Method for producing hydrogen from a solution of a high concentration of hydronium ions

Abstract

A method for producing hydrogen including: performing electrolysis of a hydronium solution, the hydronium solution including: a molecule including hydrogen and oxygen; hydronium ions; hydroxide anions (OH-); a pH between -1.0 and 0.5; and a hydroxide anion OH- concentration of about 1% or less, wherein the hydronium solution is configured to maintain the same pH and the same hydroxide anion OH- concentration for at least six years. A method for producing hydrogen including: performing electrolysis of a hydronium solution, the hydronium solution including: a molecule including hydrogen and oxygen; hydronium ions; hydroxide anions (OH-); a pH between -1.0 and 0.5; and a hydroxide anion OH- concentration of about 1% or less, wherein the hydronium solution is configured to maintain the same pH and the same hydroxide anion OH-

Description

METHOD FOR PRODUCING HYDROGEN FROM A SOLUTION OF A HIGH CONCENTRATION OF HYDRONIUM IONSCROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

[0001] This application claims priority to and the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 682,290, filed on August 12, 2024, the entire content of which is incorporated herein by reference.BACKGROUND1. Field

[0002] Embodiments of the present disclosure described herein are related to a method for producing hydrogen from a solution of a high concentration of hydronium ions.2. Description of Related Art

[0003] As global temperatures continue to rise, industries have investigated methods for reducing the emission of greenhouse gases by searching for clean, renewable energy sources. Hydrogen has been explored as a potential source of clean energy due to its abundance and high energy density. However, hydrogen does not typically exist freely in nature and has to be produced from other sources of energy. For example, hydrogen may be produced by the electrolysis of water, which uses an electrical current to separate water into its components of hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2). However, the electrolysis of water can be inefficient and cost prohibitive, because producing the electrical current used in electrolysis may produce greenhouse gas emissions that may offset the benefits of using hydrogen as a clean energy source. Accordingly, more efficient and cleaner methods of producing hydrogen may be desired.SUMMARY

[0004] Aspects according to one or more embodiments of the present disclosure are directed toward a method for producing hydrogen from a solution of a high concentration of hydronium ions.

[0005] Additional aspects will be set forth in part in the description which follows and, in part, will be apparent from the description, or may be learned by practice of the presented embodiments of the disclosure.

[0006] A method for producing hydrogen according to one or more embodiments includes performing electrolysis of a hydronium solution, the hydronium solution including: a molecule including hydrogen and oxygen; hydronium ions; hydroxide anions (OH-); a pH between -1.0 and 0.5; and a hydroxide anion OH’ concentrationof about 1 % or less, wherein the hydronium solution is configured to maintain the same pH and the same hydroxide anion OH’ concentration for at least six years.

[0007] In one or more embodiments, the hydronium solution includes a specific gravity in a range of about 1 .060 to about 1 .070.

[0008] In one or more embodiments, the pH is 0.4.

[0009] In one or more embodiments, the pH is 0.

[0010] In one or more embodiments, the hydroxide anion (OH’) is 0.

[0011] A method for producing hydrogen according to one or more embodiments including: performing electrolysis of a hydronium solution, the hydronium solution including: a molecule including oxygen and hydrogen; hydronium ions; hydroxide anions (OH’); and a Raman spectrum including at least one vibrational band in a range of about 1200 cm’1or less.

[0012] In one or more embodiments, the Raman spectrum includes a first vibrational band in a range of about 1200 cm’1to about 430 cm’1.

[0013] In one or more embodiments, the Raman spectrum includes a second vibrational band in a range of about 1200 cm’1to about 430 cm’1.

[0014] In one or more embodiments, the Raman spectrum includes a third vibrational band in a range of about 1200 cm’1to about 430 cm’1.

[0015] In one or more embodiments, the Raman spectrum includes a fourth vibrational band in a range of about 1200 cm’1to about 430 cm’1.

[0016] In one or more embodiments, the first vibrational band is at about 1200 cm’1.

[0017] In one or more embodiments, the second vibrational band is at about 1050 cm’1.

[0018] In one or more embodiments, the third vibrational band is at about 790 cm’ 1

[0019] In one or more embodiments, the fourth vibrational band is at about 430 cm’1.

[0020] A method for producing hydrogen according to one or more embodiments including performing electrolysis of a hydronium solution, the hydronium solution including: a molecule including oxygen and hydrogen; hydronium ions; hydroxide anions (OH’); and a maximum electrical conductivity of about 450 pMho / cm.BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0021] FIG. 1 shows a schematic diagram of a hydrolysis system according to one or more embodiments of the present disclosure.

[0022] FIG. 2 shows a Raman spectrum of the hydronium solution according to one or more embodiments of the present disclosure.

[0023] FIG. 3 shows a Raman spectrum of water for comparative purposes.

[0024] FIG. 4 is a graph of electrical conductivity measurements of the hydronium solution according to one or more embodiments of the present disclosure.

[0025] FIG. 5 is a graph of electrical conductivity measurements of comparable ionizable acids and salts for comparative purposes.

[0026] FIG. 6 shows a system for measuring an amount of hydrogen produced by the electrolysis of water in a Comparative Example and measuring an amount of hydrogen produced by the electrolysis of hydronium solution in Example 1 .

[0027] FIG. 7 is a graph showing current over time as measured in the Comparative Example.

[0028] FIG. 8 is a graph showing current over time as measured in the Example 1.

[0029] FIG. 9 is a graph showing a comparison of water energy consumption and hydronium solution energy consumption.DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0030] One or more embodiments of the present disclosure may be directed toward a method for producing hydrogen from a solution of a high concentration of hydronium ions. In one or more embodiments, the solution of a high concentration of hydronium ions may be SION HYDTM. Hydrogen has been studied as a source of clean renewable energy due to its high energy density and abundance in nature. However, hydrogen does not typically exist freely in nature and has to be produced using other sources of energy. One method of producing hydrogen includes the hydrolysis of water. The hydrolysis of water involves the use of electricity to separate water molecules into their components hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2). The hydrolysis of water is described in more detail below.

[0031] FIG. 1 shows a schematic diagram of a hydrolysis system according to one or more embodiments of the present disclosures.

[0032] As shown in FIG. 1 , a hydrolysis system 100 may include an anode 105 and a cathode 110. Each of the anode 105 and the cathode 110 is connected (e.g., electrically connected) to a power source 115. Each of the anode 105 and cathode 110 contacts an electrolyte 120 (e.g., an electrolyte solution). An electrical current may be induced by the power source 115 to the anode 105 and to the cathode 110, which may cause a flow of electrons e- from the anode 105 to the cathode 110. The electrical current at the anode 105 may cause a chemical reaction (e.g., an electrochemical reaction) with the molecules of the electrolyte 120 that contact the surface of the anode 105. The electrochemical reaction at the anode 105 may include a transfer of electrons e- from the molecules of the electrolyte 120 to theanode 105 (e.g., an oxidation reaction). The electrical current at the cathode 110 may also cause an electrochemical reaction with the molecules of the electrolyte 120 that contact the surface of the cathode 110. The electrochemical reaction at the cathode 110 may include a transfer of electrons e- from the cathode 110 to molecules of the electrolyte 120 (e.g., a reduction reaction).

[0033] When performing electrolysis of water, the electrolyte 120 in the hydrolysis system 100 of FIG. 1 may include water. The water molecules contacting the surface of the anode 105 may undergo an oxidation reaction. In the oxidation reaction, the water molecules will transfer electrons e- to the anode 105 and yield oxygen molecules (O2) 125 (e.g., gaseous oxygen molecules) and hydrogen cations H+as shown in the chemical reaction below:2H2O -► O2+ 4H++ 4e~

[0034] The hydrogen cations H+produced from the oxidation reaction at the anode 105 may be included in the electrolyte 120 in an aqueous form and may be attracted to the surface of the cathode 110. When the hydrogen cations H+contact the surface of the cathode 110, the hydrogen cations H+can accept electrons e- from the cathode 110 in a reduction reaction. The transfer of electrons e- to the hydrogen cation H+can produce hydrogen molecules (H2) 130 in a gaseous form as shown in the chemical reaction below:4H++ 4e~ 2H2

[0035] While the electrolysis of water can produce hydrogen molecules H2, the process might be inefficient and cost prohibitive. Most electrical power grids are not suitable for producing the electricity used to perform the electrolysis of water to produce the hydrogen molecules. Additionally, the production of the electricity required or desired to perform the electrolysis of water may produce significant emissions that may offset the benefits of using hydrogen as a clean energy source.

[0036] Using a different electrolyte in electrolysis is more efficient at producing hydrogen than water. For example, a solution containing a higher concentration of hydronium ions HsO+(e.g., a hydronium solution) may be used in the electrolyte 120. In one or more embodiments, the solution containing a higher concentration of hydronium ions HsO+may be SION HYDTM. Hydronium ions HsO+are cations that can be produced by the protonation of water. The solution containing a higher concentration of hydronium ions HsO+can yield a higher amount of hydrogen gas when the hydronium ions HsO+are reduced at the cathode 110 as shown in thechemical reaction below:2H3O++ 2e~ -► 3H2+ O2

[0037] Additionally, electrolysis of the hydronium solution can produce hydrogen gas at a faster rate than electrolysis of water. The hydrogen produced by the electrolysis of the hydronium solution can be used as an energy source for powering vehicles, powering homes, powering businesses, as well as various other industries.

[0038] Hydronium ions HsO+can be present in water, but hydronium ions HsO+are highly unstable and are only present in trace amounts in water. Other solutions (e.g., sulfuric acid and hydrochloric acid) may have a higher concentration of hydronium ions HsO -, but these solutions also have a higher concentration of anions (e.g., SO4 and Cl’). The higher concentration of anions produces corrosive effects on most metals, which can be damaging to the metals used for the cathode 110 and anode 105.

[0039] According to one or more embodiments of the present disclosure, a hydronium solution (e.g., a solution of a high concentration of hydronium ions HsO+) may be used in the electrolyte 120 and may have certain properties at ambient temperature (e.g., about 25 °C) and ambient pressure (e.g., 1 atmosphere (atm)) that allow for a higher concentration of hydronium ions when compared to water, but also yield a smaller concentration of anions. In one or more embodiments, the hydronium solution may be SION HYDTM. For example, in one or more embodiments, the hydronium solution may be similar to water and may be a solution including molecules of hydrogen and oxygen (e.g., molecules including or composed of hydrogen and oxygen such as H2O). In one or more embodiments, the hydronium solution may include various molecules containing hydrogen and oxygen (e.g., H2O) and various hydrogen ions (e.g., H+HsO -, OH etc.). In one or more embodiments, the hydronium solution has a pH between about -1 .0 and about 0.5. In one or more embodiment, the hydronium solution has a pH between about -1.0 and about 0.1. When the solution has a pH of about 0, the hydrogen cation H+concentration of the hydronium solution may be about 100% (e.g., about 99% to 100%) and the hydroxide anion OH’ concentration may be about 0 (e.g., about 0 to 1 % or about 1 % or less). For example, the hydroxide anion OH’ may precipitate as a salt and may not be redissolved into the hydronium solution. The near absence of hydroxide ions in the hydronium solution at pH of 0 allows the hydronium solution to be noncorrosive to most metals and non-irritating to human skin. In one or more embodiments, the hydronium solution may maintain a pH of 0 at ambient temperatures and pressure for at least six years. The high stability of the hydronium solution allows thehydronium solution to be stored and transported more easily than other solutions with a pH of about 0. For example, the hydronium solution can be safely stored in plastic, PVC, and / or stainless steel.

[0040] The concentrations of hydronium ions in the hydronium solution may be difficult to measure directly due to the transitory nature of hydronium ions. However, spectroscopy (e.g., Raman Spectroscopy) may be used to determine a higher concentration of hydronium ions in an aqueous solution. For example, when molecules are irradiated by light, most of the light is scattered with the same frequency (Rayleigh scattered light). Some of the light scattered has a different frequency due to molecular vibrations of the molecules. The change in light frequency (Raman scattering) is specific to the vibrations, therefore it can be used to determine the composition of the molecule.

[0041] In one or more embodiments, the hydronium solution may produce a Raman spectrum that includes at least one vibrational band in a range of about 1200 cm-1or less. In one or more embodiments, the hydronium solution may produce a Raman spectrum that includes at least one vibrational band in a range of about 1200 cm-1to about 430 cm-1. In an embodiment, the hydronium solution may produce a Raman spectrum that includes a vibrational band at about 1200 cm-1. In an embodiment, the hydronium solution may produce a Raman spectrum that includes a vibrational band at about 1050 cm-1. In an embodiment, the hydronium solution may produce a Raman spectrum that includes a vibrational band at about 790 cm-1. In an embodiment, the hydronium solution may produce a Raman spectrum that includes a vibrational band at about 430 cm-1.

[0042] Additionally, a specific gravity measurement of a solution may also be used to determine a higher concentration of hydronium ions in an aqueous solution. In one or more embodiments, the hydronium solution may have a specific gravity of about 1 .060 to about 1 .070.

[0043] Additionally, a specific gravity measurement of a solution may also be used to determine a higher concentration of hydronium ions in an aqueous solution. In one or more embodiments, the hydronium solution may have a conductivity (e.g., electrical conductivity) of about 450 pMho / cm.

[0044] Hereinafter, examples of the present disclosure and comparative examples are described. These examples, however, are not in any sense to be interpreted as limiting the scope of the present disclosure.EXAMPLE 1 - SPECTROSCOPY MEASURMENT OF HYDRONIUM SOLUTION

[0045] In Example 1 , a sample of the hydronium solution was prepared. The sample was clear, colorless, and odorless aqueous solution. The sample wasdehydrated and the sample yielded a solid residue consistent of a white power. The solid residue was about 6% by weight of the liquid solution.

[0046] Microscopy of the white power showed some heterogeneity having mostly an amorphous component (e.g., a particle size less than 1 micron) and some crystalline particles of about 2 microns in size.

[0047] The hydronium solution was loaded into quartz capillaries and subjected to Raman spectroscopy. The Nicolet Almega Raman spectrometer used was equipped with a near infrared laser for excitation and operated with resolution of 4 cm’1.

[0048] The results of the Raman spectroscopy on the hydronium solution is provided in FIG. 2. Additionally, a sample of a Raman spectrum of water is provided in FIG. 3 for comparative purposes.

[0049] As shown in FIG. 2 and 3, the Raman spectrum of the hydronium sample shows typical water vibrational bands in the 3000 cm-1 range (e.g., OH stretching vibrations) and 1640 cm-1 (HOH bending motions).

[0050] In addition to the typical water vibrational bands, the Raman spectrum also shows vibrational bands at 1200, 1050, 790, and 430 cm’1. These vibrational bands indicate the presence of protonated water including a higher concentration of hydronium ions. Further, these vibrational bands are rarely observed even in very highly concentrated acids. Accordingly, the hydronium solution has a pH of 0.4 is and very acidic. As such, the hydronium solution has a uniquely high hydronium ion concentration to produce these bands without addition of salts.EXAMPLE 2 - CONDUCTIVITY MEASURMENT OF HYDRONIUM SOLUTION

[0051] A sample of the hydronium solution was prepared. The sample was kept at room temperature for a few weeks. The sample developed a light white precipitate that did not redissolve at room temperature. In that condition the sample was subjected to conductivity measurements using 1 ) a Thermo-Fisher TraceableTMconductivity meter (traceable to National Bureau of Standards), intended for testing low conductivity water samples (0.5% accuracy), and / or 2) a conductivity measurement setup consisting of a pair of platinum electrodes that fed the electrical conductivity signal to a YSI model 31 conductivity AC bridge capable of measuring conductivities in the range 0.2 pMho / cm to 2.5 x 106 pMho / cm with better than 1 % accuracy. Instrument 1 is equipped with a probe consisting of platinum electrodes calibrated to report the conductivity in two scales: scale A) 0.1-199.99 pMho / cm, and scale B) 0.01 -19 Megohm (10- 0.05 pMho). The combination of these two instruments allows measurement in the range 0.1 to 2.5 x 106 pMho / cm, covering both low and high conductivity ranges.

[0052] The hydronium solution showed a relatively high standard conductivity. For example, the conductivity of the hydronium solution exceeded the upper limit of thethermos Fisher water conductivity meter (199 pMho / cm). To obtain conductivity measurements, the hydronium solution was diluted with double distilled water (dd water) that had a basal conductivity of 0.5 pMho / cm. The conductivity measurements were taken at different concentrations of the hydronium solution. The dilution began at starting 50% dilution in dd water of the original sample.

[0053] The results of the conductivity measurements are shown in FIG. 4. The hydronium solution reaches its maximum conductivity at 30% in the dd water solution. Additionally, the values plotted in FIG. 4 are 18 Mho / cm, which is 1 / 25 of the actual value. For example, the actual maximum conductivity reached at 30% in dd water is 450 pMho / cm. The higher conductivity indicates the presence of a solution having a higher concentration of hydronium ions.

[0054] Also, the plot of the hydronium solution in response to dilution is typical of concentrated electrolytes for which ions associate at high concentration forming neutral ion pairs that do not conduct electricity (showing conductivities much lower than those expected from the concentration of dissolved ionic salt). They dissociate as they are diluted reaching a maximum conductivity. Beyond that maximum at a given a threshold dilution factor the system conductivity decreases almost linearly with decreasing concentration of dissolved ionic substance. For example, FIG. 5 shows the typical behavior of ionizable acids and salts with dilution in pure water. Note that below about 5% dissolved substance the conductivity decreases linearly with concentration.COMPARATIVE EXAMPLE - Electrolysis of Water

[0055] A system for measuring an amount of hydrogen produced by the electrolysis of water was prepared as shown in FIG. 6. The measurements were performed using a small hydrogen evolution cell 200 with platinum plated electrodes 205. Three different measurements were performed with water. The cell contains three chambers, the left chamber 210 for the anodic reaction (1 ), the right chamber 220 for the cathodic reaction (2) and the center chamber 230 for a measurement of hydrostatic pressure.Oxygen Evolution (Anode) 4OH~ 2H2O + O2g) + 4e~ (1 )Hydrogen Evolution (Cathode) 2H2O + 2e~ 2OH~ + H2g) (2)

[0056] The center chamber 230 was filled with water which then exerts hydrostatic pressure on the two chambers 210 and 220 on the sides. The valves on the top of the side chambers 210 and 220 were then opened to release some air pressure to allow the water to fill the side chambers 210 and 220 an equal amount.Once an equal amount of water was in both the anodic and cathodic chambers 210 and 220, the valves were closed and the height of the water in the center chamber 230 was measured. The anode and cathode 210 and 220 were then connected to a DC power supply 240 with the positive terminal 250 on the anode 210 and the negative terminal 260 on the cathode 220. A high precision ammeter was connected in series with the power supply 240 and hydrogen cell 200 to measure and record the current draw over time. The power supply 240 was set to 31 .8 volts. The hydrogen evolution reaction was allowed to proceed until the height of the water in the center chamber 230 changed by approximately 1 cm. This height change was then measured and recorded. Using this change in height of the water in the center chamber 230 the pressure of gas produced in the cell 200 can be calculated using the following equations:

[0057] Hydrostatic Pressure: Psoin= pgh (3)Where P is pressure in pascals (Pa) exerted by the water, p is the density of the water in kg / m3, and h is the height of the water in the center chamber 230 in meters.

[0058] Pressure of Gas Produced: PH2+o2= PSoin (4)The pressure of the gas produced is equal to the change in hydrostatic pressure.

[0059] Volume of Gas Produced: VH2+O2+ A7soin(5)The volume of the gas produced is equal to the change in volume of water in the center chamber 230.

[0060] Ideal Gas Law: n = PV / RT (6)The moles of gas produced (n) is equal to the pressure (P) times the volume of gas produced (V) divided by the ideal gas constant (R) and the temperature (T).

[0061] Molar Ratio of Water: nH= - * ntotal(7) 5The moles of hydrogen gas can be calculated using the molar ratio of hydrogen and oxygen in the total produced gas. In water there will be 2 H2 molecules for every 1 O2 molecule.

[0062] Mass of H2: wH2= nH2* 2.002 g / mol (8)

[0063] The mass of hydrogen gas produced will then be calculated by multiplying the moles of hydrogen gas by the molar mass of hydrogen gas.

[0064] The current that was measured by the ammeter was used to calculate the charge used by the electrolysis cell in ampere hours (Ah). This was calculated by multiplying the summation of the current measurements by the time elapsed in hours. After the charge was calculated the total energy used can be determined by the multiplication of the charge by the voltage.EXAMPLE 1 - Electrolysis of Hydronium Solution

[0065] A system for measuring an amount of hydrogen produced by the electrolysis of the hydronium solution was prepared as shown in FIG. 6. Themeasurements were performed using a small hydrogen evolution cell 200 with platinum plated electrodes 205. Three different measurements were performed with the hydronium solution. The cell contains three chambers, the left chamber 210 for the anodic reaction (1), the right chamber 220 for the cathodic reaction (2) and the center chamber 230 for a measurement of hydrostatic pressure.Oxygen Evolution (Anode) 4OH~ 2H2O + O2g) + 4e~ (1 )Hydrogen Evolution (Cathode) 2H2O + 2e~ 2OH~ + H2g) (2)

[0066] The center chamber 230 was filled with the hydronium solution which then exerts hydrostatic pressure on the two chambers 210 and 220 on the sides. The valves on the top of the side chambers 210 and 220 were then opened to release some air pressure to allow the hydronium solution to fill the side chambers 210 and 220 an equal amount. Once an equal amount of the hydronium solution was in both the anodic and cathodic chambers 210 and 220, the valves were closed and the height of the hydronium solution in the center chamber 230 was measured. The anode and cathode chambers 210 and 220 were then connected to a DC power supply 240 with the positive terminal 250 on the anode chamber 210 and the negative terminal 260 on the cathode chamber 220. A high precision ammeter was connected in series with the power supply 240 and hydrogen cell 200 to measure and record the current draw over time. The power supply was set to 31 .8 volts. The hydrogen evolution reaction was allowed to proceed until the height of the hydronium solution in the center chamber 230 changed by approximately 1 cm. This height change was then measured and recorded. Using this change in height of the hydronium solution in the center chamber 230 the pressure of gas produced in the cell can be calculated using the following equations:

[0067] Hydrostatic Pressure: Psoin= pgh (3)Where P is pressure in pascals (Pa) exerted by the hydronium solution, p is the density of the hydronium solution in kg / m3, and h is the height of the hydronium solution in the center chamber 230 in meters.

[0068] Pressure of Gas Produced: PH2+o2= PSoin (4)The pressure of the gas produced is equal to the change in hydrostatic pressure.

[0069] Volume of Gas Produced: VH2+O2+ A7soin(5)The volume of the gas produced is equal to the change in volume of the hydronium solution in the center chamber.

[0070] Ideal Gas Law: n = PV / RT (6)The moles of gas produced (n) is equal to the pressure (P) times the volume of gas produced (V) divided by the ideal gas constant (R) and the temperature (T).3

[0071] Molar Ratio of hydronium solution: nH= - * ntotai(9)The moles of hydrogen gas can be calculated using the molar ratio of hydrogen and oxygen in the total produced gas. In hydronium, there will be 3 H2 molecules for every 1 O2 molecule.

[0072] Mass of H2: wH2= nH2* 2.002 g / mol (8)

[0073] The mass of hydrogen gas produced will then be calculated by multiplying the moles of hydrogen gas by the molar mass of hydrogen gas.

[0074] The current that was measured by the ammeter was used to calculate the charge used by the electrolysis cell in ampere hours (Ah). This was calculated by multiplying the summation of the current measurements by the time elapsed in hours. After the charge was calculated the total energy used can be determined by the multiplication of the charge by the voltage.

[0075] For all calculated results the temperature was about 75 degrees F (297 K) and the Ideal gas constant was about 8.314.

[0076] When using water in the Comparative Example, the reaction took place over a period of about 1 .5 hours before the water level in the center chamber rose approximately 1 cm. Due to the higher resistivity of water, the average current during this time was found to be low averaging around 7 mA. The current would increase linearly over time as the solution ionized, but it leveled out at approximately 9 mA. The current over time can be seen in FIG. 7. The calculated results of the test are in Tables 1 & 2 below.Table 1 : Energy Consumption of Water ElectrolysisTable 2: Amount of H2Generated with Water

[0077] When using the hydronium solution in Example 1 , the reaction took place over a period of 20 seconds before there was no more hydronium solution in thecathodic chamber 220. Due to the low resistivity of hydronium the average current during this time was found to be much higher than water averaging around 3.5 A. The current over time can be seen in FIG. 8. The current drops quickly after 15 seconds due to the low amount of hydronium left in the cathodic chamber 220. The calculated results of the test are in Tables 3 & 4 below.Table 3: Energy Consumption of Hydronium Solution ElectrolysisTable 4: Amount of H2Generated with Hydronium Solution

[0078] The hydronium solution performed significantly better than the water during these tests. The hydronium used nearly half of the amount of energy as the water to make one kg of hydrogen. FIG. 9 shows a comparison of the water energy consumption and the hydronium solution energy consumption.

[0079] The utilization of “may” when describing embodiments of the present disclosure refers to “one or more embodiments of the present disclosure."

[0080] As utilized herein, the terms “substantially,” “about,” or similar terms are used as terms of approximation and not as terms of degree, and are intended to account for the inherent deviations in measured or calculated values that would be recognized by those of ordinary skill in the art. “About” as used herein, is inclusive of the stated value and means within an acceptable range of deviation for the particular value as determined by one of ordinary skill in the art, considering the measurement in question and the error associated with measurement of the particular quantity (i.e. , the limitations of the measurement system). For example, “about” may mean within one or more standard deviations, or within ± 30%, 20%, 10%, or 5% of the stated value.

[0081] In the context of the present application and unless otherwise defined, the terms "use," "using," and "used" may be considered synonymous with the terms "utilize," "utilizing," and "utilized," respectively.

[0082] Any numerical range recited herein is intended to include all sub-ranges of the same numerical precision subsumed within the recited range. For example, a range of “1.0 to 10.0” is intended to include all subranges between (and including) the recited minimum value of 1.0 and the recited maximum value of 10.0, that is, having a minimum value equal to or greater than 1 .0 and a maximum value equal to or less than 10.0, such as, for example, 2.4 to 7.6. Any maximum numerical limitation recited herein is intended to include all lower numerical limitations subsumed therein and any minimum numerical limitation recited in this specification is intended to include all higher numerical limitations subsumed therein. Accordingly, Applicant reserves the right to amend this specification, including the claims, to expressly recite any sub-range subsumed within the ranges expressly recited herein.

[0083] A person of ordinary skill in the art, in view of the present disclosure in its entirety, would appreciate that each suitable feature of the various embodiments of the present disclosure may be combined or combined with each other, partially or entirely, and may be technically interlocked and operated in various suitable ways, and each embodiment may be implemented independently of each other or in conjunction with each other in any suitable manner unless otherwise stated or implied.

[0084] Although one or more embodiments of the present disclosure have been described in more detail above, the scope of the present disclosure is not limited thereto, and one or more suitable modifications and improvements made by those skilled in the art using the basic concepts of the present disclosure defined in the following claims and equivalents thereof also fall within the scope of the present disclosure.EXAMPLE 2 - Electrolysis of Hydronium Solution

[0085] A system for measuring an amount of hydrogen produced by the electrolysis of the hydronium solution and an amount of hydrogen produced by the electrolysis of a potassium hydroxide solution was prepared. The potassium hydroxide solution included a mixture of deionized water (DI water) and potassium hydroxide (KOH) mixed in a ratio of 20 g of KOH per 100mL of DI water (20% KOH / DI solution). The system included Matrix WPS300S-80-10 DC Power Supply connected to Hofmann Apparatus fitted with platinum electrodes, a digital clock, a watt meter, and video cameras to capture and confirm data from Hofmann Apparatus and all metering.

[0086] Multiple trials with both KOH / DI solution and hydronium solution were performed in comparative analysis. The trials determined the amount of power (watt minutes) that was used to produce 40 mL of hydrogen gas at fixed voltages or fixed current values. The efficiency of the electrolysis of the hydronium solution were compared to the efficiency of the electrolysis of the KOH / DI solution.

[0087] The first set of trials were controlled for voltage. Duplicate trials were conducted for the following voltages:20% KOH / DI solution @ 9V100% Sion water @ 9V20% KOH / DI solution @ 7.5V100% Sion water @ 7.5V

[0088] In practice, the power supply unit was generally outputting 0.003 volts lower than the setting. These values are reflected in the results in Table 5.

[0089] The second set of trials were controlled for current (amps). Duplicate trials were conducted for the following currents:20% KOH / DI solution @ 0.1800 amps100% Sion water @ 0.1800 amps20% KOH / DI solution @ 0.1280 amps100% Sion water @ 0.1280 amps

[0090] Data were logged every 60 seconds for hydrogen volume produced by the electrolysis (in tenths of mL) and either voltage or current depending on the trial. Power in watts was calculated in a spreadsheet and verified with video evidence. Ambient and solution temperatures were recorded at the beginning of each trial and every 10 minutes during each trial.

[0091] Final time was recorded upon reaching 40 mL hydrogen produced by the electrolysis of the hydronium solution and the KOH / DI solution, and used to compute Watt-minutes consumed for each trial. The results are provided in Table 5.Table 5Average efficiency gained in Constant Current trials 3.18%

[0092] As shown in the results in Table 5, the production of hydrogen from the electrolysis of Sion Water was shown to be 1 .55% more efficient than the production of hydrogen from the electrolysis of 20% potassium hydroxide solution of DI water in the voltage-controlled trials and 3.18% more efficient in the current-controlled trials.

Claims

WHAT IS CLAIMED IS:1 . A method for producing hydrogen comprising: performing electrolysis of a hydronium solution, the hydronium solution comprising: a molecule comprising hydrogen and oxygen; hydronium ions; hydroxide anions (OH-); a pH between -1 .0 and 0.5; and a hydroxide anion OH’ concentration of about 1 % or less, wherein the hydronium solution is configured to maintain the same pH and the same hydroxide anion OH’ concentration for at least six years.

2. The method of claim 1 , wherein the hydronium solution comprises a specific gravity in a range of about 1 .060 to about 1 .0703. The method of claim 1 , wherein the pH is 0.

44. The method of claim 1 , wherein the pH is 0.

5. The method of claim 1 , wherein the hydroxide anion (OH’) is 0.

6. A method for producing hydrogen comprising: performing electrolysis of a hydronium solution, the hydronium solution comprising: a molecule comprising oxygen and hydrogen; hydronium ions; hydroxide anions (OH’); and a Raman spectrum comprising at least one vibrational band in a range of about 1200 cm’1or less.

7. The method of claim 1 , wherein the Raman spectrum comprises a first vibrational band in a range of about 1200 cm’1to about 430 cm’1.

8. The method of claim 7, wherein the Raman spectrum comprises a second vibrational band in a range of about 1200 cm’1to about 430 cm’1.

9. The method of claim 8, wherein the Raman spectrum comprises a third vibrational band in a range of about 1200 cm’1to about 430 cm’1.

10. The method of claim 9, wherein the Raman spectrum comprises a fourth vibrational band in a range of about 1200 cm-1to about 430 cm-1.11 . The method of claim 10, wherein the first vibrational band is at about 1200 cm-1.

12. The method of claim 10, wherein the second vibrational band is at about 1050 cm’1.

13. The method of claim 10, wherein the third vibrational band is at about 790 cm’1.

14. The method of claim 10, wherein the fourth vibrational band is at about 430 cm’1.

15. A method for producing hydrogen comprising: performing electrolysis of a hydronium solution, the hydronium solution comprising: a molecule comprising oxygen and hydrogen; hydronium ions; hydroxide anions (OH-); and a maximum electrical conductivity of about 450 pMho / cm.

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