Magnetohydrodynamic generator

Abstract

A generator for providing at least one of electrical power and thermal power.SOLUTION: 1) a molten metal injection system comprising 1) a reactor cell for the catalysis of atomic hydrogen to form hydrinos, 2) a reactant mixture comprising at least two components selected from H2O catalysts or sources of H2O catalysts, atomic hydrogen or sources of atomic hydrogen, H2O catalysts or sources of H2O catalysts, reactants that form atomic hydrogen or sources of atomic hydrogen, and a molten metal that renders the reactant mixture highly conductive, 3) at least one pump, such as an electromagnetic pump, and a reservoir, and 4) supplying low voltage, high current electrical energy to ignite a plasma; An ignition system including a power source to initiate rapid reaction rates and provide energy gain, 5) a source of H2 and O2 to feed the plasma, 6) a molten metal recovery system, and 7) a power converter to (a) convert high power light into electricity or (b) convert energetic plasma into electricity.SELECTED DRAWING: None

Description

[Technical Field]

[0001] REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62 / 594,936, filed December 29, 2017; U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62 / 618,444, filed January 17, 2018; U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62 / 630,755, filed February 14, 2018; U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62 / 644,392, filed March 17, 2018; U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62 / 652,283, filed April 3, 2018; U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62 / 688,999, filed June 22, 2018; This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62 / 698,025, filed July 14, 2018, U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62 / 714,732, filed August 5, 2018, U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62 / 728,716, filed September 7, 2018, U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62 / 738,966, filed September 28, 2018, and U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62 / 769,483, filed October 22, 2018, all of which are incorporated herein by reference. [Background technology]

[0002] The present disclosure relates to the field of power generation, particularly to power generation systems, devices, and methods. More specifically, embodiments of the present disclosure relate to power generation devices and systems that generate photovoltaic, plasma, and thermoelectric power and generate electrical power via magnetohydrodynamic power converters, as well as related methods, photovoltaic, plasmavoltaic, photonvoltaic, or thermovoltaic converters. Additionally, embodiments of the present disclosure describe systems, devices, and methods that use photovoltaic converters to generate photovoltaic, mechanical, electrical, and / or thermoelectric power through ignition of water or a water-based fuel source. These and other related embodiments are described in detail in the present disclosure.

[0003] Electricity generation can take many forms and utilize the power generation of plasmas, and successful commercialization of plasmas can depend on power generation systems that can efficiently generate plasmas and capture the energy output from the generated plasmas.

[0004] Plasma may be formed during ignition of certain fuels. These fuels may include water or water-based fuel sources. During ignition, a plasma cloud of atoms with electrons stripped from them may form, releasing a high photovoltage. The high photovoltage of the plasma may be harnessed by the power converter of the present disclosure. Ions and excited-state atoms may recombine and undergo electron relaxation, releasing high-intensity light. The high-intensity light may be converted to electricity using photovoltaic technology.

[0005] Certain embodiments of the present disclosure relate to a power generation system that includes a plurality of electrodes, such as solid or molten metal electrodes, configured to supply power to a fuel to ignite the fuel and generate a plasma, a power source configured to deliver electrical energy to the plurality of electrodes, and at least one magnetohydrodynamic converter positioned to receive the high temperature, high pressure plasma or at least one photovoltaic (PV) converter positioned to receive at least a plurality of plasma photons.

[0006] In one embodiment, a SunCell® power generation system for generating at least one of electrical and thermal energy includes at least one vessel capable of maintaining a pressure below, equal to, or above atmospheric pressure and reactants including: (i) at least one catalyst source or catalyst including nascent HO; (ii) at least one HO source or HO; (iii) at least one atomic hydrogen source or atomic hydrogen; and (iv) molten metal. The power generation system includes a molten metal injection system including at least one reservoir for receiving a portion of the molten metal, a molten metal pump connected to an injection pipe for providing the molten metal flow, and at least one non-injector reservoir for receiving the molten metal flow, at least one ignition system including a power source for supplying power to the at least one flow of molten metal to ignite a plasma, at least one reactant supply system for replenishing reactants consumed in the reaction to generate at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy, and at least one power converter or output system for converting at least one of light and thermal energy output into at least one of electrical power and / or thermal energy. The power generation system may further include a heater for melting the metal and containing the molten metal, and a molten metal recovery system, wherein the molten metal recovery system may include at least one molten metal overflow conduit from the non-injector vessel to the injector system vessel for stopping molten metal overflow and interrupting a current path through which the overflowing molten metal passes. The molten metal recovery system may include a non-injector reservoir having an inlet for receiving molten metal from the injector tube of the injector system at an elevation above the injector tube, and may further include a drip edge for dividing the overflow. The inlet of the non-injector reservoir may be in a plane, and the plane may be oriented perpendicular to the initial direction of molten metal flow from the injector tube. The non-injector reservoir and the injector tube of the injector system may both be oriented along an axis at an angle greater than zero from a horizontal axis that is transverse to the Earth's gravitational axis, such as an angle between about 25° and 90° from horizontal.The injector reservoir may include an electrode in contact with the molten metal therein, and the non-injector reservoir may include an electrode in contact with the molten metal provided by the injector system. The ignition system may include a power supply that supplies opposite voltages to the electrodes of the injector and non-injector reservoirs and supplies current and power to the molten metal stream to form a plasma within the vessel through the reaction of reactants, thereby providing current and power through the molten metal stream and causing the reactants to react and form a plasma within the vessel. The power supply may deliver electrical energy at a high current sufficient to cause the reactants to react and form a plasma. The power supply may include at least one supercapacitor. Each electromagnetic pump may be of either (i) a DC or AC conduction type including a DC or AC current source supplied to the molten metal via the electrode and a constant or in-phase AC vector cross magnetic field source, or (ii) an induction type including an AC magnetic field source and a in-phase vector cross AC magnetic field through a short-circuit loop of the molten metal to induce an AC current in the metal. The current from the molten metal ignition system power supply may be in the range of 10 A to 50,000 A. The circuit of the molten metal ignition system may be closed by the molten metal flow to further generate an ignition frequency within a range of 0 Hz to 10,000 Hz upon ignition. The molten metal may include (i) silver, silver-copper alloys, and copper, (ii) a metal with a melting point less than 700°C, and (iii) at least one of bismuth, lead, tin, indium, cadmium, preferably gallium, antimony, or an alloy thereof, such as rose metal, Celosafe, Wood's metal, Field metal, Celo-136, Celo-117, Bi-Pb-Sn-Cd-In-Tl, and Galinstan. The power generation system may further include a vacuum pump and at least one heat exchanger. The at least one vessel may include boron nitride. The reactants may include a vessel gas including at least one of hydrogen, oxygen, and water, and the vessel gas may further include an inert gas. The power generation system may further comprise a reactant supply and an inert gas supply, the supplies maintaining the vessel gas at a pressure within the range of 0.01 Torr to 200 atmospheres.The at least one power converter or power generation system of the reaction output may comprise at least one of the group consisting of a thermophotovoltaic converter, a photovoltaic converter, a photoelectric converter, a magnetohydrodynamic converter, a plasmadynamic converter, a thermionic converter, a thermoelectric converter, a Stirling engine, a supercritical CO2 cycle converter, a Brayton cycle converter, an external combustion Brayton cycle engine or converter, a Rankine cycle engine or converter, an organic Rankine cycle converter, an internal combustion engine, as well as a heat engine, a heater, and a boiler. The vessel may comprise an optically transparent photovoltaic (PV) window for transmitting light from an interior of the vessel to the photovoltaic converter, at least one vessel shape, and at least one baffle for creating a pressure gradient to at least partially prevent molten metal from coating the PV window, wherein the vessel shape may have a cross-sectional area that decreases toward the PV window. The PV converter may comprise a concentrator solar cell, which may be made of crystalline silicon, germanium, gallium arsenide (GaAs), indium gallium (InGaAs), indium gallium arsenide antimonide (InGaAsSb), indium arsenide antimonide phosphide (InPAsSb), InGaP / InGaAs / Ge, InAlGaP / AlGaAs / GaInNAsSb / Ge, GaInP / GaAsP / SiGe, GaInP / GaAsP / Si, GaInP / GaAsP / G The magnetohydrodynamic power converter may include at least one compound selected from the group consisting of a reaction vessel, GaInP / GaAsP / Si / SiGe, GaInP / GaAs / InGaAs, GaInP / GaAs / GaInNAs, GaInP / GaAs / InGaAs / InGaAs, GaInP / Ga(In)As / InGaAs, GaInP-GaAs-wafer-InGaAs, GaInP-Ga(In)As-Ge, GaInP-GaInAs-Ge, III-nitrides, GaN, AlN, GaAlN, and InGaN. The magnetohydrodynamic power converter may include a nozzle connected to the reaction vessel, a magnetohydrodynamic channel, electrodes, magnets, a metal collection system, a metal recirculation system, a heat exchanger, and optionally a gas recirculation system.In one embodiment, at least one component of the power generation system includes at least one of a ceramic, such as at least one of a metal oxide, alumina, zirconia, magnesia, hafnia, silicon carbide, zirconium carbide, zirconium diboride, and silicon nitride; a glass ceramic, such as a LiOxAlOxnSiO system (LAS system), a MgOxAlOxnSiO system (MAS system), or a ZnOxAlOxnSiO system (ZAS system); and a metal, such as at least one of a stainless steel and a high-melting-point metal. In one embodiment, the molten metal of the power generation system includes silver, and the magneto-fluidic converter further includes an oxygen source to form silver nanoparticles and an energy source to accelerate the nanoparticles through the magneto-fluidic nozzle and generate kinetic energy within the vessel. A reactant supply system may also provide and control the oxygen source to form the silver nanoparticles. In an embodiment of the magnetohydrodynamic power converter, at least a portion of the kinetic energy stored in the silver nanoparticles is converted to electrical energy in the magnetohydrodynamic channel, the nanoparticles coalesce as molten metal in the metal collection system, the molten metal at least partially absorbs oxygen, the metal containing the absorbed oxygen is returned to the injector reservoir by the metal recirculation system, and the oxygen is released by a plasma in the vessel, where a plasma is maintained in the magnetohydrodynamic channel and the metal collection system to promote the absorption of oxygen by the molten metal. The electromagnetic pump may comprise a two-stage pump, including a first stage including the pump of the metal recirculation system and a second stage including the pump of the metal injector system. In one embodiment, the hydrogen product formed by the reaction of atomic hydrogen with the catalyst in the power generation system has a Raman peak at approximately 1900-2000 cm. -1 and hydrogen products having multiple Raman peaks spaced at intervals of an integer multiple of about 0.23 to 0.25 eV, and hydrogen products having a peak at about 1900 to 2000 cm -1a hydrogen product having an infrared peak at about 5000±20,000 cm; a hydrogen product having a plurality of infrared peaks spaced at intervals of an integer multiple of about 0.23 to 0.25 eV; a hydrogen product having a plurality of UV fluorescence emission spectral peaks in the range of about 200 to 300 nm spaced at intervals of an integer multiple of about 0.23 to 0.3 eV; a hydrogen product having a plurality of electron beam emission spectral peaks in the range of about 200 to 300 nm spaced at intervals of an integer multiple of about 0.2 to 0.3 eV; -1 and has multiple Raman spectral peaks in the range of about 1000±200 cm -1 hydrogen products with X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy peaks at energies in the range of approximately 490-525 eV; hydrogen products that cause high-field MAS NMR matrix shifts; hydrogen products with high-field MAS NMR or liquid NMR shifts greater than approximately -5 ppm relative to TMS; and hydrogen products that are macrocondensates or polymeric H. n (n is an integer greater than 3) and macrocondensates or polymeric H with time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) peaks at approximately 16.12–16.13. n (n is an integer greater than 3), and a hydrogen product comprising a metal hydride wherein the metal comprises at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, and W; and H 16 and H 24 and an inorganic compound M x X y and H2, wherein M is a cation, X is an anion, and M(M x X y and a hydrogen product having at least one peak in electrospray ionization time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ESI-ToF) and time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) of K(KHCO), where n is an integer. + n and K(KOHH2) + nand a hydrogen product comprising at least one of K2CO3H2 and KOHH2, which have at least one of the peaks in electrospray ionization time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ESI-ToF) and time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS), respectively, of: and a magnetic hydrogen product comprising a metal hydride, wherein the metal comprises at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, W, and a diamagnetic metal, and a metal hydride, wherein the metal comprises Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, W, and a diamagnetic metal, which are identified by magnetic susceptibility measurement. a hydrogen product containing at least one diamagnetic metal that exhibits magnetism; a hydrogen product containing a metal that is inactive by electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy and whose EPR spectrum includes at least one of a very high g-factor, a very low g-factor, an anomalous linewidth, and proton splitting; a hydrogen product containing a hydrogen molecular dimer whose EPR spectrum shows at least one peak at about 2800-3100 G and a ΔH of about 10 G-500 G; a hydrogen product containing a gas having a negative gas chromatography peak containing a hydrogen carrier; and a hydrogen product containing a hydrogen carrier having at least one diamagnetic metal that exhibits magnetism;

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[0007] In one embodiment, a SunCell® power generation system for generating at least one of electrical and thermal energy includes at least one vessel containing reactants (i) at least one source of catalyst or catalyst including nascent HO, (ii) HO or at least one source of HO, (iii) atomic hydrogen or at least one source of atomic hydrogen, and (iv) molten metal, the vessel being capable of maintaining a pressure below, equal to, or above atmospheric pressure; a molten metal injection system comprising at least two molten metal reservoirs each equipped with a pump and an injector tube; at least one reactant supply system for replenishing reactants consumed in the reaction of the reactants to generate at least one of electrical and thermal energy; a power supply providing opposing voltages to the at least two molten metal reservoirs each equipped with an electromagnetic pump; and at least one ignition system including at least one power converter or output system for light energy output and / or thermal energy output.

[0008] The molten metal injection system may include at least two molten metal reservoirs, each reservoir including an electromagnetic pump for injecting intersecting molten metal streams inside the vessel, and a molten metal level controller, the reservoirs including an inlet riser pipe. The ignition system may include a power supply providing opposite voltages to at least two molten metal reservoirs, each including an electromagnetic pump providing a current and a power flow to the intersecting molten metal streams, to induce a reaction of reactants, including ignition, to form a plasma inside the vessel. The ignition system may include (i) a power supply providing opposite voltages to at least two molten metal reservoirs with electromagnetic pumps, and (ii) at least two intersecting streams of molten metal discharged from the at least two molten metal reservoirs, each including an electromagnetic pump, the power supply capable of providing short bursts of high-current electrical energy sufficient to react the reactants and form a plasma. The power supply providing short bursts of high-current electrical energy sufficient to react the reactants and form a plasma may include at least one supercapacitor. Each electromagnetic pump may be of one of the following types: (i) a DC or AC conduction type including a DC or AC current source supplied to the molten metal via an electrode and a source of a constant or in-phase AC vector cross magnetic field; or (ii) an induction type including an AC magnetic field source through a short-circuited loop of molten metal that induces an AC current in the metal and a in-phase vector cross AC magnetic field. At least one coupling between the pump and a corresponding reservoir, or another coupling between components including the vessel, injection system, and transducer, may include at least one of a wet seal, a flange and gasket seal, an adhesive seal, and a slip nut seal, where the gasket may comprise carbon. The DC or AC current of the molten metal ignition system may range from 10 A to 50,000 A. A power source for providing short bursts of high-current electrical energy may include: the voltage being selected to induce high AC, DC, or mixed AC-DC currents in at least one of the following ranges: 100 A to 1,000,000 A, 1 kA to 100,000 A, and 10 kA to 50 kA; 100A / cm 2 ~1,000,000A / cm 2, 1000A / cm 2 ~100,000A / cm 2 , and 2000A / cm 2 ~50,000A / cm 2 a DC or peak AC current density within at least one of the ranges The voltage is determined by the conductivity of the solid fuel, or the voltage is given by the desired current multiplied by the resistance of the solid fuel sample; DC or peak AC voltage within at least one of the following ranges: 0.1V to 500kV, 0.1V to 100kV, and 1V to 50kV; and The AC frequency may be within at least one of the ranges of 0.1 Hz to 10 GHz, 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 10 Hz to 100 kHz, and 100 Hz to 10 kHz.

[0009] The circuit of the molten metal ignition system is closed by the intersection of the molten metal flow, so that ignition further causes an ignition frequency in the range of 0 Hz to 10,000 Hz. The induction-type electromagnetic pump may include a ceramic channel that forms a short-circuit loop of the molten metal. The power generation system may further include a heater, such as an induction-coupled heater, to form the molten metal from the corresponding solid metal, and the molten metal may include at least one of silver, a silver-copper alloy, and copper. The power generation system may further include a vacuum pump and at least one cooling device. The power generation system may also include a vessel with walls that can provide flow for the melt under gravity, an electrode electromagnetic pump, and a system for recovering the reactant product, such as at least one in a tank. The power generation system may include a system for recovering the reactant products, such as at least one of a vessel with walls capable of providing gravity-force flow to the melt, an electrode electromagnetic pump, and a reservoir in communication with the vessel. The vessel may further include a cooling system for maintaining the reservoir at a lower temperature than other portions of the vessel to condense metal vapor from the molten metal within the reservoir, where condensation maintains pressure within the vessel. The recovery system including the electrode electromagnetic pump may include at least one magnet for providing a magnetic field and a vector crossover current component. The power generation system may include at least one power converter or power generation system for the reaction energy output, such as at least one of the group consisting of a thermophotovoltaic converter, a photovoltaic converter, a photoelectric converter, a magnetohydrodynamic converter, a plasmadynamic converter, a thermionic converter, a thermoelectric converter, a Stirling engine, a Brayton cycle engine, a Rankine cycle engine, a heat engine, a heater, and a boiler. The boiler may include a radiant boiler. A portion of the reaction vessel may include a blackbody radiator capable of maintaining a temperature within the range of 1000 K to 3700 K. The power generation system reservoir may comprise boron nitride, the portion of the vessel containing the blackbody radiator may comprise carbon, and the electromagnetic pump components in contact with the molten metal may comprise an oxidation-resistant metal or ceramic. The hydrino reactants may comprise at least one of methane, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, oxygen, and water. The reactant feeds may maintain each of the methane, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, oxygen, and water at a pressure within a range of 0.01 Torr to 1 Torr.The light emitted by the blackbody radiator of the power generation system directed towards the thermophotovoltaic or photovoltaic converter may be blackbody radiation, mainly including visible light and near-infrared light, and further, the solar cell may be a concentrator cell, which may be made of crystalline silicon, germanium, gallium arsenide (GaAs), gallium antimony (GaSb), indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs), indium gallium arsenide antimony (InGaAsSb), antimony arsenide phosphide (InPAsSb), InGaP / InGaAs / Ge, InAlGaP / AlGaAs / The photovoltaic converter may include at least one compound selected from GaInNAsSb / Ge, GaInP / GaAsP / SiGe, GaInP / GaAsP / Si, GaInP / GaAsP / Ge, GaInP / GaAsP / Si / SiGe, GaInP / GaAs / InGaAs, GaInP / GaAs / GaInNAs, GaInP / GaAs / InGaAs / InGaAs, GaInP / Ga(In)As / InGaAs, GaInP-GaAs-wafer-InGaAs, GaInP-Ga(In)As-Ge, and GaInP-GaInAs-Ge. The light emitted by the reactive plasma and directed to the thermophotovoltaic or photovoltaic converter may be primarily ultraviolet light, and the solar cell may be a photoconcentrator cell including at least one compound selected from III-nitrides, GaN, AlN, GaAlN, and InGaN. The thermophotovoltaic converter may convert low temperature blackbody radiation (BBR), such as BBR from a radiator such as 5b4, within a temperature range of approximately 1500 K to 2500 K. The corresponding PV cell may contain bismuth.

[0010] In one embodiment, the PV converter may further include a UV window to the PV cell. The PV window may replace at least a portion of the blackbody radiator. The window may be substantially transparent to UV light. The window may be resistant to wetting by molten metal. The window may operate at temperatures above the melting point of the molten metal and / or above the boiling point of the molten metal. Exemplary windows are sapphire, quartz, MgF2, and fused silica. The window may be cooled and may include a means for cleaning during operation or maintenance. The SunCell® may further include a source of at least one of an electric field and a magnetic field to confine the plasma to a region that avoids contact with the window and / or the PV cell. The source may include an electrostatic precipitation system. The source may include a magnetic confinement system. The plasma may be confined by gravity, with the window and / or the PV cell at an appropriate height centered on the plasma generation location.

[0011] Alternatively, the magnetohydrodynamic power converter may include a nozzle connected to the reaction vessel, a magnetohydrodynamic channel, electrodes, magnets, a metal collection system, a metal recirculation system, a heat exchanger, and optionally a gas recirculation system, and the reactants may include at least one of HO vapor, oxygen gas, and hydrogen gas. The reactant supplies may maintain each of the O, H, and reaction product HO at a pressure within a range of 0.01 Torr to 1 Torr. The reactant supply system, which replenishes reactants consumed in the reaction of the reactants to generate at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy, may include at least one of O and H gas supplies, a gas housing, a selective gas permeable membrane in a wall of at least one of the reaction vessel, the magnetohydrodynamic channel, the metal collection system, and the metal recirculation system, O, H, and HO partial pressure sensors, a flow controller, at least one valve, and a computer for maintaining at least one of the O and H pressures. In one embodiment, at least one component of the power generation system may include a ceramic, which may include at least one of metal oxides, alumina, zirconia, magnesia, hafnia, silicon carbide, zirconium carbide, zirconium diboride, silicon nitride, and glass-ceramics such as Li2OxAl2O3xnSiO2-based (LAS-based), MgOxAl2O3xnSiO2-based (MAS-based), and ZnOxAl2O3xnSiO2-based (ZAS-based). The molten metal may include silver, and the MHD converter may further include a source of oxygen to form an aerosol of silver particles that is supplied to at least one of the reservoir, the reaction vessel, the MHD nozzle, and the MHD channel, and the reactant supply system may further provide and control the oxygen source to form the silver aerosol. The molten metal may include silver. The MHD converter may further include a cell gas comprising an ambient gas in contact with the silver in at least one of the reservoir and the vessel. The power generation system may further comprise means for maintaining a cell gas flow in contact with the melt gas to form the silver aerosol, and the cell gas flow may comprise at least one of a forced gas flow and a convective gas flow. The cell gas may comprise at least one of a noble gas, oxygen, water vapor, H2, and O2.The means for maintaining the cell gas flow rate may include at least one of a gas pump or compressor, such as a magnetohydrodynamic gas pump or compressor, an electromagnetic fluidic converter, and turbulence caused by at least one of a molten metal injection system and a plasma.

[0012] The induction-type electromagnetic pump of the power generation system may be configured as a two-stage pump, including a first stage including a pump for the metal recirculation system and a second stage including a pump for the metal injection system, which injects the molten metal flow across the rest of the vessel. The power source for the ignition system may include an induction ignition system, which may include an AC magnetic field source passing through a short-circuited loop of molten metal to generate an AC current in the metal containing the ignition current. The AC magnetic field source may include a primary transformer winding including a transformer electromagnet and a transformer magnetic yoke. Further, the silver may function at least in part as a secondary transformer winding, such as a single-turn short-circuited winding, surrounding the primary transformer winding and configuring the induction current loop. The reservoirs may include a molten metal cross-connect channel connecting the two reservoirs such that the current loop surrounds the transformer yoke. Here, the induction current loop includes current generated in the molten silver contained in the reservoir, the cross-connect channel, the silver in the injector tube and the injector tube, and the injection flow of molten silver that crosses to complete the induction current loop.

[0013] In one embodiment, the emitter generates at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy and includes at least one vessel capable of maintaining a pressure below, at, or above atmospheric pressure, and reactants comprising: (a) at least one catalyst or source of catalyst including nascent HO; (b) HO or at least one source of HO; (c) at least one source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen capable of permeating the vessel wall; (d) molten metal, such as silver, copper, or a silver-copper alloy; and (e) CO, BO, LiVO, and H. a reactant ignition system including at least one molten metal reservoir and an electromagnetic pump; at least one reactant ignition system including a power source for causing the reactants to form at least one of a light emitting source and a thermally radiating plasma, the power source receiving power from an electricity generating converter; a system for recovering the molten metal and the oxide; and at least one energy output converter or output system for at least one of light and heat output to electrical and / or thermal energy output, wherein the molten metal ignition system includes: (a) at least one set of refractory metal or carbon electrodes for confining the molten metal; (b) high melting point metal or carbon electrodes and molten metal streams supplied by the electromagnetic pump from an electrically insulated molten metal reservoir; and (c) electrodes from at least two sets of molten metal streams supplied by the at least two electromagnetic pumps from a plurality of electrically isolated molten metal reservoirs; and (ii) high current electrical energy sufficient to react the reactants to form a plasma, wherein the current of the molten metal AC, DC, or AC-DC mixture ignition system is in the range of 50 A to 50,000 A. the molten metal injection system includes an electromagnetic pump including at least one magnet that supplies a magnetic field and an electric current to provide a vector cross current component, the molten metal reservoir includes an inductively coupled heater, and the emitter further includes a system for collecting the molten metal and oxides, such as at least one of a vessel including a wall capable of providing flow for the melt under gravity, and a reservoir in communication with the vessel, and further includes a cooling system that maintains the reservoir at a lower temperature than the vessel to collect the metal in the reservoir;wherein the vessel is capable of maintaining a pressure below atmospheric pressure, above atmospheric pressure, or above atmospheric pressure, and the vessel comprises an inner reaction cell including a high-temperature blackbody radiator, and an outer chamber capable of maintaining a pressure below atmospheric pressure, above atmospheric pressure, or above atmospheric pressure, wherein the blackbody radiator is maintained at a temperature in the range of 1000 K to 3700 K, wherein the inner reaction cell including the blackbody radiator comprises a refractory material such as carbon or W, wherein blackbody radiation emitted from the exterior of the cell is incident on a light-to-electrical power converter, wherein at least one power converter of the reaction energy output comprises at least one of a thermophotovoltaic converter and a photovoltaic converter, wherein the light emitted from the cell is blackbody radiation comprising primarily visible light and near-infrared light, and wherein the solar cell is made of crystalline silicon, germanium, gallium arsenide (InGaAs), indium gallium arsenide (InGaAsSb), or indium gallium arsenide antimonide (InGaAsSb). ), and indium arsenic antimonide phosphide (InPAsSb), III / V semiconductors, at least one compound selected from InGaP / InGaAs / Ge, InAlGaP / AlGaAs / GaInNAsSb / Ge, GaInP / GaAsP / SiGe, GaInP / GaAsP / Si, GaInP / GaAsP / Ge, GaInP / GaAsP / Si / SiGe, GaInP / GaAs / InGaAs, GaInP / GaAs / GaInNAs, GaInP / GaAs / InGaAs / InGaAs, GaInP / Ga(In)As / InGaAs, GaInP-GaAs-wafer-InGaAs, GaInP-Ga(In)As-Ge, and GaInP-GaInAs-Ge, and further, the power generation system further comprises a vacuum pump and at least one heat removal system, and the blackbody radiator further comprises a blackbody temperature sensor and a controller. Optionally, the emitter may include at least one additional reactant injection system, the additional reactants including: (a) at least one catalyst or source of catalyst including nascent HO; (b) at least one source of HO or HO; and (c) at least one source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen. The additional reactant injection system may include a computer, HO and H pressure sensors,The system may further include at least one flow controller, including at least one or more of a mass flow controller, a pump, a syringe pump, and a high-precision electronically controllable valve, including at least one of a needle valve, a proportional electronic valve, and a stepper motor valve, wherein the valve is controlled by a pressure sensor, and a computer maintains at least one of the HO and H pressures at a desired value, wherein an additional reactant injection system maintains the HO vapor pressure within a range of 0.1 Torr to 1 Torr. [Brief explanation of the drawings]

[0014] BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated in and constitute a part of this specification, illustrate several embodiments of the present disclosure and, together with the description, serve to explain the principles of the disclosure. [Figure 1] FIG. 1 (formerly FIG. 2I161) is a schematic diagram of a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) converter component of a cathode, anode, insulator, and busbar feedthrough flange according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 2] 2(formerly: FIG. 2I162) through 6(formerly: FIG. 2I166) are schematic diagrams of a SunCell® generator with a dual EM pump injector as a liquid electrode showing a graded reservoir and an magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) converter including a pair of MHD return pumps according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 3] 2(formerly: FIG. 2I162) through 6(formerly: FIG. 2I166) are schematic diagrams of a SunCell® generator with a dual EM pump injector as a liquid electrode showing a graded reservoir and an magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) converter including a pair of MHD return pumps according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 4] 2(formerly: FIG. 2I162) through 6(formerly: FIG. 2I166) are schematic diagrams of a SunCell® generator with a dual EM pump injector as a liquid electrode showing a graded reservoir and an magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) converter including a pair of MHD return pumps according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 5] 2(formerly: FIG. 2I162) through 6(formerly: FIG. 2I166) are schematic diagrams of a SunCell® generator with a dual EM pump injector as a liquid electrode showing a graded reservoir and an magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) converter including a pair of MHD return pumps according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 6] 2(formerly: FIG. 2I162) through 6(formerly: FIG. 2I166) are schematic diagrams of a SunCell® generator with a dual EM pump injector as a liquid electrode showing a graded reservoir and an magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) converter including a pair of MHD return pumps according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 7] 7 (formerly FIG. 2I167) through FIG. 13 (formerly FIG. 2I173) are schematic diagrams of a SunCell® generator comprising a dual EM pump injector as a liquid electrode showing a graded reservoir and an electromagnetohadydrohydrodynamic (MHD) converter including a pair of MHD return pumps and a pair of MHD return gas pumps or compressors according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 8] 7 (formerly FIG. 2I167) through FIG. 13 (formerly FIG. 2I173) are schematic diagrams of a SunCell® generator comprising a dual EM pump injector as a liquid electrode showing a graded reservoir and an electromagnetohadydrohydrodynamic (MHD) converter including a pair of MHD return pumps and a pair of MHD return gas pumps or compressors according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 9] 7 (formerly FIG. 2I167) through FIG. 13 (formerly FIG. 2I173) are schematic diagrams of a SunCell® generator comprising a dual EM pump injector as a liquid electrode showing a graded reservoir and an electromagnetohadydrohydrodynamic (MHD) converter including a pair of MHD return pumps and a pair of MHD return gas pumps or compressors according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 10] 7 (formerly FIG. 2I167) through FIG. 13 (formerly FIG. 2I173) are schematic diagrams of a SunCell® generator comprising a dual EM pump injector as a liquid electrode showing a graded reservoir and an electromagnetohadydrohydrodynamic (MHD) converter including a pair of MHD return pumps and a pair of MHD return gas pumps or compressors according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 11] 7 (formerly FIG. 2I167) through FIG. 13 (formerly FIG. 2I173) are schematic diagrams of a SunCell® generator comprising a dual EM pump injector as a liquid electrode showing a graded reservoir and an electromagnetohadydrohydrodynamic (MHD) converter including a pair of MHD return pumps and a pair of MHD return gas pumps or compressors according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 12] 7 (formerly FIG. 2I167) through FIG. 13 (formerly FIG. 2I173) are schematic diagrams of a SunCell® generator comprising a dual EM pump injector as a liquid electrode showing a graded reservoir and an electromagnetohadydrohydrodynamic (MHD) converter including a pair of MHD return pumps and a pair of MHD return gas pumps or compressors according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 13] 7 (formerly FIG. 2I167) through FIG. 13 (formerly FIG. 2I173) are schematic diagrams of a SunCell® generator comprising a dual EM pump injector as a liquid electrode showing a graded reservoir and an electromagnetohadydrohydrodynamic (MHD) converter including a pair of MHD return pumps and a pair of MHD return gas pumps or compressors according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 14] 14 (formerly FIG. 2I174) through 16 (formerly FIG. 2I176) are schematic diagrams of a SunCell® generator including a dual EM pump injector as a liquid electrode showing a graded reservoir, a ceramic EM pump tube assembly, and an electromagnetohydrohydrodynamic (MHD) converter including a pair of MHD return pumps, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 15] 14 (formerly FIG. 2I174) through 16 (formerly FIG. 2I176) are schematic diagrams of a SunCell® generator including a dual EM pump injector as a liquid electrode showing a graded reservoir, a ceramic EM pump tube assembly, and an electromagnetohydrohydrodynamic (MHD) converter including a pair of MHD return pumps, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 16]14 (formerly FIG. 2I174) through 16 (formerly FIG. 2I176) are schematic diagrams of a SunCell® generator including a dual EM pump injector as a liquid electrode showing a graded reservoir, a ceramic EM pump tube assembly, and an electromagnetohydrohydrodynamic (MHD) converter including a pair of MHD return pumps, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 17] FIG. 17 (formerly FIG. 2I177) is a schematic diagram of a linear magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) SunCell® generator comprising a dual EM pump injector as a liquid electrode exhibiting a graded reservoir, a ceramic EM pump tube assembly, and a straight MHD channel according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 18] FIG. 18 (formerly FIG. 2I178) is a schematic diagram of a linear magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) SunCell® generator comprising a dual EM pump injector as a liquid electrode exhibiting a graded reservoir, a ceramic EM pump tube assembly, and a straight MHD channel according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 19] Figures 19 (formerly Figure 2I179) to 23 (formerly Figure 2I183) are schematic diagrams of a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) SunCell® generator comprising a dual EM pump injector as a liquid electrode showing a graded reservoir, a spherical reaction cell chamber, a straight MHD channel, and a gas addition housing, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 20] Figures 19 (formerly Figure 2I179) to 23 (formerly Figure 2I183) are schematic diagrams of a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) SunCell® generator comprising a dual EM pump injector as a liquid electrode showing a graded reservoir, a spherical reaction cell chamber, a straight MHD channel, and a gas addition housing, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 21] Figures 19 (formerly Figure 2I179) to 23 (formerly Figure 2I183) are schematic diagrams of a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) SunCell® generator comprising a dual EM pump injector as a liquid electrode showing a graded reservoir, a spherical reaction cell chamber, a straight MHD channel, and a gas addition housing, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 22]Figures 19 (formerly Figure 2I179) to 23 (formerly Figure 2I183) are schematic diagrams of a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) SunCell® generator comprising a dual EM pump injector as a liquid electrode showing a graded reservoir, a spherical reaction cell chamber, a straight MHD channel, and a gas addition housing, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 23] Figures 19 (formerly Figure 2I179) to 23 (formerly Figure 2I183) are schematic diagrams of a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) SunCell® generator comprising a dual EM pump injector as a liquid electrode showing a graded reservoir, a spherical reaction cell chamber, a straight MHD channel, and a gas addition housing, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 24] FIG. 24 (formerly FIG. 2I184) is a schematic diagram of a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) SunCell® generator comprising a dual EM pump injector as a liquid electrode showing a graded reservoir, a spherical reaction cell chamber, a linear magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) channel, a gas addition housing, a single-stage induction EM pump for injection, and a single-stage induction or DC conduction MHD return EM pump according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 25] FIG. 25 (formerly FIG. 2I185) is a schematic diagram of a single-stage induction infusion EM pump according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 26] FIG. 26 (formerly FIG. 2I186) is a schematic diagram of a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) SunCell® generator comprising a dual EM pump injector as a liquid electrode showing a graded reservoir, a spherical reaction cell chamber, a linear magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) channel, a gas addition housing, a two-stage induction EM pump for both injection and MHD return, and an induction ignition system according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 27] FIG. 27 (formerly FIG. 2I187) is a schematic diagram of a vessel bottom plate assembly and the connecting components of the inlet riser tube, injector tube and nozzle, and flange according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 28]FIG. 28 (formerly FIG. 2I188) is a schematic diagram of a two-stage induction EM pump in which the first stage functions as an MHD return EM pump and the second stage functions as an injection EM pump, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 29] FIG. 29 (formerly FIG. 2I189) is a schematic diagram of an inductive ignition system according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 30] Figures 30 (formerly Figure 2I190) to 31 (formerly Figure 2I191) are schematic diagrams of a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) SunCell® generator comprising a dual EM pump injector as a liquid electrode exhibiting a graded reservoir, a spherical reaction cell chamber, a linear magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) channel, a gas addition housing, two-stage induction EM pumps for both induction EM pump inlet and MHD return, each with a forced air cooling system, and an induction ignition system, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 31] Figures 30 (formerly Figure 2I190) to 31 (formerly Figure 2I191) are schematic diagrams of a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) SunCell® generator comprising a dual EM pump injector as a liquid electrode exhibiting a graded reservoir, a spherical reaction cell chamber, a linear magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) channel, a gas addition housing, two-stage induction EM pumps for both induction EM pump inlet and MHD return, each with a forced air cooling system, and an induction ignition system, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 32] FIG. 32 (formerly FIG. 2I192) is a schematic diagram of a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) SunCell® generator comprising a dual EM pump injector as a liquid electrode showing a graded reservoir, a spherical reaction cell chamber, a linear magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) channel, a gas addition housing, two-stage induction EM pumps for both injection and MHD return, each with a forced liquid cooling system, an inductive ignition system, and an inductively coupled heating antenna on the EM pump tube, the reservoir, the reaction cell chamber, and the MHD return conduit, in accordance with one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 33]Figures 33 (formerly Figure 2I193) through 38 (formerly Figure 2I198) are schematic diagrams of a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) SunCell® generator comprising a dual EM pump injector as a liquid electrode showing a graded reservoir, a spherical reaction cell chamber, a linear magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) channel, a gas addition housing, two-stage induction EM pumps for both injection and MHD return, each with an air cooling system, and an induction ignition system, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 34] Figures 33 (formerly Figure 2I193) through 38 (formerly Figure 2I198) are schematic diagrams of a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) SunCell® generator comprising a dual EM pump injector as a liquid electrode showing a graded reservoir, a spherical reaction cell chamber, a linear magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) channel, a gas addition housing, two-stage induction EM pumps for both injection and MHD return, each with an air cooling system, and an induction ignition system, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 35] Figures 33 (formerly Figure 2I193) through 38 (formerly Figure 2I198) are schematic diagrams of a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) SunCell® generator comprising a dual EM pump injector as a liquid electrode showing a graded reservoir, a spherical reaction cell chamber, a linear magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) channel, a gas addition housing, two-stage induction EM pumps for both injection and MHD return, each with an air cooling system, and an induction ignition system, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 36] Figures 33 (formerly Figure 2I193) through 38 (formerly Figure 2I198) are schematic diagrams of a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) SunCell® generator comprising a dual EM pump injector as a liquid electrode showing a graded reservoir, a spherical reaction cell chamber, a linear magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) channel, a gas addition housing, two-stage induction EM pumps for both injection and MHD return, each with an air cooling system, and an induction ignition system, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 37]Figures 33 (formerly Figure 2I193) through 38 (formerly Figure 2I198) are schematic diagrams of a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) SunCell® generator comprising a dual EM pump injector as a liquid electrode showing a graded reservoir, a spherical reaction cell chamber, a linear magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) channel, a gas addition housing, two-stage induction EM pumps for both injection and MHD return, each with an air cooling system, and an induction ignition system, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 38] Figures 33 (formerly Figure 2I193) through 38 (formerly Figure 2I198) are schematic diagrams of a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) SunCell® generator comprising a dual EM pump injector as a liquid electrode showing a graded reservoir, a spherical reaction cell chamber, a linear magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) channel, a gas addition housing, two-stage induction EM pumps for both injection and MHD return, each with an air cooling system, and an induction ignition system, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 39] FIG. 39 (formerly FIG. 2I199) is a schematic diagram of a single-stage induction injection EM pump according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 40] FIG. 40 (formerly FIG. 2I200) is a schematic diagram of a two-stage induction EM pump, where the first stage functions as an MHD return EM pump and the second stage functions as an injection EM pump, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 41] FIG. 41 (formerly FIG. 2I201) is a schematic diagram of a two-stage induction EM pump in which the first stage functions as an MHD return EM pump and the second stage functions as an injection EM pump with more optimized Lorentz pumping forces, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 42] Figures 42 (formerly Figure 2I202) through 43 (formerly Figure 2I203) are schematic diagrams of a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) SunCell® generator comprising a dual EM pump injector as a liquid electrode showing a graded reservoir, a spherical reaction cell chamber, a linear magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) channel, a gas addition housing, two-stage induction EM pumps for both two-stage induction EM pump inlet and MHD return, each with a forced air cooling system, and an induction ignition system, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 43]Figures 42 (formerly Figure 2I202) through 43 (formerly Figure 2I203) are schematic diagrams of a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) SunCell® generator comprising a dual EM pump injector as a liquid electrode showing a graded reservoir, a spherical reaction cell chamber, a linear magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) channel, a gas addition housing, two-stage induction EM pumps for both two-stage induction EM pump inlet and MHD return, each with a forced air cooling system, and an induction ignition system, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 44] 44 (formerly FIG. 2I(2)04) is a SunCell® flame heater in a schematic diagram showing an exemplary spiral flame heater, which is a series of annular rings, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 45] FIG. 45 (formerly FIG. 2I205) is a schematic diagram illustrating an electrolytic cell according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 46] FIG. 46 (formerly FIG. 2I206) is a schematic diagram illustrating a housing for containing H 2 +O 2 along with a diluent gas that is recombined at a desired surface of a SunCell® that functions as a chemical heater, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 47] FIG. 47 (formerly FIG. 2I207) is a schematic diagram of a SunCell® thermal generator according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, which includes a hemispherical shell radiant absorber heat exchanger having walls with embedded refrigerant tubes for receiving thermal energy from a reaction cell with a blackbody radiator and transferring the heat to a cooler, and a circumferential cylindrical heat exchanger and boiler on the other side. [Figure 48] Figures 48 (formerly Figure 2I208) to 52 (formerly Figure 2I212) are schematic diagrams of a SunCell® thermal generator comprising a hemispherical shell radiant absorber heat exchanger having a wall with embedded refrigerant tubes for receiving thermal energy output from a reaction cell having a blackbody radiator and transferring the heat to a refrigerant, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 49]Figures 48 (formerly Figure 2I208) to 52 (formerly Figure 2I212) are schematic diagrams of a SunCell® thermal generator comprising a hemispherical shell radiant absorber heat exchanger having a wall with embedded refrigerant tubes for receiving thermal energy output from a reaction cell having a blackbody radiator and transferring the heat to a refrigerant, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 50] Figures 48 (formerly Figure 2I208) to 52 (formerly Figure 2I212) are schematic diagrams of a SunCell® thermal generator comprising a hemispherical shell radiant absorber heat exchanger having a wall with embedded refrigerant tubes for receiving thermal energy output from a reaction cell having a blackbody radiator and transferring the heat to a refrigerant, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 51] Figures 48 (formerly Figure 2I208) to 52 (formerly Figure 2I212) are schematic diagrams of a SunCell® thermal generator comprising a hemispherical shell radiant absorber heat exchanger having a wall with embedded refrigerant tubes for receiving thermal energy output from a reaction cell having a blackbody radiator and transferring the heat to a refrigerant, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 52] Figures 48 (formerly Figure 2I208) to 52 (formerly Figure 2I212) are schematic diagrams of a SunCell® thermal generator comprising a hemispherical shell radiant absorber heat exchanger having a wall with embedded refrigerant tubes for receiving thermal energy output from a reaction cell having a blackbody radiator and transferring the heat to a refrigerant, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 53] Figures 53 (formerly Figure 2I213) to 54 (formerly Figure 2I214) are schematic diagrams showing details of a SunCell® thermoelectric generator heat exchanger having a wall with embedded refrigerant tubes for receiving thermal energy output from a reaction cell having a blackbody radiator and transferring the heat to a refrigerant, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 54] Figures 53 (formerly Figure 2I213) to 54 (formerly Figure 2I214) are schematic diagrams showing details of a SunCell® thermoelectric generator heat exchanger having a wall with embedded refrigerant tubes for receiving thermal energy output from a reaction cell having a blackbody radiator and transferring the heat to a refrigerant, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 55]FIG. 55 (formerly FIG. 2I215) is a schematic diagram showing details of a SunCell® thermal generator with a single EM pump injector in the injector reservoir and an expanded non-injector reservoir as the liquid electrode, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 56] Figures 56 (formerly Figure 2I216) to 57 (formerly Figure 2I217) are schematic diagrams showing details of SunCell® thermal generators according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, each comprising a single EM pump injector in an injector reservoir and an expanded non-injector reservoir as a liquid electrode. [Figure 57] Figures 56 (formerly Figure 2I216) to 57 (formerly Figure 2I217) are schematic diagrams showing details of SunCell® thermal generators according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, each comprising a single EM pump injector in an injector reservoir and an expanded non-injector reservoir as a liquid electrode. [Figure 58] FIG. 58 (formerly FIG. 2I218) is a schematic diagram showing details of a SunCell® thermal generator with a hemispherical shell radiant heat absorber heat exchanger, a single EM pump injector in an injector reservoir, and an expanded non-injector reservoir as a liquid electrode, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 59] FIG. 59 (formerly FIG. 2I219) is a schematic diagram showing details of a SunCell® thermal generator with a single EM pump injector, an injector reservoir, and a liquid electrode as an inverted base, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 60] Figures 60 (formerly Figure 2I220) to 61 (formerly Figure 2I221) are detailed schematic diagrams of a SunCell® thermoelectric generator with a single EM pump injector in an injector reservoir, a partially inverted liquid electrode, and a tapered reaction cell chamber to reduce metallization of the PV window, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 61] Figures 60 (formerly Figure 2I220) to 61 (formerly Figure 2I221) are detailed schematic diagrams of a SunCell® thermoelectric generator with a single EM pump injector in an injector reservoir, a partially inverted liquid electrode, and a tapered reaction cell chamber to reduce metallization of the PV window, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 62] Figures 62 (formerly Figure 2I222) through 63 (formerly Figure 2I223) are schematic diagrams of a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) SunCell® generator according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, consisting of two sets of gas compressors and two recuperator heat exchangers that remove heat from the MHD gas streams prior to the corresponding compressors and return that heat to the compressed gas energy output of the compressors. [Figure 63] Figures 62 (formerly Figure 2I222) through 63 (formerly Figure 2I223) are schematic diagrams of a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) SunCell® generator according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, consisting of two sets of gas compressors and two recuperator heat exchangers that remove heat from the MHD gas streams prior to the corresponding compressors and return that heat to the compressed gas energy output of the compressors. [Figure 64] Figures 64 (formerly Figure 2I224) to 66 (formerly Figure 2I226) are schematic diagrams of a supercritical CO2 SunCell® generator according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, comprising a SunCell® and heat exchangers (shown separately in the references), high and low temperature recovery heat exchangers, a precooler, a recompression compressor, a main compressor, a CO2 working medium supply pipe, a turbine that rotates the generator shaft, and an electricity generator. [Figure 65] Figures 64 (formerly Figure 2I224) to 66 (formerly Figure 2I226) are schematic diagrams of a supercritical CO2 SunCell® generator according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, comprising a SunCell® and heat exchangers (shown separately in the references), high and low temperature recovery heat exchangers, a precooler, a recompression compressor, a main compressor, a CO2 working medium supply pipe, a turbine that rotates the generator shaft, and an electricity generator. [Figure 66] Figures 64 (formerly Figure 2I224) to 66 (formerly Figure 2I226) are schematic diagrams of a supercritical CO2 SunCell® generator according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, comprising a SunCell® and heat exchangers (shown separately in the references), high and low temperature recovery heat exchangers, a precooler, a recompression compressor, a main compressor, a CO2 working medium supply pipe, a turbine that rotates the generator shaft, and an electricity generator. [Figure 67] Figures 67 (formerly Figure 2I227) to 68 (formerly Figure 2I228) are schematic diagrams of a closed Rankine SunCell® generator according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, comprising a SunCell® (shown separately in the references), a boiler, a turbine that rotates the generator shaft, an electric generator, a condenser, a refrigerant pump, and refrigerant piping. [Figure 68] Figures 67 (formerly Figure 2I227) to 68 (formerly Figure 2I228) are schematic diagrams of a closed Rankine SunCell® generator according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, comprising a SunCell® (shown separately in the references), a boiler, a turbine that rotates the generator shaft, an electric generator, a condenser, a refrigerant pump, and refrigerant piping. [Figure 69] 69 (formerly FIG. 2I229) through 71 (formerly FIG. 2I231) are schematic diagrams of an externally fired, open Brayton SunCell® generator according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, comprising a turbine compressor that takes in air, a SunCell® with a heat exchanger for extracting heat from the SunCell® and sending it to the atmosphere, a heat exchanger coolant tank and pump, a power generating turbine that turns the gearbox and compressor shaft, a gearbox, an electric generator, and an exhaust duct. [Figure 70] 69 (formerly FIG. 2I229) through 71 (formerly FIG. 2I231) are schematic diagrams of an externally fired, open Brayton SunCell® generator according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, comprising a turbine compressor that takes in air, a SunCell® with a heat exchanger for extracting heat from the SunCell® and sending it to the atmosphere, a heat exchanger coolant tank and pump, a power generating turbine that turns the gearbox and compressor shaft, a gearbox, an electric generator, and an exhaust duct. [Figure 71]69 (formerly FIG. 2I229) through 71 (formerly FIG. 2I231) are schematic diagrams of an externally fired, open Brayton SunCell® generator according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, comprising a turbine compressor that takes in air, a SunCell® with a heat exchanger for extracting heat from the SunCell® and sending it to the atmosphere, a heat exchanger coolant tank and pump, a power generating turbine that turns the gearbox and compressor shaft, a gearbox, an electric generator, and an exhaust duct. [Figure 72] FIG. 72 (formerly FIG. 2I232) is a cross-sectional schematic diagram of an externally fired open Brayton SunCell® generator according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, using arrows to indicate airflow patterns. [Figure 73] FIG. 73 (formerly FIG. 2I233) is a schematic diagram of the components of an externally fired, open Brayton SunCell® generator according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, showing details of the turbine compressor that takes in air, the heat exchanger that extracts heat from the SunCell® and sends it to the atmosphere, the power generating turbine, and the exhaust duct. [Figure 74] Figures 74 (formerly Figure 2I234) to 75 (formerly Figure 2I235) are schematic diagrams of an open Rankine SunCell® generator according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, comprising a SunCell®, boiler, turn turbine generator shaft, electric generator, cooling tower, and coolant recirculation and support systems. [Figure 75] Figures 74 (formerly Figure 2I234) to 75 (formerly Figure 2I235) are schematic diagrams of an open Rankine SunCell® generator according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, comprising a SunCell®, boiler, turn turbine generator shaft, electric generator, cooling tower, and coolant recirculation and support systems. [Figure 76] Figures 76 (formerly Figure 2I236) to 77 (formerly Figure 2I237) are schematic diagrams of a Stirling engine SunCell® generator according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, comprising a SunCell®, a heat exchanger, and a Stirling engine driving the generator shaft. [Figure 77] Figures 76 (formerly Figure 2I236) to 77 (formerly Figure 2I237) are schematic diagrams of a Stirling engine SunCell® generator according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, comprising a SunCell®, a heat exchanger, and a Stirling engine driving the generator shaft. [Figure 78] FIG. 78 (formerly FIG. 3) is a schematic diagram of silver oxygen phase diagrams 11-20 from Smithells Metals Reference Book, 8th Edition, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 79] 79 (formerly FIG. 4A) through 81 (formerly FIG. 4C) are EPR spectra of hydrino reaction products, including lower energy hydrogen species, e.g., molecular hydrino dimers, in different atmospheres, including (A) products formed by ignition of a Sn beam in an atmosphere containing atmospheric water vapor, (B) products formed by ball milling NaOH and KCl containing hydrated water, and (C) products formed by ignition of a Zn beam in an atmosphere containing atmospheric water vapor, where the effect of cryogenic temperatures on the EPR spectra at 298 K (red trace) and 77 K (blue trace) was determined, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 80] 79 (formerly FIG. 4A) through 81 (formerly FIG. 4C) are EPR spectra of hydrino reaction products, including lower energy hydrogen species, e.g., molecular hydrino dimers, in different atmospheres, including (A) products formed by ignition of a Sn beam in an atmosphere containing atmospheric water vapor, (B) products formed by ball milling NaOH and KCl containing hydrated water, and (C) products formed by ignition of a Zn beam in an atmosphere containing atmospheric water vapor, where the effect of cryogenic temperatures on the EPR spectra at 298 K (red trace) and 77 K (blue trace) was determined, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 81]79 (formerly FIG. 4A) through 81 (formerly FIG. 4C) are EPR spectra of hydrino reaction products, including lower energy hydrogen species, e.g., molecular hydrino dimers, in different atmospheres, including (A) products formed by ignition of a Sn beam in an atmosphere containing atmospheric water vapor, (B) products formed by ball milling NaOH and KCl containing hydrated water, and (C) products formed by ignition of a Zn beam in an atmosphere containing atmospheric water vapor, where the effect of cryogenic temperatures on the EPR spectra at 298 K (red trace) and 77 K (blue trace) was determined, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 82] FIG. 82 (formerly FIG. 5) is a schematic diagram of a hydrino reaction cell chamber according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, the cell chamber including means for igniting wires to serve as at least one source of reactants, and means for propagating the hydrino reaction to form macrocondensates or polymers containing lower energy hydrogen species, such as molecular hydrinos. [Figure 83] FIG. 83 (formerly FIG. 6) is a Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrum of reaction products, including lower energy hydrogen species such as molecular hydrinos, formed by ignition of a Zn wire in an atmosphere containing atmospheric water vapor, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 84] Figures 84 (formerly Figure 7A) through 85 (formerly Figure 7B) show 1H MAS NMR spectra vs. external TMS of a pristine KOH-KCl (1:1) getter (showing a known downfield-shifted matrix peak at +4.41 ppm) and a scaled-up 1H MAS NMR spectrum vs. external TMS of a KOH-KCl (1:1) getter from a scaled-up 5 W stack of 10 CIHT cells containing Mo / LiOH-LiBr-MgO / NiO at 137% gain and energy 1029 Wh, showing upfield-shifted matrix peaks at -4.06 and -4.41 ppm, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 85]Figures 84 (formerly Figure 7A) through 85 (formerly Figure 7B) show 1H MAS NMR spectra vs. external TMS of a pristine KOH-KCl (1:1) getter (showing a known downfield-shifted matrix peak at +4.41 ppm) and a scaled-up 1H MAS NMR spectrum vs. external TMS of a KOH-KCl (1:1) getter from a scaled-up 5 W stack of 10 CIHT cells containing Mo / LiOH-LiBr-MgO / NiO at 137% gain and energy 1029 Wh, showing upfield-shifted matrix peaks at -4.06 and -4.41 ppm, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 86] FIG. 86 (formerly FIG. 8) is a vibrating sample magnetometer recording of reaction products, including lower energy hydrogen species such as molecular hydrinos, formed by ignition of Mo wires in an atmosphere containing atmospheric water vapor, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 87] FIG. 87 (formerly FIG. 9) is an absolute spectrum in the 5 nm to 450 nm region of the ignition of an 80 mg silver shot containing absorbed H 2 and H 2 O from gassing the silver melt prior to dropping into a water container, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, showing an average NIST calibrated photovoltage of 1.3 MW, essentially all within the ultraviolet and extreme ultraviolet spectral regions. [Figure 88] Figure 88 (formerly Figure 10) shows the spectrum (100 nm to 500 nm region with a cutoff at 180 nm by the sapphire spectrometer window) of the ignition of molten silver injected into a W electrode in atmospheric argon with an ambient H 2 O vapor pressure of about 1 Torr, showing UV radiation shifted to 5000 K blackbody radiation as the atmosphere became optically thick for UV radiation due to evaporation of the silver. [Figure 89] Figure 89 (formerly Figure 11) is a high-resolution visible spectrum of an 800 Torr argon-hydrogen plasma sustained by the hydrino reaction in a Pyrex SunCell® according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, showing a Stark broadening of 1.3 nm corresponding to an electron density of 3.5x10 23 / m 3 and an ionization fraction of 10% required to sustain approximately 8.6 GW / m 3 . [Figure 90]FIG. 90 (formerly FIG. 12) is an ultraviolet emission spectrum from electron beam excitation of argon gas containing some water assigned to the H 2 (1 / 4) rovibrational P branch, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 91] FIG. 91 (formerly FIG. 13) is an electron beam excited ultraviolet emission spectrum of KCl impregnated with hydrino reaction product gas, showing the H2(1 / 4) rovibrational P branch of the crystal lattice, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 92] FIG. 92 (formerly FIG. 14) is an electron beam excited ultraviolet emission spectrum of hydrino-impregnated KCl showing the H 2 (¼) rovibrational P branch of the crystal lattice with intensity varying with temperature, confirming the H 2 (¼) rovibrational assignment, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 93] Figure 93 (formerly Figure 15) shows the Raman mode secondary photoluminescence spectrum of a KOH-KCl (1:1 wt%) getter exposed to ignition product gases of a 100 mg Cu solid fuel sample with 30 mg deionized water sealed in a DSC pan using a Horiba Jobin Yvon LabRam ARAMIS 325 nm laser with 1200 gratings over the range of 8000 to 19,000 cm −1 Raman shifts. [Figure 94] Figure 94 (formerly Figure 16) shows Raman spectra obtained using a Thermo Scientific DXR SmartRaman spectrometer and a 780 nm laser on In metal foils exposed to product gases from a series of solid fuel ignitions under argon, each containing a mixture of 100 mg of Cu and 30 mg of deionized water, and shows an inverse Raman effect peak at 1982 cm -1 , corresponding to the free rotor energy of H 2 (1 / 4) (0.2414 eV). [Figure 95]Figures 95 (formerly Figure 17A) through 96 (formerly Figure 17B) show Raman spectra obtained using a Thermo Scientific DXR Smart Raman spectrometer with a 780 nm laser on a copper electrode (before and after ignition of 80 mg of silver shot containing 1 mol% H2O), according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. Ignition was achieved by applying a current of 12 V and 35,000 A with a spot welder. The spectra show an inverse Raman effect peak at approximately 1940 cm-1, consistent with a free rotor energy of H2(1 / 4) (0.2414 eV). [Figure 96] Figures 95 (formerly Figure 17A) through 96 (formerly Figure 17B) show Raman spectra obtained using a Thermo Scientific DXR Smart Raman spectrometer with a 780 nm laser on a copper electrode (before and after ignition of 80 mg of silver shot containing 1 mol% H2O), according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. Ignition was achieved by applying a current of 12 V and 35,000 A with a spot welder. The spectra show an inverse Raman effect peak at approximately 1940 cm-1, consistent with a free rotor energy of H2(1 / 4) (0.2414 eV). [Figure 97] Figures 97 (formerly Figure 18A) through 98 (formerly Figure 18B) show XPS spectra recorded on an indium metal foil exposed to gases generated by continuously igniting 100 mg Cu and 30 mg deionized water sealed in a DSC pan under an argon atmosphere, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. (A) Measured spectrum showing that only peaks for the elements In, C, O, and trace K were present. (B) High-resolution spectrum showing that the peak at 498.5 eV was assigned to H2(1 / 4), where other possibilities were ruled out based on the absence of corresponding peaks for other major elements in the measured scan. [Figure 98]Figures 97 (formerly Figure 18A) through 98 (formerly Figure 18B) show XPS spectra recorded on an indium metal foil exposed to gases generated by continuously igniting 100 mg Cu and 30 mg deionized water sealed in a DSC pan under an argon atmosphere, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. (A) Measured spectrum showing that only peaks for the elements In, C, O, and trace K were present. (B) High-resolution spectrum showing that the peak at 498.5 eV was assigned to H2(1 / 4), where other possibilities were ruled out based on the absence of corresponding peaks for other major elements in the measured scan. [Figure 99] 99 (formerly FIG. 19A) through 100 (formerly FIG. 19B) are XPS spectra of an Fe hydrino polymer compound with a peak at 496 eV assigned to H2(1 / 4), according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, where only Fe, O, and C peaks are present, thus ruling out other possibilities such as Na, Sn, and Zn, and no other candidate peaks are present. (A) Measurement scan. (B) High-resolution scan in the region of the 496 eV peak of H2(1 / 4). [Figure 100] 99 (formerly FIG. 19A) through 100 (formerly FIG. 19B) are XPS spectra of an Fe hydrino polymer compound with a peak at 496 eV assigned to H2(1 / 4), according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, where only Fe, O, and C peaks are present, thus ruling out other possibilities such as Na, Sn, and Zn, and no other candidate peaks are present. (A) Measurement scan. (B) High-resolution scan in the region of the 496 eV peak of H2(1 / 4). [Figure 101] Figures 101 (formerly Figure 20A) through 102 (formerly Figure 20B) show XPS spectra of a Mo hydrino polymer compound according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, with a peak at 496 eV assigned to H2(1 / 4). Only peaks for Mo, O, and C are present, with no other candidate peaks present, eliminating other possibilities such as Na, Sn, and Zn. Mo3s, which is less intense than MO3p, is at 506 eV. Additional samples also exhibit the H2(1 / 4) 496 eV peak. (A) Measurement scan. (B) High-resolution scan in the region of the H2(1 / 4) 496 eV peak. [Figure 102] Figures 101 (formerly Figure 20A) through 102 (formerly Figure 20B) show XPS spectra of a Mo hydrino polymer compound according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, with a peak at 496 eV assigned to H2(1 / 4). Only peaks for Mo, O, and C are present, with no other candidate peaks present, eliminating other possibilities such as Na, Sn, and Zn. Mo3s, which is less intense than MO3p, is at 506 eV. Additional samples also exhibit the H2(1 / 4) 496 eV peak. (A) Measurement scan. (B) High-resolution scan in the region of the H2(1 / 4) 496 eV peak. [Figure 103] Figures 103 (formerly Figure 21A)-104 (formerly Figure 21B) show XPS spectra of a copper electrode after ignition of 80 mg of silver shot containing 1 mol% H2O, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, where ignition was achieved by applying a 12V, 35,000 A current with a spot welder. The 496 eV peak was assigned to H2(1 / 4), where other possibilities, such as Na, Sn, and Zn, were ruled out due to the absence of corresponding peaks for these candidates. The Raman spectrum after ignition (Figures 17A-B) showed an inverse Raman peak at approximately 1940 cm-1, consistent with the free rotor energy of H2(1 / 4) (0.2414 eV). [Figure 104] Figures 103 (formerly Figure 21A)-104 (formerly Figure 21B) show XPS spectra of a copper electrode after ignition of 80 mg of silver shot containing 1 mol% H2O, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, where ignition was achieved by applying a 12V, 35,000 A current with a spot welder. The 496 eV peak was assigned to H2(1 / 4), where other possibilities, such as Na, Sn, and Zn, were ruled out due to the absence of corresponding peaks for these candidates. The Raman spectrum after ignition (Figures 17A-B) showed an inverse Raman peak at approximately 1940 cm-1, consistent with the free rotor energy of H2(1 / 4) (0.2414 eV). [Figure 105]FIG. 105 (formerly FIG. 22) is a gas chromatograph of hydrino gas in argon recorded with an Agilent column and hydrogen carrier gas, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure, showing a negative peak at 74 minutes that excludes assignments other than hydrino. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

[0015] Disclosed herein is a catalytic system that releases energy from atomic hydrogen to form lower energy states, where the electron shells are closer to the nucleus. The released energy is utilized to generate electricity, and new hydrogen species and compounds are the desired products. These energy states are predicted by classical physical laws and require a catalyst to accept energy from hydrogen to cause the corresponding energy-releasing transitions.

[0016] Classical physics yields closed-form solutions for hydrogen atoms, hydride ions, hydrogen molecular ions, and hydrogen molecules, predicting corresponding chemical species with fractional principal quantum numbers. Atomic hydrogen can undergo catalytic reactions with certain chemical species (including itself) that can accept energy up to an integer multiple of atomic hydrogen's potential energy, m 27.2 eV (where m is an integer). The predicted reactions involve resonant, nonradiative energy transfer from otherwise stable atomic hydrogen to a catalyst that can accept the energy. The products are fractional Rydberg states of atomic hydrogen, called "hydrino atoms," H(1 / p), where n = 1 / 2, 1 / 3, 1 / 4, . . . , 1 / p (where p ≤ 137 is an integer), replacing the known parameter n = an integer in the Rydberg equation for excited hydrogen states. Each hydrino state also contains an electron, a proton, and a photon, but the electric field contribution from the photon causes the binding energy to increase rather than decrease, corresponding to energy desorption rather than absorption. Since the potential energy of atomic hydrogen is 27.2 eV, mH atoms can act as catalysts for m 27.2 eV of another (m+1)H atom [R. Mills, The Grand Unified Theory of Classical Physics, September 2016 edition, posted at https: / / brilliantlightpower.com / book-download-and-strea,ing / ("Mills GUTCP")]. For example, a H atom can act as a catalyst for another H by accepting 27.2 eV via spatial energy transfer, such as through magnetic or induced electric dipole-dipole coupling, resulting in a short wavelength cutoff and

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[0017] situation

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[0018] Furthermore, the overall response is

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[0019] The catalytic reaction (m=3) [R. Mills, The Grand Unified Theory of Classical Physics, September 2016 edition, posted at https: / / brilliantlightpower.com / book-download-and-strea,ing / ] for the potential energy of nascent H2O is

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[0020] Furthermore, the overall response is

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[0021] After energy transfer to the catalyst (Eqs. (1) and (5)), an intermediate with a radius of the H atom and a central magnetic field m+1 times larger than the central magnetic field of the proton

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[0022] Additional catalysts and reactions that form hydrinos can be added. Specific chemical species that can be identified based on known electron energy levels (e.g., He + , Ar + , Sr + , K, Li, HCl, and NaH, OH, SH, SeH, nascent HO, nH (n = integer) must be present with atomic hydrogen to catalyze the process. This reaction involves a non-radiative energy transfer followed by a q 13.6 eV continuum emission or a q 13.6 eV transfer to H, forming an excited state of H at very high temperatures and a hydrogen atom that is lower in energy than the unreacted atomic hydrogen, corresponding to a fractional principal quantum number. That is, in the equation for the principal energy levels of the hydrogen atom,

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[0023] Catalytic reactions involve two steps of energy release: a non-radiative energy transfer to the catalyst as the radius decreases to the corresponding stable final state, followed by an additional energy release. Thus, the general reaction is:

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[0024] The catalytic product H(1 / p) can react with an electron to form a hydrino hydride ion H(1 / p). Alternatively, two H(1 / p) can react to form the corresponding molecular hydrino H(1 / p). Specifically, the catalytic product H(1 / p) can also react with an electron to form the following bond energy E B A new hydride ion H(1 / p) can be formed with

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[0025] The binding energy of the hydrino hydride ion can be measured by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). The upfield-shifted NMR peak is direct evidence for the existence of a low-energy hydrogen state with a smaller radius and increased diamagnetic shielding of the proton compared to the normal hydride ion. This shift is obtained by adding the diamagnetic contributions of the two electrons and the photon field contribution of magnitude p (Mills GUTCP equation (7.87)).

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[0026] H(1 / p) can react with a proton. Also, two H(1 / p) can react to form H2(1 / p) + and H2(1 / p). The hydrogen molecular ion and molecular charge and current density functions, bond distances, and energies can be found from the Laplacian in ellipsoidal coordinates with the nonradiative constraint.

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[0027] The total energy E of the hydrogen molecule ion with a central magnetic field of +pe at each focus of the prolate spheroidal molecular orbital T is given as follows:

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[0028] Bond dissociation energy E of hydrogen molecule H2(1 / p) D is the total energy of the corresponding hydrogen atom and E T It is the difference between E D = E(2H(1 / p))-E T (twenty four) During the ceremony, E(2H(1 / p)) = -p 2 27.20eV (25) and E D is given by equations (23-25). E D = -p 2 27.20 eV-E T = -p 2 27.20 eV -(-p 2 31.351eV-p 3 0.326469eV) = p 2 4.151eV+p 3 0.326469eV (26)

[0029] H2(1 / p) can be identified by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, where the ionization products in addition to the ionized electron are two protons and one electron, one H atom, one hydrino atom, molecular ion, hydrogen molecular ion, and H2(1 / p) + where the energy can be shifted by a matrix.

[0030] NMR of catalytic reaction-product gases provides the most reliable test of the theoretically predicted chemical shifts of H2(1 / p). 1 The H NMR resonance is predicted to be upfield from that of H2 by a fractional radius in ellipsoidal coordinates, where the electrons are very close to the nucleus. The predicted shift ΔB for H2(1 / p) T / B is given by the sum of the photon magnetic field of strength p and the diamagnetic contributions of the two electrons (Mills' GUTCP formula (11.415-11.416)).

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[0031] Vibrational energy E for the transition from ν=0 to ν=1 of the hydrogen-type molecule H2(1 / p) vib becomes: E vib = p 2 0.515902eV (29) where p is an integer.

[0032] Rotational energy E for the J to J+1 transition of the hydrogen-like molecule H2(1 / p) rot is expressed as follows:

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[0033] Rotational energy p 2 The dependence arises from the inverse p dependence of the internuclear distance and the corresponding effect on the moment of inertia I. The predicted internuclear distance 2c' for H2(1 / p) is:

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[0034] At least one of the rotational and vibrational energies of H2(1 / p) can be measured by at least one of electron beam excited emission spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. H2(1 / p) can be trapped in a matrix for measurement, such as at least one of MOH, MX, and M2CO3 (M = alkali, X = halide) matrices.

[0035] In one embodiment, the molecular hydrino product is at about 1950 cm -1 This is observed as an inverse Raman effect (IRE) peak at 1000 kJ / cm. Enhancement of the peak can be achieved by using a conductive material that contains rough features or particle sizes comparable to the Raman laser wavelength, which supports surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) to display the IRE peak.

[0036] I. Catalyst In this disclosure, terms such as hydrino reaction, H catalyst, H-catalyzed reaction, catalyst, and the like, when referring to hydrogen, the reaction of hydrogen to form hydrinos, and the hydrino-forming reaction, refer to a reaction, e.g., the reaction of atomic H according to equations (15-18) with a catalyst defined in equation (14), to form states of hydrogen having energy levels given in equations (10) and (12). Corresponding terms such as hydrino reactant, hydrino reaction mixture, catalyst mixture, hydrino-forming reactant, and reactant that produces or forms lower energy states of hydrogen or hydrinos are also used interchangeably.

[0037] The catalysts required for the catalytic low energy hydrogen transition of the present disclosure are in the form of endothermic chemical reactions with an integer m, 27.2 eV, of the potential energy of uncatalyzed atomic hydrogen, and can accept energy from atomic H to cause the transition. The endothermic catalytic reaction can be the ionization of one or more electrons from one species of atom or ion (e.g., Li → Li2 + where m=3), and may further include bond cleavage, concerted reactions with ionization of one or more electrons from one or more partners of the initial bond (e.g., NaH→Na 2+ +H, m=2). He + ionizes at 54.417 eV, which is 2·27.2 eV, and therefore satisfies the criterion for a catalyst to be a chemical or physical process in which the enthalpy change is equal to an integer multiple of 27.2 eV. An integer number of hydrogen atoms also act as catalysts for integer multiples of the 27.2 eV enthalpy. A catalyst is approximately 27.2 eV ± 0.5 eV or

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[0038] In one embodiment, the catalyst comprises an atom or ion M, where ionization of t electrons from the atom or ion M to each of the contiguous energy levels is such that the sum of the ionization energies of the t electrons is about m 27.2 eV and

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[0039] In one embodiment, the catalyst comprises a diatomic molecule MH, where scission of the M-H bond and ionization of t electrons from atom M to continuum energies of each is such that the sum of the bond energy and ionization energies of the t electrons is m 27.2 eV and

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[0040] In one embodiment, the catalyst is selected from the group consisting of AlH, AsH, BaH, BiH, CdH, ClH, CoH, GeH, InH, NaH, NbH, OH, RhH, RuH, SH, SbH, SeH, SiH, SnH, SrH, TlH, C2, N2, O2, CO2, NO2, and NO3 molecules, atoms or ions of Li, Be, K, Ca, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Se, Kr, Rb, Sr, Nb, Mo, Pd, Sn, Te, Cs, Ce, Pr, Sm, Gd, Dy, Pb, Pt, Kr, 2K + , He + , Ti 2+ , Na + , Rb + , Sr + , Fe 3+ , Mo 2+ , Mo 4+ , In 3+ , He + , Ar + , Xe + , Ar2+ and H + , and Ne + and H + The present invention includes atoms, ions, and / or molecules selected from the group consisting of:

[0041] In another embodiment, the MH generating hydrinos - The type-II hydrogen catalyst is provided by the transfer of electrons to the acceptor A, the cleavage of the M-H bond, and the ionization of t electrons from atom M to successive energy levels. The difference between the total electron transfer energy, the electron affinity (EA) between M-H and A, the M-H bond energy, and the ionization energy of t electrons from M is approximately m 27.2 eV (m is an integer). The net reaction enthalpy of approximately m 27.2 eV can be provided by the M-H catalyst. - The hydrogen catalyst is OH - , SiH - , CoH - , NiH - , and SeH - is.

[0042] In another embodiment, the MH generating hydrinos + A hydrogen catalyst is provided by the transfer of an electron from a potentially negatively charged donor A, the cleavage of the M-H bond, and the ionization of t electrons from atom M to successive energy levels, such that the total electron transfer energy, including the difference between the ionization energies of M-H and A, the bond M-H energy, and the ionization energy of t electrons from M, is approximately m 27.2 eV (m is an integer).

[0043] In one embodiment, at least one of the molecule or the positively or negatively charged molecular ion functions as a catalyst by accepting about m·27.2 eV from atomic H, with a concomitant decrease in the magnitude of the potential energy of the molecule or the positively or negatively charged molecular ion of about m·27.2 eV. Exemplary catalysts are HO, OH, the amide group NH, and HS.

[0044] O2 can function as a catalyst or a source of catalyst. The binding energy of the oxygen molecule is 5.165 eV, and the first, second, and third ionization energies of the oxygen atom are 13.61806 eV, 35.11730 eV, and 54.9355 eV, respectively. The reaction O2 → O + O 2+ , O2 → O+O 3+ , and 2O → 2O + provide approximately 2, 4, and 1 times the net enthalpy Eh, respectively, and constitute the catalytic reaction that forms hydrinos by accepting these energies from H to form hydrinos.

[0045] II. Hydrino

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[0046] According to the present disclosure, the binding energy according to Equation (19) is greater than that of a normal hydride ion (approximately 0.75 eV) from p=2 to 23, and is greater than that of a normal hydride ion (approximately 0.75 eV) from p=24 (H -) and small hydrino hydride ions (H - ) is provided. For p=2 through p=24 in Equation (19), the hydride ion binding energies are 3, 6.6, 11.2, 16.7, 22.8, 29.3, 36.1, 42.8, 49.4, 55.5, 61.0, 65.6, 69.2, 71.6, 72.4, 71.6, 68.8, 64.0, 56.8, 47.1, 34.7, 19.3, and 0.69 eV, respectively. Exemplary compositions containing the novel hydride ions are also provided herein.

[0047] Exemplary compounds that include one or more hydrino hydride ions and one or more other elements are also provided. Such compounds are referred to as "hydrino hydride compounds."

[0048] The usual hydrogen species are (a) hydride ion, 0.754 eV ("ordinary hydride ion"), (b) hydrogen atom ("ordinary hydrogen atom"), 13.6 eV, (c) diatomic hydrogen molecule, 15.3 eV ("ordinary hydrogen molecule"), (d) hydrogen molecular ion, 16.3 eV ("ordinary hydrogen molecular ion"), and (e) H + It is characterized by a binding energy of 3,22.6 eV (the "normal trihydrogen molecular ion"). As used herein, with respect to forms of hydrogen, "standard" and "normal" are synonyms.

[0049] According to further embodiments of the present disclosure, for example, (a) approximately

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[0050] According to a further embodiment of the present disclosure, (a) approximately

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[0051] According to one embodiment of the present disclosure, where the compound comprises negatively charged increased binding energy hydrogen species, the compound contains a proton, a normal H + 2, or regular H + 3, etc.

[0052] Provided herein is a method for preparing compounds containing at least one hydrino hydride ion. Such compounds are hereinafter referred to as "hydrino hydride compounds." The method involves converting atomic hydrogen to approximately

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[0053] In one embodiment, very high power and / or energy can be achieved by hydrogen transitioning to hydrinos with high p values ​​in Equation (18) in a process called disequilibrium, which is described in Chapter 5 of Mills GUTCP, which is incorporated by reference. Hydrogen atoms H(1 / p)p=1, 2, 3, ... 137 can further transition to lower energy states given by Equations (10) and (12), where the transition of one atom is catalyzed by a second atom resonantly and non-radiatively accepting m·27.2 eV with a concomitant opposite change in its potential energy. The general formula for the transition from H(1 / p) to H(1 / (p+m)) induced by resonant transfer of m·27.2 eV to H(1 / p') is given by Equation (32):

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[0054] EUV light from the hydrino process can dissociate dihydrino molecules, and the resulting hydrino atoms can act as catalysts for transitions to lower energy states. An example reaction involves the catalysis of H(1 / 4) to H(H / 1 / 17), which can be a reaction product of the catalysis of another H by HOH. Hydrino disproportionation reactions are predicted to produce features in the X-ray region. As shown in equation (5-8), the reaction product of HOH catalysis is

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[0055] Furthermore, the overall response is

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[0056]

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[0057] The novel hydrogen composition of the material is (a) (i) greater than the binding energy of the corresponding normal hydrogen species, or (ii) at least one neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species (hereinafter "increased binding energy hydrogen species") that has a binding energy greater than the binding energy of a hydrogen species for which the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species is unstable or not observed because the binding energy of the ordinary hydrogen species is less than or more negative than the thermal energy at ambient conditions (standard temperature and pressure, STP); (b) at least one other element, The compounds of the present disclosure are hereinafter referred to as "increased binding energy hydrogen compounds."

[0058] "Other element" in this context means an element other than the increased binding energy hydrogen species. Thus, the other element can be a regular hydrogen species or an element other than hydrogen. In one group of compounds, the other element and the increased binding energy hydrogen species are neutral. In another group of compounds, the other element and the increased binding energy hydrogen species are charged, with the other element providing a balancing charge to form a neutral compound. The former group of compounds is characterized by molecular and coordinate bonding. The latter group of compounds is characterized by ionic bonding.

[0059] Also, (a) (i) greater than the binding energy of the corresponding normal hydrogen species, or (ii) at least one neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species (hereinafter "increased binding energy hydrogen species") that has a binding energy greater than the binding energy of a hydrogen species for which the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species is unstable or not observed because the binding energy of the ordinary hydrogen species is less than or more negative than the thermal energy at ambient conditions (standard temperature and pressure, STP); (b) providing novel compounds and molecular ions comprising at least one other element,

[0060] The total energy of a hydrogen species is the sum of the energies required to remove all electrons from the hydrogen species. Hydrogen species according to the present disclosure have a total energy greater than the total energy of a corresponding normal hydrogen species. Increased total energy hydrogen species according to the present disclosure are also referred to as "increased binding energy hydrogen species," although some embodiments of increased total energy hydrogen species may have a first electron binding energy less than the first electron binding energy of the corresponding normal hydrogen species. For example, the first binding energy of the hydride ion of Equation (19) for p=24 is less than the first binding energy of a normal hydride ion, while the total energy of the hydride ion of Equation (19) for p=24 is much greater than the total energy of the corresponding normal hydride ion.

[0061] In this specification, (a) (i) greater than the binding energy of the corresponding normal hydrogen species, or (ii) multiple neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species with binding energies greater than the binding energies of hydrogen species for which the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species are unstable or not observed because the binding energies of ordinary hydrogen species are less than or more negative than thermal energy at ambient conditions (hereinafter "increased binding energy hydrogen species"); and (b) optionally at least one other element, and novel compounds and molecular ions are also provided. The compounds of the present disclosure are hereinafter referred to as "increased binding energy hydrogen compounds."

[0062] The increased binding energy hydrogen species are formed by reacting one or more hydrino atoms with at least one of electrons, hydrino atoms, a compound containing at least one of the above-described increased binding energy hydrogen species, and at least one other atom, molecule, or ion other than the increased binding energy hydrogen species.

[0063] (a) (i) greater than the total energy of ordinary molecular hydrogen, or (ii) multiple neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species with binding energies greater than the binding energies of hydrogen species for which the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species are unstable or not observed because the binding energies of ordinary hydrogen species are less than or more negative than thermal energy at ambient conditions (hereinafter "increased binding energy hydrogen species"); and (b) optionally one other element, and novel compounds and molecular ions comprising the compounds of the present disclosure are hereinafter referred to as "increased binding energy hydrogen compounds."

[0064] In one embodiment, compounds are provided that include at least one of: (a) a hydride ion having a binding energy according to Equation (19) greater than that of a normal hydride ion (approximately 0.8 eV) for p=24 ("increased binding energy hydride ion" or "hydrino hydride ion"), (b) a hydrogen atom ("increased binding energy hydrogen atom" or "hydrino") having a binding energy greater than that of a normal hydrogen atom (approximately 13.6 eV), (c) a hydrogen molecule ("increased binding energy hydrogen molecule" or "dihydrino") having a first binding energy greater than approximately 15.3 eV, and (d) a hydrogen molecular ion ("increased binding energy molecular hydrogen ion" or "dihydrino molecular ion") having a binding energy greater than approximately 16.3 eV. In this disclosure, increased binding energy hydrogen compounds and compounds are also referred to as lower energy hydrogen species and compounds. Hydrinos include increased binding energy hydrogen compounds or equivalent lower energy hydrogen species.

[0065] III. Chemical Reactors The present disclosure also relates to other reactors for producing the increased binding energy hydrogen species and compounds of the present disclosure, such as dihydrino molecules and hydrino hydride compounds. Further products of catalysis are electromotive force and, optionally, plasma and light, depending on the type of cell. Such reactors are hereinafter referred to as "hydrogen reactors" or "hydrogen cells." The hydrogen reactor includes a cell for producing hydrinos. The cell for producing hydrinos can take the form of a chemical reactor or a gas-fuel cell, such as a gas discharge cell, a plasma torch cell, or a microwave power cell, as well as an electrochemical cell. In one embodiment, the catalyst is HOH, and the source of at least one of HOH and H is ice. In one embodiment, the cell includes an arc discharge cell and includes ice at at least one electrode such that the discharge involves at least a portion of the ice.

[0066] In one embodiment, the arc discharge cell includes a container, two electrodes, a high-voltage power supply, such as one capable of a voltage in the range of approximately 100 V to 1 MV and a current in the range of approximately 1 A to 100 kA, and a source, such as a means for forming and supplying HO droplets. The droplets are transferable between the electrodes. In one embodiment, the droplets initiate the ignition of an arc plasma. In one embodiment, the water arc plasma includes H and HOH, which can react to form hydrinos. The ignition rate and corresponding energy output rate can be controlled by controlling the size of the droplets and the rate at which they are supplied to the electrodes. The source of high voltage can include at least one high-voltage capacitor that can be charged by the high-voltage power supply. In one embodiment, the arc discharge cell further includes a power converter, such as one of the present invention, such as at least one PV converter, and a heat engine for converting electromotive force from the hydrino process, such as light and heat, into electricity.

[0067] Exemplary embodiments of cells for producing hydrinos can take the form of liquid fuel cells, solid fuel cells, heterogeneous fuel cells, CIHT cells, and SF-CIHT or SunCell® cells. Each of these cells comprises (i) a source of atomic hydrogen, (ii) at least one catalyst selected from a solid catalyst, a molten catalyst, a liquid catalyst, a gas catalyst, or mixtures thereof, for producing hydrinos, and (iii) a vessel for reacting the hydrogen and a catalyst for producing hydrinos. As used herein and contemplated by this disclosure, the term "hydrogen" refers to protium ( 1 H) as well as deuterium ( 2 H), and tritium ( 3H). Exemplary chemical reaction mixtures and reactors may include SF-CIHT, CIHT, or thermal battery embodiments of this disclosure. Additional exemplary embodiments are shown in this chemical reactor section. An example of a reaction mixture with HO as a catalyst formed during the reaction of the mixture is given in this disclosure. Other catalysts may serve to form increased binding energy hydrogen species and compounds. Reactions and conditions can be adjusted from these exemplary cases to parameters such as reactants, reactant wt%, H pressure, and reaction temperature. Suitable reactants, conditions, and parameter ranges are those of this disclosure. Hydrinos and molecular hydrinos are indicated as products of the reactors of this disclosure by the predicted continuum emission bands at integer multiples of 13.6 eV, otherwise known as Doppler line broadening of the H line, H line reversal, unexplained anomalously large H kinetic energies measured by the formation of plasma without a breakdown magnetic field, and anomalous plasma afterglow times reported in Mills Prior Publications. Data such as those relating to CIHT cells and solid fuels will be independently verified off-site by other researchers. Hydrino formation by the disclosed cells has also been confirmed by electrical energy output, which is continuous over extended periods of time, multiples of the electrical input, and in most cases exceeds 10 times the input without an alternative source. Identification of the predicted molecular hydrino H2(1 / 4) as a product of the CIHT cell and solid fuel was confirmed by MAS H NMR, which showed a predicted upfield shift matrix peak at approximately -4.4 ppm; ToF-SIMS and ESI-ToFMS, which showed H2(1 / 4) complexed to the getter matrix as an m / e = M + n2 peak (M is the mass of the parent ion, and n is an integer electron beam excited emission); and electron beam excited emission spectroscopy and photoluminescence emission spectroscopy, which showed predicted rotational and vibrational spectra of H2(1 / 4) with a 16th power of the energy of H2 or a quantum number p = 4 squared, with a rotational energy of 1950 cm2 for H2(1 / 4), which is 16th power of the H2 rotational energy or a quantum number p = 4 squared. -1Raman and FTIR spectroscopy showed a predicted H2(1 / 4) total binding energy of 500 eV, XPS showed a predicted H2(1 / 4) total binding energy of 500 eV, and a ToF-SIMS peak with an arrival time before the m / e=1 peak corresponding to H at a kinetic energy of approximately 204 eV, which matched the predicted energy release from H to H(1 / 4) and the energy transferred to the third body. This is confirmed by Mills Prior Publications and R. Mills, X Yu, Y. Lu, G Chu, J. He, J. Lotoski, "Catalyst Induced Hydrino Transition (CIHT) Electrochemical Cell," International Journal of Energy Research, (2013) and R. Mills, J. Lotoski, J. Kong, G Chu, J. He, J. Trevey, "High-Power-Density Catalyst Induced Hydrino Transition (CIHT) Electrochemical Cell," International Journal of Energy Research, (2013). (CIHT) Electrochemical Cell) (2014), which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

[0068] Using both a water flow calorimeter and a Setaram DSC131 differential scanning calorimeter (DSC), hydrino production by the disclosed cells, such as cells containing solid fuels for generating thermoelectric power, was confirmed by the observation of thermal energy from the hydrino-forming solid fuel exceeding the maximum theoretical energy by a factor of 60. MAS H NMR showed the predicted H2(1 / 4) upfield matrix shift of approximately -4.4 ppm. -1The Raman peak beginning at 1 / 4 was consistent with the free-space rotational energy of H2(1 / 4) (0.2414 eV). These results were reported in Mills Prior Publications and in R. Mills, J. Lotoski, W. Good, and J. He, "Solid Fuels that Form HOH Catalyst," (2014), which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

[0069] IV. SunCell and Power Converter In one embodiment, a power generation system for directly generating at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy comprises at least one vessel; (a) at least one catalyst or catalysts comprising nascent HO; (b) at least one source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen; and (c) reactants comprising at least one of a conductor and a conductive matrix; at least one pair of electrodes, such as liquid electrodes; a power source providing short bursts of high current electrical energy; and at least one direct converter, such as at least one plasma power converter, such as a PDC, a magnetohydrodynamic converter, a photovoltaic converter, an optical rectenna, such as that reported in A. Sharma, V. Singh, T.L. Bougher, B.A. Cola, “A carbon nanotube optical rectenna,” Nature Nanotechnology, Vol. 10, (2015), pp. 1027-1032, doi:10.1038 / nnano.2015.220, which is incorporated by reference in its entirety; and at least one thermal energy to electrical power converter. In a further embodiment, the vessel is capable of at least one of atmospheric, superatmospheric, and subatmospheric pressure. In another embodiment, the at least one direct plasma power converter is a plasma dynamic power converter,

number

[0070] In addition to the UV photovoltaics and thermophotovoltaics of the present disclosure, SunCell® may also include other electrical conversion means known in the art, such as thermionic, magnetohydrodynamic, turbines, microturbines, Rankine or Brayton cycle turbines, chemical, and electrochemical power conversion systems. Rankine cycle turbines may include supercritical CO2, organics such as fluorocarbons or fluorocarbons, or vapors as the working fluid. In Rankine or Brayton cycle turbines, SunCell® may provide thermal energy output to at least one of the turbine system's preheater, recuperator, boiler, and externally fired heat exchanger stages. In one embodiment, a Brayton cycle turbine includes a SunCell® turbine heater integrated into the turbine's combustion section. The SunCell® turbine heater may include a duct that receives an airflow from at least one of a compressor and a recuperator, where the air is heated, and the duct directs the heated, compressed airflow to the inlet of a turbine to perform pressure-volume work. The SunCell® turbine heater may replace or supplement the combustion chamber of a gas turbine. The Rankine or Brayton cycle may be closed, where the power converter further comprises at least one of a condenser and a cooler.

[0071] The converter may be one described in Mills' prior publications and prior Mills applications. The H and HOH sources and hydrino reactants, such as the SunCell® system, may be any of the converters described in this disclosure or in previous U.S. patent applications, e.g., Hydrogen Catalytic Reactor, PCT / US08 / 61455, PCT filed April 24, 2008; Heterogeneous Hydrogen Catalytic Reactor, PCT / US09 / 052072, PCT filed July 29, 2009; Heterogeneous Hydrogen Catalytic Power System, PCT / US10 / 27828, PCT filed March 18, 2010; Electrochemical Hydrogen Catalytic Power System, PCT / US11 / 27828, PCT filed March 18, 2010; 28889, PCT application filed March 17, 2011; H2O-based electrochemical hydrogen catalytic power system, PCT / US12 / 31369, PCT application filed March 20, 2012; CIHT power system, PCT / US13 / 041938, PCT application filed May 21, 2013; power generation system and method therefor, PCT / IB2014 / 058177, PCT application filed January 10, 2014; photovoltaic power generation system and method therefor, PCT / US14 / 32584, PCT application filed April 1, 2014 PCT application filed on May 29, 2015; Electrical power generation system and method related thereto, PCT / US2015 / 033165, PCT application filed on May 29, 2015; Method related to ultraviolet power generation system, PCT / US2015 / 065826, PCT application filed on December 15, 2015; Thermophotovoltaic generator, PCT / US16 / 12620, PCT application filed on January 8, 2016; Thermophotovoltaic generator network, PCT / US2017 / 035025, PCT application filed on December 7, 2017; Thermophotovoltaic generator, PCT / US2017 / 013972, PCT application filed January 18, 2017; extreme and deep ultraviolet solar cells, PCT / US2018 / 012635, PCT application filed January 5, 2018; magnetohydrodynamic generators, PCT / US18 / 17765, PCT application filed February 12, 2018; and magnetohydrodynamic generators, PCT / US2018 / 034842, PCT application filed May 29, 2018 (the "Mills Prior Application"), which are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties.

[0072] In one embodiment, HO is ignited to form hydrinos with a high release of energy in the form of at least one of heat, plasma, and electromagnetic (light) energy output. (In this disclosure, "ignition" refers to a very high reaction rate of H to hydrinos, which may manifest as a burst, pulse, or other form of high energy release.) HO may comprise a fuel that can be ignited by application of a high current, such as a current in the range of about 10 A to 100,000 A. This can be achieved by applying a high voltage, such as about 5,000 to 100,000 V, to first form a highly conductive plasma, such as an arc. Alternatively, the high current can be passed through a conductive matrix, e.g., molten metal such as silver, that further contains a compound or mixture containing HO or hydrino reactants, such as H and HOH, resulting in a highly conductive fuel, such as a solid fuel. (In this disclosure, solid fuel is used to refer to a reaction mixture that forms a catalyst, such as HOH and H, that further reacts to form hydrinos. The plasma voltage may be low, such as in the range of about 1 V to 100 V. However, the reaction mixture may include physical states other than solid. In embodiments, the reaction mixture may be at least one of a gas, liquid, molten matrix, solid, slurry, sol-gel, solution, mixture, gas suspension, airflow, such as a molten conductive matrix, such as a molten metal, such as at least one of molten silver, a silver-copper alloy, and copper, as well as other states known to those skilled in the art.) In one embodiment, a solid fuel with very low resistivity includes a reaction mixture that includes HO. The low resistance is believed to be due to the conductive component of the reaction mixture. In embodiments, the resistance of the solid fuel is about 10 -9 ohms ~ 100 ohms, 10 -8 ohms to 10 ohms, 10 -3 ohm to 1 ohm, 10 -4 ohms ~ 10 -1 ohms, and 10 -4 ohms ~ 10 -2In another embodiment, the high resistivity fuel comprises HO with a small mole percentage or trace amount of added compounds or materials. In the latter case, a high current can be passed through the fuel to achieve ignition by causing breakdown and forming a highly conductive state such as an arc or arc plasma.

[0073] In one embodiment, the reactants may include a source of HO and a conductive matrix to form at least one of a source of catalyst, a catalyst, a source of atomic hydrogen, and atomic hydrogen. In a further embodiment, the reactants including the source of HO may include at least one of bulk HO, a state other than bulk HO, and a compound that reacts to form HO and release bound HO. Furthermore, HO may be in at least one of absorbed HO, bound HO, physisorbed HO, and water of hydration, and the bound HO may include a compound that interacts with HO. In an embodiment, the reactants may include a conductor and one or more compounds or materials that undergo release of at least one of bulk HO, absorbed HO, bound HO, physisorbed HO, and water of hydration. In other embodiments, the source of nascent HO catalyst and at least one of the source of atomic hydrogen may include at least one of: (a) at least one source of HO, (b) at least one source of oxygen, and (c) at least one source of hydrogen.

[0074] In one embodiment, the hydrino reaction rate depends on the application or development of the high current. In a SunCell® embodiment, the reactants to form hydrinos are subjected to a low voltage, high current, high power pulse that causes very fast reaction rates and energy release. In an exemplary embodiment, the 60 Hz voltage is less than 15 V peak and the current is 100 A / cm. 2 ~50,000A / cm 2 Peak power is in the range of 1000W / cm 2 ~750,000W / cm 2Other frequencies, voltages, currents, and powers within about 1 / 100 to 100 times these parameters are suitable. In one embodiment, the hydrino reaction rate depends on the high current application or development. In one embodiment, the voltage is selected to induce a large AC, DC, or mixed AC-DC current within at least one of the following ranges: 100 A to 1,000,000 A, 1 kA to 100,000 A, and 10 kA to 50 kA. The DC or peak AC current density is greater than 100 A / cm. 2 ~1,000,000A / cm 2 , 1000A / cm 2 ~100,000A / cm 2 , and 2000A / cm 2 ~50,000A / cm 2 The DC or peak AC voltage may be within at least one range selected from approximately 0.1 V to 1000 V, 0.1 V to 100 V, 0.1 V to 15 V, and 1 V to 15 V. The AC frequency may be within approximately 0.1 Hz to 10 GHz, 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 10 Hz to 100 kHz, and 100 Hz to 10 kHz. The pulse time may be approximately 10 -6 seconds~10 seconds, 10 -5 seconds ~ 1 seconds, 10 -4 seconds to 0.1 seconds, and 10 -3 The time may be within at least one range selected from 0.01 seconds to 0.01 seconds.

[0075] In one embodiment, energy transfer from the atomic hydrogen catalyst to the hydrino state results in ionization of the catalyst. Electrons ionized from the catalyst can accumulate in the reaction mixture and the vessel, causing a space charge buildup. The space charge can shift the energy levels for subsequent energy transfer from the atomic hydrogen to the catalyst, resulting in a slower reaction rate. In one embodiment, application of a high current removes the space charge, increasing the hydrino reaction rate. In another embodiment, a high current, such as an arc current, brings a reactant, such as water, which can serve as a source of H and HOH catalyst, to very high temperatures. The high temperatures can cause the thermal decomposition of water into at least one of H and HOH catalyst. In one embodiment, the SunCell® reaction mixture includes a source of H and a source of catalyst, such as nH (n is an integer) and / or HOH. At least one of nH and HOH may be formed by thermal decomposition or pyrolysis of at least one physical phase of water, such as at least one of solid, liquid, and gaseous water. The pyrolysis can occur at elevated temperatures, such as temperatures within at least one of the following ranges: about 500 K to 10,000 K, 1000 K to 7000 K, and 1000 K to 5000 K. In an exemplary embodiment, the reaction temperature is about 3500 K to 4000 K, and the mole fraction of atomic H is high, as shown by J. Lede, F. Lapicque, and J. Villermaux [J. Leede, F. Lapicque, J. Villermaux, "Production of hydrogen by direct thermal decomposition of water," International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 1983, V8 , 1983, pp. 675-679; H.G. Jellinek, H. Kachi, "The catalytic thermal decomposition of water and the production of hydrogen," International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 1984, V9, pp.677-688; SZ Baykara, "Hydrogen production by direct solar thermal decomposition of water, possibilities for improvement of process efficiency," International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2004, V29 , pp. 1451-1458; SZ Baykara, "Experimental solar water thermolysis," International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2004, V29, pp. 1459-1469, which are incorporated herein by reference. Pyrolysis can be assisted by a solid surface, such as one of the cell sections. The solid surface can be heated to a high temperature by the input energy and the plasma sustained by the hydrino reaction. The pyrolysis gas can be cooled, such as downstream of the ignition zone, to prevent the products from combining or reversing to form starting water. The reaction mixture can include a coolant, such as at least one of a solid, liquid, or gas phase at a temperature lower than that of the product gas. Cooling of the pyrolysis reaction product gas can be achieved by contacting the product with a coolant. The coolant can include at least one of a cold stream, water, and ice.

[0076] In one embodiment, a SunCell® generator includes an energy output system for generating at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy, the system comprising: (a) at least one catalyst or catalysts comprising nascent HO; (b) at least one source of HO or HO; (c) at least one source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen; and (d) a reactant comprising at least one of a conductor and a conductive matrix; at least one reactant injection system; at least one reactant ignition system that causes the reactants to form at least one of a light-emitting plasma and a heat-emitting plasma; a system for recovering reactants; Additional reactants (a) at least one catalyst or catalysts comprising nascent HO; (b) at least one source of HO or HO; (c) at least one source of atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen; and (d) at least one regeneration or resupply system for regenerating the additional reactant from the reaction product or for resupplying the additional reactant, the regeneration or resupply system comprising at least one of a conductor and a conductive matrix; and at least one power converter or generator of at least one of light and thermal energy output to electrical power and / or thermal energy output, such as at least one of a photovoltaic converter, a photoelectric converter, a plasma dynamic converter, a thermionic converter, a thermoelectric converter, a Stirling engine, a Brayton cycle engine, a Rankine cycle engine, a heat engine, and a heater.

[0077] In one embodiment, the fuel or reactants may include at least one of H, a source of H, a source of catalyst, a source of HO, and HO. Suitable reactants may include a conductive metal matrix and a hydrate, such as at least one of an alkali hydrate, an alkaline earth hydrate, and a transition metal hydrate. The hydrate may include at least one of MgCl·6HO, BaI·2HO, and ZnCl·4HO. Alternatively, the reactants may include at least one of silver, copper, hydrogen, oxygen, and water.

[0078] At least one of the HO vapor pressure, H pressure, and O pressure of the reaction cell chamber can be in at least one of the ranges of about 0.01 Torr to 100 atmospheres, 0.1 Torr to 10 atmospheres, and 0.5 Torr to 1 atmosphere. The electromagnetic (EM) pumping rate can be in at least one of the ranges of about 0.01 ml / sec to 10,000 ml / sec, 0.1 ml / sec to 1000 ml / sec, and 0.1 ml / sec to 100 ml / sec.

[0079] The ignition system is (a) a set of solid or liquid metal electrodes that provide at least one of reactant confinement or a conductive matrix or circuit; (b) a power supply that provides short bursts of high-current electrical energy sufficient to cause the reactants to react and form a plasma. The power supply can receive power from a power converter. In one embodiment, the reactant ignition system includes at least one pair of electrodes separated to form an open circuit, which is closed by the injection of reactants, allowing a high current to flow and achieving ignition. In another embodiment, the electrodes include liquid metal from multiple injectors, such as electromagnetic (EM) pump injectors, and the electrical circuit of the ignition system is closed by the intersection of at least two injected molten metal streams.

[0080] In one embodiment, the SunCell® may include a liquid electrode. The electrode may include a liquid metal. The liquid metal may include molten metal of a fuel. The injection system may include at least two reservoirs 5c and at least two electromagnetic pumps, which may be substantially electrically isolated from one another. Each nozzle 5q of the multiple injection systems may be oriented to intersect multiple molten metal streams. Each molten metal stream may have a connection to a terminal of a power source 2 to provide voltage and current to the intersecting molten metal streams. Current may flow from one nozzle 5q through that molten metal stream to the other molten metal streams and nozzle 5q and return to a corresponding terminal of the power source 2. The cell includes a molten metal return system that facilitates returning the injected molten metal to the multiple vessels. The return system may include a gravity flow system. In another embodiment, the ignition current may include an induced current maintained by a changing magnetic field passing through a current loop including the intersecting molten metal streams. The power source may include an AC power source feeding a primary transformer winding that provides a changing magnetic field through a current loop including the intersecting molten metal streams.

[0081] In one embodiment, the EM pump includes an inlet riser 5qa ( Figure 8 (formerly Figure 2I168)) The conduit may be connected to EM pump tube 5k6 on the inlet side of EM pump magnet 5k4. The tube includes at least one inlet for the flow of silver. The inlet may include at least one of an opening at the top of the tube and at least one hole in the side of the tube. In an exemplary embodiment, the inlet riser may include an open-ended conduit or tube having a height corresponding to the desired height of the molten metal level in the vessel. The inlet riser, located below the molten metal level in the vessel, allows molten metal to flow into the EM pump until the molten metal level in the reservoir matches that of the lowest inlet of inlet riser 5qa. The inlet riser may include a refractory material such as a refractory metal, carbon, or a ceramic such as magnesium, hafnia, zirconia, alumina, or other refractory material of the present disclosure. The lowest inlet of the inlet riser may have a height higher than nozzle 5q to ensure that the nozzle is always located below the molten metal level during operation. Alternatively, the highest inlet of the inlet riser may have a height lower than the nozzle 5q to maintain the inlet riser always positioned below the molten metal surface during operation. The subsurface position of either the nozzle 5q or the inlet riser 5qa may reduce or eliminate the possibility of the ignition current electrically shorting the nozzle or the inlet riser. The subsurface nozzle may be a positive electrode that may be positioned below the liquid surface to protect it from the hydrino reaction plasma. The inlet riser may be non-conductive. The inlet riser may be coated with a coating, such as the coatings disclosed herein. The coating may be non-conductive. The inlet riser may include a refractory metal, such as Mo, which may be covered with a sheath or cladding. The sheath or cladding may include a non-conductor. In one embodiment, the EM pump may include at least one voltage and current sensor to measure the voltage and current of the induction and conduction EM pump. A processor uses the sensor data to control the voltage and current and thus the pumping rate. In one embodiment, the SunCell® may be at least one monitored and controlled by a wireless device such as a cell phone. The SunCell® may include an antenna for transmitting and receiving data and control signals.

[0082] In one embodiment, the ignition system comprises at least one switch that allows current to flow and cuts off the current once ignition is achieved. The current flow may be initiated by reactants completing a gap between electrodes. The switching may be performed electronically, for example, by means of at least one insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) and / or silicon controlled rectifier (SCR), and at least one metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET). Alternatively, ignition may be mechanically switched. The current may be cut off after ignition to optimize the hydrino production energy output relative to the input ignition energy. The ignition system may comprise a switch that allows a controllable amount of energy to flow into the fuel to cause ignition and turns off the energy output at the stage where plasma is generated. In one embodiment, a power source providing short bursts of high-current electrical energy comprises: a voltage selected to generate a high current AC, DC, or mixed AC-DC in at least one of the ranges of 100 A to 1,000,000 A, 1 kA to 100,000 A, and 10 kA to 50 kA; 1A / cm 2 ~1,000,000A / cm 2、 1000A / cm 2 ~100,000A / cm 2 , and 2000A / cm 2 ~50,000A / cm 2 and at least one of a DC or a peak AC current density within at least one of the ranges of The DC or peak AC voltage is within at least one of the ranges of 0.1 V to 500 kV, 0.1 V to 100 kV, and 1 V to 50 kV, and the AC frequency is within at least one of the ranges of 0.1 Hz to 10 GHz, 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 10 Hz to 100 kHz, and 100 Hz to 10 kHz.

[0083] The power output of the SunCell cell may include at least one of thermal and plasma energy output that may be converted to electricity by at least one of a thermophotovoltaic converter and a magneto-fluidic converter. Alternatively, the energy output may be collected by a heat exchanger to provide a thermal energy output.

[0084] In one embodiment including a dual molten metal injector, the trajectory of the molten metal stream from one nozzle may be in a first plane, and the plane of the trajectory of the molten metal stream from the second nozzle may be in a second plane rotated about at least one of two orthogonal axes of the first plane. The molten metal streams may approach each other along an oblique direction. In one embodiment, the trajectory of the molten metal stream from the first nozzle is in a yz plane, and the second nozzle is laterally displaced from the yz plane and rotated toward the yz plane so that the molten metal streams approach obliquely. In an exemplary embodiment, the trajectory of the molten metal stream from the first nozzle is in a yz plane, and the trajectory of the molten metal stream from the second nozzle is in a plane defined by a rotation of the yz plane about the z axis, and the second nozzle can be laterally displaced from the yz plane and rotated toward the yz plane so that the molten metal streams approach obliquely. In one embodiment, the trajectories intersect at elevations of the first and second molten metal streams, each adjusted to cause the intersection. In one embodiment, the outlet conduit of the second EM pump is offset from the outlet conduit of the first EM pump tube, and the nozzle of the second EM pump is rotated toward the nozzle of the second EM pump, causing the molten metal streams to approach each other at an angle, such that the intersection of the molten metal streams is achieved by adjusting the relative elevations of the molten metal streams. The elevations of the molten metal streams may be controlled by a controller, such as one that controls the EM pump current of at least one EM pump.

[0085] In one embodiment involving two nozzles of two injectors initially aligned in the same yz-plane, the oblique relative trajectories of the injected molten metal streams to achieve intersection of the injected molten metal streams may be achieved by at least one operation of slight rotation about the z-axis of at least one corresponding vessel 5c and slight bending of the nozzle translated out of the yz-plane by rotation towards the yz-plane.

[0086] In another embodiment, the injection system may include an electromagnetic field source, such as a source of at least one of a magnetic field and an electric field, to deflect at least one of the injected molten metal streams to achieve alignment of the injected molten metal streams. At least one of the injected molten metal streams may be deflected by a Lorentz force due to the movement of a corresponding conductor through the applied magnetic field and the force between the applied magnetic field and at least one current, such as a Hall or ignition current. The deflection may be controlled by controlling at least one of the magnetic field strength, the flow rate of the molten metal, and the ignition current. The magnetic field may be provided by at least one of a permanent magnet, an electromagnet that can be cooled, and a superconducting magnet. The magnetic field strength may be controlled by at least one of controlling the distance between the magnet and the molten metal stream and the magnetic field strength by controlling the current.

[0087] The ignition current or resistance may be measured to determine the optimal intersection point. The optimal orientation may be achieved when the current is highest or the resistance is lowest at a set voltage. A controller, which may include at least one of a programmable logic controller and a computer, may achieve the optimization.

[0088] The SunCell® generator includes components having parameters such as those disclosed that are sensed and controlled. In embodiments, a computer with sensors and a control system monitors (i) the inlet and outlet temperatures, coolant pressure, and flow rate of each cooling device in each cooling system, such as at least one of the power converter, EM pump magnet, and inductively coupled heater; (ii) the ignition system voltage, current, power, frequency, and duty cycle; (iii) the EM pump injection flow rate; (iv) the voltage, current, and power of the inductively coupled heater and electromagnetic pump 5k; (v) the pressure within the cell; (vi) the cell wall temperature; (vii) the heater power of each component; (viii) the current and magnetic flux of the electromagnetic pump; (ix) the silver melting temperature, flow rate, and pressure; and (xi) the pressure, temperature, and flow rate of each permeated or injected gas, such as H2, O2, or H2O, as well as general The SunCell® may sense and control (xi) the mixture formed by the regulator supplied through a gas injection manifold or housing; (xi) the intensity of light incident on the PV converter or the plasma energy output to the MHD converter; (xii) the voltage, current, and power of the converter; (xiii) the voltage, current, power, and other parameters of any voltage regulator; (xiv) the voltage, current, and power of the SunCell® generator to parasitic and / or external loads; (xv) the voltage, current, and power input to parasitic loads, such as inductively coupled heaters, electromagnetic pumps, cooling devices, sensors, and / or controls; and (xvi) the voltage, current, and state of charge of a starter circuit with energy storage. In one embodiment, the SunCell® may be monitored and controlled by at least one wireless device, such as a cellular phone. The SunCell® may include an antenna for transmitting and receiving data and control signals.

[0089] The system further includes a starting power / power source, such as a battery, e.g., a lithium-ion battery. Alternatively, external power, such as grid power, may be provided for starting via a connection from an external power source to a generator. The connection may include an energy output bus bar. The starting power source may be at least one of a heater for maintaining the molten metal conductive matrix, a power source for the injection system, and a power source for the ignition system.

[0090] The SunCell® includes a high-pressure water electrolyzer, e.g., a proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolyzer with high-pressure water to provide high-pressure hydrogen. The H2 and O2 chambers each include a recombiner to remove contaminants H2 and O2, respectively. The PEM can function as at least one of a separator and a salt bridge between the anode and cathode compartments, allowing hydrogen to be generated at the cathode and oxygen to be generated as a separate gas at the anode. The cathode can include a di-dichalcogenide hydrogen generation catalyst, such as one containing at least one of niobium and tantalum, which may further include sulfur. The cathode can include a catalyst known in the art, such as Pt or Ni. Hydrogen can be generated at high pressure and supplied to the reaction cell chamber 5b31 or by permeation, such as through a blackbody radiator. The SunCell® can include a hydrogen gas supply tube from the cathode compartment to a hydrogen gas supply point for the cell. The SunCell® may include an oxygen gas supply line from the anode compartment to a supply point for oxygen gas to a storage container or vent. In one embodiment, the SunCell® includes a sensor, a processor, and an electrolysis current controller. The sensor may sense at least one of: (i) hydrogen pressure in at least one chamber, such as the electrolysis cathode compartment, the hydrogen supply line, the outer chamber 5b3a1, or the reaction cell chamber 5b31; (ii) the power output of the SunCell®; and (iii) the electrolysis current. In one embodiment, the hydrogen supply to the cell is controlled by controlling the electrolysis current. The hydrogen supply may increase with increasing electrolysis current, or vice versa. The hydrogen may be at least one under high pressure and may include a low storage amount so that the hydrogen supply to the cell can be controlled with a rapid time response by controlling the electrolyte current.

[0091] In another embodiment, hydrogen can be generated by pyrolysis using supplied water and heat generated by the SunCell®. The pyrolysis cycle can include one disclosed or one known in the art, such as one based on metals and their oxides, e.g., SnO / Sn and / or ZnO / Zn. In embodiments where the inductively coupled heater, EM pump, and ignition system only consume power at startup, hydrogen can be generated by pyrolysis so that parasitic power requirements are very low. The SunCell® can include a battery, such as a lithium-ion battery, to operate systems such as gas sensors and to power control systems, such as systems for reactive plasma gases.

[0092] Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) converter Charge separation based on the formation of a mass flow of ions or conductive media in a crossed magnetic field is a technique known as magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) power conversion. Positive and negative ions undergo opposite Lorentzian motion and are received by corresponding MHD electrodes, affecting the voltage between those electrodes. A typical MHD method of forming a mass flow of ions is to expand a high-pressure gas into which ions are injected from a nozzle to create a high-velocity stream through a crossed magnetic field with a set of MHD electrodes crossing the deflecting field to receive the deflected ions. In one embodiment, the pressure is typically greater than atmospheric pressure, and directional mass flow can be achieved through the hydrino reaction to form a highly conductive, high-pressure, high-temperature molten metal vapor and a plasma that expands to generate a high-velocity stream through the crossed-field section of the MHD converter. The high-velocity stream can be axial or radial through the MHD converter. Further directional flow can be achieved with confinement magnets such as Helmholtz coils or magnetic bottles.

[0093] in particular, Figure 1 (formerly: Figure 2I161) to Figure 46 (formerly: Figure 2I206)The MHD power generation system shown in Figure 1 includes a disclosed hydrino reaction plasma source, such as an EM pump 5k, at least one vessel 5c, at least two electrodes, such as those including a dual molten metal injector 5k61, a source of hydrino reactants, such as a source of HOH catalyst and H, an ignition system including a power source 2 that applies voltage and current to the electrodes to form plasma from the hydrino reactants, and an MHD generator. The components of the MHD generator system, including the hydrino reaction plasma source and the MHD generator, are constructed from at least one of oxidation-resistant materials, such as oxidation-resistant metals, metals with oxidation-resistant coatings, and ceramics that comprise the system, allowing the system to be operated in air. In an embodiment of the dual molten metal injector, a high electric field is achieved by maintaining pulsed injections that include intermittent current. The plasma is generated by pulsing the silver molten metal streams by disconnecting and reconnecting them. Voltage may be applied until the dual molten metal streams connect. The pulsing may include high frequencies by causing corresponding high frequency disconnection-reconnection of the metal flow. The connection-reconnection may occur naturally or may be controlled by controlling at least one of the hydrino reaction energy output, such as by the disclosed means, and the rate of molten metal pouring, such as by controlling the EM pump current. In one embodiment, the ignition system may include a voltage and current source, such as a DC power supply and a bank of capacitors, to achieve pulse ignition with capacity for high current pulses.

[0094] Figure 1 (formerly Figure 2I161) ~ Figure 46 (formerly: Figure 2I206) The magnetohydrodynamic generator shown in Figure 1 may include a source of magnetic flux transverse to the z-axis, molten metal vapor axially through the MHD converter 300, and a direction of plasma flow. The conductive flow may have a preferential velocity along the z-axis due to the expansion of the gas along the z-axis. Further directional flow may be achieved with confining magnets such as Helmholtz coils or magnetic bottles. Metal electrons and ions therefore propagate in the region of transverse magnetic flux. The Lorentz force on the propagating electrons and ions is: F(vector) = ev(vector) × B(vector) (38) This force is in the direction transverse to the velocity of the charge and the magnetic field, and is opposite for positive and negative ions. Thus, a transverse current is formed. The source of the transverse magnetic field may include components that provide transverse magnetic fields of different strengths as a function of position along the z-axis to optimize the cross-deflection (Eq. (38)) of flowing charges with parallel velocity dispersion.

[0095] The molten metal in vessel 5c may be in at least one of a liquid and a gaseous state. The molten metal in vessel 5c may be defined as an MHD working medium and may be referred to as such, or may be referred to as molten metal, in which case the molten metal may further be in at least one of a liquid and a gaseous state. Certain states, such as molten metal, liquid metal, metal vapor, or gaseous metal, are usable, and other physical states may exist. An exemplary molten metal is silver, which may be in at least one of a liquid and a gaseous state. The MHD working medium may further include additives, including at least one of an added metal, a compound, such as one of those disclosed herein, which may be in at least one of a liquid and a gaseous state over the operating temperature range, and a gas, such as at least one of a noble gas, such as helium or argon, water, H2, and other plasma gases disclosed herein. The MHD working medium additive may be in any desired ratio with the MHD working medium. In one embodiment, the ratio of the medium to the additive medium is selected to provide the desired electrical conversion performance of the MHD converter. A working medium such as silver or a silver-copper alloy may be used under supersaturated conditions.

[0096] In one embodiment, the MHD converter 300 comprises at least one of a Faraday, channel-hole, and disk-hole type. In a channel-hole MHD embodiment, the expansion or power generation channel 308 may be oriented vertically along the z-axis. Molten metal plasma, such as silver vapor, and the plasma flow through an accelerator section, such as a restriction or nozzle throat 307, followed by an expansion section 308. The channel may include a solenoid magnet 306, such as a superconducting magnet or permanent magnet, such as a Halbach array, oriented transverse to the flow direction along the x-axis. The magnet may be secured by an MHD magnet mounting bracket 306a. The magnet may include a liquid cryogen or a cryogenic refrigerator with or without a liquid cryogen. The cryogenic refrigerator may include a dry dilution refrigerator. The magnet may include a yoke magnetic field return path, such as a C-shaped or rectangular back yoke. An exemplary permanent magnet material is SmCo, and exemplary yoke materials are magnetic CRS, cold-rolled steel, or iron. The generator may include at least one set of electrodes, such as segment electrodes 304 along the y-axis, to receive transverse Lorentz-deflected ions that cross a magnetic field (B(vector)) and generate a voltage across the MHD electrodes 304. In alternative embodiments, at least one channel, such as the power generation channel 308, may include a shape other than one with planar walls, such as a cylindrical-walled channel. The generation of magnetohydrodynamic fluids is disclosed by Walsh [E.M. Walsh, Energy Conversion Electromechanical, Direct, Nuclear, Ronald Press Company, NY, NY, (1967), pp. 221m-248], the complete disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference.

[0097] The MHD magnet 306 may include at least one of a permanent magnet and an electromagnet. The electromagnet 306 may be at least one of an uncooled, water-cooled, and superconducting magnet with corresponding cryogenic management. Exemplary magnets are solenoid or saddle coils that can magnetize the MHD channel 308 and racetrack coils that can magnetize the disk channel. The superconducting magnet system may include at least one cryocooler and a cryogen Dewar system. The superconducting magnet system 306 includes: (i) a superconducting coil, in which a superconductor such as NbTi or NbSn is wound on a conventional conductor such as copper wire, and which can be protected from temporary local quenching of the superconducting state caused by means such as vibration, or a high temperature superconductor (HTS) such as YBa2Cu3O7, commonly referred to as YBCO-123 or simply YBCO; (ii) a liquid helium dewar that supplies liquid helium to both sides of the coil; (iii) a liquid nitrogen dewar with liquid nitrogen at the inner and outer radii of the solenoid magnet, both of which may include radiation baffles and radiation shields and whose walls may include at least one of copper, stainless steel, aluminum, and high vacuum insulation; and (iv) an inlet of each magnet to which a cryopump and compressor that can be powered by the power output of the SunCell® generator can be connected via power output terminals.

[0098] In one embodiment, the magnetohydrodynamic power converter is a segmented Faraday generator. In another embodiment, the transverse current formed by the Lorentzian deflection of the ion flow undergoes further Lorentzian deflection in a direction parallel to the input ion flow (z-axis), generating a Hall voltage between at least first and second MHD electrodes that are relatively displaced along the z-axis. Such devices are known in the art as Hall generator embodiments of magnetohydrodynamic power converters. Similar devices with MHD electrodes angled relative to the z-axis of the xy plane comprise another embodiment of the present invention and are called diagonal generators with a "window-frame" structure. In both cases, the voltage drives a current through an electrical load. Examples of segmented Faraday generators, Hall generators, and diagonal generators are given by Petrick. "JF Louis, V.I. Kovbasyuk, Open-cycle Magnetohydrodynamic Electrical Power Generation, M. Petrick, and B.Y. Shumyatsky, editors, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, Illinois (1978), pp. 157-163," the complete disclosure of which is incorporated by reference.

[0099] In a further embodiment of the magnetohydrodynamic power converter, then:

number

number

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number

number

number

[0100] The MHD generator includes a condenser channel portion 309 that receives the expanded flow, and the generator may further include a return flow channel or conduit 310. Here, the MHD working medium, such as silver vapor, cools as it loses at least one of temperature, pressure, and energy in the condenser portion and returns to the reservoir through the channel or conduit 310. The generator may include at least one return pump 312 and return pump pipe 313 for pumping the return flow to the reservoir 5c and the EM pump injector 5ka. The return pump and pump pipe may deliver at least one of liquid, vapor, and gas. The return pump 312 and return pump pipe 313 may include an electromagnetic (EM) pump and EM pump pipe. The inlet to the EM pump may have a larger diameter than the diameter of the outlet pump pipe to increase the pump outlet pressure. In one embodiment, the return pump may include an injector of the EM pump injector electrode 5ka. In a dual molten metal injector example, the generator includes a return reservoir 311 and a corresponding return pump, such as return EM pump 312. The return reservoir 311 may balance the return molten metal, such as the molten silver stream, and condense or separate silver vapor mixed with the liquid silver. The reservoir 311 may include a heat exchanger for condensing the silver vapor. The reservoir 311 may include a first stage electromagnetic pump for preferentially pumping the liquid silver and separating the liquid from the gaseous silver. In one embodiment, the liquid metal may be selectively injected into the return EM pump 312 by centrifugal force. The return conduit or return vessel may include a centrifuge section. The centrifuge vessel may be tapered from the inlet to the outlet, such that centrifugal force is greater at the top than at the bottom, forcing the molten metal to move to the bottom and separate it from gases, such as metal vapor, and any working medium gases. Alternatively, the SunCell® may be mounted on a centrifugal table that rotates about an axis perpendicular to the flow direction of the returning molten metal to generate centrifugal forces to separate the liquid and gaseous species.

[0101] In one embodiment, the condensed metal vapor flows into two separate return reservoirs 311, and each return EM pump 312 pumps the molten metal into a corresponding vessel 5c. In one embodiment, at least one of the two return reservoirs 311 and the EM pump reservoir 5c is equipped with a level control system, such as one of the disclosed inlet risers 5qa. In one embodiment, the return molten metal can be sucked into the return reservoir 311 at a faster or slower rate depending on the level in the return vessel, where the suction rate is controlled by the corresponding level control system, such as the inlet riser.

[0102] In one embodiment, the MHD converter 300 may further include at least one heater, such as an inductively coupled heater. The heater may preheat components in contact with the MHD working medium, such as at least one of the reaction cell spacer 5b31, the MHD nozzle section 307, the MHD generator section 308, the MHD condenser section 309, the return conduit 310, the return reservoir 311, the return EM pump 312, and the return EM pump pipe 313. The heater may include at least one actuator for activating and deactivating the heater. The heater may include at least one of a plurality of coils and coil sections. The coil may include those known in the art. The coil section may include at least one split coil, such as one disclosed herein. In one embodiment, the MHD converter may include at least one cooling system, such as a heat exchanger 316. The MHD converter may include at least one cell and at least one of the following MHD components: chamber 5b31, MHD nozzle section 307, MHD magnet 306, MHD electrode 304, MHD generator section 308, MHD condenser section 309, return conduit 310, return reservoir 311, return EM pump 312, and return EM pump pipe 313. The cooler can remove heat lost from the MHD flow channel, for example, heat lost from at least one of chamber 5b31, MHD nozzle section 307, MHD generator section 308, and MHD condenser section 309. The cooler can remove heat from the MHD working medium return system, for example, at least one of return conduit 310, return reservoir 311, return EM pump 312, and return EM pump pipe 313. The cooler may include a radiant heat exchanger that can reject heat to the surrounding atmosphere.

[0103] In one embodiment, the cooler may comprise a recirculator or recuperator that transfers energy from the condenser 309 to at least one of the reservoir 5c, the reaction cell chamber 5b31, the nozzle 307, and the MHD channel 308. The transferred energy, such as heat, may be, for example, from residual thermal energy and pressure energy, as well as heat of vaporization of a working medium, such as one comprising at least one of a vaporized metal, a kinetic aerosol, and a gas, such as a noble gas. Heat pipes are active two-phase devices that can provide, for example, up to 20 MW / m over distances of several meters with a temperature drop of a few tenths of a degree. 2 Therefore, only a small amount of working fluid can be used, dramatically reducing thermal stress on the material. Sodium and lithium heat pipes can transfer large heat fluxes and maintain near isothermal temperatures along the axial direction. Lithium heat pipes can transfer large heat fluxes up to 200 MW / m 2 In one embodiment, a heat pipe, for example of a molten metal such as a liquid alkali metal like sodium or lithium, encased in a high melting point metal such as W, can transfer heat from the condenser 309 and recirculate it to the reaction cell chamber 5b31 or the nozzle 307. In one embodiment, at least one heat pipe recovers and recirculates the heat of vaporization of silver such that the recovered thermal energy output becomes part of the energy input to the MHD channel 308.

[0104] In one embodiment, at least one of the SunCell® components, such as those comprising the MHD converter, may include a heat pipe for at least one heat transfer from one portion of the SunCell® generator to another, transferring heat from a heater, such as an inductively coupled heater, to the SunCell® components, e.g., EM pump tube 5k6, reservoir 5c, reaction cell chamber 5b31, and the MHD molten metal return system, such as MHD return conduit 310, MHD return reservoir 311, MHD return EM pump 312, and MHD return EM tube. Alternatively, the SunCell® or at least one component may be heated in an oven, as known in the art. In one embodiment, at least one SunCell® component may be heated, at least for start-up.

[0105] The SunCell® heater 415 may be a resistance heater or an inductively coupled heater. An exemplary SunCell® heater 415 is capable of operating temperatures up to 1400°C and includes Kanthal A-1 (Kanthal) resistance heating wire, which includes a ferrite-chromium-aluminum alloy (FeCrAl alloy) with high resistivity and good oxidation resistance. Additional FeCrAl alloys suitable for heating elements include at least one of Kanthal APM, Kanthal AF, Kanthal D, and Alkrothal. Heating elements, such as resistance wire elements, may include NiCr alloys operating in the 1100°C to 1200°C range, such as at least one of Nikrothal 80, Nikrothal 70, Nikrothal 60, and Nikrothal 40. Alternatively, the heater 415 may include molybdenum disilicide (MoSi2), which may operate in an oxidizing atmosphere in the range of 1500°C to 1800°C, e.g., at least one of Kanthal Super 1700, Kanthal Super 1800, Kanthal Super 1900, Kanthal Super RA, Kanthal Super ER, Kanthal Super HT, and Kanthal Super NC. The heating element may include molybdenum disilicide (MoSi2) alloyed with alumina. The heating element may have an oxidation-resistant coating, such as an alumina coating. The heating element of the resistive heater 415 may include SiC, which may operate at temperatures up to 1625°C.

[0106] The SunCell® heater 415 may include an internal heater that may be introduced through a thermowell or recess in the component wall that is open to the outside but closed to the inside of the SunCell® component. The SunCell® heater 415 may also include an internal resistance heater to which power may be coupled by magnetic induction across the wall of the heated SunCell® or by liquid electrodes that penetrate the wall of the heated SunCell® component.

[0107] The SunCell® heater may include insulation to improve its efficiency and / or effectiveness. The insulation may include ceramics known to those skilled in the art, such as alumina silicate-containing insulation. The insulation may be removable and / or reversible. Insulation, such as ceramic fiber insulation, may include a gas gap. The insulation may be made reversible by applying a low-thermal-conductivity gas, such as air, nitrogen, or SF6 (33.8 mW / mK at 600 K and 1 atmosphere) during heating, replacing it with a high-heat-transfer gas, such as helium (252.4 mW / mK at 600 K and 1 atmosphere), and then heating. Alternatively, the insulation may be removed after start-up to more effectively transfer heat to a desired recipient, such as the ambient environment, or to a heat exchanger. The insulation may also be mechanically removed. The insulation may include a vacuum-compatible chamber and pump, where the insulation is applied by vacuum suction and the insulation is reversed by adding a heat transfer gas, such as a noble gas like helium. A vacuum chamber that can be added or evacuated with a heat transfer gas like helium can function as a tunable insulation. The SunCell® may include a gas circulation system that can be activated to cause forced convection heat transfer and switch from an adiabatic mode to a non-adiabatic mode.

[0108] In another embodiment, the SunCell® comprises particulate insulation and at least one insulating container having at least one chamber around the components to be insulated for containing the insulation during warm-up of the SunCell®. Exemplary particulate insulation materials include at least one of sand and ceramic beads, e.g., alumina or alumina silicate beads, such as mullite beads. The beads may be removed after warm-up. The beads may be removed by gravity flow, and the housing may include a chute for removing the beads. The beads may also be removed mechanically with a bead transport device, such as an auger, conveyor, or pneumatic pump. The particulate insulation may further include a fluidizing agent, such as a liquid, e.g., water, to increase flow when filling the insulating container. The liquid may be removed before heating and added during transport of the insulation. The insulating liquid mixture may include a slurry. The SunCell® may include at least one additional container for filling or emptying the insulating material from the insulating container. The filling container may include a means for maintaining the slurry, such as an agitator.

[0109] In one embodiment, the SunCell® further includes a liquid insulation container surrounding the components to be insulated, a liquid insulation material, and a pump, and the reversible insulation material may contain a liquid that is drained or evacuated after startup. In one embodiment, the liquid insulation container may have low thermal resistance to facilitate heat transfer from the SunCell® to the load when the liquid insulation material is removed; the liquid insulation container may include thin-walled quartz. An exemplary liquid insulation material is gallium, which has a heat transfer coefficient of 29 W / mK; another is mercury, which has a heat transfer coefficient of 8.3 W / mK.

[0110] The liquid insulation may include at least one radiation shield, where the liquid reflects the heat radiation. The liquid insulation may have a low heat radiation rate. The radiation shield may be refrigerated by a refrigeration means. The liquid insulation container may include a means for distributing the liquid insulation, such as a stack of separators having thin liquid layers with thicknesses in at least one of the following ranges: 1 micron to 10 cm, 10 microns to 1 cm, and 100 microns to 1 mm. These layers may include thin films. The separator includes a material that is transparent to the heat radiation emitted from at least one of the heater and the SunCell®, such as visible light or blackbody radiation, in the temperature range of approximately 100°C to 3000°C. Exemplary separators reflect incident heat radiation back toward at least one of the heater and the SunCell®, which is the heat radiation source. The separator includes ceramic particles, beads, or plates, such as sapphire or quartz beads, having a surface. For cylindrical components, the plates can include concentric tubes, such as concentric sapphire tubes, with a liquid insulating material, such as liquid gallium, forming a film or layer between each tube. The dispersion can provide multiple reflective surfaces to reduce heat radiation energy loss from the heater during SunCell® startup. The separator can be optically transparent to heat radiation, desirably reflective and not melt under operating conditions. Separators can include ceramic, zirconia, ceria, alumina, sapphire, LiF, MgF2, and CaF2, other alkaline earth halides, such as BaF2 and CdF2, quartz, fused silica, alkali aluminosilicate glasses, such as Gorilla Glass, borosilicate glass, ceramic glass, and Infrasil (ThorLabs). In another embodiment, the liquid insulating vessel can include multiple chambers containing gas or vacuum isolation with low thermal conductivity. Insulation, such as superinsulation and / or floating shields, may be interspersed between heat dissipation shields, such as refrigerated heat dissipation shields.

[0111] At least one of the liquid insulating container wall material or coating, the liquid insulating material, and the liquid insulating material additive can be selected to prevent the liquid insulating material from wetting the walls of the liquid container when the liquid insulating material is drained or expelled. To prevent the liquid insulating material, such as gallium, from wetting the walls of the liquid insulating container when the liquid insulating material is removed by means such as draining or pumping, an agent such as Ga2O3 can be applied to the interior walls of the liquid container, e.g., a container comprising quartz. In one embodiment, the liquid insulating material, such as gallium, is sealed within the liquid insulating container to prevent it from oxidizing. In an exemplary embodiment, avoiding the formation of Ga2O3 can prevent gallium from wetting the walls of a quartz liquid insulating container. Different liquid container coatings, liquid insulating material additives, and liquid metals or alloys can be selected by those skilled in the art to prevent wetting of the walls of the liquid insulating material during removal of the liquid insulating material. In an exemplary embodiment, the introduction of up to 47.9 wt% Ag, 9.2 wt% Ni, and 68 wt% Cu into the gallium avoids wetting the walls of the quartz liquid insulation vessel when the liquid insulation is removed.

[0112] In another embodiment, the liquid insulating material may include a molten salt, such as a molten eutectic mixture of salts, such as a mixture of at least two or more of alkali and alkaline earth halides, carbonates, hydroxides, oxides, sulfates, and nitrates. Exemplary mixtures are LiF-BeF (also known as FLiBe [67-33 mol%]), LiF-NaF-KF (also known as FLiNaK [46.5-11.5-42 mol%]), KCl-MgCl (67-33 mol%), LiCl-NaCl-KCl, LiF-NaF-KF, and NaCl-KCl-ZnCl, where NaCl-KCl-ZnCl with a relative composition of 7.5-23.9-68.6 mol% has a melting point of 204°C and an upper operating temperature limit of over 800°C. Li2CO3-Na2CO3-K2CO3, with a relative composition of 32.1-33.4-34.5 mol%, has a melting point of 400°C and an upper operating temperature limit of 658°C. The liquid insulation vessel may be capable of vacuum, atmospheric pressure, or superatmospheric pressure. The liquid insulation vessel may be selected to be resistant to corrosion by the molten salt insulation. In an exemplary embodiment, the liquid insulation vessels for the molten carbonates and chlorides comprise stainless steel (SS), such as 316SS and alumina, respectively. The SunCell® may further include at least one of a liquid insulation vessel that cools the liquid to a temperature suitable for pumping and a liquid insulation pump, e.g., a submersible centrifugal pump, such as the GVSO model from Rheinhuette Pumps LLC (http: / / www.rh-pumps.com / pumps / gvso-submersible-chemical-pump-in-metallic-materials / ). The pump may include a mechanical pump. The pump may include those known in the art for pumping molten salt coolant, such as those known in nuclear power plant coolant circulation. The liquid may flow into the cooling vessel by gravity flow or pumping. The liquid may be pumped against gravity to a holding vessel, which may include at least one valve, such as an outlet valve. In another embodiment, the cooling vessel containing insulation may be transported against gravity and serve as the holding vessel. The holding vessel may include a heater if the liquid insulation must be melted before flowing into the liquid insulation vessel.The liquid may flow into the liquid insulation container by gravity flow or by pumping. The liquid insulation container may be preheated with a heater, such as a SunCell® heater, before receiving the liquid insulation. In another embodiment, after start-up, the liquid may be stirred, agitated, or circulated to control heat transfer from the heated SunCell® components to the load where the liquid insulation remains in the liquid insulation container.

[0113] The liquid insulation may include a pressurized liquid or a supercritical liquid such as CO2 or water.

[0114] In one embodiment, the reversible insulation may include a material whose thermal conductivity significantly increases with temperature, at least over the range from the melting point of a molten metal, such as silver, to approximately the operating temperature of the SunCell®. The reversible insulation may include a solid compound that is insulating during heating and becomes thermally conductive at temperatures above the desired start-up temperature. Quartz is an exemplary insulating material whose thermal conductivity significantly increases from the melting point of silver to the desired operating temperature of the quartz SunCell®, approximately 1000°C to 1600°C. The thickness of the quartz insulation may be adjusted to achieve desired operation of the insulation during start-up and heat transfer to the load during operation. Another exemplary embodiment includes a highly porous, translucent ceramic material.

[0115] In one embodiment, the reversible insulation may include a material whose properties change with an energy input, such as electrical or thermal input. The reversible insulation may include a solid compound that is insulating as a solid and can become thermally conductive above a desired start-up temperature. The reversible insulation may include an insulating solid that melts and becomes significantly more thermally conductive above the desired start-up temperature of the SunCell®. An exemplary pure element with the lowest thermal conductivity of any pure metal is manganese, which has a thermal conductivity of 7.7 W / mK and a melting point of 1246°C. The reversible insulation may include a thermally insulating solid, such as a metal oxide, that can be converted to a thermally conductive corresponding metal after start-up. The conversion may be achieved by electrolysis or other known methods. In another embodiment, the reversible insulation may include an anisotropic material, such as oriented graphite, which has low thermal conductivity in one direction and high thermal conductivity in another direction. In another embodiment, the anisotropic material may be oriented with an electric or magnetic field to control the desired thermal conductivity.

[0116] The heater insulation may include a material surrounding the resistive heater that heats more slowly than heat is transferred to the wall of the heated SunCell® component. The insulation may include at least one resistive heater thermal barrier coating, e.g., a ceramic such as SiO2, alumina, mullite, glass, fused quartz, vitreous silica, fused silica, slip-cast quartz, and powdered quartz. The coating and its thickness relative to the wall thickness of the heated SunCell® component may be selected so that heat from the heater is transferred to the interior of the wall on a faster time scale than to the exterior of the coating, including the radial surface of the wall. After startup, the exterior surface may heat to a temperature similar to that of the wall. Heat may be transferred from the exterior surface to a load. The load may include a space or process heating system or a thermal-to-electrical converter. Heat transfer may be achieved by at least one of radiation, convection, and conduction. This transfer may be facilitated by a coolant or heat exchanger. At least one of the surface area and emissivity of the exterior surface of the coating can be selected to achieve a desired heat transfer rate to the load, which can control the operating temperature of at least one of the wall and the coating. In an exemplary embodiment, the insulation includes SiO2 insulation around a resistive heating element, such as a resistance wire winding, such as a Kanthal wire winding.

[0117] In another embodiment, heat is lost from the heated SunCell® primarily by radiation. The thermal insulation may include at least one of a vacuum chamber housing the SunCell® and a heat dissipation shield. The heat dissipation shield may be removed after startup. The SunCell® may include a mechanism for at least one of rotating and translating the heat shield. The heat shield may further include a backing layer of thermal insulation, such as silica or alumina insulation. In an exemplary embodiment, the heat dissipation shield may be rotated to reduce reflective surface area. In another embodiment, the heat dissipation shield may further include a heating element, such as a MoSi2 heating element.

[0118] The heater may comprise multiple heating elements, each dedicated to a particular region or component of the SunCell®. The resistive heater may include a resistive heating region.

[0119] The heater may include a circumferentially separate piece. This piece may include a complementary portion that surrounds the heat cell component after startup and may be removed after startup. The piece may include a complementary shape, such as a mirror image, in the case of a cylindrical component. The piece may include a separate clamshell heater. The heater may include a servo mechanism, such as a mechanical, pneumatic, hydraulic, piezoelectric, electromagnetic, or other servo mechanism known in the art, that retracts the heater section after startup. The heater section may be retracted to prevent interference with components operated by induction fields, such as the magnetic field of a transformer, such as an EM section pump or ignition transformer.

[0120] The heater may include a heat transfer element or means for spreading heat to avoid thermal gradients within the heated component. The heat transfer element or means may include at least one of a heat transfer paste, such as one disclosed herein, a cladding, such as a refractory, oxidation-resistant metal such as SS625, or the cell may include a material more favorable for spreading heat, such as Pyrex. The heater may include a continuous resistance wire winding, such as a continuous Kanthal wire winding. In one embodiment, the resistance wire has a high resistance to eliminate IR losses in the busbars and simplify them. In another embodiment, the SunCell® may include a housing for one or more components to be heated. The housing may contain a heat transfer medium that functions as a heating bath with the housing. The heat transfer medium may be liquid within the desired temperature range, for example, 1000°C to 2000°C. Exemplary heat transfer media are metals with high boiling points, such as gallium, molten salts, such as LiBr, or sand, with the melting point lowered by the addition of an additive, such as potassium carbonate. The heating element can heat a bath that heats the components. Exemplary bath heating elements include MoSi2 or SiC.

[0121] In one embodiment, the surfaces of the heated components, such as those comprising quartz, are coated with a low-emissivity coating and polished to reduce emissivity and corresponding radiative energy loss. Low-emissivity components are suitable for achieving variable thermal insulation in a vacuum chamber.

[0122] The SunCell® may include permanent insulation and a system to remove heat from within the SunCell®. The SunCell® may include a heat exchanger within the insulation, which can be heated by a heater and then cooled by a coolant during startup to remove heat. After startup of the SunCell®, the heater may be shut off and the coolant in the heat exchanger may begin to flow. In one embodiment, the SunCell® may include a heat pipe to remove internal heat. In one embodiment, the SunCell® may include an external heat exchanger to remove internal heat. The molten silver is pumped through the external heat exchanger, transferring external heat to the SunCell®. The heat exchanger may function as a space or process heater. The SunCell® may include at least one additional pump, such as an EM pump, to pump molten metal, such as silver, through the external heat exchanger. Alternatively, the injection EM pump may also be responsible for pumping the molten metal through the external heat exchanger. In one embodiment, SunCell® may include a heat exchanger inside the insulation.

[0123] The resistive heater 415 may be powered by at least one of series and parallel wire circuits to selectively heat different components of the SunCell®. The resistive heating wire may comprise a twisted pair to prevent interference with systems that generate time-varying electromagnetic fields, such as at least one induction EM pump, an induction ignition system, and an electromagnet. The resistive heating wire may be oriented to minimize link time-varying magnetic flux. The heating wire may be oriented so that the closed loop is in a plane parallel to the magnetic flux. In one embodiment, coupling of the resistive heater wire to at least one of the magnetic flux of the inductive EM pump winding 401 and the inductive ignition transformer winding 411 is reduced by increasing the resistance of the resistive heater wire. In one embodiment, the resistive heater includes a heater wire with a higher resistivity. The heater wire may have a smaller diameter to increase resistance. Operating the heater wire at a higher temperature may increase the resistance.

[0124] In one embodiment, induced current, such as that induced in EM pump tube sections 405 and 406, can melt the silver in EM pump section 405 by resistive heating. The current can be induced by EM pump transformer winding 401. EM pump tube section 405 is pre-filled with silver before start-up. In one embodiment, the heat of the hydrino reaction can heat one SunCell® component. In an exemplary embodiment, a heater, such as an inductively coupled heater, heats EM pump tube 5k6, reservoir 5c, and at least the lower portion of reaction cell chamber 5b31. The heat dissipation of the hydrino reaction can heat at least one other component, such as the upper portion of reaction cell 5b31, MHD nozzle 307, MHD channel 308, MHD condenser 309, and at least one of the MHD molten metal return system (e.g., MHD return conduit 310, MHD return reservoir 311, MHD return EM pump 312, and MHD return EM tube). In one embodiment, the MHD molten metal return system, such as MHD return conduit 310, MHD return reservoir 311, MHD return EM pump 312, and MHD return EM pump 312, may be heated by high-temperature molten metal or metal vapor, such as molten silver or vapor, having a temperature in the range of approximately 1000°C to 7000°C, 1100°C to 6000°C, 1100°C to 5000°C, 1100°C to 4000°C, 1100°C to 3000°C, 1100°C to 2300°C, 1100°C to 2000°C, 1100°C to 1800°C, and 1100°C to 1500°C. The high-temperature molten metal or metal vapor may flow through the MHD components, bypassing or disabling the MHD power generation. Disabling may be accomplished by removing the electric field or by electrically shorting the electrodes.

[0125] In one embodiment, at least one of the cell components and the MHD converter may be insulated to prevent heat loss. At least one of the following groups may be insulated: chamber 5b31, MHD nozzle section 307, MHD power generation section 308, MHD condenser section 309, return conduit 310, return reservoir 311, return EM pump 312, and return EM pump pipe 313. Heat lost through the insulation may be dissipated with a corresponding coolant or heat exchanger. In one embodiment, a working fluid such as silver may function as a refrigerant. Increasing the EM pumping rate may provide silver to absorb heat and cool at least one cell or MHD component, such as the MHD nozzle 30. Evaporation of the silver may cool the nozzle MHD 307. A recirculator or recuperator may contain the working fluid used for cooling. In an exemplary embodiment, silver is pumped over the components to be cooled and injected into the reaction cell chamber and MHD converter to recover heat while cooling.

[0126] At least the high-pressure components, such as the reservoir 5c, the reaction cell chamber 5b31, and the high-pressure portions of the MHD converters 307 and 308, may be held in a pressure chamber 5b3a1, which includes housings 5b3a and 5b3b. The pressure chamber 5b3a1 may be maintained at a pressure that at least balances the pressure of at least a portion of the high-pressure inner reaction chamber 5b31 and the MHD nozzle 307 and the MHD power generation channel 308. The pressure balance may reduce strain on the joints of the power generation components, such as between the reservoir 5c and the EM pump assembly 5kk. The high-pressure vessel 5b3a may selectively house at least one of the high-pressure components, such as the reaction cell chamber 5b31, the reservoir 5c, and the MHD expansion channel 308. The other cell components may be housed in lower-pressure vessels or housings.

[0127] A source of hydrino reactant, e.g., at least one of HO, H, CO, and CO, may permeate at least one of permeable cell components, e.g., cell chamber 5b31, reservoir 5c, MHD expansion channel 308, and MHD condenser 309. Hydrino reactant gas may be introduced into the molten metal stream at at least one location via EM pump line 5k6, MHD expansion channel 308, MHD condenser 309, MHD return conduit 310, return reservoir 311, MHD return pump 312, MHD return EM pump line 313, etc. A gas injector, such as a mass flow controller, may be injected at high pressure into the high pressure side of the MHD converter, for example, via at least one of EM pump line 5k6, MHD return pump 312, and MHD return EM pump line 313. The gas injector may inject the hydrino reactant at low pressure on the low-pressure side of the MHD converter, such as at least one location via the MHD condenser 309, the MHD return conduit 310, and the return reservoir 311. In one embodiment, at least one of water and steam may be injected through the EM pump tube 5k4 by a flow controller, which may further include a pressure arrestor and a check valve, to prevent backflow of molten metal into a water supply, such as a mass flow controller. Water may be injected through a selectively permeable membrane, such as a ceramic or carbon membrane. In one embodiment, the converter may include a PV converter, and the hydrino reactant injector may supply the reactant by at least one means, such as permeation or injection, at the operating pressure of the delivery site. In another embodiment, the SunCell® may further include a source of hydrogen gas and a source of oxygen gas, where the two gases combine to provide steam within the reaction cell chamber 5b31. The hydrogen source and the oxygen source may each include at least one of a corresponding tank, a supply pipe that directly or indirectly flows the gas into the reaction cell chamber 5b31, a flow regulator, a flow controller, a computer, a flow sensor, and at least one valve.In the latter case, the gas may flow into at least one of the chambers in gas communication with the reaction cell chamber 5b31, such as the EM pump 5k, the reservoir 5c, the nozzle 307, the MHD channel 308, and other MHD converter components (e.g., return supply line 310a, conduit 313a, pump 312a, etc.). In one embodiment, at least one of H2 and O2 may be injected into the injector of the EM pump line 5k61. H2 and O2 may be injected from separate EM pump lines of a dual EM pump injector. Alternatively, gases such as at least one of oxygen and hydrogen may be added to the cell interior via an injector in a region with lower silver vapor pressure, such as the MHD channel 308 or the MHD condenser 309. At least one of hydrogen and oxygen may be injected via a selective membrane, such as a ceramic membrane, such as a nanoporous ceramic membrane. Oxygen may be injected via a selective membrane, such as a Bi. 26 Mo 10 O 69 BaCo can be coated to increase oxygen permeability 0.7 Fe 0.2 Nb 0.1 O 3-δ The hydrogen may be supplied through an oxygen-permeable membrane, such as one disclosed in the (BCFN) oxygen-permeable membrane. Hydrogen may be supplied through a hydrogen-permeable membrane, such as a palladium-silver alloy membrane. The SunCell® may include an electrolytic cell, such as a high-pressure electrolytic cell. The electrolytic cell may include a proton exchange membrane through which pure hydrogen may be supplied by the cathode compartment. Pure oxygen may be supplied from the anode compartment. In one embodiment, the EM pump components are coated with a non-oxidizing or oxidation-protective coating, and further, hydrogen and oxygen are separately injected under controlled conditions using two mass flow controllers, where the flows may be controlled based on the cell concentrations sensed by corresponding gas sensors.

[0128] In one embodiment, hydrogen can be supplied to the reaction cell chamber 5b31 by permeating or diffusing through a permeable membrane, which can include polymers, ceramics such as silica, zeolites, alumina, zirconia, hafnia, carbon, or metals such as Pd-Ag alloys, niobium, Ni, Ti, stainless steel, or other hydrogen-permeable materials known in the art, such as those reported by McLeod [LSM McLeod, "Hydrogen permeation through microfabricated palladium-silver alloy membranes," PhD dissertation, Georgia Institute of Technology, December 2008, https: / / smartech.gatech.edu / bitstream / handle / 1853 / 31672 / mcleod_logan_s_200812_phd.pdf], which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. The H permeability can be increased by at least one of increasing the pressure difference between the feed side of the H permeable membrane, such as a Pd or Pd-Ag membrane, and the reaction cell separation 5b31, increasing the area of ​​the membrane, decreasing the membrane thickness, and increasing the membrane temperature. The membrane can be used with a higher pressure difference, such as in the range of about 1 to 500 atmospheres, or a pressure difference of about 0.01 cm. 2 ~10m 2 The grid may include a grid or perforated backing to provide structural support for operation under at least one of a larger area, such as in the range of 100 nm to 1 cm, a reduced thickness, such as in the range of 10 nm to 1 cm, and a high temperature, such as in the range of about 30°C to 3000°C. The grid may include a metal that does not react with hydrogen. The grid may be resistant to hydrogen embrittlement. An exemplary embodiment has a permeability coefficient of 5×10 -11 mm -2 s -1 Pa -1 , area is 1×10 -3 m 2 , thickness is 1×10 -4 m Pd-Ag alloy film is 1×10 7 It operates at a pressure difference of 0.01 Pa and a temperature of 300°C, providing a H2 flow rate of approximately 0.01 mol / s.

[0129] The transmittance can be increased by maintaining a plasma on the outer surface of the permeable membrane. The SunCell® may include a semi-permeable membrane that may include an electrode of the plasma cell, such as the cathode of the plasma cell. The SunCell®, e.g. Figure 56 (formerly: Figure 2I216) ~ Figure 59 (formerly: Figure 2I219) The plasma chamber may include an outer sealed plasma chamber having an outer wall surrounding a portion of the wall of the cell 5b3, and a portion of the metal wall of the cell 5b3 may include an electrode of the plasma cell. The sealed plasma chamber is enclosed within a housing 427 ( Figure 46 (formerly: Figure 2I206) The SunCell® may include a chamber around the cell 5b3, such as a plasma cell electrode, with the wall of the cell 5b3 comprising the plasma cell electrode and the housing 427 or a separate electrode comprising the counter electrode. The SunCell® may further include a plasma power supply, a plasma control system, a gas supply source such as a hydrogen gas supply tank, a hydrogen supply monitor and regulator, and a vacuum pump. In another embodiment, hydrogen may be injected as a gas via a gas injector. In one embodiment, hydrogen gas may be maintained at a high pressure, such as in the range of 1 to 100 atmospheres, to reduce the flow rate required to maintain a desired energy output.

[0130] In one embodiment, at least one component of the SunCell® and MHD converter, including internal compartments such as reservoir 5c, reaction cell chamber 5b31, nozzle 307, MHD channel 308, MHD condenser 309, and other MHD converter components (e.g., return line 310a, conduit 313a, pump 312a, etc.), is housed in a gas-tight housing or housings. The gas-selective membrane may include a semipermeable ceramic such as one disclosed herein. The cell gas may include at least one of hydrogen, oxygen, and a noble gas such as argon or helium. The outer housing may include a pressure sensor for each gas. The SunCell® may include a source and controller for each gas. The source of the noble gas such as argon may include a tank. The source of at least one of the hydrogen and oxygen may include an electrolyzer, such as a high-pressure electrolyzer. The gas controller may include at least one of a flow controller, a gas regulator, and a computer. The gas pressure within the housing can be controlled to control the gas pressure of each gas within the cell, such as the reservoir, reaction cell chamber, and MHD converter components, etc. The pressure of each gas can be in the range of about 0.1 Torr to 20 atmospheres. Figure 19 (formerly Figure 2I179) ~ Figure 46 (formerly: Figure 2I206)In the exemplary embodiment shown, the straight MHD channel 308 and MHD condenser 309 include a gas housing 309b, a pressure gauge 309c, and an exhaust assembly 309e including gas supply and gas inlet conduits, a gas outlet conduit, and a flange, where a gas permeable membrane 309d may be attached to the wall of the MHD condenser 309. The mount may include a sintered joint, a metallized ceramic joint, a brazed joint, or others of the present disclosure. The gas housing 309b may further include an access port. The gas housing 309b may include an oxidation-resistant metal, such as SS625, or an oxidation-resistant coating on a metal, such as an iridium coating on a metal of appropriate CTE, such as molybdenum. Alternatively, the gas housing 309b may include a ceramic, such as a metal oxide ceramic, such as zirconia, alumina, magnesia, hafnia, quartz, or another ceramic of the present disclosure. Ceramic penetrations through the metal gas housing 309b, such as the MHD return conduit 310, may be cooled. These penetrations may include carbon seals, where the seal temperature is below the carbonization temperature of the metal and the carbon reduction temperature of the ceramic. Due to the high temperature of the molten metal, the seals may be removed to allow it to cool. The seals may include cooling, such as passive or forced air or water cooling.

[0131] In an exemplary embodiment, the inductively coupled heater antenna 5f comprises: Figure 18 (formerly: Figure 2I178) ~ Figure 19 (formerly Figure 2I179) As shown in the figure, one coil, three separate coils, Figure 22 (formerly: Figure 2I182) ~ Figure 23 (formerly: Figure 2I183) As shown in the figure, three consecutive coils, Figure 20 (formerly: Figure 2I180) ~ Figure 21 (formerly: Figure 2I181) The exemplary inductively coupled heater antenna 5f comprises an upper elliptical coil and a lower EM pump tube pancake coil, which may include a spiral coil, which may include concentric boxes with continuous circumferential current direction (see FIG. 1). Figure 20 (formerly: Figure 2I180) ~ Figure 21 (formerly: Figure 2I181) ). Figure 2 (formerly: Figure 2I162) ~ Figure 46 (formerly: Figure 2I206)As shown in FIG. 1, the reaction cell chamber 5b31 and the MHD nozzle 307 may include a planar, polygonal, rectangular, cylindrical, spherical, or other desired shape. The inductively coupled heater antenna 5f is Figure 22 (formerly: Figure 2I182) ~ Figure 23 (formerly: Figure 2I183) As shown in FIG. 1, the EM pump 5 includes a set of three consecutive turns, each with two spirals circumferentially around the reservoir 5c and a pancake coil parallel to the EM pump tube. The opposing spiral turns around the reservoir may be wound so that the currents are in the same direction to reinforce the magnetic fields of the two coils, or in opposite directions to cancel in the space between the spirals. The inductively coupled heater antenna 5f may further serve to cool at least one component, such as the EM pump 5kk, the reservoir 5c, the wall of the reaction cell chamber 5b31, and / or the yoke of the inductive ignition system. The at least one cooling component may include one of the disclosed ceramics, such as silicon nitride, quartz, alumina, zirconia, magnesia, or hafnia.

[0132] The SunCell® may include one MHD working medium return conduit from the end of the MHD expansion channel to the vessel 5c, which may include a sealed top cover that isolates the lower pressure within the vessel from the higher pressure of the reaction cell chamber 5b31. An EM pump injector 5k61 and nozzle 5q may penetrate the cover to inject molten metal, such as silver, into the reaction cell chamber 5b31. This penetration may include a seal of the present disclosure, such as a compression seal, slip nut, brazed gasket, or bin seal. The vessel may include an inlet riser 5qa to control the molten metal level within the vessel 5c. The covered vessel and EM pump assembly 5kk that receives the return molten metal flow may comprise a first injector of a dual molten metal injector system. The second injector, including the second vessel and EM pump assembly, may comprise an open vessel that indirectly receives the return flow from the first injector. The second injector may include a positive electrode. The second injector may remain below the molten metal level in the vessel, with a corresponding inlet riser 5qa controlling the sub-level position.

[0133] The SunCell® may include at least one gaseous metal return conduit 310 from the end of the MHD power generation channel 308 to at least one vessel 5c of the molten metal injector system. The SunCell® may include two return conduits 310 from the end of the MHD power generation channel 308 to two corresponding reservoirs 5c of the dual molten metal injector system. Each vessel 5c may include a sealed top cover that isolates the lower pressure within the vessel 5c from the higher pressure of the reaction cell chamber 5b31. EM pump injectors 5ka and 5k61 and nozzles 5q may penetrate the vessel's top cover to inject molten metal, such as silver, into the reaction cell chamber 5b31. This penetration may include a seal as disclosed herein, such as a compression seal, slip nut, gasket braze, or fill box seal. Each vessel 5c may include an inlet riser 5qa to control the molten metal level within the vessel 5c. The temperature of the reaction cell chamber 5b31 may be above the boiling point of the molten metal so that the liquid metal injected into the reaction cell chamber vaporizes and is returned via the return conduit 310.

[0134] The SunCell® may include at least one MHD working medium return conduit 310 from the end of the MHD condenser channel 309 to at least one vessel 5c of the molten metal injector system. The SunCell® may include two MHD working medium return conduits 310 from the end of the MHD condenser channel 309 to two corresponding reservoirs 5c of the dual molten metal injector system. Each vessel 5c may include a sealed top cover that isolates the lower pressure within the vessel 5c from the higher pressure of the reaction cell chamber 5b31. EM pump injectors 5ka and 5k61 and nozzles 5q may penetrate the vessel's top cover to inject molten metal, such as silver, into the reaction cell chamber 5b31. This penetration may include a seal of the present disclosure, such as a compression seal, slip nut, gasket braze, or fill box seal. Each vessel 5c may include an inlet riser 5qa to control the molten metal level within the vessel 5c. The temperature of the reaction cell chamber 5b31 may be above the boiling point of the molten metal such that the liquid metal injected into the reaction cell chamber is vaporized, the vapor is accelerated through the MHD nozzle section 307, the kinetic energy of the vapor is converted to electricity in the power generation channel 308, the vapor is condensed in the MHD condenser section 309, and the molten metal is returned through the return conduit 310.

[0135] The SunCell® may include at least one MHD working medium return conduit 310, one return reservoir 311, and a corresponding pump 312. The pump 312 may include an electromagnetic (EM) pump. The SunCell® may include dual molten metal conduits 310, return reservoirs 311, and corresponding EM pumps 312. A corresponding inlet riser 5qa may control the molten metal level in each return reservoir 311. The return EM pumps 312 may pump the MHD working medium from the end of the MHD condenser channel 309 back to the reservoir 311 and then back to the corresponding injector reservoir 5c. In another embodiment, the molten metal return flow flows through the return conduit 310 directly to the corresponding return EM pump 312 and then to the corresponding injector reservoir 5c. In one embodiment, an MHD working medium, such as silver, is pumped against a pressure gradient, such as about 10 atmospheres, to complete a molten metal flow circuit including injection, ignition, expansion, and return flow. To achieve high pressure, the EM pump includes a series of stages. The SunCell® may include a dual molten metal injector system including a pair of reservoirs 5c, each of which may include an EM pump injector 5ka and 5k61 and an inlet riser 5qa to control the molten metal level in the corresponding reservoir 5c. The return flow may enter the base 5kk1 of the corresponding EM pump assembly 5kk.

[0136] In one embodiment, the velocity of the working medium at at least one location, including locations within the MHD components, such as the nozzle inlet, the nozzle, the nozzle outlet, and desired portions of the MHD channel, may be sufficiently high to prevent condensation, such as impingement condensation, even when metal vapor saturation conditions are met. Condensation does not occur because transit times are short compared to condensation times. The condensation rate can be varied or selected by controlling the plasma pressure, plasma temperature, jet velocity, working medium composition, and magnetic field strength. Metal vapors, such as silver vapor, may condense on the condenser 309, which may have a large surface area, and the collected liquid silver may be returned via a return conduit and EM pumping system. In one embodiment, the short transit time through the nozzle that avoids condensation is utilized to enable the creation of favorable MHD conversion conditions within the MHD channel 307 that would otherwise result in impingement condensation.

[0137] In one embodiment, the MHD expansion or generator channel, also known as the MHD channel, comprises a flared MHD channel that continuously derives energy conversion through a thermal gradient converted into a pressure gradient that drives kinetic energy flow. Heat from silver condensation can contribute to a pressure gradient or mass flow rate within the MHD channel. The heat of vaporization released by the condensing silver can function as a jet engine's afterburner, generating a faster flow. In an exemplary embodiment, the heat of vaporization of the silver functions as combustion in a jet afterburner, increasing or contributing to the velocity of the silver jet stream. In one embodiment, the heat of vaporization released by the condensation of silver vapor creates a higher pressure than would be present without condensation. The MHD channel can include shapes, such as a flare or nozzle shape, to convert pressure into directed flow or kinetic energy that is converted to electricity by the MHD converter. The magnetic field provided by the MHD magnet 306 can be adjusted to prevent plasma stall when silver vapor condenses with a corresponding change in conductivity. In one embodiment, the walls of the MHD channel 308 are kept at a high temperature to prevent condensation of metal vapor at the walls with a corresponding loss of mass and kinetic energy. The high electrode temperature also protects against plasma arcing, which can occur in the opposite case of a cooled electrode, which has a boundary layer that is less conductive or more insulating than the hotter plasma.

[0138] The MHD channel 308 can be maintained at a desired elevated temperature by transferring heat from the reaction cell interface 5b31 to the MHD channel wall. The MHD converter can include a heat exchanger to transfer heat from the reaction cell chamber to the MHD channel wall. The heat exchanger can include a conductive or convective heat exchanger, such as one including a heat transfer block that conducts heat from the reaction cell heater to the MHD channel wall. The heat exchanger can include a radiative heat exchanger, in which at least a portion of the outer wall of the reaction cell partition includes a blackbody radiator that emits energy, and at least a portion of the MHD channel wall includes a blackbody radiator that absorbs blackbody radiation. The heat exchanger can include a pumpable coolant. The pump can include an EM pump, in which the coolant is molten metal. In another embodiment, the hydrino reaction is further propagated and maintained within the MHD channel 308 to maintain the MHD channel wall temperature above the condensation temperature of the metal vapor flowing within the channel. The hydrino reaction can be maintained by supplying reactants, such as H and HOH catalysts, or sources thereof. The reaction can be selectively sustained at the electrodes by electrical conductivity that supports and accelerates the hydrino reaction rate. The MHD converter can include at least one temperature sensor for recording the MHD channel wall temperature and a controller for controlling at least one of the heat transfer means, such as a heat exchanger and the hydrino reaction rate, to maintain a desired MHD channel wall temperature. The rate of the hydrino reactants can be controlled by means such as controlling the flow of the hydrino reactants into the MHD channel.

[0139] In another embodiment, at least one of the plasma, metal vapor, and condensed metal vapor is confined in the channel and prevented from collecting on the MHD walls by a channel confinement means, such as a means comprising at least one source of an electric and magnetic field. The confinement means may include a magnetic confinement means, such as a magnetic bottle. The confinement means may include an inductively coupled field, such as an RF field. The MHD converter may include at least one of an RF power source, at least one antenna, an electrostatic electrode and power source, and at least one static magnetic field source to achieve the confinement.

[0140] In one embodiment, the working medium includes vaporized metal in the MHD channel 308, where heat released by condensation of the metal vapor along the MHD channel increases the pressure and temperature of the working medium due to kinetic energy loss from the conversion of MHD to electricity. Energy from the condensation of silver can increase at least one of the pressure, temperature, velocity, and kinetic energy of the working medium in the MHD channel. Channel geometries utilizing the Venturi effect or Bernoulli principle can increase the flow rate. In one embodiment, flowing liquid silver can act as an aspirator medium to drive the vapor through the MHD channel.

[0141] In one embodiment, at least one of the diameter and volume of the MHD channel 308 decreases as a function of distance along the MHD channel flow axis or z-axis from the nozzle 307 exit to the MHD channel 308 exit. The MHD channel 308 may include a channel that converges only in the z-axis. In another embodiment, the channel size along the z-axis is comparable to or less divergent than that of a conventional seed gas MHD working medium converter. The channel volume may be reduced because silver condenses and releases heat to sustain the energetic plasma. The heat of vaporization released from silver vapor (254 kJ / mole) condensing in the plasma flow along the z-axis increases the temperature and pressure of the working medium, potentially increasing the flow of non-condensed silver anywhere along the channel. The increase in flow velocity may be caused by the Venturi effect or Bernoulli principle. The magnetic flux can be permanently or dynamically varied along the flow axis (z-axis) of the MHD channel to maintain desired pressure, temperature, velocity, energy output, and energy storage along the channel, extracting MHD energy output as a function of z-axis position, and the channel size as a function of distance along the z-axis can be matched to the z-axis magnetic flux variation to achieve, at least in part, extraction of heat of vaporization energy from the vaporized metal as electricity. The plasma gas flow can also serve as a carrier gas for the condensed silver vapor.

[0142] The condensed silver may constitute a mist or haze. A mist state may be desirable because silver tends to form an aerosol at temperatures significantly below its boiling point at a given pressure. The working medium may include oxygen and silver; molten silver tends to form an aerosol in the presence of oxygen at temperatures significantly below its boiling point at a given pressure, and the silver may absorb large amounts of oxygen. The working medium may include an aerosolized gas, such as nitrogen, oxygen, water vapor, or a noble gas, such as argon, in addition to a metal vapor, such as silver vapor, to form the condensed silver aerosol. In one embodiment, the pressure of the aerosolized gas throughout the reaction cell space and the MHD channel is maintained at its steady-state distribution under operating conditions. The MHD converter may further include an aerosolized gas supply, such as a tank of aerosolized gas, a pump, and at least one gauge for selectively measuring the pressure of the aerosolized gas at one or more locations. The aerosolized gas inventory can be maintained at a desired liquid level by adding or removing aerosolized gas using the pump and aerosolized gas supply. In an exemplary embodiment, a constant atmospheric pressure aerosolizing gas, such as argon, in the MHD channel 308 causes the liquid silver to form a mist or aerosol at a temperature slightly above its melting point, such that the plasma flow causes the silver to transition from vapor to liquid in the form of an aerosol that can be collected in the MHD condenser 309. In one embodiment, the velocity of the condensing vapor is maintained by the condensate. The release of heat of vaporization can increase the velocity of the condensed liquid. The MHD channel can include a shape that converts the heat of vaporization into kinetic energy of the condensate. In one embodiment, the channel can narrow to convert the heat of vaporization into kinetic energy of the condensate. In another embodiment, the heat of vaporization increases the channel pressure, which can be converted into kinetic energy by a nozzle. In one embodiment, copper or a silver-copper alloy can replace silver. In one embodiment, the molten metal that provides the metal aerosol includes at least one of silver, copper, and a silver-copper alloy. The aerosol can be formed in the presence of a gas such as oxygen, water vapor, and at least one of a noble gas, such as argon.

[0143] In one embodiment, the SunCell® includes a means for maintaining a cell gas flow in contact with the molten silver to form a molten metal aerosol, such as a silver aerosol. The gas flow may include at least one of a forced gas flow and a convective gas flow. In one embodiment, at least one of the reaction cell chamber 5b31 and the reservoir 5c may include at least one baffle for circulating the cell gas to increase the gas flow. The gas flow may be driven by at least one of a convective flow and a pressure gradient, such as that caused by at least one of a thermal gradient and pressure from a plasma reaction. The gas may include at least one of a noble gas, oxygen, water vapor, H2, and O2. The means for maintaining the gas flow may include a gas pump or a compressor, such as the MHD gas pump or compressor 312a, an MHD converter, and turbulence caused by at least one of an EM pump, a molten metal injector, and a hydrino plasma reaction. At least one of the gas flow rate and the gas composition may be controlled to control the aerosol generation rate. In embodiments in which water vapor is recycled, the SunCell® may further include a recombiner that recombines the thermalized HO into H and O, a condenser that condenses the water vapor into liquid water, and a liquid water pump that injects pressurized water into a supply line of at least one internal cell component, such as the vessel 5c or reaction cell chamber 5b31, where the pressurized water can enter the flow path inside the cell. The recombiner may be one known in the art, such as one containing at least one of Raney nickel, Pd, and Pt. The water vapor may be recycled in a loop that includes a high-pressure compartment, such as between the reaction cell chamber 5b31 and the reservoir 5c.

[0144] In one embodiment, at least one of the reservoir 5c and the reaction cell 5b31 includes a gas source having a temperature sufficiently low to condense silver vapor into a silver aerosol and cool the silver aerosol. Heat released by an active hydrino reaction can form silver vapor. The hydrino reaction plasma can cause vaporization. The ambient gas in contact with the hydrino reaction includes a cell gas. A portion of at least one of the cell gas and aerosol can be cooled by a heat exchanger and a cooling device within an interior region of at least one of the reservoir and reaction cell chamber containing at least one of the gas, aerosol, and plasma. At least one of the cell gas and aerosol can be cooled sufficiently to form at least one of silver vapor, aerosol, and cooled aerosol. The vapor condensation rate and the temperature and pressure of the cooled cell gas-aerosol-vapor mixture can be controlled by controlling heat transfer during cooling and at least one of the temperature and pressure of the cooled cell gas and aerosol.

[0145] In an embodiment that avoids mass loss along the channel, silver vapor is generated from a mist as the vapor condenses. A mole fraction that loses kinetic energy converted to electricity along the channel can form a mist, and the corresponding heat of vaporization imparts kinetic energy to the corresponding aerosol particles, otherwise maintaining a constant initial rate of mass loss. The channel can converge directly to maintain a reduced particle population rate due to partial atomic condensation into aerosol particles that flow with the remaining gas atoms. In one embodiment, the walls of the MHD channel 308 can be maintained at a temperature, such as above the melting point of silver, to support the formation of a mist and thereby avoid condensation of the condensed liquid.

[0146] In one embodiment, the surfaces of the MHD channel components that contact the silver plasma jet include a material that resists wetting by the silver liquid. At least one of the MHD channel walls 308 and the MHD electrodes 304 can include a surface that resists wetting.

[0147] The aerosol particles can be charged and collected. This collection can occur at the end of the MHD channel. The aerosol particles can be removed by electrostatic precipitation or electrospray precipitation. In one embodiment, the MHD converter can include an aerosol particle charging means, such as at least one particle charging electrode, a power supply, such as a high voltage source, and a charged particle collector, such as at least one electrode, electrically biased to collect the charged particles. The charged particles can be collected at the end of the MHD channel by an applied electric field.

[0148] In one embodiment, metal vapor dropletization is driven by the plasma flow. The droplets may form a thin film on the surface of at least one of the MHD electrodes and the MHD channel wall. Excess condensed liquid may be mechanically removed and transported with the plasma and mass flow. In one embodiment, a Faraday current passes through the condensed metal vapor, such as condensed silver vapor, generating a Hall current, which forces the condensed silver particles along the trajectory of the plasma jet from the MHD nozzle 307. The Hall current may cause the condensed silver to flow out of the MHD channel and back to the reservoir 5c. This current may preferentially flow through the condensed silver due to its higher conductivity than the metal vapor. In another embodiment, transport may be supported by at least one of divergence and convergence of the MHD channel. In one embodiment, an MHD converter, such as a disk generator, includes electrodes in contact with the plasma at the entrance and exit of the MHD channel to ameliorate the effects of molten metal shorting within the channel.

[0149] In one embodiment, the working medium includes a metal, such as silver, that can sublime below its boiling point to prevent the metal from condensing on the walls of the MHD channels as it flows into a recirculation system. In one embodiment, the pressure at the outlet of the MHD channel is maintained at a low pressure, such as below atmospheric pressure. A vacuum may be maintained at the outlet of the MHD channel to prevent working medium metal vapor from condensing in the MHD channel 308. The vacuum may be maintained by an MHD gas pump or compressor 312a ( Figure 7 (formerly Figure 2I167) ~ Figure 13 (formerly Figure 2I173) ).

[0150] In one embodiment, the MHD channel may include a power generator at an inlet portion and a compressor at an outlet portion that may expel condensed vapor from the MHD channel. The MHD converter may include a current source and a current controller to controllably apply current to the working medium of the MHD channel perpendicular to the applied magnetic field to cause condensed working medium vapor to flow from the channel, and channel conditions may be controlled to condense the vapor and achieve release of the vapor's heat of vaporization.

[0151] In another embodiment, the heat of vaporization of the silver metal vapor can be recovered by condensing the vapor in a heat exchanger, such as MHD condenser 309. This condensation can occur at a temperature above the boiling point of the metal, such as silver. The heat can be transferred to a portion of vessel 5c by means known in the art, such as convection, conduction, radiation, or by a coolant. The heat transfer system can include a refractory heat transfer block, such as Mo, W, or a carbon block that transfers heat by conduction. The heat can vaporize the silver in the vessel. The heat can be stored in the form of heat of vaporization. The hydrino reaction can further increase the pressure and temperature of the vaporized metal. In embodiments that include a working medium additive, such as a noble gas, such as argon or helium, the MHD converter can include a gas pump or compressor 312a ( Figure 7 (formerly Figure 2I167) ~ Figure 13 (formerly Figure 2I173)) The gas pump or compressor 312a may include a drive motor 312b and blades or vanes 312c. The MHD converter may include a pump inlet, which may include a gas conduit 310a from the MHD condenser 309 to the pump inlet, and a pump outlet, which may include a gas supply pipe 313a from the pump or compressor 312a to the reaction cell chamber 5b31. The pump may pump gas from low pressures, such as about 1-2 atmospheres, to high pressures, such as about 4-15 atmospheres. The inlet conduit 310a from the MHD condenser 309 to the pump 312a may include a filter, such as a selective membrane or metal condenser, at the inlet to separate gases, such as noble gases, from metal vapors, such as silver vapor. A baffle 309a in the MHD condenser 309 may direct molten metal, such as that condensed in the MHD condenser 309, to the MHD return conduit 310. At least one of the central baffle height and the molten metal return inlet to the MHD return conduit 310 may be at a position where the upward gas pressure overcomes the gravity of the condensed or liquid molten metal particles to facilitate flow into the MHD return conduit 310. At least one of the central baffle height and the molten metal return inlet to the MHD return conduit 310 may be at a position where the upward gas pressure overcomes the gravity of the condensed or liquid molten metal particles to facilitate flow into the MHD return conduit 310.

[0152] The SunCell® may include a metal vapor condenser, such as a constant-pressure condenser, disposed in the MHD condenser 309 and may include a heat exchanger 316. The working medium may include a carrier seeded with metal vapor or a working gas, such as a noble gas seeded with silver vapor, such as helium or argon. The condenser condenses the metal vapor and pumps the liquid metal and noble gas separately. Separation may be by at least one of gravitational settling, centrifugation, cyclone separation, filtration, electrostatic precipitation, and other methods known to those skilled in the art. In an exemplary embodiment, the separated noble gas is removed from the top of the condenser, and the separated liquid metal is removed from the bottom of the condenser. The liquid and gas may be separated by at least one of a baffle 309a, a filter, a selectively permeable membrane, and a liquid barrier through which gas can pass.

[0153] Compressor 312a may pump or recirculate gas to reaction cell chamber 5b31. EM pump 312 may pump liquid silver back to vessel 5c for reinjection into reaction cell chamber 5b31. Compressor 312a and EM pump 312 repressurize working medium gas, such as argon or helium, and liquid metal, such as liquid silver, respectively. The working medium gas may be returned to the reaction cell chamber via conduit 313a, which may connect to at least one of EM pump tube 5k6, vessel 5c, base 5kk1 of EM pump assembly 5kk, and reaction cell chamber 5b31. Alternatively, gas may be returned to reaction cell chamber 5b31 via conduit 313a connected to conduit 313b, such as one that provides a direct feed to vessel 5c or reaction cell chamber 5b31. Gas serves to inject molten metal into the reaction cell interface. Molten metal may be introduced into the gas injection to replace or supplement the EM pump's molten metal injector. The flow rate of injected molten metal and the flow rate of vapors, such as liquid and gaseous silver vapor, can be controlled by controlling the gas flow rate, gas pressure, gas temperature, vessel temperature, reaction cell temperature, nozzle inlet pressure, MHD nozzle flow rate, MHD nozzle outlet pressure, and hydrino reaction rate.

[0154] The return conduit 313b for at least one of the working medium gases, such as those flowing through the molten metal in the vessel 5c, and the molten metal in the vessel 5c, may comprise a refractory material, such as Mo, W, rhenium, rhenium-coated Mo or W, ceramic metal oxides (ZrO2, HfO2, MgO, Al2O3, etc.), and / or at least one of those disclosed herein. This conduit may comprise a tube of refractory material threaded into a collar or seat in the base 5kk1 of the EM pump tube assembly. The height of the return conduit 313b may be as desired to deliver the gas while allowing for the desired performance of other components, such as metal injection and level control by the injection section and inlet riser 5qa of the EM pump tube 5k61. The height may be approximately equal to the level of the molten metal in the vessel.

[0155] Figure 11 (formerly Figure 2I171) ~ Figure 13 (formerly Figure 2I173) In the illustrated embodiment, gas pump or compressor 312a may pump a mixture of gaseous working medium species, such as at least two of a noble gas, molten metal seeds, and molten metal vapor, such as silver vapor. In one embodiment, gas pump or compressor 312a may pump both gaseous and liquid working mediums, such as at least one of a noble gas, a metal vapor, and a liquid molten metal, such as liquid silver. The liquid and gas may be returned to the reaction cell chamber 5b31 via a conduit 313a, which may connect at least one of the EM pump tube 5k6, the vessel 5c, the 5kk1 of the EM pump assembly 5kk, and the reaction cell chamber 5b31. Alternatively, the gas may be returned to the reaction cell chamber 5b31 via a conduit 313a connected to a conduit 313b, such as one that provides a direct path to the vessel 5c or the reaction cell chamber 5b31.

[0156] In one embodiment, gas and liquid may flow through the EM pump tube 5k6. The gas may help inject the molten metal into the reaction cell interface. The molten metal may be incorporated into gas injection for augmentation and / or replacement of the EM pump to pump the molten metal through the injector tube 5k61 and nozzle 5q. The injection rate may be controlled by controlling at least one of the flow rate and pressure of the gas pump or compressor 312a, as well as by other means of the present disclosure. The molten metal level in the reservoir 5c may be controlled by a level sensor and controller of the present disclosure that controls at least one of the pressure and flow rate of one gas pump or compressor 312a relative to the other of the pair.

[0157] In some embodiments, the gas pump or compressor pumps all of the working medium, such as a silver-seeded noble gas, while in other embodiments the gas pump or compressor pumps only a noble gas, and the compression may be isothermal. The MHD converter may include a heat exchanger or cooler to cool the gaseous working medium before and during compression. The gas pump or compressor may include an intercooler. The gas pump or compressor may include multiple stages, such as a multi-stage intercooler compressor. Cooling improves the efficiency of compressing the gas to match the operating pressure of the reaction cell chamber 5b31.

[0158] After the pumping stage of the return cycle, the return gas working medium can be heated to increase its pressure. Heating can be achieved with a heat exchanger receiving heat from the MHD condenser 309 or other high-temperature components, such as an MHD converter or heat accumulator, which can receive heat from at least one of the following groups: the reaction cell chamber 5b31, the MHD nozzle 307, the MHD power generation section 308, and the MHD condenser 309. In one embodiment, significant reduction in gas pumping power can be achieved by using inlet and outlet valves for the gas flow into the reaction cell chamber 5b31 and from the MHD nozzle, respectively, to pump low-pressure gas into the reaction cell server, where the pressure is increased to the desired pressure, such as 10 atmospheres, by the plasma reaction energy output. The resulting pulsed MHD power can be regulated to stable DC or AC power. The return MHD gas supply conduit 313a may include a valve that opens to allow gas flow at a pressure lower than the peak reaction cell operating pressure, and the MHD nozzle section 307 may include a valve that opens to allow high-pressure gas to exit the nozzle following gas heating by the reaction cell chamber 5b31 plasma. The valve may facilitate low-pressure gas injection into the reaction cell chamber by a gas pump or compressor, where the gas is heated to high pressure by the hydrino reaction plasma. The valves may be synchronized to allow the reaction pressure to increase due to plasma heating. The valves may be 180° out of phase. The valves may include rotary shutter types. The MHD nozzle may be cooled to allow operation of the MHD nozzle valves. The return gas conduit 313a valves may be located at or near the base of the EM pump assembly 5kk1 to avoid condensation of silver in the corresponding gas delivery conduit 313b. The MHD converter may include a pulsed power system, such as one including inlet and outlet valves for the working medium gas of the reaction cell chamber 5b31. The pulsed MHD power can be made into a constant power output by a power conditioning device such as a device with a storage capacitor such as a battery or capacitor.

[0159] In one embodiment, the recycled molten metal, such as silver, remains in a gaseous state and the temperature of the MHD converter, including return supply pipe 310a, conduit 313a, and pump 312a, is maintained above the boiling temperature of silver at the operating pressure of the MHD system or the silver partial pressure.

[0160] The pump 312a may comprise a mechanical pump, such as a gear pump, such as a ceramic gear pump, or another pump known in the art, such as one with an impeller. The pump 312a may operate at high temperatures, for example, within a temperature range of approximately 962°C to 2000°C. The pump may include a turbine type, such as those used in gas turbines, or a type used as a turbocharger for internal combustion engines. The gas pump or compressor 312a may include at least one of a screw pump, an axial compressor, and a turbine compressor. The pump may include a positive displacement type. The gas pump or compressor may generate high gas velocities that are converted to pressure within a given reaction cell volume according to Bernoulli's law. The return gas conduit 313a may include a valve, such as a backpressure suppression valve, to force flow from the compressor to the reaction cell chamber and then to the MHD converter.

[0161] Mechanical parts that are subject to wear by the working medium, such as the impellers or turbine blades of pump 312a, may be coated with molten metal, such as molten silver, to protect them from abrasion or wear. In one embodiment, at least one component of the gas and molten metal return system includes a gas pump or compressor, such as a member of the group of MHD return conduit 310a, return reservoir 311a, MHD return gas pump or compressor 312a, and parts that come into contact with the return gas and molten metal, such as impellers, and MHD pump tube 313a ( Figure 7 (formerly Figure 2I167) ~ Figure 13 (formerly Figure 2I173) ) and includes a coating that provides at least one of thermal protection and wetting prevention by the molten metal to facilitate return metal flow to the vessel 5c.

[0162] In one embodiment, during startup of the SunCell®, compressor 312a may recirculate a working medium, such as helium or argon gas, to preheat at least one of reaction cell chamber 5b31 and at least one component of the EM return pumping system, including MHD components such as MHD nozzle portion 307, MHD channel 308, MHD condenser portion 309, and at least one component of the EM return pumping system, including MHD return conduit 310, return reservoir 311, MHD return EM pump 312, and MHD return EM pumping pipe 313. The working medium may be diverted to at least one component of the EM return pumping system. An inductively coupled heater, such as one corresponding to antenna 5f, may heat the working medium, which may be recirculated to preheat at least one of reaction cell chamber 5b31 and at least one MHD component.

[0163] In one exemplary embodiment, the MHD system includes a working medium containing argon or helium seeded with silver seeds or silver-copper alloy, and the majority of the pressure may be due to argon or helium. The mole fraction of silver or silver-copper alloy decreases with increasing noble gas, such as argon gas partial pressure, controlled using an argon supply, sensing, and control system. The SunCell® may include a cooling system for the reaction cell chamber 5b31 and MHD components, such as at least one of the MHD nozzle section 307, MHD channel 308, and MHD condenser section 309. At least one parameter, such as the wall temperature of the reaction cell chamber 5b31 and MHD channel, reaction and gas mixing conditions, may be controlled to determine the optimal silver or silver-copper alloy storage amount or vapor pressure. In one embodiment, the optimal silver vapor pressure is the pressure that optimizes the metal vapor conductivity and energy storage to achieve optimal power conversion density and efficiency. In one embodiment, some of the metal vapor condenses in the MHD channel, releasing heat, which is converted to additional kinetic energy in the converter, which is converted to electricity in the MHD channel. The pump or compressor 312a may comprise one, such as a mechanical pump for both the silver and argon, or the MHD converter may comprise two pump types, gas 312a and molten metal 312.

[0164] In one embodiment, the MHD converter may include multiple nozzles to generate a high-velocity conductive stream of molten metal in multiple stages. A first nozzle may include nozzle 307 associated with reaction cell chamber 5b31. Another nozzle may be located in condensation section 309, and heat released from condensing silver may generate high pressure at the nozzle entrance. The MHD converter may include an MHD channel with crossed magnets and electrodes downstream of each nozzle to convert the high-velocity conductive stream into electricity. In one embodiment, the MHD converter may include multiple reaction cell chambers 5b31, such as immediately before the nozzles.

[0165] In embodiments that do not include a return reservoir 311, the end of the MHD channel 309 acts like the lower hemisphere of the blackbody radiator 5b41, the return EM pump 312 is fast (not return rate limited), and silver is then distributed into the injector reservoirs 5c in the same manner as in the disclosed blackbody radiator design. The relative injection rates can then be controlled by the inlet risers 5qa of each vessel 5c, as in the disclosed blackbody radiator design.

[0166] In one embodiment, SunCell® includes an EM pump located immediately downstream of the acceleration nozzle 307 to pump the condensed molten metal back into at least one vessel of the molten metal injector system, such as reservoir 5c of the open dual molten metal injector system 5ka and 6k61.

[0167] In one embodiment, SunCell® may include return conduits 310 and 310a, return reservoirs 311 and 311a, return EM pump 312 and compressor 312a, open injector reservoir 5c, closed injector reservoir 5c, open EM pump injector section 5k61 and nozzle 5q and open EM pump injector section 5k61, and other combinations and configurations of nozzles 5q that may be selected by one of ordinary skill in the art to achieve a desired flow circuit of the MHD working medium through reaction cell chamber 5b31 and MHD converter 300. In one embodiment, molten metal level controller 5qa of any vessel, such as at least one of return reservoir 311 and injector reservoir 5c, may include at least one inlet riser pipe 5qa, as disclosed elsewhere and known to those of ordinary skill in the art.

[0168] In one embodiment, the working medium may include a mixture of a gas phase and a liquid phase, such as at least one liquid metal, and at least one gas, such as at least one of a metal vapor and a gas, such as a noble gas. Exemplary working mediums include liquid and gaseous silver or liquid silver, gaseous silver, and at least one other gas, such as a noble gas or another metal vapor.

[0169] In one embodiment, the MHD converter may include a liquid metal MHD (LMHD) converter, such as those known in the art. The LMMHD converter may include a heat exchanger to flow heat from the reaction cell chamber 5b31 to the LMMHD converter. The MHD converter may include a system utilizing at least one of a Rankine, Brayton, Ericsson, and Allam cycle. In one embodiment, the working medium is denser and remains denser than a noble gas, such that at least one of working fluid recovery and recirculation pumping is achieved with at least one of less expansion and more heat retention of the working fluid. The working medium may include a molten metal and its vapor, such as silver and silver vapor. The working medium may further include an additional metal in at least one of a liquid state and a vapor state, and at least one of a noble gas, water vapor, nitrogen, Freon, nitrogen, and others known in the field of liquid metal MHD (LMMHD) converters. In one embodiment, the MHD converter may include an EM medium, an MHD compressor, and at least one of a mechanical compressor or pump for recirculating the working medium.

[0170] The MHD converter may further include a mixer for mixing the liquid with the gas, and at least one phase may be heated before mixing. Alternatively, the mixed phase may be heated. A hot working medium containing the phase mixture flows into the MHD channel, and electricity is generated by the pressure generated in the working medium due to heating. In another embodiment, the liquid may include multiple liquids, such as one that serves as a conductive matrix, such as silver, and one with a lower boiling point that vaporizes in the reaction cell to serve as a gaseous working medium. The evaporation of the metal may enable a thermodynamic MHD cycle. Electric power is generated by the two-phase conductive flow in the MHD channel. The working medium may be heated by a heat exchanger to generate pressure to provide flow within the channel. The reaction cell chamber may provide heat to the inlet of the heat exchanger, which flows to the outlet of the heat exchanger and then to the working medium.

[0171] In one embodiment, the hydrino plasma vapor is mixed with liquid silver in a mixer to form a two-phase working medium. Upon heating, a high-pressure flow of primarily molten silver is generated through an MHD channel where thermal kinetic energy is converted to electricity, and the cooler, low-pressure working medium at the outlet of the MHD channel is recirculated by an MHDEM pump.

[0172] In one embodiment, including a hybrid cycle that is an open gas cycle and a closed metal cycle, the working medium may include at least one of oxygen, nitrogen, and air seeded with metal vapor, such as silver metal vapor. Liquid metal, such as silver, vaporized in the reaction cell chamber 5b31 and constituting the gas seeds may be condensed at the outlet of the MHD channel 308 and recycled to the reservoir 5c. Gas, such as air, exiting the MHD channel may be separated from the seeds and vented to the atmosphere. Heat may be recovered from the vented gas. Ambient gas, such as air, may be drawn in by a gas pump or compressor 312a.

[0173] In one embodiment, the MHD converter may comprise a homogeneous MHD converter containing a metal or metal mixture that is heated to cause metal vaporization at the inlet to the MHD channel. The converter may further comprise a channel inlet heat exchanger to transfer heat from the reaction cell chamber to the working medium to vaporize it prior to inlet to the MHD channel. The homogeneous MHD converter may further comprise a channel outlet heat exchanger at the outlet of the MHD channel that functions as a heat accumulator to transfer heat to the working medium before the inlet heat exchanger. The inlet heat exchanger may include a working medium conduit through the reaction cell chamber. The metal working medium may be condensed in a condensing heat exchanger downstream of the outlet heat exchanger, where the molten metal is pumped by a recirculation EM pump.

[0174] In one embodiment, the working medium includes a metal and a gas that are soluble in the molten metal at low temperatures and insoluble or poorly soluble in the molten metal at high temperatures. In an exemplary embodiment, the working medium may include at least one of silver and oxygen. In one embodiment, the oxygen pressure in the reaction cell chamber is maintained at a pressure that substantially prevents the molten metal, such as silver, from vaporizing. The hydrino reaction plasma may heat the oxygen and liquid silver to a desired temperature, such as 3500 K. The mixture containing the working medium flows through a tapered MHD channel under a pressure, such as 25 atmospheres, reducing the pressure and temperature as thermal energy is converted to electricity. As the temperature decreases, the molten metal, such as silver, may absorb a gas, such as oxygen. The liquid is then pumped back to the vessel and recirculated through the reaction cell chamber, where plasma heating releases the oxygen to maintain the desired reaction cell chamber pressure and temperature conditions required to drive MHD conversion. In one embodiment, the temperature of the silver at the outlet of the MHD channel is approximately the melting point of the molten metal, where the solubility of oxygen is approximately 20 cm of oxygen at 1 atmosphere of O . 3 (STP)~Silver 1cm 3 The recirculation pumping power of the liquid containing the dissolved gas may be much smaller than that of the free gas. Furthermore, the gas cooling requirements and MHD converter volume to reduce the pressure and temperature of the free gas during the thermodynamic energy output cycle may be significantly reduced.

[0175] In one embodiment, the MHD channel may be vertical, and the pressure gradient of the working medium within the channel may be greater than the equivalent pressure due to gravity, thereby maintaining the flow of the working medium of the molten metal in a cycle from the reaction cell chamber 5b31 to the outlet of the MHD channel where the molten metal is pumped back to the reservoir 5c. In one embodiment, the minimum pressure P is P=ρgh (39) where ρ is the density (1.05 × 10 for silver) 4 kg / m 3 ), g is the gravitational constant, and h is the height of the metal pillar. For an exemplary case where h = 0.2 m, P = 0.2 atmospheres.

[0176] The expansion in the nozzle 307 can be an isentropic process. In one embodiment, the hydrino reaction conditions in the reaction cell chamber 5b31 can provide and maintain the appropriate temperature and pressure in the MHD nozzle 307 to produce a high-velocity jet while avoiding condensation shock. At least one of a substantially constant velocity condition, in which the product of density, velocity, and area is substantially constant, and a continuity condition can be maintained during the expansion in the MHD channel 308. In one embodiment, supersonic silver vapor is injected from the MHD nozzle 307 at the inlet to the MHD channel 308. Some silver may condense in the channel, and condensation can be limited due to the isentropic expansion. The remaining energy of the jet, including the vapor and condensate, and the heat of vaporization of the silver are at least partially recovered by condensation in the condenser 309 and recirculation through a recirculator or heat storage device, such as a heat pipe. In one embodiment, regeneration is accomplished using a heat pipe, which recovers and recirculates at least the heat of vaporization of the silver, such that the recovered heat energy becomes part of the energy input to the MHD channel, with this component of the energy output balance being reduced only by the efficiency of the heat pipe. The proportion of metal vapor that condenses may be negligible, such as in the range of approximately 1-15%. In one embodiment, the condensed vapor may form an aerosol. The reaction cell chamber, nozzle, and MHD channel may contain a gas, such as argon, that condenses the vapor from the aerosol. The vapor may be condensed at the end of the MHD channel 308 in a condenser, such as condenser 309. The liquid metal may be recirculated, and the heat of vaporization may be at least partially recovered by a thermal storage device, such as one equipped with a heat pipe.

[0177] In another embodiment, the vapor can be forced to condense in a desired region, such as the nozzle 307 region. The nozzle expansion can be an isentropic process, and condensation of a pure gas, such as silver vapor, is limited to a 50% liquid mole fraction, starting at a critical temperature and pressure, which for silver are 506.6 MPa and 7480 K, respectively. In one embodiment, this limitation on condensation due to the expansion of pressurized vapor can be overcome by means such as removing heat to reduce entropy and pressurizing the condensation region with at least one other gas. The gas pressure can be equal in all regions where gas continuity exists, such as the reaction cell chamber 5b31, the nozzle 307, and the MHD channel 308 region. The MHD converter can further include tanks of other gases, gas manometers, gas pumps, and gas pressure controllers. The pressure of the at least one other gas can be controlled by the pressure controller. The gas pressure can be controlled to condense the metal vapor to a greater extent than isentropic expansion of the pure metal vapor. In one embodiment, the gas includes one that is soluble in the vapor metal. In one exemplary embodiment, the metal comprises silver and the gas comprises at least one of O2 and H2O.

[0178] In one embodiment, pressure generation in at least one of the nozzle 307 and the MHD channel 308 can be achieved by the occurrence of a condensation shock when a metal vapor phase rapidly condenses into a liquid metal stream, creating a rapid two-phase to single-phase transformation, resulting in the release of heat of vaporization. The energy release manifests itself as kinetic energy of the liquid stream. The kinetic energy of the liquid stream is converted to electricity in the MHD channel 308. In one embodiment, the vapor condenses as a mist or aerosol. The aerosol can be formed in an ambient atmosphere, such as a gas containing an aerosol-forming gas, such as oxygen, and optionally a noble gas, such as argon. The MHD channel 308 can be straight to maintain a constant velocity and pressure of the MHD channel stream. An aerosol-generating gas, such as oxygen and optionally a noble gas, can be flowed through at least one of the reservoir 5c, the reaction cell chamber 5b31, the MHD nozzle 307, the MHD channel 308, and other MHD converter components, such as the return supply line 310a, the conduit 313a, and the pump 312a. The gas may be recycled by an MHD return gas pump or compressor 312a.

[0179] In one embodiment, nozzle 307 includes a condensation jet, which includes a two-phase jet device in which molten metal in a liquid state mixes with its vapor phase, generating a liquid stream at a pressure higher than the pressure of either of the two streams at the inlet. Pressure can be generated within at least one of reaction cell chamber 5b31 and nozzle 307. The nozzle pressure can be converted to a flow rate at the outlet of nozzle 307. In one embodiment, the reaction cell chamber plasma is injected with molten metal from at least one EM pump injector that includes one stage of the jet device, and the other stage of the jet device. In one embodiment, the other phase, such as a liquid phase, can be injected by a separate EM pump injector, which can include a vessel such as EM pump 5ka, 5c, the nozzle portion of EM pump tube 5k61, and nozzle 5q.

[0180] In one embodiment, the MHD nozzle 307 includes an aerosol jet injector that converts the high-pressure plasma in the reaction cell chamber 5b31 into a high-velocity aerosol stream or jet in the MHD channel 308. The kinetic energy of the jet can come from at least one of the following sources: the heat of vaporization of the metal vapor condensed to form the aerosol jet and the pressure of the plasma in the reaction cell chamber 5b31. In one embodiment, the molar volume of the condensed vapor is approximately 50-500 times smaller than that of the corresponding vapor at standard conditions. Condensation of the vapor in the nozzle 307 can cause a pressure drop at the nozzle exit. The pressure drop can result in an increase in the velocity of the condensing stream, which can include at least one of a liquid and an aerosol jet. The nozzle can be elongated and converged to convert the local pressure into kinetic energy. The channel can have a cross-sectional area larger than the cross-sectional area of ​​the nozzle exit and can be straight to allow propagation of the aerosol stream. Other nozzle 307 and MHD channel 308 geometries, such as those having converging, diverging, or straight sections, may be selected to achieve the desired condensation of metal vapor with at least a portion of the energy converted to conductive flow within the MHD channel 308.

[0181] In one embodiment, some residual gas may remain uncondensed within the MHD channel 308. The uncondensed gas may support a plasma in the MHD channel to provide a conductive MHD channel flow. The plasma may be sustained by a hydrino reaction that may propagate in the MHD channel 308. The hydrino reactant is provided to at least one of the reaction cell chamber 5b31 and the MHD channel 308.

[0182] In one embodiment, pressure generation in at least one of the nozzle 307 and the MHD channel 308 is achieved by condensation of a metal vapor, such as silver metal vapor, with the release of heat of vaporization. The energy release manifests as kinetic energy of the condensed liquid. The kinetic energy of the flow can be converted to electricity in the MHD channel 308. The MHD channel 308 can be straight to maintain a constant velocity and pressure of the MHD channel flow. In one embodiment, the vapor can condense as a mist or aerosol. The aerosol can be formed in an ambient atmosphere containing an inert gas, such as one containing argon. The aerosol can be formed in an ambient atmosphere containing oxygen. The MHD converter can include a source of metal aerosol, such as silver aerosol. The source can include at least one of dual molten metal injectors. The aerosol source can include a separate EM pump injector comprising a vessel, such as EM pumps 5ka and 5c, a nozzle portion of EM pump tube 5k61, and nozzle 5q, in which the molten metal injection is at least partially converted into a metal aerosol. The aerosol may be flowed or injected into a region where it is desired to condense the metal vapor, such as the MHD nozzle 307. The aerosol may condense the metal vapor to a greater extent than is possible with metal vapor undergoing isentropic expansion, e.g., isentropic nozzle expansion. Metal vapor condensation may release the heat of vaporization of the metal vapor, which may increase at least one of the temperature and pressure of the aerosol. Corresponding energy and energy output may contribute to the kinetic energy and energy output of the aerosol and plasma stream at the nozzle exit. Due to the contribution of energy output from the heat of vaporization of the metal vapor, the energy output of the stream may be converted to electricity with improved efficiency. The MHD converter may include a controller for the metal aerosol source to control at least one of the aerosol flow rate and the aerosol mass density. The controller may control the EM pumping speed of the EM pump source of the aerosol. The aerosol injection rate may be controlled to optimize vapor condensation and recover the heat of vaporization of the vapor and MHD power conversion efficiency.

[0183] In one embodiment, the heat of vaporization released by the condensation of the vapor in the nozzle can be at least partially transferred directly or indirectly to the plasma in the reaction cell chamber. The nozzle may include a heat exchanger for transferring heat to the reaction cell chamber. The heat can be transferred by at least one of radiation, conduction, and convection. The released heat of vaporization heats the nozzle, and the heat can be transferred to the reaction cell chamber by conduction. The nozzle can include a highly thermally conductive material, for example, a refractory heat conductor, which can include an oxidation-resistant coating. In an exemplary embodiment, the nozzle can include boron nitride or carbon, which can be coated with an oxidation-resistant refractory coating, such as a ZrO2 coating. The material can include other refractory materials and coatings of the present disclosure.

[0184] In one embodiment, pressure generation in at least one of the nozzle 307 and the MHD channel 308 is achieved by condensation of metal vapor, such as silver metal vapor, with the release of heat of vaporization. The energy release manifests as kinetic energy of the condensed liquid. The kinetic energy of the flow can be converted to electricity in the MHD channel 308. The MHD channel 308 can be linear to maintain a constant velocity and pressure of the MHD channel flow. In one embodiment, the vapor condenses as a mist or aerosol. The aerosol can be formed in an ambient atmosphere, such as one containing at least one of argon and oxygen. The aerosol can be formed by injecting, passively flowing, or forcing at least one of oxygen and a noble gas through the liquid silver. The gas can be recirculated using a compressor 312a. The gas can be recirculated in a high-pressure gas flow loop, such as one that receives the gas in the reaction cell 531 and recycles it to the vessel 5c, where the gas flows through the molten silver to increase aerosol formation. In one embodiment, the silver can contain additives to increase the aerosol generation rate and range. In another embodiment, high-velocity aerosol generation can be formed by circulating liquid metal at high velocity. High-velocity injection of metal can be achieved by at least one molten metal injector, such as a dual molten metal injector including an EM Pump 5kk. The pumping speed can be within at least one of the following ranges: approximately 1 g / s to 10 g / s, 10 g / s to 100 g / s, 1 kg / s to 10 kg / s, 10 kg / s to 100 kg / s, and 100 kg / s to 1000 kg / s. In one embodiment, with a maintained cell atmosphere, such as one containing a desired concentration of oxygen, pumping molten metal to form a silver aerosol can be more energy efficient than pumping a gas through molten silver.

[0185] The MHD converter may include a source of metal aerosol, such as silver aerosol. The source may include at least one of dual molten metal injectors from at least one container and aerosol formation due to the temperature of the metal contained in the container being above the melting point of the metal. The aerosol source may include a reservoir, such as EM pumps 5ka and 5c, a nozzle portion of EM pump tube 5k61, and a separate EM pump injector, including nozzle 5q, in which the molten metal injector is at least partially converted into metal aerosol. The aerosol may flow or be injected into a region where it is desired to condense metal vapor, such as the MHD nozzle 307. The aerosol may condense metal vapor to a greater extent than is possible with metal vapor undergoing isentropic expansion, e.g., isentropic nozzle expansion. Metal vapor condensation may release heat of vaporization of the metal vapor, which may increase at least one of the temperature and pressure of the aerosol. Corresponding energy and energy output may be contributed to the kinetic energy and energy output of the aerosol and plasma stream at the nozzle exit. The energy output of the flow can be converted to electricity with improved efficiency due to the contribution of energy output from the heat of vaporization of the metal vapor. The MHD converter can include a controller of the metal aerosol source to control at least one of the aerosol flow rate and the aerosol mass density. The controller can control the EM pumping rate of the EM pump source of the aerosol. The aerosol injection rate can be controlled to optimize vapor condensation and recover the heat of vaporization of the vapor and MHD power conversion efficiency.

[0186] The decrease in entropy causes condensation of silver vapor during an otherwise isentropic expansion,

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[0187] In one embodiment, the MHD thermodynamic cycle includes a process of sustaining a hydrino reaction plasma that sustains a superheated silver vapor and condenses into a high kinetic energy aerosol jet of liquid droplets by adding at least one of a cold silver aerosol or liquid silver metal injection. The energy output storage of the aerosol jet may primarily comprise kinetic energy output. Power conversion may primarily result from the change in kinetic energy output in the MHD channel 308. The operating mode of the MHD converter may include the opposite of that of a railgun or a direct current conductive electromagnetic pump.

[0188] Vapor condensation to form a high-kinetic-energy jet of liquid silver droplets can substantially eliminate the loss of heat of vaporization in the balance of energy and energy output. The cold silver aerosol can be formed in the reservoir and transported to at least one of the reaction cell chamber 5b31 and the MHD nozzle 307. The cell may further include a mixing chamber downstream of the plasma flow through the reaction cell chamber to the MHD converter. Mixing of the cold aerosol with the superheated vapor can occur in at least one of the reaction cell chamber 5b31, the mixing chamber, and the MHD nozzle 307. In one embodiment, the SunCell® includes a source of oxygen to form fuming molten silver and promote the formation of the silver aerosol. Oxygen can be supplied to at least one of A and B. It can be supplied to at least one of the reservoir 5c, the reaction cell chamber 5b31, the MHD nozzle 307, the MHD channel 308, the MHD condenser 309, and another internal chamber of the SunCell®-MHD converter generator. Oxygen may be absorbed by the molten silver, forming an aerosol. The aerosol may be enhanced by the presence of a noble gas, such as an argon atmosphere, in the power generation section. The argon atmosphere may be added and maintained at a desired pressure by the disclosed system, including an argon tank, supply line, valve, controller, and injector. The injector may be located in the condenser section 309 or other appropriate area to avoid backflow of silver. In one embodiment, the superheated silver vapor may be condensed to form an aerosol jet at the nozzle, either directly or indirectly, by injection of silver. In one embodiment, the reaction cell chamber 5b31 may be operated under at least one of a lower temperature and a lower pressure to allow a larger portion of the vapor to liquefy under expansion, e.g., isentropic expansion.

[0189] If the flow rate decreases, the fog density may be increased to maintain a constant flow within the channel. This density may increase due to coalescence of the silver fog droplets. The channel may include a straight channel. In other embodiments, the channel may be converging or diverging, or have another shape suitable for optimizing MHD power conversion.

[0190] In one embodiment, the nozzle may include at least one channel for a relatively cool metal vapor aerosol and at least another channel for silver vapor or superheated silver vapor. The channels may deliver the corresponding aerosols that are mixed at the nozzle 307. This mixing may reduce entropy and cause the silver vapor to condense. The condensation and nozzle flow may result in a high velocity aerosol jet at the nozzle exit. The flow rate of the relatively cool aerosol may be controlled by controlling the temperature of the source, such as the vessel temperature, which may be a vessel. The flow rate of the superheated vapor may be controlled by controlling at least one of the hydrino reaction rate and the molten metal injection rate. In one embodiment, the SunCell® output power may be varied by varying the mass flow of silver by controlling the EM pump according to the mass derivative term in Eq. (42). The hydrino reactants may be controlled synchronously to match the reaction rate and energy output to the desired output power.

[0191] In one embodiment, the pressure and temperature at the nozzle outlet are approximately the same as the pressure and temperature at the outlet of the MHD channel 308, and the power of the input energy at the inlet of the MHD channel 308, P input is the mass flow rate at that velocity ν

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[0192] Power of electrical conversion in the MHD channel, P electric teeth

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[0193] mass flow

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[0194] In one embodiment, the differential Lorentz force dF L is proportional to the flow velocity of the silver plasma and the small distance dx along the MHD channel 308.

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[0195] The power is calculated by the load factor W of the MHD channel.

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[0196] The power given by equation (55) is

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[0197] In one embodiment, at least one of the reaction cell chamber 5b31 and the nozzle 307 may comprise a magnetic bottle that can selectively form a plasma jet along the longitudinal axis of the MHD channel 308. The power converter may comprise a magnetic mirror that is a source of a magnetic field gradient in the desired direction of ion flow, where an adiabatically invariant

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[0198] Specifically, the plasma flows along the MHD channel or z-axis

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[0199] In one embodiment, the hydrino reaction mixture may include at least one of oxygen, water vapor, and hydrogen. The MHD components may include a ceramic, such as a metal oxide, such as at least one of zirconia and hafnia, or a material, such as silica or quartz, that is stable in an oxidizing atmosphere. In one embodiment, the MHD electrode 304 may include a material that may not be susceptible to corrosion or degradation during operation. In one embodiment, the MHD electrode 304 may include a conductive ceramic, such as a conductive solid oxide. In another embodiment, the MHD electrode 304 may include a liquid electrode. The liquid electrode may include a metal that is liquid at the electrode operating temperature. The liquid metal may include a working medium metal, such as molten silver. The molten electrode metal may include a matrix impregnated with the molten metal. The matrix may include a corrosion-resistant material, such as a metal, such as W, carbon, a conductive ceramic, or another refractory material of the present disclosure. The negative electrode may include a solid refractory metal. The negative polarity may protect the negative electrode from oxidation. The positive electrode may include a liquid electrode.

[0200] The liquid electrode may include a means for applying electromagnetic confinement (Lorentz force) to maintain the liquid metal at the free surface. The liquid metal electrode may include a magnetic field source and a current source to maintain the electromagnetic confinement. The magnetic field source may include at least one of the MHD magnets 306 and another set of magnets, such as permanent magnets, electromagnets, and superconducting magnets. The current source may include at least one of an MHD current and an applied current from an external current source.

[0201] In one embodiment, the conductive ceramic electrode may include one of the disclosed carbides, such as ZrC, HfC, or WC, or borides, such as ZrB2, or composites, such as ZrC-ZrB2, ZrC-ZrB2-SiC, and ZrB2 using a 20% SiC composite, and may operate up to 1800°C. The electrode may include carbon. In one embodiment, multiple liquid electrodes may be supplied with liquid metal through a common manifold. The liquid metal may be pumped by an EM pump. The liquid electrode may include molten metal impregnated in a non-reactive matrix, such as a ceramic matrix, such as a metal oxide matrix. Alternatively, the liquid metal may be pumped through the matrix to continuously supply the molten metal. In one embodiment, the electrode may include a continuously injected molten metal, such as an ignition electrode. The injector may include a non-reactive refractory material, such as a metal oxide, such as ZrO2. In one embodiment, each liquid electrode may contain a molten metal stream exposed to the plasma of the MHD channel.

[0202] In one embodiment, the electrodes may be arranged in a Hall generator design. The negative electrode may be near the inlet of the MHD channel, and the positive electrode may be near the outlet of the MHD channel. The electrodes may be near the inlet of the MHD channel and may include a liquid electrode, such as a subsurface electrode. The electrode near the outlet of the MHD channel may include a conductor that is oxidation-resistant at the electrode operating temperature, and the operating temperature may be significantly lower at the outlet than at the inlet of the MHD channel. An exemplary oxidation-resistant electrode at the MHD outlet may include a carbide such as ZrC or a boride such as ZrB2. In one embodiment, the electrode may include a series of electrode segments separated by an insulator segment, including a protrusion on the MHD channel wall that may include an electrical insulator. The protrusion may be maintained at a temperature that prevents metal vapor from condensing. The insulator segment may include at least one wall insulator that is heated and insulated to maintain an insulator temperature above the boiling point of the metal at the operating pressure of the MHD channel. The electrode at the outlet of the channel may include an oxidation-resistant electrode, such as a carbide or boride, that may be stable to oxidation at the outlet temperature. In one embodiment, the MHD channel may be maintained at a temperature below the temperature at which at least one of condensation of metal vapor on the wall insulator portion and corrosion of electrodes, such as carbide or boride electrodes, such as those containing ZrC or ZrB2, or composites, such as ZrC-ZrB2 and ZrC-ZrB2-SiC composites, may occur. In one embodiment, the working medium includes a metal, such as silver, that may sublime below its boiling point to prevent condensation of the metal on the walls of the MHD channel so that the metal can flow to a recirculation system.

[0203] In one embodiment, the MHD magnet 306 may include an AC magnetic field magnet, such as an electromagnet, that may apply a sinusoidal or AC magnetic field to the MHD channel 308. The applied sinusoidal or AC magnetic field may output the MHD power as alternating current (AC) power. The AC and voltage frequencies may be standard, such as 50 Hz or 60 Hz. In one embodiment, the MHD power is transferred out of the channel by induction. The induction generator may eliminate electrodes in contact with the plasma.

[0204] The integration and sealing between components, such as the seal 314 connecting the reaction cell chamber 5b31 and the MHD acceleration channel or nozzle 307 to the MHD expansion or power generation channel 308, may include gasketed flange seals or other seals disclosed herein. Other seals, such as those of the return conduit 310, return reservoir 311, return EM pump 312, injector reservoir 5c, and injector EM pump assembly 5kk, may include seals disclosed herein. An exemplary gasket may include carbon, such as graphite or graphoil, and bonded metal oxide components, such as those including at least one of alumina, hafnia, zirconia, and magnesia, are maintained below carbon reduction temperatures, such as in the range of approximately 1300°C to 1900°C. Components may include different materials, such as refractory materials and stainless steel, based on their operating parameters and requirements. In one exemplary embodiment, (i) at least one of the EM pump assembly 5kk, the return conduit 310, the return reservoir 311, and the return pump tube 312 comprises stainless steel, the interior of which may be coated with an oxidation-resistant coating such as nickel, Pt, rhenium, or other precious metals, and (ii) at least one of the reservoir 5c, the reaction cell chamber 5b31, the nozzle 307, and the MHD expansion section 308 comprises boron nitride or a refractory oxide, e.g., MgO (MP2825°C), ZrO2 (MP2715°C), HO-stable magnesia-zirconia, or the like. (iii) the reaction cell chamber 5b31 includes graphite, such as at least one of isotropic and pyrolytic graphite; and (iv) at least one of the inlet riser 5qa, the nozzle portion of the electromagnetic pump tube 5k61, the nozzle 5q, and the MHD electrode 304 may include at least one of carbon, Mo, W, rhenium, rhenium-coated Mo, and rhenium-coated W. In an exemplary embodiment, at least one of the EM pump assembly 5kk, the return conduit 310a, the return reservoir 311a, and the return gas pump or compressor 312a includes stainless steel that is internally coated with an oxidation-resistant coating, such as nickel, platinum, rhenium, or other precious metal.

[0205] The electrodes may include conductors coated with precious metals such as Pt on copper, nickel, nickel alloys, and cobalt alloys, or these metals uncoated, and cooling may be applied by a backing heat exchanger or cold plate. The electrodes may include spinel-type electrodes such as 0.75MgAl2O4-0.25Fe3O4, 0.75FeAl2O4-0.25Fe3O4, and lanthanum chromite La(Mg)CrO3. In one embodiment, the MHD electrode 304 may include a liquid electrode, such as a refractory metal electrode coated with liquid silver or a cooled metal electrode. At least one of the Ni and rhenium coatings may protect the coated components from reaction with HO. The MHD atmosphere may include hydrogen to maintain a reduced state of the metals in the EM pump tube 5k6, inlet riser tube 5qa, nozzle portion of the electromagnetic pump tube 5k61, nozzle 5q, MHD electrode 304, etc. The MHD atmosphere may include water vapor to maintain ceramic components, such as oxide ceramics such as strontium zirconate, hafnia, ZrO, or MgO, in at least one of the reaction cell chamber 5b31, nozzle 307, and MHD expansion sec...

Claims

1. a system including two electromagnetic pumps, each configured to generate molten metal streams from one or more molten metal reservoirs, the molten metal streams intersecting; Here, each electromagnetic pump: a) an inlet having an open-ended conduit for insertion into molten metal in one or more molten metal reservoirs to allow the molten metal to flow into an electromagnetic pump; b) a pump tube having an outlet diameter through which a molten metal stream is generated; c) a loop through which the molten metal stream flows between the inlet riser pipe and the pump pipe; d) a transformer winding circuit that generates a time-varying magnetic field through the molten metal in the loop so as to generate a current in the molten metal in the loop; e) an electromagnet that generates a time-varying magnetic field perpendicular to a portion of the current in the loop to generate a Lorentz force on the molten metal stream flowing through the exit diameter to generate an electromagnet across the current and a molten metal stream; and a system including a power source configured to supply an electrical current through the intersecting molten metal streams.

2. 10. The system of claim 1, wherein the inlet open-ended conduit has a diameter greater than the diameter of the outlet pump tube.

3. 10. The system of claim 1, further comprising a chamber, the molten metal streams intersecting within the chamber.

4. 4. The system of claim 3, wherein the chamber is connected to a source of hydrogen gas and a source of oxygen gas such that the molten metal stream intersects in an environment containing a mixture of hydrogen gas and oxygen gas.

5. 10. The system of claim 1, wherein each electromagnetic pump is fluidly connected to an independent molten metal reservoir, the independent molten metal reservoirs being connected by a ceramic channel for molten metal, and the power source includes an induction assembly including a winding and a yoke that induces an induced current through the intersecting molten metal streams, the molten metal in each electromagnetic pump, the molten metal in the reservoirs, and the molten metal in the ceramic channel.

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