during the reaction. Energy is released due to the formation of more stable chemical bonds in the reaction products compared to the reactants. In the case of the reaction of magnesium with water, magnesium metal reacts with water molecules to form magnesium hydroxide and release hydrogen gas. The formation of bonds in magnesium hydroxide and water is responsible for the release of energy.

[0183] The system provided herein can include a dispensing device that measures anddispenses precise quantities of particles of magnesium, aluminum or other metal powder into a vessel containing water. The vessel can be a separate thermochemical reaction device, or the vessel can be the storage tank. The dispensing device includes a storage hopper for containing the particles of metal, a metering system for accurately metering the metal particles into the vessel, and a conveyor for carrying metal particles from the hopper to the metering system.

[0184] The storage hopper is a container into which the particles of metal powder areplaced. The storage hopper typically is of a capacity to hold enough metal powder for continuous operation of the system provided herein. The storage hopper can be made of any material that is non-reactive with the metal powder. For example, the storage hopper can be made of fiberglass, plastic, or stainless steel, or any combination thereof.In some configurations, the storage hopper can include a lid that can be opened to allow for adding the metal powder, and then closed to maintain the metal in a closed environment. In some configurations, the storage hopper can be equipped with a gas displacement system that allows the air within the storage hopper to be replaced with a more non-reactive gas, such as dry nitrogen or argon. In some configurations, the storage hopper can include a desiccant to remove any moisture within the storage hopper. Any known desiccant can be used. The desiccant can be a physical desiccant or a chemical desiccant or a combination thereof. A physical desiccant material can bind water molecules within pore spaces of a material. Exemplary physical desiccants are zeolites, molecular sieves, and silica gels. Exemplary chemical desiccants are alkali metal oxides, a metallic halide, and chlorine peroxide. The desiccant can be included in a separable cartridge that can be replaced as necessary.

[0185] The conveyor can be any type of conveyor known in the art that can accuratelyconvey powder materials. The conveyor can be a screw conveyor or a belt conveyor. The conveyor moves the metal powder from the storage hopper to the metering device.

[0186] The metering device ensures accuracy of the amount of metal powder dispensed.The metering device includes a sensor, such as a load cell, which measures the weight of the powder. A series of two or more sensors can be included in the metering device to allow measuring of the metal powder as it moves through the conveying system.

[0187] The metering device can be connected a control system. The control system canbe computer based. The control system allows a user to input the quantity of metal powder required for a specific task. Operators can set desired quantities and flow rates through a user interface. The control system can interface with the metering device alone, or with the metering device and the storage hopper. In some configurations, the control system interfaces with the metering device to set a desired amount of metal powder to be delivered, and the metering device communicates with the conveyor and uses information from the sensors to adjust and / or control the movement of the conveyor to adjust the amount of metal powder dispensed. The metering device also can be connected to the storage hopper to open an outlet to allow the metal powder to exit the storage hopper and enter the conveying system, or to close the outlet of the storage hopper when the desired amount of metal powder has been dispensed. In some configurations, the control system interfaces with the storage hopper to open and closethe outlet of the storage hopper, and interfaces with the conveyor and uses information from the sensors to adjust and / or control the movement of the conveyor to adjust the amount of metal powder dispensed.

[0188] The outlet of the metering device optionally can be connected to a solid-gasmixing system. The solid-gas mixing system can produce a stream of the metal powder to facilitate introducing the metal powder into another part of the system, such as into a thermochemical reaction device, or the storage tank. The solid-gas mixing system can include a cyclone mixer, a Venturi mixer, or other appropriate mixer to fluidize the metal powder for delivery. The fluidized stream of metal powder then can be delivered to a component in need thereof, such as to the thermochemical reaction device, or the storage tank, in order to react with a fluid, such as water, to produce a metal hydroxide, hydrogen, and heat. The dispenser can include a solids separator or filter to remove any solids that may remain after the reaction of the metal powder and water is complete.

[0189] FIG. 8 shows one exemplary arrangement of a metal powder dispenser thatincludes a dispensing device 52 and vessel 55. In this configuration, the dispensing device 52 includes a storage hopper 52A, a motor 52D, a rotator 52B, a housing 52C, and a metering device 52E. The rotator 52B can be a screw-type conveying device (or auger, drill, screw rod, etc.) attached to the motor 52D. The metering device includes load cells that measure the weight of the powder. Magnesium powder or other metal powder is stored in the storage hopper 52A. The magnesium stored in the storage hopper 52A is dispensed by opening an outlet of the storage hopper 52A (not shown in this figure for clarity of illustration and explanation) into the housing 52C where in is conveyed by rotator 52B powered by motor 52D and the weight of the metal powder dispensed in measured by metering device 52E. When the desired amount of metal powder is dispensed from the storage hopper 52A into housing 52C, the outlet of the storage hopper 52A is closed, and the rotation of rotator 52B advances the metal powder into solid-gas mixer 53 (not shown) or directly into vessel 55. The vessel 55 can be a container of a separate thermochemical reaction device, or the vessel can be the storage tank.

[0190] A mixer 56 positioned in vessel 55 can mix the metal powder with water in thevessel, where the metal powder exothermically reacts to produce a metal oxide and hydrogen gas and releases heat. When the metal powder is Mg, Mg(OH)2 and H2, areproduced, which then can be sent to the vortex generator in accordance with the present disclosure. Any type of mixer can be used as mixer 56, such as a paddle mixer, impeller mixer, a cyclone mixer, or any combination thereof. The speed of the mixer 56 depends on the desired amount and quality of water being processed in the vessel 55. The mixer 56 is powered by a motor (not shown).

[0191] FIG. 9 shows a schematic representation of an embodiment of the dispensingdevice, including the storage hopper 52A and the solid-gas mixer 53. The outlet 54 of the solid-gas mixer can be connected to any component to which delivery of the metal powder is desired. For example, the outlet 54 can be connected to a thermochemical reaction device, or to the storage tank, or to the pipe providing fluid to the vortex generator.

[0192] By including a metal, such as an alkaline earth metal, such as Mg, or aluminumor gallium, and the resulting hydrogen produced by the metal’s reaction with water, in the process described herein, it has been determined that cavitation and implosion processes are improved. Mg, Ga, and Al are examples of a metal described above that can be used in the system provided herein, improving cavitation and implosion processes when the process is carried out at appropriate temperature, pressure, time parameters, and the like.

[0193] The ratio of the amount of magnesium used in the systems and methods of thisapplication in a range of about 0.001 mg[Mg] / g[H2O] to about 1 mg[Mg] / g[H2O]. The amount of magnesium can be equal to any integer value or values within this range, including the end-points of these ranges and any acceptable variance.

[0194] The particle size of the metal powder, such as Mg or Ga, used can be about 10nm to about 1,000 nm. The particle size of the metal powder, such as Mg or Ga, can be equal to any integer value or values within this range, including the end-points of these ranges and any acceptable variance. For example, the particle size can be 20 nm to 200 nm, or 90 nm to 900 nm, or 100 nm to 500 nm. The particle size of the metal powder, such as Mg, affects the speed of the reaction of metal and water because the geometry of the cluster formed by metal is dependent on the size of the metal particle. When the particle size of the metal powder that reacts with water is within this range, a larger surface area of the metal particle is available for reaction with water, and smaller clustersof metal are formed, which increases the surface area available for reaction with water. The water heated from the exothermic reaction of the metal powder, and which now contains hydrogen and metal oxide or hydroxide, can be provided to the fluid supply if the reaction was performed in a separate thermochemical reaction device. If the reaction occurred in the storage tank, then the reaction product can be used as the fluid source and provided to the inlet of the rotor casing of the vortex generator. The metal powder also can be provided to the pipe delivering fluid to the vortex generator, and the reaction can occur in the pipe or in the vortex generator or both.

[0195] The system provided herein also can include a pump between the fluid source,such as the storage tank, and the inlet to the rotor casing of vortex generator provided herein. The pump can drive the flow fluid to the rotor casing during start-up of the system. Any pump known in the art can be sized and configured to be used in the system provided herein. The type of pump and the material from which the pump is made can be determined by its compatibility with the fluid to be pumped, the viscosity of the fluid, and the rate of traversal of the fluid through the pump.

[0196] The system provided herein can include monitoring devices that measurepressure, flow, and temperature of the fluid in the system. Multiple devices can be included at different locations throughout the device. The information provided by the monitoring devices can be used to monitor and adjust critical parameters such as pressure, flow and temperature of the fluid in the system. For example, pressure gauges, flow meters, and thermal sensors can be included. The information from the devices allows for process monitoring and control. In some configurations, devices for measuring pressure, flow, and temperature are positioned after the outlet of the rotor casing to measure the parameters of the fluid.

[0197] Reaction of the metal powder with water produces hydrogen and a metalhydroxide, and the water containing hydrogen and metal hydroxide can be used in the electrolysis system of the hydrogen producing component of the system provided herein. A diverter can direct a portion of the fluid from the vortex generator to the electrolysis system, while diverting the rest of the fluid from the vortex generator to a turbine for generating electricity.

[0198] The system provided herein includes an Archimedes turbine. Archimedesturbines are well known in the art. The Archimedes turbine is a mechanical device used to convert water energy into mechanical energy. It is based on the principle of the Archimedes screw, which is a device used to lift water. The turbine consists of a long, curved cylinder, similar to a propeller or screw, which is placed in a channel or stream of water. When water flows through the channel and comes in contact with the propeller, the special shape of the Archimedes screw causes the water to be pushed upward as the screw rotates. This action creates a thrust force on the propeller, which in turn generates a rotary motion. The kinetic energy of the water is converted into mechanical energy as the screw rotates. An advantage of Archimedes screw-type turbines is that they can operate over a wide range of flow rates and water levels.

[0199] In the systems provided herein, the Archimedes turbine can be a modifiedArchimedes turbine, which includes a variable section. The variable section feature means that the turbine geometry is conically adjusted to have an inner diameter that changes over the distance between the inlet and the exit to improve process efficiency. In the systems provided herein, the Archimedes turbine geometry has a larger diameter orifice at the inlet (point of entry of the fluid from the rotor casing), and the diameter is reduced as the water traverses the turbine until, and at outlet (the end of the turbine where water exits the Archimedes turbine), the diameter of the outlet is significantly smaller than the diameter at the inlet orifice. An exemplary embodiment is shown in FIGS.10A to 10C.

[0200] FIG. 10A shows a cross-sectional view of an embodiment of the modifiedArchimedes turbine. FIG.10B shows a cross-sectional 3-D view of an embodiment of the modified Archimedes turbine. The fluid leaving the rotor casing of vortex generator, in which the chemical and nuclear thermal reactions take place, flows into the turbine at inlet 720 and flows in the direction indicated by arrow 700F towards outlet 790. This fluid flow is controlled and directed towards the blades 713 where the water transfers its energy mainly to the main shaft 711, which can be used as mechanical work. The inlet 720 design minimizes energy losses and ensures a uniform flow to the turbine blades. The fluid comes into contact with the turbine blades 713, which are arranged in a conical spiral around main shaft 711. As the fluid flows over the blades, a tangential force is exerted on the blades due to their motion. This force causes the blades to rotate aroundthe central axis 715 of the turbine 710. The angle of taper, in accordance with Bernoulli's principle for an incompressible fluid, increases its velocity, which increases the efficiency of the system. The rotation of the turbine blades 713 drives the main shaft 711, and an exterior end of main shaft 711 can be connected to an electricity generator, directly or via a gearbox or an angular speed multiplier box.

[0201] After interacting with the turbine blades 713, the fluid exits the turbine via outlet790 with a lower kinetic energy than the fluid had when it entered the turbine via inlet 720. In the embodiment shown in FIGS. 10A and 10B, the fluid exits the turbine via outlet 790 perpendicular to the turbine shaft 711. The blades 713 are designed to increase the efficiency of the turbine, the curved shape to efficiently harness the kinetic energy of the fluid flowing over them, according to the properties of the system. The curvature of the blades 711 helps direct the water downward as it flows along them, creating a tangential force that drives the rotation of the turbine.

[0202] The screw turbine 710 with its main shaft 711 and blades 713 is contained withinconical casing 780. The blades 713 are helical conical blades configured around main shaft 711. The main shaft 711 includes a portion at one end that extends out of the conical casing 780, and it is this portion of the main shaft that can be attached to an electricity generator. The main shaft is supported at one end (shown in FIG.10A at the outlet end) by a bearing shaft support 735 that maintains alignment of main shaft 711 within conical casing 780 while allowing free rotation of main shaft 711. The main shaft 711 also includes a sealing support 735 that prevents leakage of fluid from the turbine but allows for free rotation of main shaft 711. At the opposite end (the inlet end) a main shaft support is included to maintain alignment of main shaft 711 within conical casing 780 while allowing free rotation of main shaft 711 (not shown in the figures).

[0203] FIG.10C shows a front view (facing the inlet) of the screw turbine 710. The viewshows the number of inlets of the screw turbine formed by the blades, which in the case of Figure 10C is 4. The blades 713 are inclined with respect to the axis of rotation about the main shaft 711 of the screw turbine 710 to better capture the energy of the fluid flow. The diameter of the blades varies along the length of the turbine to adapt to the different velocities and flow rates of the fluid, generating a constant angle on the casing.

[0204] The spacing of blades 713 can be selected to allow a smooth and uniform flow ofwater along the blades, minimizing energy losses due to turbulence and flow separation. This can be achieved by the geometry by controlling by the number of continuous blades, which changes the apparent and actual diametral pitch. The blades can be designed to have a desired profile as is known in the art. The blades, e.g., can be rectangular in profile. The diameter of the blades decreases from the inlet to the outlet, corresponding to the shape of the conical casing. The ratio of the diameter of the blades at the inlet to the diameter of the blades at the outlet can be in the range of 1.33:1 to 4:1. The ratio of the diameter of the blades at the inlet to the diameter of the blades at the outlet can be 1.33:1, or 1.5:1. or 1.67:1, or 1.75:1, or 2:1, or 2.25:1, or 2.33:1, or 2.5:1, or 2.67:1, or 2.75:1, or 3:1, or 3.25:1, or 3.33:1, or 3.5:1, or 3.67:1, or 3.75:1, or 4:1. In some configurations, the inlet diameter of the blades can vary from 5 cm to 30 cm, while the outlet diameter can range from 3 cm to 15 cm. This variability in diameters allows the blades to be adapted to different flow and pressure requirements, according to the power of the system.

[0205] The length of the main shaft about which the blades are located can range from20 cm to 200 cm, or 25 cm to 150 cm, providing flexibility in design according to the specific needs of the system. Longer lengths, such as 250-500 cm also can be configured for larger-scale systems. The device can include between 2 and 10 independent helical blades, allowing configuration to optimize performance. The thickness of the blades also adjustable, varying between 2.5 mm and 50 mm, or 3 mm and 30 mm. The thickness of the blades can be selected to match the different flow and pressure requirements, according to the power of the system, and can be selected to achieve blade strength and durability.

[0206] The blade taper angle can be adjusted as required for flow control. The blade taperangle can vary from 0° to 38°, allowing additional adaptations to improve aerodynamic or hydraulic efficiency. The blade pitch, which is the distance between the blades along the shaft, can vary from 2 cm to 30 cm, or 3 cm to 10 cm. The blade pitch influences the interaction of the fluid with the blades and thus the overall efficiency of the system. These combined variables offer a high degree of customization and scale up of the device.

[0207] The conical casing 780 guides the fluid flow to the blades 713 in a controlled andefficient manner. By having a conical shape, the casing 780 helps direct the water towards the turbine blades 713 in a uniform manner, avoiding turbulence and minimizing energy losses due to friction. This minimizes turbulence and flow separation, which contributes to greater efficiency in the conversion of hydraulic energy into mechanical energy in the screw turbine 710. As fluid enters the conical casing 780, its cross-section gradually reduces, resulting in an increase in fluid velocity. This acceleration of the fluid flow increases the force acting on the turbine blades 713, which in turn increases the amount of kinetic energy transferred from the fluid to the screw turbine 710. The conical casing 780 results in higher mechanical energy production with lower energy loss, which increases the efficiency and cost-effectiveness of the system.

[0208] The modified Archimedes turbine 700 can be connected to the system via acombination of flanges and connectors. Any type of connector known in the art to join two flanges can be used. For example, nuts and bolts can be used as the connectors, which allows easy removal and reconnection of the turbine 700 to the system. In place of connectors, for a more permanent connection, flanges can be welded to each other. In the embodiment shown in FIGS. 10A to 10C, connector holes 729 are included in inlet flange 725 to allow it to be connected to a flange of a pipe coming from the vortex generator 500 so that the inlet 720 in in flid communication with vortex generator 500. Also shown in FIGS. 10A and 10B, connector holes 799 are included in outlet flange 795 to allow it to be connected to a flange of a pipe so that the fluid can be recycled back to a storage tank.

[0209] The length, taper angle of the conical casing, number of blades, blade spacing,inclination, and pitch of the blades can be selected for use in systems of different sizes and different operating conditions: Scale up, such as for large scale industrial use, or scale down, such as for individual home use, can be accomplished by selecting a modified Archimedes turbine provided herein designed to perform in a variety of operating conditions, such as different flow rates, pressures and fluid viscosities. This provides versatility to the system and makes the system adaptable. Because the diameter decreases from the inlet to the outlet of the modified Archimedes turbine, the pressure of the fluid increases, increasing the rotational speed of the Archimedes turbine andmore efficiently drives the turbine with the same or less fluid flow without the need to increase the overall pressure of the fluid throughout the system, more efficiently driving rotation of the turbine. After traversing the Archimedes turbine, the water typically is recycled back to the storage tank as the fluid supply.

[0210] The modified Archimedes turbine can be made of any material suitable for therotational speed and pressure expected within the device, to withstand the working conditions during use. Exemplary materials include stainless steel, cast iron, titanium, titanium alloys, or any combination thereof. Stainless steel exhibits corrosion resistance, durability and ability to withstand aggressive environments. The interior surfaces of the conical casing and / or the exterior surfaces of the screw turbine (the shaft and / or blades) optionally can be heat treated or otherwise surface treated to improve the resistance of the surface to corrosion or improve durability.

[0211] Although a modified Archimedes turbine is described as the turbine used, it canbe replaced with a standard Archimedes turbine as known in the art, or a different type of turbine, or can be used in conjunction with one or more different types of turbines, to convert the kinetic energy of the water from the vortex generator to mechanical energy. After traversing the Archimedes turbine, the water typically is recycled back to the storage tank as the fluid supply.

[0212] The Archimedes turbine, or other turbine type, is used to drive an electricitygenerator. The electricity generator converts the mechanical energy, generated by the Archimedes turbine or other turbine type, into electrical energy. This electricity can be used to power other devices, or for use in the overall system, or any combination thereof. A portion or all the electricity produced in the electricity-producing component of the system can be used for hydrolysis of water to produce hydrogen.

[0213] Any type of electricity generator can be used to produce electricity by convertingthe mechanical energy from the Archimedes turbine into electrical energy. Examples of an electricity generator include, but are not limited to, a coiled rotor asynchronous generator, a permanent magnet generator, a synchronous generator, and an asynchronous short-circuit generator. The electricity generator includes a stator and a rotor. The electricity generator rotor includes a rotor shaft that can be coupled to a shaft of the Archimedes turbine to drive rotation of the electricity generator rotor. In someembodiments, the generator rotor shaft can be coupled to the shaft of the Archimedes turbine through a gearbox, while in other embodiments, the generator rotor shaft can be directly coupled to the shaft of the Archimedes turbine.

[0214] The electricity-producing component of the system provided herein includes amain control system. The main control system includes sensors, controllers and software that can monitor and regulate the operation of all the above components of the electricity-producing component of the system provided herein. The main control system controls operating conditions, pressure, fluid flow, and other critical parameters to ensure safe and efficient operation of the entire system, including the electricity- producing component and the hydrogen-producing of the system provided herein.

[0215] In one embodiment, a main control system can automatically or manuallyfacilitate the vortex generator to transform mechanical and nuclear energy into hydraulic energy that drives a turbine to generate electricity in accordance with the present disclosure. For example, the main control system of the present disclosure may include one or more user interfaces. The user interfaces may be a display, knob, button, lever, touchscreen, and / or any other suitable input terminal configured to receive user inputs for initiating the electricity generating system of the present disclosure. The main control system can be connected, directly or indirectly, to the components of the electricity generating system of the present disclosure to facilitate electrical and mechanical control and / or actuation of the components of the electricity generating system for transforming mechanical and nuclear energy into hydraulic energy that drives a turbine to generate electricity. The main control system can include one or more processors and instructions executable by the one or more processors that can be stored on a non-transitory computer-readable medium. Therefore, whenever a computer and / or processor (e.g., automated or manual control of the water dispensing system by a control system) implemented method is described in this disclosure, this disclosure shall also be understood as describing a non-transitory computer-readable medium storing instructions that, when executed by one or more processors, configure and / or cause the one or more processors to perform the computer-implemented method. Examples of non-transitory computer-readable medium include RAM, ROM, solid-state storage media (e.g., solid state drives), optical storage media (e.g., optical discs), and magneticstorage media (e.g., hard disk drives). A non-transitory computer-readable medium may be part of the memory of a computer system or separate from any computer system.

[0216] Hydrogen-Producing Component of the System

[0217] The hydrogen-producing component of the hydrogen producing system providedherein includes one or a combination of different electrolyzers as a hydrogen generator. For example, the hydrogen-producing component can include an electrolyzer that includes fullerene cells (electrodes coated with fullerene or other carbon allotropes), or an electrolyzer that is an alkaline electrolyzer, or an electrolyzer that includes a polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) electrolyzer, or a combination of two or more of these electrolyzers.

[0218] For example, the hydrogen-producing component of the hydrogen producingsystem provided herein can include one or more fullerene cell electrolyzers in combination with one or more alkaline electrolyzers. The hydrogen-producing component of the hydrogen producing system provided herein can include one or more fullerene cell electrolyzers in combination with one or more PEM electrolyzers. The hydrogen-producing component of the hydrogen producing system provided herein can include one or more alkaline electrolyzers in combination with one or more PEM electrolyzers. The hydrogen-producing component of the hydrogen producing system provided herein can include one or more fullerene cell electrolyzers in combination with one or more alkaline electrolyzers and one or more PEM electrolyzers.

[0219] An exemplary embodiment of a hydrogen generator that includes an fullerene cellelectrolyzer having fullerene coated electrodes, an alkaline electrolyzer, and a polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) electrolyzer is shown in FIG.11.

[0220] FIG. 11 shows a hydrogen generator 2100 that includes a fullerene cellelectrolyzer 2110 having fullerene coated electrodes, an alkaline electrolyzer 2120, and a polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) electrolyzer 2130. FIG. 11 also shows Line 2170, which shows the course of water enriched with magnesium salts, magnesium hydroxide, and hydrogen coming from the vortex generator, providing the balance of the elements for the electrolysis process to be successful in electrolyzers 2110 and 2120. Magnesium salts or other salts from the metal added to the water prior to being subjected to cavitation and implosion in the vortex generator in the water improve theelectrochemical properties of the water, mainly the conductivity and the overall efficiency of the system. Line 2170 can be any type of pipe or conduit that can convey the fluid from the vortex generator to the electrolyzer(s). Line 2170 as shown includes solenoid valves 2160, 2161, 2165, and 2166 that can control the flow and pressure on each of the lines to have the required flow in each of the electrolyzers 2110 and 2120. Line 2190 shows the outflow from the electrolyzers 2110 and 2120, containing the gases resulting from the electrolysis in the electrolyzers. These gases usually contain mainly oxygen and hydrogen, although the exact composition may vary depending on the specific conditions of the system, and may contain water vapor. The management of these gases is given downstream of the equipment to ensure the safety and efficiency of the process as a whole.

[0221] FIG. 11 also shows power supply 2105. The power supply 2105 can come fromthe electricity generator, but is not limited thereto. Line 2180 represents the negative electric current flowing from the power supply 2105 towards the electrolyzers 2110, 2120, and 2130 in charge of carrying out the electrolysis. Line 2185 shows a positive electric current from the power supply 2105 directed towards the electrolyzers 2110, 2120, and 2130 performing the electrolysis.

[0222] FIG. 11 also shows a polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) electrolyzer 2130.This system includes a storage tank 2150 for distilled or deionized water and a pump 2140 that feeds the distilled or deionized water from storage tank 2150 to the PEM cell of electrolyzer 2130. FIG.11 also shows Line 2195 which is the path of pure hydrogen from electrolyzer 2130, which is directed to a hydrogen storage device.

[0223] Fullerene Cell Electrolyzer

[0224] Hydrogen generator 2100 can include a fullerene cell electrolyzer 2110 thatincludes at least one electrode having a coating of fullerene or a coating of another carbon allotrope on at least one surface thereof. The fullerene cell electrolyzer has carbon molecular structures on at least one surface of at least one of the electrodes. The carbon molecular structures of the surface of the electrode have unique properties, such as high electrical conductivity and the ability to form porous structures, which are used to build highly efficient electrodes. The electrodes can have two components, the core and the surface. The core can be made of graphite or stainless steel, while the surfacecan be coated with a layer of fullerene or other carbon allotropes such as a carbon-based material as a coating, or as a support for a catalyst, or any combination thereof. The carbon-based coating material can be fullerene, graphene, graphite, carbon nanotubes, carbon nanofibers, carbon microfibers, nano carbon black, and any combination thereof. For example, fullerene-based materials can increase the efficiency of water electrolysis, such as by increasing a surface area of an electrode. Fullerenes can provide additional surface area for the electrochemical reaction, which increases the efficiency of hydrogen and oxygen generation. Fullerenes also provide good electrical conductivity, which facilitates the flow of electrical current through the electrodes and reduces energy losses. Another reason for including fullerenes in a coating in electrochemical cells for hydrogen production is the high resistance of fullerenes to corrosion and undesired chemical reactions, which prolongs the lifetime of the electrodes. In some configurations, the electrode includes a stainless steel core and a coating of fullerene on at least one surface of the stainless steel electrode. In some configurations, the electrode includes a stainless steel core and a coating containing fullerene, graphene, graphite, carbon nanotubes, carbon nanofibers, carbon microfibers, nano carbon black, or a combination thereof on at least one surface of the stainless steel electrode.

[0225] The fullerene or other carbon-based material as a coating on the electrodeincreases the surface area and improves charge transfer during electrolysis. The arrangement of the cells in the fullerene cell electrolyzer is optimized to maximize efficiency and production of the desired products. In addition, the fullerene cell electrolyzer is more durable and corrosion resistant than conventional electrolyzers, due to the properties of fullerene or carbon-based material as a coating.

[0226] The fullerene cell electrolyzer can utilize the water from the vortex generator asan electrolyte. The water from the vortex generator includes a hydroxide, such as magnesium hydroxide. Additional ions, such as sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide, can be added to the water from the vortex generator to form the aqueous electrolyte that is subjected to the electrolysis to produce hydrogen and oxygen. The water flow can be controlled and regulated to maintain a constant amount of aqueous electrolyte in the electrolysis cells. The water of the aqueous electrolyte decomposes into hydrogen and oxygen in the presence of electric current. At the cathode, the reduction reaction of water occurs, where molecular hydrogen (H2) is generated. At theanode, water oxidation occurs, generating molecular oxygen (O2). Both gases are collected and can be used as energy sources or for other purposes. The hydrogen in the water from the vortex generator can be recovered with the hydrogen produced by electrolysis.

[0227] The electrical power supply coming from the turbine system and the electricitygenerator, with a converter for conversion to direct current if needed, supplies the energy necessary for the electrolysis of water. The electric current is applied across the electrodes (anode and cathode), which causes the separation of water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen. Hydrogen gas and oxygen gas produced during electrolysis can be separated and collected in individual compartments in equipment downstream of the hydrogen generator 2100. This can be achieved by physical separation methods, such as gas permeable membranes or collection devices.

[0228] The fullerene cell electrolyzer can include an electrolytic cell, a direct currentpower supply (which in the case of this invention can be the electricity generator), a hydrogen separator, a hydrogen storage system, an oxygen separator, an oxygen storage system, and can include an electrolyte circulating system for providing aqueous electrolyte to the electrolytic cell. The positive electrode and the negative electrode of the direct current power supply are respectively connected with the anode electrode and the cathode electrode of the electrolytic tank, and the electrolytic tank is provided with an aqueous electrolyte inlet. An oxygen outlet at an upper part of an anode area of the electrolytic cell can be connected to an oxygen separator, where it can be washed and / or dried, and the treated oxygen can be diverted to an oxygen storage tank.

[0229] Hydrogen and mixed aqueous electrolyte at the upper part of a cathode area ofthe electrolytic cell can be connected to gas / liquid separator to separate the hydrogen from the alkaline electrolyte, and the alkaline electrolyte can be sent to a separator to recover the Mg(OH)2 for re-use. A gas phase outlet at the top of the hydrogen separator can be cooled by a cooler and then the hydrogen gas can be diverted to a scrubber for washing, drying and purifying the hydrogen gas prior to supplying the hydrogen to a hydrogen storage system.

[0230] Any method known in the art for coating a surface with fullerene or a carbonallotrope-based coating material such as graphene, graphite, carbon nanotubes, carbonnanofibers, carbon microfibers, nano carbon black, and any combination thereof, can be used for forming the coated electrode. For example, see U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,277,996 (Marchetti et al., 1994), 6,790,242 (O’Donnell et al., 2004), 5,271,890 (Shimura et al.,1993), 5,356,872 (Eidelloth et al., 1994), 5,374,463 (Bethune et al., 1994), 5,380,595 (Ueba et al., 1995), 5,876,790 (Kats, 1999), 5,558,903 (Bhushan et al., 1996), 10,439,081 (Helander et al., 2019), and 8,974,644 (Krishna et al, 2015). The fullerene or carbon-based coating can be applied to one or more surfaces of the electrode by any suitable technique such as chemical vapor deposition, thermal spraying, plasma spraying, sublimation, laser vaporization, sputtering, sputter deposition, ion beam coating, spray coating, dip coating, evaporation, roll-on coating, brush coating, etc. The coating can be a single layer or a plurality of layers, such as 2, 3, 4, 5, or more layers.

[0231] The electrolytic cell can include a storage tank for housing the electrodes andcontaining the alkaline electrolyte. The storage tank can be made of a corrosion resistant material, such as a resin, a reinforced resin, or a metal, such as stainless steel, for example.

[0232] In the embodiments described herein, the fullerene cell electrolyzer withfullerene-coated electrodes or electrodes coated with a carbon allotrope-based coating material such as fullerene, graphene, graphite, carbon nanotubes, carbon nanofibers, carbon microfibers, nano carbon black, and any combination thereof can be designed to have laminar or turbulent flow. Turbulent flow can induce flow of electrolyte at a velocity creating turbulent conditions in the electrolytic cell. The turbulence can be achieved through the design of the electrodes as well as the housing and the flow of the alkaline electrolyte. The fullerene cell electrolyzer can be configured to include baffles or other structures to promote turbulent flow within the electrolytic cell to minimize bubble formation on the electrodes. Turbulent flow within the electrolytic cell also can be achieved by designing the electrode to create non-laminar flow, such as including protrusions or indentations that promote turbulent flow. The fullerene cell electrolyzer can include recirculation pumps to accelerate flow of the electrolyte in the electrolytic cell, which can accelerate removal of any bubbles on the electrode surface. The turbulent flow of electrolyte in the electrolytic cell can improve the efficiency of the electrolysis by avoiding the formation of gas bubbles on the electrodes, which can decrease the efficiency of the process.

[0233] Alkaline Electrolyzer

[0234] Hydrogen generator 2100 can include an alkaline electrolyzer. Alkaline waterhydrolysis and alkaline electrolyzers are well known in the art (e.g., see U.S. Pat. 10,622,659 (Manabe et al, 2020), U.S. Pat. 9,683,300 (Noaki et al., 2017), U.S. Pat. 9,139,921 (Richards et al., 2015), U.S. Pat. App. Pub. US2023 / 0060683 (Yu et al., 2023), and U.S. Pat. App. Pub. US2018 / 0371630 (Swiegers et al., 2018). Any alkaline electrolyzer can be included as an electrolyzer in the systems provided herein.

[0235] The alkaline electrolyzer can include a water electrolytic tank, hydrogen (oxygen)gas-liquid separator, hydrogen (oxygen) gas cooler, and hydrogen (oxygen) gas scrubber. The electrolyte, which typically includes an alkaline material, such as sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide, undergoes electrolysis under the action of direct current, and in the alkaline electrolytic tank the water can be decomposed into H2 and O2. The mixture of hydrogen and alkali liquor from the electrolysis chamber can flow out through a passage at the cathode side, can enter a hydrogen liquid separator, where it can be subjected to gas-liquid separation under the action of gravity, can be washed and cooled, typically undergoes a drying and dehumidification step, and then enters a storage system, such as a hydrogen storage tank. The mixture of oxygen and alkali liquor produced by the electrolytic cell can be directed to an oxygen separator, and the separated oxygen can undergo similar washing and drying steps prior to being direct to an oxygen storage system, such as an oxygen storage tank.

[0236] The alkaline electrolyzer can include an electrolytic cell, a direct current powersupply, a hydrogen separator, a hydrogen storage system, an oxygen separator, an oxygen storage system, and can include an electrolyte circulating system for providing alkaline electrolyte to the electrolytic cell. The positive electrode and the negative electrode of the direct current power supply are respectively connected with the anode electrode and the cathode electrode of the electrolytic tank, and the electrolytic tank is provided with an alkaline electrolyte inlet. An oxygen outlet at an upper part of an anode area of the electrolytic cell can be connected to an oxygen separator, where it can be washed and / or dried, and the treated oxygen can be diverted to an oxygen storage tank.

[0237] Hydrogen and mixed alkaline electrolyte at the upper part of a cathode area of theelectrolytic cell can be connected to gas / liquid separator to separate the hydrogen fromthe alkaline electrolyte, and the alkaline electrolyte can be sent to a separate to recover the Mg(OH)2 for re-use. A gas phase outlet at the top of the hydrogen separator can be cooled by a cooler and then the hydrogen gas can be diverted to a scrubber for washing, drying and purifying the hydrogen gas prior to supplying the hydrogen to a hydrogen storage system.

[0238] The anode electrode can be made of or include stainless steel (SUS), titanium(Ti), chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni), aluminum (Al), an alloy thereof, a clad material, graphite, or any combination thereof. The anode electrode can be shaped into a rectangular plate. The anode electrode can include a plurality of holes through which electrolyte can pass and circulate. The anode electrode and can be used with or without a surface catalyst. When present, the surface catalyst can include a noble metal catalyst, such as platinum (Pt), or an oxide catalyst, such as iridium oxide, which can be attached to the surface of the anode electrode.

[0239] The cathode electrode can be made of or include a corrosion resistant material,such as stainless steel (SUS), titanium (Ti), a clad material, graphite, or a combination thereof. The cathode electrode can be used without a surface catalyst. The cathode electrode can be shaped into a rectangular plate. The cathode electrode can include plurality of holes through which electrolyte can pass and circulate. In an exemplary embodiment, the alkaline electrolyzer includes a cathode electrode that is or includes stainless steel or graphite.

[0240] The electrolytic cell can include a storage tank for housing the electrodes andcontaining the alkaline electrolyte. The storage tank can be made of a corrosion resistant material, such as a resin, a reinforced resin, or a metal, such as stainless steel, for example.

[0241] In the embodiments described herein, the alkaline electrolyzer can be designed tohave laminar or turbulent flow. Turbulent flow alkaline water electrolyzers can induce flow of electrolyte, including water, at a velocity creating turbulent conditions in the electrolytic cell. The turbulence can be achieved through the design of the electrodes as well as the housing and the flow of the alkaline electrolyte. Turbulent flow within the electrolytic cell can be achieved by designing the electrode to create non-laminar flow, such as including protrusions or indentations that promote turbulent flow. The turbulentflow of electrolyte in the electrolytic cell can improve the efficiency of the electrolysis by avoiding the formation of gas bubbles on the electrodes, which can decrease the efficiency of the process. This process can be accelerated by using recirculation pumps to accelerate flow of the electrolyte in the electrolytic cell, which can accelerate removal of any bubbles on the electrode surface.

[0242] The alkaline electrolyzer uses an electric current to decompose water into its basiccomponents, hydrogen and oxygen, through electrolysis using an alkaline electrolyte. This type of electrolyzer operates in an alkaline medium, for this invention it can utilize a solution of metal hydroxide, such as magnesium hydroxide (MgOH)2 from the vortex generator as electrolyte, alone or in combination with other electrolytes, such as sodium hydroxide and / or potassium hydroxide. In alkaline electrolyzers with electrolyte in turbulent flow, electric currents are applied to the electrodes immersed in the alkaline solution. At the cathode, the reduction reaction of water occurs, where molecular hydrogen (H2) is generated. At the anode, water oxidation occurs, generating molecular oxygen (O2). Both gases are collected and can be used as energy sources or for other purposes.

[0243] The electrolysis cells where the chemical reaction takes place include an anodeand a cathode immersed in the alkaline medium. The alkaline medium can be supplied to the electrolyzer through a feed system containing water coming from the vortex generator. The water from the vortex generator contains Mg(OH)2 and this can be supplemented with additional electrolytes. The water flow can be controlled and regulated to maintain a constant amount of water in the electrolysis cells. The water decomposes into hydrogen and oxygen in the presence of electric current.

[0244] The electrical power supply coming from the turbine system and the electricitygenerator, with a converter for conversion to direct current if needed, supplies the energy necessary for the electrolysis of water. The electric current is applied across the electrodes (anode and cathode), which causes the separation of water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen. Hydrogen gas and oxygen gas produced during electrolysis can be separated and collected in individual compartments in equipment downstream of the hydrogen generator. This can be achieved by physical separation methods, such as gas permeable membranes or collection devices.

[0245] An exemplary embodiment of the hydrogen-producing portion of the systemprovided herein using an alkaline electrolyzer is shown in FIG. 12. Electricity from electricity generator can be sent to hydrogen generator 2100, which includes an alkaline electrolyzer that includes a plurality of cells configured as a multi-cell stack 2125 that cause electrolysis of water into hydrogen and oxygen. Water containing hydrogen from the diverter of the electricity-producing portion of the system can be used as the alkaline electrolyte, directly as it is delivered from the diverter, or after being supplemented with sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, magnesium hydroxide, or any combination thereof. The alkaline electrolyte flows in turbulent flow through the multi-cell stack of electrodes of the alkaline electrolyzer. The hydrogen in the water from the vortex generator can be recovered with the hydrogen produced by electrolysis. Referring to FIG.12, hydrogen from the cathode half-cells of the multi-cell stack 2125 of the alkaline electrolyzer of the hydrogen generator 2100 can be collected directly in hydrogen variable volume storage tank 2200. This equipment allows the hydrogen produced by the hydrogen generator to be stored under variable pressure and volume conditions, which facilitates its distribution and subsequent use. It can include storage tanks that can expand or contract according to the amount of hydrogen stored. The hydrogen optionally can be compressed using a hydrogen compressor 2300 for storage in a hydrogen storage tank or for packaging and distribution. The hydrogen compressor 2300 can be used to increase the pressure of the stored hydrogen, which facilitates its transport and use in applications requiring higher pressures.

[0246] Water exiting the anode half-cell can be sent to a liquid-gas separator 2700 toseparate potassium hydroxide and magnesium hydroxide from the residual alkaline solution after hydrolysis to recover the hydroxide for reuse in the hydrogen generator.

[0247] Water exiting the liquid-gas separator 2700 can be sent to an oxygen andhydrogen gas separator 2600 to separate oxygen and hydrogen to obtain pure gases and prevent the production of potentially explosive mixtures.

[0248] Oxygen from the anode half-cells of the multi-cell stack 2125 of the alkalineelectrolyzer of the hydrogen generator 2100 can be collected directly in oxygen storage tank 2400. Any oxygen separated in the oxygen and hydrogen gas separator 2600 can be diverted to the oxygen storage tank 2400. The oxygen optionally can be compressed using an oxygen compressor 2500 for storage in an oxygen storage tank or for packagingand distribution. The oxygen compressor 2500 can be used to increase the pressure of the stored oxygen, which facilitates its transport and use in applications requiring higher pressures. The alkaline electrolyzer is in fluid communication with the diverter of the electricity-producing component of the system, and uses the water from the vortex generator for the production of hydrogen.

[0249] Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) Electrolyzer

[0250] Hydrogen generator 2100 can include a polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM)electrolyzer 2130 as a hydrogen generator. A PEM electrolyzer is an electrochemical device used to produce hydrogen from the electrolysis of water. This process is a clean and efficient way of obtaining hydrogen, which is a versatile and environmentally friendly energy source. The physicochemical principle governing the process in a PEM electrolyzer for hydrogen production is the electrolysis of water. Water electrolysis is a process in which electrical energy is used to break down water molecules (H2O) into their basic components, hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2), through redox (reduction- oxidation) reactions. Water electrolysis is also influenced by the electrochemical potential of the electrodes and the potential difference or voltage applied across the cell. The potential at the cathode must be low enough to allow the reduction of protons (H+) into molecular hydrogen (H2), while the potential at the anode must be high enough to oxidize the water molecules and release oxygen (O2). The invention seeks minimum power by reducing the electrical potential for increasing the efficiency of the process. The polymer electrolyte membrane acts as a selective barrier that allows the passage of protons (H+) while blocking the passage of negative charge. This ensures that protons generated at the anode move to the cathode through the membrane, where they combine with electrons to form hydrogen gas.

[0251] The proton exchange membrane (PEM) cell converts electrical energy intochemical energy such as hydrogen through a reaction catalyzed by a proton exchange membrane. The main parts of the PEM cell are the electrodes, the proton exchange membrane, the catalyst, and the bipolar plates, and can include a distilled water injection pump 2140 and a distilled water storage tank 2150. The PEM cell includes two electrodes: an anode and a cathode. These electrodes are made of porous conductive materials, such as graphite or carbon treated with catalysts, such as platinum. The proton exchange membrane is made of a proton-conducting polymer, typically polyethyleneperfluorosulfonate (PFSA), which allows the selective passage of protons (H+ ions), while blocking the passage of electrons and gases. To accelerate the electrochemical reactions at the electrodes, catalysts are used, and platinum can be used in both electrodes. Finally, conductive bipolar plates provide a path for electric current between adjacent cells and distribute feed gases to the electrodes. The hydrogen (H2) flux is given by the dissociation of the water molecule and subsequent dissociation into protons (H+) and electrons (e-) according to the following oxidation reaction.

[0252] H2→2H+ + 2e-

[0253] The operating temperature of a PEM cell can be critical to its efficiency. PEMcells typically operate at moderate temperatures (60-80°C), because higher temperatures can affect the durability of the materials, and lower temperatures can reduce reaction efficiency.

[0254] Water electrolysis technology using a PEM electrolyzer uses solid membranes asthe electrolyte. The membranes typically include a polysulfonated polymer. Examples include Nafion® membranes (from DuPont, Wilmington, DE), Aciplex® membranes (from Asahi Kasei Corporation, Tokyo, Japan), and Fumapem® membranes (from FuMA-Tech GmbH, Germany). These membranes have properties of lower gas permeability, high proton conductivity (0.1 ± 0.02 S / cm), lower thickness and high pressure operations. In terms of sustainability and environmental impact, water electrolysis using a PEM electrolyzer is one of the favorable methods for the conversion of renewable energy into high-purity hydrogen. Water electrolysis using a PEM electrolyzer has great advantages, such as compact design, high current density (greater than 2 A / cm2), high efficiency, fast response, small size, operation at low temperatures (20°C to 80°C) and production of ultrapure hydrogen as well as oxygen.

[0255] The power requirement is supplied by an electrical circuit external to theelectrodes to allow the flow of electrons from the anode to the cathode. This flow of electrons is what drives the water electrolysis reaction. When an electric current is applied through the cells of the PEM electrolyzer, water (H2O) is broken down into its basic components: hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2). At the anode, the oxidation reaction occurs, where water decomposes into oxygen and protons. At the cathode, protons combine with electrons to form molecular hydrogen. In the hydrogen production systemprovided herein, electricity generated by the electricity-producing system using the vortex generator can supply the power requirements of the PEM electrolyzer.

[0256] The PEM electrolyzers described herein are useful for generating hydrogen andoxygen from water, where water is in contact with at least the anode, and an electrical current is provided through the membrane with sufficient potential difference across the membrane to convert at least a portion of the water to hydrogen on the cathode and oxygen on the anode.

[0257] PEM water electrolyzers are known in the art (e.g., see U.S. Pat. Nos. 8,999,135(Hinatsu et al., 2015), 11,408,081 (Thomassen et al., 2022), and 11,572,630 (Nakamura et al., 2023) and López-Fernández et al., Molecules 2012, 26, 6326, doi.org / 10.3390 / molecules26216326, 24 pages)). PEM water electrolyzers include a membrane electrode assembly (MEA), which includes a membrane, a cathode on one side of the membrane, and a cathode on the other side of the membrane. Other components include a gas diffusion layer, a separation plate (also called a bipolar plate), and an end plate. Gas diffusion layers (GDLs) also can be included. Upon applying electricity to the electrodes, an electrochemical reaction occurs that divides water into oxygen and hydrogen. At the anode, water decomposes to produce protons, electrons, and oxygen. The oxygen can be removed from the system, and the protons can pass through the membrane to the cathode side of the assembly. Electrons can pass through a circuit to the cathode side, and combine with the protons to produce hydrogen gas, which then can be collected and removed from the assembly.

[0258] PEM water electrolyzers use polymer electrolyte membranes. The electrolyzercan include electrodes present on either side of the membrane. The electrodes can include a coating on a surface thereof. The coating can include a catalyst. Hydrogen is produced at the cathodes (negative electrodes), and oxygen is produced at the anodes (positive electrodes) upon passage of current between the electrodes. The electrolyte includes a hydrated proton exchange membrane, which are ionically (proton) conducting through migration of protons between ion exchange sites under a voltage gradient. The solid membranes maintain separation of the hydrogen and oxygen gases so that the gases can be recovered, and the gases are of high purity.

[0259] The PEM electrolyzer includes one or more pairs of anodes and cathodes for theelectrolysis of water to produce hydrogen and oxygen. These two reactions are the ones that take place in electrolytic cells at the cathode (also known as Hydrogen Evolution Reaction or HER) and at the anode (also known as Oxygen Evolution Reaction or OER), respectively.

[0260] The PEM electrolyzer simultaneously performs a Hydrogen Evolution Reaction(HER) and an Oxygen Evolution Reaction (OER), and electrons and ions are transferred between the two electrodes through an external circuit and an electrolyte, respectively. In other words, the transfer of electrons and ions between the two electrodes results in the simultaneous occurrence of OER and HER in the cell.

[0261] The anode and the cathode can be of the same material, or the electrode at thecathode can be of a material that is different from the material of the electrode at the anode. The material generally exhibits good conductivity and resistance to corrosion.

[0262] Any electrodes known in the art suitable for use in a PEM electrolyzer can beused. Exemplary electrodes include those that are or contain stainless steel, carbon steel, nickel, molybdenum, nickel-molybdenum alloys, Raney nickel (spongy nickel from an alloy of nickel-zinc, nickel-aluminum, or nickel-silicon chemically treated to remove the zinc, aluminum, of silicon leaving a porous material), nickel-iron alloys, nickel- copper alloys, nickel-cobalt alloys, nickel-cobalt-zinc (NiCoZn) alloys, nickel-copper- cobalt (NiCuCo) alloys, platinum black, titanium, or any combination thereof. Exemplary stainless steels that can be used as electrodes include stainless steel alloys SS 304L, SS 316, SS 316L, SS 409, SS 410, SS 430, and duplex grades DSS 2304, DSS 2205, DSS 2507, and DSS 2906.

[0263] The electrodes can include a coating on a portion of a surface, or on one surface,or on both surfaces of an electrode. The coating can include a catalyst. Any catalyst known in the art can be included on a surface of an electrode. The catalyst can include a noble metal, such as gold, silver, platinum, iridium, rhenium, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, osmium, or any combination or alloy thereof, but is not limited thereto. For example, a catalytic coating containing platinum or iridium can be included. A catalyst including platinum can be included on the cathode and a catalyst including iridium can be included on the anode. The electrodes also can include a carbon-based material as acoating, or as a support for a catalyst, or any combination thereof. The carbon-based material can be fullerene, graphene, graphite, carbon nanotubes, carbon nanofibers, carbon microfibers, nano carbon black, and any combination thereof. For example, fullerene-based materials can increase the efficiency of water electrolysis, such as by increasing a surface area of an electrode. Fullerenes can provide additional surface area for the electrochemical reaction, which increases the efficiency of hydrogen and oxygen generation. Fullerenes also provide good electrical conductivity, which facilitates the flow of electrical current through the electrodes and reduces energy losses. Another reason for including fullerenes in a coating in electrochemical cells for hydrogen production is the high resistance of fullerenes to corrosion and undesired chemical reactions, which prolongs the lifetime of the electrodes.

[0264] Any known proton exchange membrane can be used in the PEM electrolyzer.Exemplary polymer electrolytes can include anionic functional groups, which typically are sulfonic acid groups, but can be or can include amide groups, carboxylic acid groups, imide groups, or other acidic functional groups. The proton exchange membrane can be highly fluorinated or can be perfluorinated. The proton exchange membrane can include one or more perfluorosulfonic acid groups and / or one or more perfluorosulfonimide acid groups. The polymer electrolyte membrane can be a perfluorinated hydrocarbon sulfonate ionomer product, and in particular a sulfonated tetrafluoroethylene based fluoropolymer-copolymer. The polymer electrolyte membrane can be a copolymer of tetrafluoroethylene and 1 ,1 ,2,2-tetrafluoro-2-((1,1,1,2,3,3-hexafluoro-3-((1,2,2- trifluorovinyl)oxy)propan-2-yl)oxy)-ethanesulfonic acid. Exemplary polymer electrolyte membranes that are available commercially include Nafion® membranes (from DuPont, Wilmington, DE), Aciplex® membranes (from Asahi Kasei Corporation, Tokyo, Japan) Fumapem® membranes (from FuMA-Tech GmbH, Germany), and Flemion® membranes (AGC Chemicals Company, Exton, PA). Different grades of the polymer electrolyte membrane are commercially available. The Nafion® membranes are often used because they can handle a high current density, exhibit good mechanical strength, have high proton conductivity, and exhibit good chemical stability. In some configurations, any of the Nafion® membranes XL, 115, and 117, and 212 can be selected.

[0265] The proton exchange membrane can be modified to include a catalyst on a portionof a surface thereof, or a catalyst on one or both surfaces thereof. Methods for preparing catalyst-coated membranes are known in the art (e.g., see U.S. Patent No. 5,879,827 (Debe et al., 1999).

[0266] The proton exchange membrane can include a support matrix. The support matrixcan provide mechanical strength. The support matrix can provide structural stability to withstand pressure differentials across the membrane. The support matrix can include a porous network of interlinked fibers. The fibers can include any one or a combination of polybenzimidazole, polyether ether ketone, poly(ethersulfone), polyethylenimine, polyphenylene oxide, polyphenyl ether, polyphenylene ether sulfone, polyether ketone, polysulfone, polytetrafluoroethylene, polyvinylidene fluoride, blends thereof, and combinations thereof. Support matrices are known in the art (e.g., see U.S. Patent Nos. 6,500,319 (LaConti et al., 2002); 6,855,450 (Molter et al, 2005); and 7,217,472 (Leonida, 2007)).

[0267] The membrane electrode assembly (MEA) can include a gas diffusion layer(GDL) on either side of the proton exchange membrane. The GDL can be made of any material suitable for use in a PEM electrolyzer, and can be made of any material stable at the electrode potentials during electrolysis. In some configurations, the GDL at the cathode side, which can have low potentials, can include a carbon-based material. The carbon-cased material can be carbon fibers or carbon black or combinations thereof. The carbon-based material can be in the form of a sheet or paper, a woven fiber, a non- woven fiber, or combinations thereof. Such forms of carbon-based materials are well known in the art and are commercially available.

[0268] In some configurations, the GDL at the anode side, which can have highpotentials, can be in the form of a metal mesh, a metal screen, a metal foam, or other porous form of a metal. The metal can be selected from those known in the art that have good electrical conductivity and resistance to corrosion. The metal can be one or a combination or alloy of Pt, Zr, Hf, Ti, and Ta. In some configurations, the GDL at the anode side can include one or a combination or alloy of Zr, Hf, Ti, and Ta surface-treated to include a layer of Pt on a surface.

[0269] In the PEM electrolyzer in the hydrogen-producing portion of the systemprovided herein, the MEA can be sandwiched between two rigid plates, known as end plates or flow field separation plates, or in the case of a configuration including a multi- cell stack, bipolar plates (BPPs). In an exemplary configuration of the system herein, the PEM electrolyzer includes a plurality of cells configured as a multi-cell stack. The flow field separation plates are made of a material that is electrically conductive and stable at the potentials of the electrode GDL against which it is positioned. The flow field separation plates can be made of metal, coated metal, plated metal, carbon composite, or any combination thereof. Because of the high potentials that can occur at the anode plate (such as 1.25 volts, 1.5 volts, 2 volts, 2.5 volts, or higher), the anode rigid plate is made of a material that will not corrode above potentials of 1.2 volts (relative to the potential of a reversible hydrogen electrode). For example, the anode rigid plate can include a coating that is highly corrosion resistant. Exemplary coatings include a combination of Ti, V, and Zr, such as Ti-10V-5Zr. The flow field separation plate distributes reactant or product fluids to and from the MEA electrode surfaces, typically through at least one fluid-conducting channel or flow field in a surface of the flow field separation plate facing the MEA. The channel can be formed in the surface using any known method, such as engraving, milling, molding, or stamping the surface with a channel having the desired design and configuration. These channels provide a conduit through which fluid can flow. The flow field separation plate can be configured to allow distribution of fluids between two consecutive MEAs in a stack, with one face of the fluid flow separation plate directing water to and oxygen from the anode of a first MEA while the other face of the fluid flow separation plate directs evolved hydrogen and water (that crosses over the membrane) away from the cathode of the next MEA. For an end plate, the fluid flow separation plate includes channels on one side only, to distribute fluids to or from an MEA on only that side.

[0270] An exemplary illustration of a single cell of the PEM electrolyzer is shown inFIG. 13. Referring to FIG. 13, exemplary water electrolyzer cell 4000 comprising a cathode-side flow field separator plate 4020, a cathode-side gas diffusion layer 4030, a cathode electrode 4040, a membrane 4045, an anode electrode 4050, an anode-side gas diffusion layer 4060, an anode-side flow field separator plate 4070, and a power supply 4080. Together the cathode electrode 4040, membrane 4045, and anode electrode 4050constitute a membrane electrode assembly (MEA) 4055. The gas diffusion layers also can be referred to as diffuser / current collectors. In operation, water is introduced into the anode half-cell portion of cell 4000, passing through the anode-side gas diffusion layer 4060 and over the anode electrode 4050. Power supply 4080 applies an electrical current source on cell 4000. The power supply 4080 can be a source of DC electricity, and in the embodiments herein can receive electrical current generated by the electricity- producing system provided herein. The membrane 4045 is a proton exchange membrane (PEM) that preferentially permits hydrogen ions (solvated protons, H+) to pass through the membrane to the cathode half-cell portion of the cell, thus conducting an electrical current through the membrane. The electrons (e-) cannot normally pass through the membrane and, instead, flow through an external electrical circuit in the form of electrical current. Anode-side gas diffusion layer 4060 facilitates water transport to and oxygen gas transport away from the anode 4050. Hydrogen ions (H+) are transported (in some cases with water that can be transported electro-osmotically through the PEM membrane with the solvated protons) from the anode 4050 through the membrane 4045 to the cathode 4040, conducting electrical current.

[0271] In some embodiments, the anode and cathode layers can be applied to GDLs andthe resulting catalyst-coated GDLs (also called catalyst coating backings) are sandwiched with a polymer electrolyte such as a PEM to form a five-layer MEA. The five layers of such a five-layer MEA are, in order: anode GDL, anode layer, ion conducting membrane, cathode layer, and cathode GDL. The anode layer and cathode layer typically comprise an anode catalyst and a cathode catalyst, respectively. In other embodiments, the anode and cathode layers are applied to either side of the ion conducting membrane, and the resulting catalyst-coated membrane (CCM) is sandwiched between two GDLs to form a five-layer MEA.

[0272] In the hydrogen-producing component of the system provided herein, the PEMelectrolyzer includes a cell stack that includes multiple cells, with bipolar plates physically separating but electrically connecting adjacent cells. Cell stack construction using structural plates or frames to form the cell stack body is known in the art (see U.S. Pat. No.6,500,319 (LaConti et al., 2002)). A cell stack can be constructed in different configuration using a series of structural plates to define alternately cathode and anode half-cell chambers for fluid flow. The fluid can be liquid, gas, or liquid-gas mixtures.The structural plates can be configured to support functional components, such as MEAs, current collectors, electrode backing layers, bipolar plates, and end plate, in their appropriate spatial positions and arrangement. The series of structural plates and functional components can be configured to resemble the structural arrangement of a filter press.

[0273] The hydrogen-producing component of the system provided herein also caninclude a water supply system for electrolysis, a water circulating pump, a gas-liquid separator for the hydrogen and oxygen, a heat exchanger, and a control system. The gas-liquid separators can include degassing vessels, which can separate the respective gases from fluid.

[0274] In the systems and methods provided herein, the cathode half-cell chambers canbe operated in a wet state, in which the chamber contains a gas-liquid mixture (hydrogen-water) during operation. The anode half-cell chambers are operated in a wet state to enable the water supply to be delivered to the anodes, and a gas-liquid mixture (oxygen-water) during operation. The gas or gas-liquid mixture(s) typically are collected into collectors at the exits of the half-cell chambers. The gas-liquid mixtures are treated in separate degassing vessels, which serve to separate the respective gases from the liquid.

[0275] Cooling of the cell stack during operation can be accomplished by cooling thecirculating water, for example by a heat exchanger or by cooling elements in the gas- liquid separation vessel(s).

[0276] A voltage regulator can be included if needed to provide a constant DC voltage.The voltage regulator can provide a stabilized voltage power supply.

[0277] During operation, water is conveyed from a water supply system that can includea water storage tank, piping, and a pump, to convey water to the anode of the PEM electrolyzer. In the PEM electrolyzer, water is electrochemically reacted in the anode half-cell at the anode, which can include a catalyst, resulting in the formation of oxygen, hydrogen ions, and electrons. The reaction can be performed temperatures between about 20°C to 110°C and at atmospheric or elevated pressure. In some configurations, the reaction temperature is from about 20°C to 80°C. In some configurations, the reaction temperature is from about 70°C to 110°C.

[0278] The produced oxygen is removed from the anode half-cell and can be conveyedto the oxygen gas-liquid separator. The recovered oxygen can be cooled to remove any residual moisture, and the recovered oxygen can be conveyed to the oxygen storage tank via an oxygen pipeline. The oxygen optionally can be compressed using an oxygen compressor for storage in an oxygen storage tank.

[0279] The hydrogen ions generated at the anode of the anode half-cell are hydrated withwater and pass through the proton exchange membrane and electrochemically react at the cathode, which can include a catalyst, in the cathode half-cell with electrons transported through the external circuit from the power supply to produce hydrogen. The produced hydrogen is transferred to the hydrogen gas-liquid separator. A preheater can be used to generate heat and steam for the hydrogen and water separator inlet. The recovered hydrogen can be cooled to remove any residual moisture, and the recovered hydrogen can be conveyed to the hydrogen storage tank via a hydrogen pipeline. The hydrogen optionally can be compressed using a hydrogen compressor for storage in a hydrogen storage tank.

[0280] The hydrogen-producing portion of the system provided herein can include asecondary control system 2900 as shown in FIG. 14. The secondary control system 2900 is in communication with the main control system 900. The secondary control system 2900 can automatically or manually provide instructions to the components of the hydrogen-producing portion of the system. For example, the secondary control system 2900 may include one or more user interfaces. The user interfaces can be a display, knob, button, lever, touchscreen, and / or any other suitable input terminal configured to receive user inputs for initiating the system provided herein. The secondary control system 2900 can be connected, directly or indirectly, to the components of the hydrogen-producing portion of the system to facilitate electrical and mechanical control and / or actuation of the components of the hydrogen-producing portion of the system for electrolysis of water to generate hydrogen and oxygen, and to direct the produced products to the appropriate components for further processing or storage. The secondary control system can include one or more processors and instructions executable by the one or more processors that can be stored on a non- transitory computer-readable medium. A non-transitory computer-readable medium may be part of the memory of a computer system or separate from any computer system.The secondary control system 2900 can be in communication with various sensors, such as thermocouples that measure temperature, pressure gauges that monitor pressure, and flow meters that can regulate or direct flow of the produced hydrogen and oxygen, and can use the information to make adjustments to the components of the hydrogen- producing portion of the system, and / or can relay the information to the main control system 900 for overall control of the system provided herein.

[0281] Exemplary Embodiments

[0282] An exemplary embodiment of the system for the electrolytic production ofhydrogen provided herein, which includes an electricity-generating component and a hydrogen-generating component, are described in further detail. The electricity- generating component of the system includes an electricity generating device that includes a vortex generating system to achieve thermodynamic conditions through the processes of cavitation and implosion, and via vacuum energy and nuclear reactions, to transform mechanical and nuclear energy into hydraulic energy that drives a turbine to generate electricity. The vortex generating system generates a plurality of microstates produce favorable environments that can allow deuterium molecules naturally occurring in water to acquire sufficient kinetic energy to overcome the Coulomb barrier so that their nuclei can get close enough to each other to undergo various nuclear reactions, discharging a large amount of nuclear energy at the microstate. At least a portion of the electricity from the electricity-generating component then can be utilized in the hydrogen-generating component of the system for electrolysis of water to produce hydrogen. In addition, hydrogen produced in the electricity-generating component of the system can be collected and combined with hydrogen generated in the hydrogen- generating component of the system provided herein.

[0283] A schematic illustration of a process flow diagram of an exemplary configurationof the system for the electrolytic production of hydrogen provided herein is shown in FIG. 14. An isometric illustration of an exemplary configuration of the electricity- producing portion of the system provided herein is shown in FIG. 15. An isometric illustration of an exemplary configuration of one embodiment of the hydrogen- producing portion of the system provided herein is shown in FIG.12.

[0284] As shown in FIG. 14, a fluid flow path is shown, beginning with the introductionof water via pipe 10 into storage tank 100. The water can be supplied by any source. For example, the water can be provided by a domestic source, such as a community water system. Water also can be pumped from an environmental source, such as a spring, a river, or a lake. Typically fresh water is used to avoid corrosion that can occur when salt water is used. In areas where only salt water or seawater is readily available, a reverse osmosis system can be used to reduce the amount of salt in the water prior to it being introduced into the system. The fluid is provided to the storage tank 100 for use as a fluid source in the system. Depending on the source, the water can be processed using a filtration system prior to it being introduced into the storage tank. For example, the water can be passed through a solids separator or filter 105 to remove any debris or particulate matter from the water.

[0285] The water then can be pumped via pump 200 to be modified by the addition ofmetal powder, such as magnesium, via a metal particle dispenser which includes a storage hopper 52A, a motor 52D, and a rotator 52B. The rotator 52B can be a screw- type conveying device (or auger, drill, screw rod, etc.) attached to the motor 52D. The metal powder can react with the water, forming a metal hydroxide and hydrogen. The system can include a solids separator or filter 70 to remove any solids that may remain after the reaction of the metal powder and water is complete.

[0286] Action of the pump 200 pumps the water to the vortex generator 500. The vortexgenerator acts on the water to increase its temperature and pressure, providing the water with a significant increase in kinetic energy. The high kinetic energy water then travels through a flow meter and thermocouple 600 to allow monitoring conditions of the water as it has been acted upon by the vortex generator. The water exiting the flow meter and thermocouple 600 travels to a diverter 650, which can direct a portion of the water from the vortex generator to the electrolysis system, while diverting the rest of the water from the vortex generator to a turbine for generating electricity. The portion of the water diverted to the turbine travels to an Archimedes turbine 700, where the water is used to convert hydraulic energy into mechanical energy to power the turbine. In the embodiment shown in FIG. 15, water exiting the Archimedes turbine 700 is recycled back to the storage tank 100 via pipe 170. While “pipe” is used herein to describe the conveyance of the water, any suitable means for conveying a fluid such as water in theelectricity generating system can be used, including but not limited to a pipe, a tube, a hose, a conduit, a valve, a connecting part, and the like, and can be made of any suitable material. One or more of the water conveying means can be formed integrally with the other components in the electricity generating system or can be formed separately and connected to the electricity generating system through one or more connecting means. Non-limiting examples of connecting means include flange connections, threaded connections, socket connection, adhesives, welding, and the like.

[0287] Referring to FIG. 14, the electricity generating portion of the system providedherein includes a metal powder dispenser including storage hopper 52A to provide metal powder to a water source (which can be a thermochemical reaction device, not shown, or directly to the storage tank 100, or to the water outlet of the storage tank 100, or directly to the vortex generator 500. Upon addition to the water, the metal powder, which can be a metal of any one or a combination of Mg, Ga, Ca, Sr, Ba, Al, Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, and Fr, reacts with the water to form a metal hydroxide and hydrogen and heat, since the reaction is an exothermic reaction. In some embodiments, the metal powder dispenser includes solid-gas mixing system, which can include a cyclone mixer, a Venturi mixer, or other appropriate mixer to fluidize the metal powder for delivery. The fluidized stream of metal powder then can be delivered to a component in need thereof, such as to the thermochemical reaction device, or the storage tank, or a line to the vortex generator 500 in order to react with a fluid, such as water. The system can include a solids separator or filter 70 to remove any solids that may remain after the reaction of the metal powder and water is complete.

[0288] Still referring to FIG.14, the electricity generating portion of the system providedherein includes a pump 200, coupled, directly or indirectly, to the storage tank 100, and can receive water from the storage tank 100. The pump 200 can be a hydraulic pump, and pump 200 can drive the flow of water from the storage tank 100 to start the system. The water is output to the vortex generator 500 to change the energy of the water by cavitation, implosion, nuclear, and vacuum energy.

[0289] Still referring to FIG.14, the electricity generating portion of the system providedherein includes vortex generator 500, which receives the water from the pump 200. Action of the vortex generator 500 on the water allows water molecules at the microstate to reach temperatures above about 5,000 degrees Kelvin (K), and depending on theenergy generated during the implosion process, the temperature can be about 10,000 K or about 15,000 K, and the like, and, individually, any intervening temperatures. Action of the vortex generator 500 on the water results in cavitation and implosion processes and creation of vacuum energy, which can allow deuterium molecules naturally occurring in water to acquire sufficient kinetic energy to overcome the Coulomb barrier so that their nuclei can get close enough to each other to undergo various nuclear reactions, discharging a large amount of nuclear energy at the microstate. The combination of the cavitation and implosion processes, vacuum energy, and nuclear energy can result in a phase change of water into steam that can further promote additional cavitation and controlled implosion processes.

[0290] The water exiting the vortex generator 500 has significantly more kinetic energy,having a higher temperature and pressure than the water introduced into the vortex generator 500. The conditions of the water exiting vortex generator 500 can be monitored using any one or a combination of a flow meter, a thermocouple to measure temperature, or a pressure gauge to measure pressure. In FIG.14, a flow meter 600 with a thermocouple to measure temperature is shown. While the illustration in FIG. 14 shows only one monitoring device, the system provided herein can include a plurality of monitoring devices that can be distributed throughout the system to monitor the conditions of the system.

[0291] Still referring to FIG.14, the electricity generating portion of the system providedherein includes a modified Archimedes turbine 700 which receives the highly kinetic water from the vortex generator 500 via a pipe that transmits the hydraulic pressure of the water from the vortex generator 500 to the chamber of the modified Archimedes turbine 700. The water transits the modified Archimedes turbine 700 generating torque on the helical plane surfaces of the shaft (which is why the Archimedes turbine also is called a screw turbine). This hydraulic energy from the water causes the modified Archimedes turbine 700 to rotate, converting the hydraulic energy from the water into mechanical energy. Work is done by the weight of the water causing pressure differences across the blades of the modified Archimedes turbine 700, causing the rotation.

[0292] The shaft of the modified Archimedes turbine 700 is connected to an electricitygenerator 800 to drive the electricity generator to produce electricity. Any type ofconnector known in the art to join two shafts can be used. In FIG.15, the connector is pulley 850, which connects modified Archimedes turbine shaft connector 750 to the electricity generator shaft connector 820. Electricity produced by the electricity generator can be delivered to the hydrogen-producing portion of the system provided herein, or can be provided for other uses.

[0293] The system provided herein includes a main control system 900. The maincontrol system includes sensors, controllers and software that can monitor and regulate the operation of all the above components of the electricity generating portion of the system, as well as the hydrogen-generating portion of the system, described later. The main control system 900 can control operating conditions, pressure, fluid flow, and other critical parameters to ensure safe and efficient operation of the entire system.

[0294] In one embodiment, a main control system 900 can automatically or manuallyfacilitate the vortex generator to transform mechanical and nuclear energy into hydraulic energy that drives a turbine to generate electricity in accordance with the present disclosure. For example, the main control system 900 may include one or more user interfaces. The user interfaces can be a display, knob, button, lever, touchscreen, and / or any other suitable input terminal configured to receive user inputs for initiating the system provided herein. The main control system 900 can be connected, directly or indirectly, to the components of the electricity generating portion of the system to facilitate electrical and mechanical control and / or actuation of the components of the electricity generating portion of the system for transforming mechanical and nuclear energy into hydraulic energy that drives a turbine to generate electricity. The main control system can include one or more processors and instructions executable by the one or more processors that can be stored on a non-transitory computer-readable medium. A non-transitory computer-readable medium may be part of the memory of a computer system or separate from any computer system.

[0295] In one embodiment of the electricity-producing portion of the system providedherein, the vortex generator 500 includes a rotor 510 having a shaft 520 that can be connected to a shaft of an angular speed multiplier box 400. As shown in FIG.15, the angular speed multiplier box 400 includes a motor 300 that rotates at high revolutions. As shown in FIG. 15, the angular speed multiplier box 400 is connected to the motor 300 via a coupling 350. The angular speed multiplier box 400 includes a combinationof gears and gear ratios that is used to change the rotational speed of the motor 300 into a higher angular speed, and can allow the rotor 510 of the vortex generator to reach speeds up to 55,000 rpm. The rotation of the rotor 510 generates a vortex in the water, which in turn produces cavitation and implosion, as described earlier in the present disclosure. This phenomenon allows water molecules at the microstate to reach temperatures above about 5,000 degrees Kelvin (K), and depending on the energy generated during the implosion process, the temperature can be about 10,000 K or about 15,000 K, and the like, and, individually, any intervening temperatures. The rotor 510 of the vortex generator 500 results in cavitation and implosion processes and creation of vacuum energy, which can allow deuterium molecules naturally occurring in water to acquire sufficient kinetic energy to overcome the Coulomb barrier so that their nuclei can get close enough to each other to undergo various nuclear reactions, discharging a large amount of nuclear energy at the microstate. The combination of the cavitation and implosion processes, vacuum energy, and nuclear energy can result in a phase change of water into steam that can further promote additional cavitation and controlled implosion processes.

[0296] The onset of cavitation is dependent on the coherent structure of directed flow,which is organized as paired vortex rings. In addition, cavitation / implosion is continuously found in the nucleus of the vortex, indicating a strong correlation between cavitation / implosion and vortex dynamics. In the initial stage, the stretching of the vortex is the dominant factor, responsible for the growth of the vortex and the elliptical shape of the cavitation bubbles. Inside the water, the cavitation bubbles form an elliptical shape during the implosion process. The elliptical geometry of the imploding cavitation bubbles mirrors the elliptical flow of the fluid, and the cavitation and implosion process is aided by the elliptical geometry of the cavitation bubbles during the implosion process. In comparison, the dilation term could produce enhancement or suppression of local vorticity, depending on the volumetric variation induced by cavitation and, during the implosion stage, the bubble creates baroclinic vorticity and contributes to three- dimensional vorticity. Based on the periodic functioning of the implosion structure together with the temporal evolution of large eddies, vorticity can be separated into the following nine stages: initiation, collision, growth, cavitation cloud, loss of coherence, cavitation cloud growth, collision, and implosion.

[0297] As shown in FIGS. 14 and 15, a diverter 650 is in fluid communication with thevortex generator 500 and can direct a portion of the water from the vortex generator 500 to the electrolysis system of the hydrogen generator.

[0298] While FIG. 14 shows hydrogen generator 2100 as a single electrolyzer, thehydrogen generator can include a plurality of electrolyzers, such as shown in FIG. 11 and as discussed above.

[0299] The components of the system provided herein are scalable and modifiable toyield the same cavitation and implosion processes in a vortex, which can allow deuterium molecules naturally occurring in water to acquire sufficient kinetic energy to overcome the Coulomb barrier so that their nuclei can get close enough to each other to undergo various nuclear reactions, discharging a large amount of nuclear energy at the microstate, in accordance with the present disclosure, but can drive a larger electricity generator to generate more electricity.

[0300] Methods of Producing Hydrogen via Electrolysis of Water

[0301] Also provided herein are methods of electrolytically producing hydrogen. Themethods use the system described herein, and in particular, use electricity produced using the vortex generator as described herein. The methods include providing a system for electrolytically producing hydrogen as described herein that includes one electrolyzer or a combination of electrolyzers, providing water in contact with one anode or a plurality of anodes of the electrolyzer, and providing an electrical current with sufficient potential difference in the electrolyzer to convert at least a portion of the water to hydrogen and oxygen on the cathode and anode, respectively.

[0302] The methods include treating water from a water supply source with a metalpowder to produce a treated water that includes a metal hydroxide and hydrogen according to the following equation:

[0303] X (s) + 2 H2O (l) ^ X(OH)2 (aq) + H2 (g)Ga, Ca, Sr, Ba, Li,Na, K, Rb, Cs, and Fr; transferring the treated water to a vortex generator; inducing cavitation and implosion in the treated water within the vortex generator to increase the temperature and pressure of the water and produce a high-energy water; directing the high-energy water through an Archimedes turbine attached to an electricity generator tocause the Archimedes turbine to rotate, whereby the rotating Archimedes turbine causes the electricity generator to rotate and produce electricity; and using the electricity so generated to perform electrolysis of water to produce hydrogen and oxygen. A modified Archimedes turbine as described herein can be used in the methods.

[0305] Another inventive aspect of the present disclosure is a method of producingelectricity, the method comprising the steps of: receiving water from a water supply source; treating the water with Mg or Al metal to produce Mg(OH)2 or Al(OH)3, hydrogen and heat, and providing the treated water to a vortex generator; rotating the vortex generator at a speed to induce cavitation and implosion in the vortex generator; outputting the water from the vortex generator and dividing the output into a first stream and a second stream; using the first stream to drive an Archimedes turbine attached to an electricity generator to cause the Archimedes turbine to rotate, whereby the rotating Archimedes turbine causes the electricity generator to rotate and produce electricity; using at least a portion of the produced electricity to electrolyze water to produce oxygen at an anode and hydrogen at the cathode; collecting the hydrogen produced in a hydrogen collector and the oxygen produced in an oxygen collector; and combining water from the anode containing dissolved hydrogen with the second stream from the vortex generator to form a combined mixture, degassing the combined mixture to recover the hydrogen in the combined mixture, and adding the recovered hydrogen to the hydrogen in the hydrogen collector. A modified Archimedes turbine as described herein can be used in the methods.

[0306] In the methods provided herein, hydrogen gas and oxygen gas are generated bywater electrolysis in multiple electrolytic cells contained in one or more electrolyzers. For example, the hydrogen-producing component can include a fullerene cell electrolyzer that includes electrodes coated on at least one surface with fullerene or other carbon allotropes, or an electrolyzer that is an alkaline electrolyzer, or an electrolyzer that includes a polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) electrolyzer, or a combination of two or more of these electrolyzers.

[0307] The hydrogen gas can accumulate in a top part of each cathode half-cell of theelectrolyzer and can be collected via a pipeline connecting the cathode half-cells in a stack to a hydrogen gas collector. A mixture of the oxygen gas and liquid water in the anode half-cell of the electrolyzer can be collected via a pipeline connecting the anodehalf-cells in a stack to a collector, and the collected fluid can be transported to a degassing unit that separates the oxygen from the liquid water. Degassed liquid water can be recycled from the degassing chambers to anode half-cells for reuse.

[0308] As various changes could be made in the above methods and systems withoutdeparting from the scope of the invention, it is intended that all matter contained in the above description shall be interpreted as illustrative and not in a limiting sense. Any numbers expressing quantities of ingredients, constituents, reaction conditions, and so forth used in the specification are to be interpreted as encompassing the exact numerical values identified herein, as well as being modified in all instances by the term “about.” Notwithstanding that the numerical ranges and parameters setting forth, the broad scope of the subject matter presented herein are approximations, the numerical values set forth are indicated as precisely as possible. Any numerical value, however, may inherently contain certain errors or inaccuracies as evident from the standard deviation found in their respective measurement techniques. None of the features recited herein should be interpreted as invoking 35 U.S.C. §112, paragraph 6, unless the term “means” is explicitly used.

[0309] Description of the Item Numbers

[0310] A Pipe A for delivering fluid to or from the vortex generator

[0311] B Pipe B for delivering fluid to or from the vortex generator

[0312] C Pipe C for delivering fluid to or from the vortex generator

[0313] D Pipe D for delivering fluid to or from the vortex generator

[0314] X---X Central axis of main shaft of Archimedes turbine

[0315] 1 Rotor diameter

[0316] 2 Rotor length

[0317] 3 Rotor furrows

[0318] 4 Angle of inclination

[0319] 5 Row spacing

[0320] 10 Water introduction pipe

[0321] 20 Metal powder pipe

[0322] 50 Metal powder dispenser

[0323] 52 Dispensing device

[0324] 52A Storage Hopper

[0325] 52B Rotator

[0326] 52C Housing

[0327] 52D Motor

[0328] 52E Metering device

[0329] 53 Solid-gas mixer

[0330] 54 Solid-gas mixer outlet

[0331] 55 Vessel

[0332] 56 Mixer

[0333] 70 Solids separator / filter

[0334] 100 Storage tank

[0335] 105 Solids separator / filter

[0336] 110 Fluid line from storage tank to pump

[0337] 120 Fluid line from pump to vortex generator

[0338] 150 Fluid line from vortex generator to flow meter

[0339] 160 Fluid line from vortex generator to Archimedes turbine

[0340] 170 Return fluid line from Archimedes turbine to storage tank

[0341] 200 Pump

[0342] 300 Motor

[0343] 350 Coupling

[0344] 400 Angular speed multiplier box

[0345] 500 Vortex generator

[0346] 510 Rotor of the vortex generator

[0347] 520 Rotor central shaft

[0348] 540 Bearing shaft support

[0349] 545 Bearing shaft support

[0350] 550 Casing of the vortex generator

[0351] 555 Casing interior flat surface facing rotor

[0352] 560 First rounded interior surface of casing

[0353] 561 Second rounded interior surface of casing

[0354] 565 First interior side of casing

[0355] 566 Second interior side of casing

[0356] 570 Round-nose bullet-shaped interior chamber of casing

[0357] 571 First section of chamber

[0358] 572 Second section of chamber

[0359] 580 Water distributor

[0360] 585 Water entry port

[0361] 585' Water entry port

[0362] 590 Hole to accommodate the rotor central shaft

[0363] 600 Flow meter and thermocouple for measuring temperature

[0364] 650 Diverter

[0365] 700 Archimedes turbine

[0366] 700F Flow direction through the turbine

[0367] 710 Screw turbine

[0368] 711 Main shaft

[0369] 713 Blades

[0370] 715 Central axis about line X—X

[0371] 720 Inlet

[0372] 725 Inlet flange

[0373] 729 Hole for connector

[0374] 730 Bearing shaft support

[0375] 735 Sealing support

[0376] 750 Shaft connector

[0377] 780 Conical casing

[0378] 790 Outlet

[0379] 795 Outlet flange

[0380] 799 Hole for connector

[0381] 800 Electricity generator

[0382] 820 Shaft connector of the electricity generator

[0383] 850 Pulley

[0384] 900 Main control system

[0385] 1000 Electricity generating device

[0386] 2000 Hydrogen generating system

[0387] 2100 Hydrogen generator

[0388] 2105 Power supply

[0389] 2110 Fullerene cell electrolyzer

[0390] 2120 Alkaline electrolyzer

[0391] 2125 Multi-cell stack of the alkaline electrolyzer

[0392] 2130 Polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) electrolyzer

[0393] 2140 Pump

[0394] 2150 Storage tank

[0395] 2160 Solenoid valve

[0396] 2161 Solenoid valve

[0397] 2165 Solenoid valve

[0398] 2166 Solenoid valve

[0399] 2170 Line for water from the vortex generator to electrolyzers

[0400] 2180 Negative electric current flowing towards the electrolyzers

[0401] 2185 Positive electric current flowing towards the electrolyzers

[0402] 2190 Line for outflow from the electrolyzers 2110 and 2120

[0403] 2195 Line for hydrogen from electrolyzer 2130

[0404] 2200 Hydrogen variable volume storage tank

[0405] 2300 Hydrogen compressor

[0406] 2400 Oxygen storage tank

[0407] 2500 Oxygen compressor

[0408] 2600 Oxygen and hydrogen gas separator

[0409] 2700 Liquid-gas separator

[0410] 2900 Secondary control system

[0411] 3000 Rotor

[0412] 3200 Cavitation bubble

[0413] 3300 Imploded cavitation bubble

[0414] 3400 Isobaric lines

[0415] 4000 PEM water electrolyzer cell

[0416] 4020 Cathode-side flow field separator plate

[0417] 4030 Cathode-side gas diffusion layer

[0418] 4040 Cathode electrode

[0419] 4045 Membrane

[0420] 4050 Anode electrode

[0421] 4055 Membrane Electrode Assembly (MEA)

[0422] 4060 Anode-side gas diffusion layer

[0423] 4070 Anode-side flow field separator plate

[0424] 4080 Power supply

Claims

WHAT IS CLAIMED IS:

1. A system for electrolytically generating hydrogen from water, comprising: a metal powder dispenser for dispensing metal powder into water to release hydrogen and heat by reacting with the water; a vortex generator that receives the water treated with the metal powder and produces cavitation and implosion processes in a vortex of the treated water, and thereby produces an aqueous thermal hydraulic fluid; an angular speed multiplier box attached to the vortex generator; a motor attached to the angular speed multiplier box; an Archimedes turbine that receives and is driven by the thermal hydraulic fluid from the vortex generator; an electricity generator attached to and driven by the Archimedes turbine; and one or more than one electrolyzer comprising a plurality of electrolysis cells each comprising an anode electrode and a cathode electrode for electrolysis of water into hydrogen and oxygen.

2. The system of claim 1, wherein the system comprises two or more electrolyzers selected from among a fullerene cell electrolyzer, an alkaline electrolyzer, a polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) electrolyzer, and combinations thereof.

3. The system of claim 1 or 2, wherein the system comprises a fullerene cell electrolyzer, an alkaline electrolyzer, and a polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) electrolyzer.

4. The system of claim 1 or 2, wherein the electrolyzer comprises a fullerene cell electrolyzer that includes at least one electrode comprising a surface comprising a coating of fullerene or a carbon allotrope or a combination thereof on at least a portion of the surface.

5. The system of claim 4, wherein the carbon allotropes is selected from among graphene, graphite, carbon nanotubes, carbon nanofibers, carbon microfibers, nano carbon black, and a combination thereof.

6. The system of claim 1 or 2, wherein the electrolyzer comprises an alkaline electrolyzer that includes at least one a hydrogen / oxygen separator for separating the hydrogen from the oxygen.

7. The system of claim 1 or 2, wherein the electrolyzer comprises a fullerene cell electrolyzer or an alkaline electrolyzer or a combination thereof in fluid communication with the vortex generator, and the electrolyzer uses at least a portion of the aqueous thermal hydraulic fluid as the water for electrolysis into hydrogen and oxygen.

8. The system of any one of claims 1 to 3, wherein the electrolyzer comprises a PEM electrolyzer comprising a polymer electrolyte membrane that comprises or is made from: (a) a polymer or copolymer comprising one or more anionic functional groups selected from among sulfonic acid groups, amide groups, carboxylic acid groups, imide groups, and combinations thereof; or (b) a copolymer of sulfonated tetrafluoroethylene-based fluoropolymers or polybenzimidazole copolymers or combinations thereof; or (c) a polysulfonated polymer; or (d) a polymer or copolymer containing one or more perfluorosulfonic acid groups and / or one or more perfluorosulfonimide acid groups; or (e) a perfluorinated hydrocarbon sulfonate ionomer product; or (f) a sulfonated tetrafluoroethylene based fluoropolymer-copolymer; or (g) a copolymer of tetrafluoroethylene and 1,1,2,2-tetrafluoro-2-((1,1,1,2,3,3- hexafluoro-3-((1,2,2-trifluorovinyl)oxy)propan-2-yl)oxy)-ethanesulfonic acid.

9. The system of any one of claims 1 to 8, wherein the electrolyzer is designed to have turbulent flow conditions of the water within the electrolysis cells.

10. The system of any one of claims 1 to 9, wherein the electrolyzer is in electrical communication with the electricity generator for the electricity generator to provide an electrical current sufficient to convert at least a portion of the water to hydrogen on the cathode electrode and oxygen on the anode electrode.

11. The system of any one of claims 1 to 10, further comprising a variable volume storage tank for storing the hydrogen.

12. The system of any one of claims 1 to 11, further comprising a hydrogen compressor for compressing the hydrogen.

13. The system of any one of claims 1 to 12, further comprising an oxygen storage tank.

14. The system of any one of claims 1 to 13, further comprising an oxygen compressor for compressing the oxygen.

15. The system of any one of claims 1 to 14, further comprising a liquid / gas separator for separating the hydrogen or the oxygen or both from a liquid.

16. The system of any one of claims 1 to 15, wherein the anode electrode or the cathode electrode or both are made of or comprise a stainless steel, carbon steel, nickel, molybdenum, a nickel-molybdenum alloy, a Raney nickel, a nickel-iron alloy, a nickel- copper alloy, a nickel-cobalt alloy, a nickel-cobalt-zinc (NiCoZn) alloy, a nickel-copper- cobalt (NiCuCo) alloy, platinum, platinum black, titanium, graphite, or any combination thereof.

17. The system of any one of claims 1 to 15, wherein the anode electrode or the cathode electrode or both are made of or comprise a stainless steel alloy selected from among SS 304L, SS 316, SS 316L, SS 409, SS 410, SS 430, and duplex grades DSS 2304, DSS 2205, DSS 2507, and DSS 2906.

18. The system of any one of claims 1 to 17, wherein the anode electrode or the cathode electrode or both include a coating on a portion of a surface, or on one surface, or on both surfaces.

19. The system of claim 18, wherein the coating comprises a noble metal, a carbon material, a catalyst, or a combination thereof.

20. The system of claim 19, wherein the noble metal is selected from among gold, silver, platinum, iridium, rhenium, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, osmium, a combination thereof, and an alloy thereof.

21. The system of claim 19, wherein the cathode comprises platinum as a catalyst on a surface and the anode comprises iridium as a catalyst on a surface thereof.

22. The system of anyone of claims 19 to 21, wherein the carbon material is selected from among fullerene, graphene, graphite, carbon nanotubes, carbon nanofibers, carbon microfibers, nano carbon black, and a combination thereof.

23. The system of claim 22, wherein the carbon material is a support for a catalyst.

24. The system of any one of claims 1 to 23, wherein the metal powder dispenser comprises solid-gas mixing system comprising a cyclone mixer, a Venturi mixing, or combination thereof to fluidize the metal powder for delivery to the fluid.

25. The system of any one of claims 1 to 24, wherein the metal powder dispenser comprises: a storage hopper containing the metal powder and including an outlet that can be opened and closed by an actuator to dispense the metal powder; a motor; a rotator connected to and driven by the motor; a housing enclosing the rotator and configured to receive the metal powder from the outlet of the storage hopper; and a metering device.

26. The system of claim 25, wherein the rotator is a screw-type conveying device selected from among an auger, a drill, and a screw rod.

27. The system of claim 25 or 26, wherein the metering device comprises load cells configured to measure a weight of the metal powder.

28. The system of any one of claim 1 to 27, wherein the vortex generator comprises: a casing; anda rotor contained within the casing, wherein the rotor comprises a shaft that traverses through the casing and is coupled to the angular speed multiplier box.

29. The system of claim 28, wherein the rotor is made of a material selected from among stainless steel, cast iron, titanium, titanium alloy, anodized aluminum, and a composite material comprising carbon fiber.

30. The system of claim 28 or 29, wherein the rotor includes a plurality of furrows in a surface thereof.

31. The system of claim 30, wherein the furrows are arranged concentrically, helically, or radially.

32. The system of claim 30 or 31, where the furrows have a cross-sectional shape that is a rectangular shape, a U-shape, or a V-shape.

33. The system of claim 28 or 29, wherein the rotor includes a plurality of ridges on a surface thereof.

34. The system of claim 33, wherein the ridges are arranged concentrically, helically, or radially.

35. The system of claim 33 or 34, where the ridges have a cross-sectional shape that is a rectangular shape, a U-shape, or a V-shape.

36. The system of any one of claims 28 to 35, wherein the rotor has an angle of inclination in the range of 0° to 65°.

37. The system of any one of claim 28 to 36, wherein the rotor has one surface that is flat, and an opposite surface that is angled from the center to the outer edge, such that a thickness of the rotor at the center is greater than a thickness of the rotor at the outer edge.

38. The system of any one of claims 28 to 37, wherein the casing is made of a material selected from among stainless steel, cast iron, titanium, titanium alloy, anodized aluminum, and a composite material comprising carbon fiber.

39. The system of any one of claims 1 to 38, further comprising one or more monitoring devices selected from among a pressure gauge, a flow meter, and a thermal sensor.

40. The system of any one of claims 1 to 39, further comprising a pump to initiate a flow of the fluid to the vortex generator.

41. The system of any one of claims 1 to 40, further comprising a storage tank for containing the fluid.

42. The system of claim 41, further comprising a series of pipes to provide a path for fluid flow from the storage tank, to the pump, to the vortex generator, to the Archimedes turbine, and back to the storage tank.

43. The system of claim 42, further comprising a diverter for directing a portion of the aqueous thermal hydraulic fluid from the vortex generator to the electrolyzer.

44. The system of any one of claims 1 to 43, wherein the Archimedes turbine has an inlet and an outlet, and a diameter of the Archimedes turbine at the inlet is larger than a diameter of the of the Archimedes turbine at the outlet.

45. The system of any one of claims 28 to 44, wherein the angular speed multiplier box is configured to rotate the rotor to a speed of from about 8,000 rpm to about 55,000 rpm.

46. The system of claim 45, wherein the rotating rotor creates a vortex and the cavitation and implosion processes in the vortex allows deuterium molecules naturally occurring in the water to acquire sufficient kinetic energy to overcome the Coulomb barrier so that their nuclei can get close enough to each other to undergo a nuclear reaction releasing nuclear energy.

47. A method for electrolytically producing hydrogen from water, comprising: treating water with a metal to produce a metal hydroxide, hydrogen, and heat to yield a treated water; providing the treated water to a vortex generator comprising a rotor;rotating the rotor of the vortex generator at a speed to induce cavitation and implosion in the treated water in the vortex generator to form a thermal hydraulic fluid; outputting the thermal hydraulic fluid from the vortex generator to an Archimedes turbine attached to an electricity generator to cause the Archimedes turbine to rotate, whereby the rotating Archimedes turbine causes the electricity generator to rotate and produce electricity; and providing the electricity from the electricity generator to a plurality of electrolytic cells of an electrolyzer to convert water by electrolysis to hydrogen on a cathode and oxygen on an anode.

48. The method of claim 47, wherein the electrolyzer is one or more than one electrolyzer selected from among a fullerene cell electrolyzer, an alkaline electrolyzer, a polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) electrolyzer, and combinations thereof.

49. The method of claim 47 or 48, wherein the system comprises two or more electrolyzers selected from among a fullerene cell electrolyzer, an alkaline electrolyzer, a polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) electrolyzer, and combinations thereof.

50. The method of any one of claims 47 to 49, wherein the system comprises a fullerene cell electrolyzer, an alkaline electrolyzer, and a polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) electrolyzer.

51. The method of claim 47 or 48, wherein the system comprises a fullerene cell electrolyzer or an alkaline electrolyzer or a combination of both, each in fluid communication with the vortex generator and using at least a portion of the thermal hydraulic fluid as the water for electrolysis to produce hydrogen and oxygen.

52. The method of any one of claims 47 to 51, further comprising collecting the hydrogen gas and storing it in a variable volume storage container.

53. The method of any one of claims 47 to 52, further comprising collecting the hydrogen gas and compressing the hydrogen gas and storing the compressed hydrogen gas.

54. The method of any one of claims 47 to 53, further comprising collecting the oxygen gas and storing it in a storage container.

55. The method of any one of claims 47 to 54, further comprising collecting the oxygen gas and compressing the oxygen gas and storing the compressed oxygen gas.

56. The method of any one of claims 47 to 55, wherein the electrolysis is performed at a temperature between about 20°C to 110°C.

57. The method of any one of claims 47 to 56, wherein the electrolysis is performed at atmospheric pressure or at an elevated pressure.

58. The method of any one of claims 47 to 57, wherein the anode side of the electrolytic cells and the cathode side of the electrolytic cells are operated at substantially equal pressures.

59. The method of any one of claims 47 to 58, wherein the anode side of the electrolytic cells and the cathode side of the electrolytic cells are operated at different pressures.

60. The method of any one of claims 47 to 59, further comprising collecting fluid from the anode side of the electrolytic cells and treating the fluid in a degasser to separate the oxygen from the fluid producing a degassed fluid.

61. The method of any one of claims 47 to 60, further comprising cooling the water prior to hydrolysis.

62. The method of any one of claims 47 to 61, wherein the rotor is rotating at a speed of about 8,000 rpm to about 55,000 rpm.

63. The method of any one of claims 47 to 62, wherein the rotor: (a) includes a plurality of ridges on a surface thereof; or (b) includes a plurality of furrows in a surface thereof.

64. The method of claim 63, wherein: (a) the ridges are arranged concentrically, helically, or radially; or (b) the furrows are arranged concentrically, helically, or radially.

65. The method of claim 63 or 64, wherein: (a) the ridges have a cross-sectional shape that is a rectangular shape, a U-shape, or a V-shape; or (b) the furrows have a cross-sectional shape that is a rectangular shape, a U-shape, or a V-shape.

66. The method of any one of claims 47 to 65, wherein the metal is any one or a combination of Al, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, and Fr.

67. The method of any one of claims 47 to 66, wherein the metal has a particle size of 10 nm to about 1,000 nm.

68. The method of any one of claims 47 to 67, wherein the cavitation and implosion processes in the vortex within the vortex generator allows deuterium molecules naturally occurring in the water to acquire sufficient kinetic energy to overcome the Coulomb barrier so that their nuclei can get close enough to each other to undergo a nuclear reaction releasing nuclear energy.

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