ORBITAL CONFINEMENT FUSION DEVICE.

Abstract

Systems, devices, and methods for generating an orbital confinement fusion reaction are described. An orbital confinement fusion device may include an inner cathodic electrode that defines a longitudinal axis of the device. The inner electrode may contain an emitter material. The orbital confinement fusion device may also include an outer anodic electrode, concentric with the longitudinal axis and defining a chamber between the inner and outer electrodes. The orbital confinement fusion device may also include a plurality of magnetic field generators arranged coaxially with respect to the longitudinal axis. The plurality of magnetic field generators may be configured to form a magnetic field parallel to the longitudinal axis within the chamber.

Description

This application claims the benefit of provisional patent application number 63 / 073812, entitled Controlled Chain Reaction Fusion Device, and filed on September 2, 2020, the content of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Nuclear fusion is a reaction in which two or more light atoms combine to form one or more heavier atoms. Due to the mass defect, energy is released when elements lighter than iron-56 or nickel-62 fuse, as described by E=mc². Nuclear fusion begins when two or more nuclei overcome the Coulomb barrier created by the repulsive electrostatic force between positive nuclei, bringing the nuclei into close proximity. Fusion occurs as a result of quantum tunneling, which allows the nuclei to combine into a nuclide fusion product, and is accompanied by a release of fusion energy. One procedure for generating a fusion reaction, called thermonuclear fusion, involves heating fuel atoms above their ionization temperatures, increasing the ion density and thermal kinetic energy of the ions to the point where the fuel nuclei fuse. In contrast, orbital confinement fusion involves accelerating ions to induce nuclear fusion by increasing their kinetic energies to a point where collisions result in nuclear fusion. Fusion has long been an attractive energy source because the reaction produces no greenhouse gases, no long-lived radioactive waste, little proliferation risk, no risk of accidental meltdown, and the necessary elements are widely available and virtually inexhaustible. Despite significant research efforts and investments since the theoretical formulation of the physics underlying nuclear fusion, methods for initiating, controlling, and sustaining fusion reactions to produce usable energy remain elusive. To address the limitations imposed by electron collision losses, fusion research has focused on thermonuclear fusion.Consequently, the development of fusion reactors has been dominated by plasma confinement technologies for containing hot plasmas, which describe a plasma where electrons and ions are in thermal equilibrium at average temperatures on the order of 100 million Kelvin. Controlled thermonuclear fusion involves maintaining hot plasmas at densities and for confinement times long enough to generate a positive net energy output, which poses a fundamental challenge for the successful implementation of nuclear fusion. Currently, magnetic confinement and inertial confinement are the primary targets of research efforts to achieve controlled thermonuclear fusion. Research into inertial and magnetic confinement methods typically involves international and multi-institutional collaborative research efforts, resulting in large facilities, capital investments exceeding billions of US dollars, and design cycles spanning decades. On a technical level, such projects continue to face plasma instability, material limitations, and low energy yields. No fusion reactor has yet reached the point of cost-effectiveness.For at least these reasons, there is a need for plasma fusion devices that achieve a net energy gain, with a smaller footprint, that can be built and maintained by individuals or individual entities, rather than by consortium-scale or government organizations. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION This brief description of the invention is provided to present a selection of concepts in a simplified form, which will be further described below in the Detailed Description. This brief description of the invention is not intended to identify key features of the claimed subject matter, nor is it intended to be used as an aid in determining the scope of the claimed subject matter. Systems, devices, and methods for generating an orbital confinement fusion reaction are described. An orbital confinement fusion device may include an inner cathodic electrode that defines a longitudinal axis of the device. The inner electrode may contain an emitter material. The orbital confinement fusion device may also include an outer anodic electrode, concentric with the longitudinal axis and defining a chamber between the inner and outer electrodes. The orbital confinement fusion device may also include a plurality of magnetic field generators arranged coaxially with respect to the longitudinal axis. The plurality of magnetic field generators may be configured to form a magnetic field parallel to the longitudinal axis within the chamber. In some embodiments, the inner and outer electrodes are solids of revolution, symmetric about the longitudinal axis, and may be shaped to form a substantially logarithmic electrostatic field in the chamber when energized. The inner electrode may be characterized by an aspect ratio greater than one along the longitudinal axis. The outer electrode may have a length along the longitudinal axis greater than the largest diameter of the inner electrode. The outer electrode may include a first anodic envelope and a second anodic envelope, arranged laterally with respect to the axis. Qbbznn / Qznz / B / YiAi longitudinal and a dielectric insulator disposed between and electrically insulating the first anodic wrap and the second anodic wrap. In some embodiments, the magnetic field is characterized by a magnetic field strength that exceeds a Hull cutoff condition to trap electrons in an orbital path around the inner electrode within the chamber. The plurality of magnetic field generators may be or include permanent magnets. The plurality of magnetic field generators may be or include electromagnets. The orbital confinement melting device may also include a high-voltage power supply, electrically coupled to the inner electrode, and operating in a range of approximately 50 kV DC to approximately 4.0 MV DC. The inner electrode may define a first end and a second end.The orbital confinement fusion device may further include a first dielectric insulator mechanically coupled to the first end, isolating the first end from the outer electrode, and a second dielectric insulator disposed in the chamber between the second end and the outer electrode, isolating the second end from the outer electrode. The first dielectric insulator may define an insulating cavity and may electrically isolate the high-voltage power supply from the outer electrode. In some embodiments, the outer electrode defines an aperture, and an aperture alignment defines an injection trajectory. This injection trajectory corresponds to the entry step angle of a stable elliptical orbit of an ion with a given mass-to-charge ratio around the inner electrode. The ion can be, but is not limited to, a proton (m / z = 1), a deuterium ion (m / z = 2), a tritium ion (m / z = 3), a lithium-6 ion (m / z = 6), or a boron-11 ion (m / z = 11). The outer electrode may also define a port fluidly coupled to the chamber and an external environment. The port may be configured for fluid coupling to a vacuum system. The emitter material may be disposed on or integrated within the inner electrode. The emitter material may be configured to inject electrons into the chamber when the inner electrode is energized.The emitter material may be or include a thermionic emitter material. In some embodiments, the orbital confinement fusion device further includes an image current device electrically coupled to the outer electrode and configured to generate electrical energy from a plurality of charged particles orbiting the inner electrode. These charged particles exhibit harmonic axial motion aligned with the longitudinal axis. The orbital confinement fusion device may also include a fluid conduit disposed in either the outer or inner electrode. The orbital confinement fusion device can be characterized by physical dimensions on the order of tens of centimeters. In some embodiments, the fusion device Qfrirznn / eznz / E / YiAi by orbital confinement is electrically coupled to an electrical power system configured to receive electrical power or heated coolant from the device. One method for generating fusion energy by orbital confinement in a fusion device described above may include energizing the inner electrode at a voltage of approximately 50 kV DC to approximately 4.0 MV DC, thereby forming a logarithmic electrostatic field between the inner and outer electrodes and injecting a plurality of electrons into the chamber. The method may also include injecting a fuel ion beam into the chamber at an angle tangential to a surface of the inner electrode, causing the fuel ions to interact with the electrostatic field and enter an elliptical orbit around the inner electrode.The method may also include generating a magnetic field aligned with the longitudinal axis using a plurality of magnetic field generators, the magnetic field characterized by an intensity corresponding to a Hull cutoff condition, and redirecting the electrons back towards the inner electrode. In some embodiments, the method also includes flowing a coolant through the fluid conduit, heating the coolant through contact with the outer electrode, and generating electricity using the heated coolant. The method may also include applying a radio frequency (RF) voltage signal to the outer electrode using a charge imaging circuit, where a frequency of the RF voltage signal corresponds to an oscillation of charged particles in the chamber along a direction aligned with the longitudinal axis. The method may further include generating an RF current using the charge imaging circuit and generating a direct current from the RF current using an RF-to-DC rectifier circuit. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The foregoing aspects and many of the concomitant advantages of this invention will be more readily appreciated as it is better understood by reference to the following detailed description, when taken together with the accompanying drawings, where: FIGURE 1 is a schematic diagram illustrating an exemplary system for generating power using an orbital confinement reactor device, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. FIGURE 2A is a schematic diagram illustrating an exemplary reactor device incorporating a two-part outer electrode, according to some embodiments. FIGURE 2B is a schematic diagram illustrating the exemplary reactor device incorporating a one-part external anode, according to some embodiments. Qfrirznn / eznz / E / YiAi FIGURE 20 is a schematic diagram illustrating an exemplary reactor device incorporating a two-part external anode in a three-quarter section, according to some embodiments. FIGURE 3 is a schematic diagram illustrating an exemplary ion injection system, according to some modalities. FIGURE 4 is a schematic diagram illustrating the exemplary reactor device and magnetic field generator configuration, according to some modalities. FIGURE 5 is a schematic diagram illustrating an extreme view representation of the interactions of emitted electrons and orbiting ions, according to some modalities. FIGURE 6 is a graph illustrating the reaction rate (ordinate) and density (abscissa) for an exemplary orbital confinement reaction device, at an average electron temperature of 125 keV for three key design points, according to some modalities. FIGURE 7 is a block flow diagram illustrating an exemplary process for generating energy or neutrons using an orbital confinement reactor device, according to some modalities. Similar reference numbers refer to similar parts across different views, unless otherwise specified. Not all instances of an element are necessarily labeled to reduce confusion on drawings where appropriate. Drawings are not necessarily to scale; rather, the emphasis is on illustrating the principles being described. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE MODALITIES Although illustrative modalities have been illustrated and described, it will be appreciated that various changes can be made to the present one without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. Introduction: The concept of orbital ion confinement was first proposed in 1923 in the Kingdon trap. A Kingdon trap consists of a thin central wire, an outer cylindrical electrode, and insulated terminal electrodes at both ends. A static voltage applied between the wire and the electrode results in a logarithmic radial potential between them. Ions are stored with finite angular momentum around the central wire, and the electric field applied in the device allows for stable ion trajectories for relatively long periods. The Knight trap, a variant of the Kingdon trap, modifies the outer electrode to confine ions in orbit around the cylindrical trap axis with harmonic axial motion. This harmonic axial motion is characteristic of the charge-to-mass ratio (Z / m) of the confined ions and can be measured using radio frequency (RF). Qfrirznn / eznz / E / YiAi imaging stream, where a combination of ions of different masses generates a convoluted RF signal that is deconvolved using Fourier transfer techniques. The oribitrap is a refinement of the Knight trap geometry that eliminates the cross-coupling terms between the radial and axial motion of ions, resulting in a highly sensitive mass spectrometer. The Kingdon trap, Knight trap, and oribitrap are sensitive instruments for detecting and differentiating ions by their mass, but they are inherently incapable of extracting energy or neutrons from nuclear fusion. This limitation is due, at least in part, to operating parameters such as pressure, temperature, electrostatic field strength, magnetic field strength, ion density or space charge, ion energy distribution, and similar factors. Additionally, ion-mass sensors isolate ions from an ion source, which is typically an ionizing plasma formed using an analyte, as in plasma-mass spectrometry systems (e.g., ICP-MS), where the ions are not suitable fusion fuels.In fact, the space between the electrodes is kept electron-free, which serves, at least in part, to improve the instrument's sensitivity by reducing ion density and increasing harmonic axial motion to enhance signal resolution. As such, an orbital confinement fusion device represents a significant departure from the structure and operation of an oribitrap-type mass sensor, rather than a modification of operating parameters or the inclusion of one or more discrete structural elements to add new functionality. Nuclear fusion devices based on orbital confinement, for example, generate energy by accelerating fusion events between light ions to form heavier ions. Described in terms of a fusion reaction rate constant k, orbital confinement fusion involves confining fuel and reaction product ions for relatively long periods of time, approximately one second or more, and relatively long particle tracking distances, on the order of 1 × 10⁸ cm. Ion confinement in this way serves to increase the number of energy transfer scattering events to a point where fusion reactions become more probable, described in terms of collision cross-sections below. Orbital ion confinement can achieve the ion confinement times, distances, and energies necessary to obtain nuclear fusion.Kingdon / Orbitrap mass sensors can achieve relatively high space charges, on the order of 2x1010 atoms / cm3, compared to other ion trap designs, but they cannot achieve the space charges generated in an orbital confinement reactor device, on the order of 1x1012 - 1x1015 atoms / cm3. Qfrirznn / eznz / E / YiAi In contrast, an orbital confinement fusion reactor increases the ion space charge by introducing and confining electrons in orbit with ions around a central electrode. The injection of space charges by means of electrons serves to compensate for the positive space charge of the ions, increasing the achievable ion density, at least in part by selectively reducing ion-ion repulsion. Electron confinement can be facilitated by a different physical mechanism than that used for ion confinement, such as a procedure to provide independent control of the ion and electron orbits in the device, thereby improving reactor control and enhancing reactor efficiency.For example, a magnetic field can be generated parallel to a longitudinal axis of the orbital confinement reactor, as in a magnetron-type magnetic field generator, which exceeds the Hull cut-off condition, curving the electron trajectories in a direction orthogonal to the magnetic field direction, and thus inducing a magnetron-type curved motion of the electrons around the central electrode in the same direction as the orbiting ions, thereby reducing the two-current instability of the ion beam and / or fusion plasma and reducing the losses attributable to electron-ion collisions. The operating window of fusion reactor devices can be determined, at least in part, in terms of a fusion triple product of plasma density, temperature, and confinement time (ηTτ). As a factor of merit, the triple product describes the conditions for fusion reactions to occur in a controllable and reproducible manner while generating positive net energy, which is known as the Lawson criterion. Density, temperature, and confinement time can be controlled through operating parameters of the reactor device. For example, increasing the ion flux in a fusion reactor from a fuel ion source can increase the plasma density, while increasing the electrostatic field strength can increase the temperature by accelerating the ions to higher average velocities. The parameters are coupled, so increasing one parameter can affect another.For example, increased plasma density can increase collision losses and reduce confinement time as ions impact reactor surfaces. The triple product can be used to obtain electrostatic field strength, magnetic field strength, ion flux, and electron flux parameters for a reactor device. In this way, reactor conditions can reach a point where nuclear fusion generates a net positive energy. As an illustrative example, fuel ions are injected tangentially between an inner and an outer electrode and into an electrostatic field with sufficient energy to assume stable elliptical orbits around the inner electrode. During one elliptical orbit, the positively charged fuel ions Fuel ions accelerate toward the negative inner electrode, converting potential energy into kinetic energy, until they reach the perigee of their elliptical orbit. After reaching perigee, the fuel ions decelerate as they move away from the negative cathode potential and store potential energy until they reach the apogee of their elliptical orbit. A single fuel ion completes millions of these orbits in the reactor over a period of time on the order of a second. Furthermore, an elliptical ion orbit can intersect the orbits of other ions millions of times, increasing the probability of a relatively improbable fusion event. Eventually, a fusion event occurs between fuel ions on colliding orbital paths, releasing fusion reaction products, including but not limited to charged particles (alphas, helium-3, protons, tritium, etc.), radiation, and thermal energy. Following a fusion event, a portion of the charged fusion reaction particles impacts the electrodes, converting their kinetic energy into heat that dissipates within the device. Additionally, unreacted fuel ions impact the negatively charged electrode, further heating the device. Cooling channels in the reactor can extract this heat, which can then be used to generate electricity via thermodynamic cycles (e.g., using Seebeck-effect thermoelectric generators or heat exchanger systems). The remaining fusion reaction product particles readily assume stable orbits around the negative cathode potential. These fusion products, traveling faster than the fuel ions also orbiting the inner electrode, can transfer kinetic energy to the fuel ions through Rutherford upward scattering interactions.Following multiple ion-to-ion scattering collisions, the fusion products collide with the reactor's internal surfaces, generating additional heat. The upward-scattered fuel ions follow circular orbits, increasing the effective ion temperature, the reactivity of the fusion plasma, and the overall fusion reaction rate. In this way, the orbital confinement reactor device can sustain nuclear fusion with a positive net energy output that can be used to generate electricity in a compact footprint. Physical Principles of the Fusion Reaction: The following discussion of the principles of an orbital confinement reactor device is not intended to limit the scope of this disclosure. For example, although the discussion of fusion reactions will focus on deuterium-deuterium fusion, the principles are envisaged to be equally applicable to other fusion reactions, including, but not limited to, proton-boron fusion and deuterium-tritium fusion. Qfrirznn / eznz / E / YiAi Furthermore, it is envisioned that fusion reactions can be further augmented by multiple steps, whereby an initial fusion reaction serves as a source of fuel ions directly in the device, for example, through neutron activation of Li-6 in an exothermic step that generates energetic alpha particles and tritium. In this way, the fusion of two or more species, including but not limited to neutrons, protons, deuterium, tritium, helium-3, lithium-6, or boron-11, generates fusion products with high kinetic energy. The fusion products can collide with fuel ions, transferring kinetic energy through upward scattering, thus promoting the fuel ions to temperatures with chain reaction potential. In the context of deuterium-deuterium (DD) fusion, the reactions have approximately equal probability of following any of the following pathways: D + D^ (0.82 MeV)+ n(2.45MeV) 50%(1) Qfrirznn / eznz / E / YiAi D + D-> fT (1.01 AfeV) + p(3.02 MeV) 50%(2) The upward scattering between alpha particle fusion products and fuel ions is described by the following collision upward scattering reaction: He (0.82 MeV) + SlowFast(3) Equation (3) represents the upward collision scattering of deuterons at energies at which the deuterons can induce follow-through reactions of the type in Equation (1). The chain reaction equation for DD fusion with an upward scattering path of helium-3 -> deuterium is described as follows, the parameters are defined in Table 1: Id=^HenDff3He_>DX3 / íe(4) The distribution of upscattered deuterium current and energy is determined by Equation (4). The number of fusion events resulting from the upscattered deuterium current (Id) is defined as follows: ^D-Dfusion= nD Id °D-DfXD (5) Table 1: Parameter definitions for equations 4-6 Initial current of helium-3 due, for example, to thermonuclear reactions: 2He (atoms / s) nD deuterium density (atoms / cm3)alHe^DX2Heh) ^D-Dfusion °D-Df XD Rutherford upward scattering cross-section of helium-3 -> deuterium (cm2) Interaction length / stopping distance of the helium-3 atom (cm) Upward dispersed deuterium current distribution (atoms / s) Integrated deuterium-deuterium fusion reaction rate (reactions / s) DD fusion cross-sections (cm2) Interaction length / deuterium stopping distance (cm) DD collision fusion chain reaction factor Qfrirznn / eznz / E / YiAi In some configurations, an orbital confinement fusion reactor operates with a fusion reaction ratio on the helium-3 current (or alpha particles for alternative fuels) towards the positive electrode above unity (e.g., fcD-Dilution > 1). In this way, an additional energy output can be achieved, once collision mechanisms and other loss mechanisms such as bremsstrahlung and / or confinement losses are considered. Although this disclosure focuses on deuterium-deuterium fusion in the process description, as an electrostatic ion confinement device, the reactor is also capable of operating with any fusion fuel while imposing magnetic fields for electron confinement. Generally, higher fuel ion energy and reaction product energy imply a higher electric field strength for the confinement of positively charged particles, but it is understood that the physical principles of electron injection and Rutherford upward scattering are equally applicable to stimulate further nuclear fusion in a variety of fuel ion types for both power generation and neutron production. Deuterium-deuterium and deuterium-tritium can be used as fusion fuels for the production of high-flux neutrons and the release of neutrons with an average energy of 2.45 MeV (50% branching probability). Deuterium-tritium fuels produce a highly penetrating neutron with an average energy of 14.1 MeV. Deuterium-helium-3 fusion produces a 4 MeV alpha particle and an energetic proton (14 MeV) that has applications as a source of high-energy proton beams. Proton-boron-11 fusion produces three alpha particles with an average energy of 2.9 MeV. These alpha particles can be confined in an orbital confinement reactor, scattering additional ions upward to fusion energies and serving to boost fusion yields. Any of the fusion fuels mentioned can be used for power generation or as a neutron source for imaging or the generation of valuable isotopes. In some embodiments, the orbital confinement reactor generates a plasma in which the particles are characterized by stopping distances greater than 1E8 cm, and mean generation times (λ) on the order of ~1s. The stopping distance and mean generation time principles are described in more detail in the following paragraphs. In the context of this disclosure, the stopping distance describes a distance beyond which a particle loses energy through interactions with matter, such as collisions with other particles in a plasma. The stopping distance of ions in a plasma is briefly summarized as follows: s= -^=Te^z-z'^+ z'l^ K _ 2nNama_ m„v^,θ, me' 2' ' Lbe= ln(^)(9) <10> where x = -j==, G(x) = erf(x) — -j=x exp(—x2), hwpe= 3.71 x (cm-3)eF Table 2: Parameter definitions for equations 7-10 S Stopping distance in Mev-cm2 / mg Avogadro's Number Kinetic energy of ions where the subscript a is the fast atom, for example, ma is the mass of proton, (a=1) is 1.66e-27 kg, va is the speed of proton (m / s) Z atomic number of the plasma (proton = 1, alpha particle = 2, etc.) Z* average degree of ionization of the plasma medium through which the ion passes The mass number of the element for the plasma medium, meel, the subscript e means electron, in this case, electron mass (me) Average excitation energy 9 eV for the proton x ratio of the speed of fast ions (va) to the thermal speed of electrons hwpe plasmonic energy in eV Vae is the average relative speed between fast ions and plasma electrons Qfrirznn / eznz / E / YiAi The stopping distances are strongly influenced by the number of electrons (ne) present in the plasma and the plasma electron temperature (Te), as reflected in the definitions of the parameters x, y, and hwpe. The electron temperature is directly proportional to the square of the electron velocity (Ve) of the electrons emitted from the emitting cladding, scaled by the Boltzmann constant Kb: Te= ^ (11)Kb Above electron temperatures of 10,000 eV, the stopping power is significantly reduced, particularly for ion energies below 500 keV. As previously described, the orbital confinement device can operate, at least in part, by accelerating ions through collisional energy transfer. The probability of a particular collision is described by a collisional cross-section, as someone with ordinary knowledge of the art would understand. The cross-section for the upward scattering of a deuterium ion from a helium-3 particle is governed by Rutherford's differential scattering equation: ___ K 2C)3ne .D =----. , 0-01 (barns)(12)2Ηβ^υ i6sin4(e / 2) ' ' '' Table 3: Definitions of parameters in equation 12 a Stopping distance in Mev-cm2 / mg ~hc 197.3MeVfm Differential cross-section (in barnions) for the scattering of a deuteron to a ... . . . . „ energy level corresponding to a given scattering angle Θ E3He energy of helium 3 particles in MeVz3He charge of helium 3 particles (+2) ZD upward-dispersed ion charge (+1 for deuterium) Qfrirznn / eznz / E / YiAi The collision energy is transferred from a helium-3 ion to a deuterium ion using the full-angle scattering (FAS) method, summarized by the following equations: The impact parameter is defined as: Where q is the particle charge, ε0 the permittivity of free space, m is the reduced mass and Vjj= \v¡ - vj\ is the relative velocity between the two particles. The maximum impact parameter is set at the Debye length as follows: ^max ^-D eokB / tea (14) Where kB is the Boltzmann constant, q is the charge of electrons, ney n7 is the number density of electrons and ionic species (j), Tey T¡ is the temperature of electrons and ionic species and z¡ is the charge of ionic species.. The total Rutherford cross-section is defined as: ^R= nb^nax(15) And the number of Rutherford scattering events can be determined by N = aRv¡jnj dt InA(16) Where dt is the time step and ln A is the well-known Coulomb logarithm defined as: \nA = lny / (b?nax+ bi) / bi(17) Rutherford's probability of a single event is defined as: Pr = °Rvijnj dt(18) The collision operator works by evaluating a dimensionless path length, s, defined as: s = 4π bj_ Vjj n¡ dt InA(19) Based on Rutherford's differential scattering equation and the collision operator, a significant majority of upward scattering events are small-angle (<1 keV). As a result, the upward scattering of a deuterium fuel ion at fusion energies involves multiple collisions over a period of time. The reaction rate of a self-sustaining collisional upward dispersion fusion chain reaction follows an exponential scaling law with chain reaction multiplication factor k > 1, t is the elapsed time and λ is the mean generation time: etfc-rft / A (20) When k < 1, the reaction is considered subcritical, and the reaction rate decreases with time. When k > 1, the reaction is considered supercritical, and the reaction rate increases with time. When k = 1, the reaction is considered critical, and the reaction rate is stable over time. The mean generation time λ determines how quickly the reaction progresses, but not the steady-state value once k = 1. The mean generation time scales with the stopping distance of helium-3 in the plasma. For deuterium ions in thermal equilibrium with free electrons in the plasma (Ti = Te), increasing the electron temperature and / or electron density increases the energy transfer ratio between electrons and ions, until the deuterium ion speeds begin to match the speed of helium-3, above which the energy transfer ratio decreases. Operation of an orbital confinement reactor: In contrast to thermonuclear fusion, orbital confinement reactors confine ions in orbits at defined energies with non-Maxwellian energy distributions. As such, the rate The fusion reaction rate Qfrirznn / eznz / E / YiAi (denoted dn / dt) in units of reactions per second is governed by the recirculating beam fusion physics, described by the following expression: r / oí tσs Jrecirculation1 / Where σ is the deuterium beam cross-section at a given energy level, S is the interaction area, freCircuition is the recirculation frequency, and N is the number of fuel ions in the reactor. For a cylindrical Kingdon / Orbitrap configuration, the key parameters are r1, the inner cathode stalk radius, r0, the outer anode inner surface radius, and finally L, the reactor length. The interaction area (S) and the recirculation frequency (freCircuition) are defined as: S = (r0- r, )Z (22) circulation frequency =27r(oS,0+0.5rf) (23) Where vi is the deuterium ion velocity at a given energy. The total space charge in the reactor is a fixed limit. Therefore, as the number of confined charged fusion reaction particles, such as helium-3, increases, the total number of fuel ions decreases to compensate for and maintain the space charge limit. In some embodiments, the fuel ion concentration is controlled by a fuel ion flow into the reactor. The number of deuterium ions that can participate in the fusion reactions is defined as: Qfrirznn / eznz / E / YiAi N = Nion- NHelium3(24) N¡on=Vn¡(25) ^Helium3=θ·5 ZHelium3(26) Where Nions is the limited number of space-charged ions in the reactor obtained from the reactor volume (V) and the limiting ion number density n,·. The number of helium ions present in the reactor is defined as NHelio3 where dn / dt is the reaction rate, 0.5 represents the 50% fusion reaction of DD probably for helium-3, Zneiioa at the +2 charge and the average generation time of ~1 s. The helium-3 reaction products can transfer kinetic energy to the deuterium fuel ions, thereby increasing the fusion cross-section, which represents the reaction probability. This is offset by the fact that as the number of helium-3 ions in the reactor increases, the total number of deuterium ions must decrease to maintain space charge limits. In the context of a chain reaction, the k factor in Equation (20) can be evaluated based on the gradients of both fusion reactivity and the total number of fuel ions as follows: where the numerator σ² / ν²² describes the fusion cross-section and the total fuel ions after a given time interval with upward dispersion of helium-3. Initially, during reactor startup, the number of fusion reactions and helium-3 ions is low, as these are reductions in N. Conversely, the gradient in the fusion cross-section is high as the deuterium ions gain energy and reactivity increases. Depending on the initial ion density, the k factor may start with a large value, and as the fuel ions gain energy, the reaction rate increases. Finally, as the number of helium-3 ions increases during operation, steady-state conditions (k=1) will be reached when the increases in the fusion cross-section are offset by the reduction in available fuel ions.The steady-state condition in the reactor is a complex function of the fusion fuel reactivity, as ion energy increases due to upward scattering, ion fuel flow within the device, and multiple loss mechanisms that transfer energy out of the plasma and cause ions to lose energy (downward scattering, wall impacts, center electrode impacts, radiation, etc.). With k factors approximately equal to one (critical operation), the reaction rate and power output are substantially stable over time.Stable operation can be maintained by adjusting the reactor operation so that if the reactor output falls below the target power, the operating parameters are readjusted to provide a k-factor above one (supercritical operation), while if the reactor exceeds the target power, the operating parameters are readjusted to provide a k-factor below one (subcritical operation). With respect to electron injection, it is understood that the magnetic field can tilt the emitted electrodes back towards the cathode, thus preventing an arc between the electrodes, if the magnetic field strength exceeds the Hull cutoff condition. For a given voltage, the magnetic field strength that satisfies the Hull cutoff condition is defined by the following expression: Qfrirznn / eznz / E / YiAi where Bces is the critical magnetic field, m is the mass of the electron, e is the charge of the electron (absolute value), V is the voltage applied across the air gap, c is the speed of light, and d* is the geometric factor defined as: r2-r? d= <29> Regarding the direct extraction of energy from the harmonic axial motion of ions, scattering events between the confined fusion reaction products and fuel ions impart axial kinetic energy and harmonic axial motion to the ions in the reactor. The frequency of this axial motion is characteristic of an ion's charge-to-mass ratio (Z / m). Radio frequency (RF) energy can be applied at specific frequencies to the external electrodes to selectively extract axial motion energy using charge imaging current, in the reverse process by which mass sensors detect the mass-specific RF signals generated by the harmonic axial motion of the ions. Applying out-of-phase RF signals to the outer electrodes allows the harmonic axial motion of the ions to be de-excited. As collisions occur between fusion products and fuel ions, some of the collision energy is transferred to the axial motion. The RF applied to the outer electrodes can be used to selectively extract energy from the fuel ions, the reaction products, or both as they oscillate axially between the two halves of the outer electrode. The AC charging image signal can also be rectified to DC current to charge energy storage devices such as batteries or to power an electrical load. The axial oscillation frequency is characteristic of the ion mass-charge ratio and is determined from the following equation: Qbirznn / rznz / E / YiAi where ω is the frequency in radians per second, q is the charge of the ion, and m is the mass of the ion. The image current signal (I), induced by the axial motion of ions, is determined by the following expression: Az iQt,r) ~ — qNa>—-sin (ωί) (31) A(r) where N is the number of ions, Δζ is the magnitude of the axial movement and A(r) depends on the geometry of the trap (A(r) ~ outer radius) and is a function of the radius of the trap. Discussion of Orbital Confinement Reactor Systems: This document describes embodiments of a system and method for generating energy and / or radioisotopes using orbital confinement fusion reactions. The following description includes numerous specific details to provide a thorough understanding of the embodiments. However, anyone with ordinary experience in the art will recognize that the techniques described herein can be implemented without one or more of the specific details, or with other methods, components, materials, etc. In other instances, well-known structures, materials, or operations are not shown or described in detail to avoid obscuring certain aspects. References throughout this specification to a modality or a modality mean that a particular feature, structure, or characteristic described in conjunction with the modality is included in at least one modality of the present invention. Thus, occurrences of the phrases "in a modality" or "in a modality" in various places throughout this specification do not necessarily all refer to the same modality. Furthermore, the particular features, structures, or characteristics may be combined in any suitable manner in one or more modalities. Figure 1 is a schematic diagram illustrating an exemplary system 100 for generating power using an orbital confinement reactor device 105, according to certain embodiments of this disclosure. The exemplary system 100 includes multiple reactor devices 105 supplied with fuel ions by fuel ion source(s) 110 and powered by power source(s) 115, thermally coupled to thermal generator(s) 120 and electrically coupled to electric generator(s) 125, each connected to a distribution system 130. It is understood that although the exemplary system 100 describes a multi-reactor system, applications using a single orbital confinement reactor device 105 are contemplated, for example, for portable and / or mobile power generation systems.As described in the preceding sections, Exemplary System 100 can be applied to generate isotopes, heat and / or electricity as carbon-free energy, to power large civil eVTOL and electric aircraft, to power military eVTOL aircraft, to generate naval power and electric propulsion for vessels ranging from small boats to large ships. The fuel ion source(s) 110 may be or include different types of ion sources capable of generating the fuel ion and supplying it to the Exemplary System 100 at energies suitable for orbital capture and subsequent fusion. The Exemplary System 100 may also be used, by way of non-limiting examples, for portable power generation, power generation for robotic chassis and / or exoskeletons, mobile power generation, power generation for Auxiliary Power Units (APUs), distributed power generation in remote locations, and / or power generation on telecommunications towers in remote locations.Exemplary System 100 can also be used, as non-limiting examples, in extending the range of electric vehicles, small electric and eVTOL aircraft, local or regional power grids, grid-connected storage, power generation at remote and advanced operating bases, containerized mobile power generation, and backup power generation in data centers. As such, Exemplary System 100 can play a role ranging from a baseload generator to a peak load generator, depending on the type of system in which it is integrated. Exemplary System 100 can initiate and / or sustain nuclear fusion and can enhance fusion through the collision upscatter mechanisms described previously. The initiation of self-sustaining fusion reactions may include an operating period Qfrirznn / eznz / E / YiAi subcritical (e.g., k < 1) wherein one or more orbital confinement reactor devices 105 are powered by the power supply(s) 115. In some embodiments, each orbital confinement reactor device 105 is electronically coupled to the power supply(s) 115. In some embodiments, a subset of orbital confinement reactor devices 105 are electronically coupled to the power supply(s) 115, and startup may include a cascade or staged procedure. For this purpose, the exemplary system 100 may include power electronics and interconnection systems such that a first orbital confinement reactor device 105-1 is electrically coupled to the power supply(s) 115, from which power is obtained during startup.When the first orbital confinement reactor device 105-1 reaches criticality (k = 1) and produces net positive power, one or more orbital confinement reactor devices 105 of the exemplary system 100, electrically coupled to the first orbital confinement reactor device 105-1, can be powered to initiate startup. This reduces the power drawn from external sources, facilitating the deployment of the exemplary system 100 in areas without established generation capacity. However, in applications where response time is critical, each orbital confinement reactor device 105 can be individually connected to the power source(s) 115, and each can incorporate control systems to start up in parallel or substantially simultaneously. The fuel ion source(s) 110 may include one or more types of ion sources, depending at least in part on the application of Exemplary System 100. As described in more detail in the preceding sections, Exemplary System 100 may be applied to isotope generation, power generation, and / or heat generation, among other foreseeable uses. Thus, the fuel ion source(s) 110 may be or include, but are not limited to, proton, deuterium, tritium, helium-3, lithium-6, or boron-11 sources. Since each orbital confinement reactor device 105 operates using a fuel ion source that is injected into the fusion plasma during its operation, Exemplary System 100 includes each orbital confinement reactor device 105 operatively coupled with the fuel ion source(s) 110.Methods of generating ions include, but are not limited to, electromagnetic ionization of an ion source, nuclear reactions such as neutron capture, thermionic emission, field effect emission, or the like, as would be understood by a person with ordinary technical knowledge. Qfrirznn / eznz / E / YiAi As described in more detail with reference to FIGURE 2A, FIGURE 2B, FIGURE 2C, FIGURE 3, and FIGURE 4, each orbital confinement reactor device 105 of exemplary system 100 can sustain a critical fusion reaction (e.g., k = 1) and can extract energy from the fusion plasma. This energy can be extracted as thermal energy resulting from the impact of ions and electrons on internal surfaces exposed to plasmas. Such thermal energy can be transferred by fluidly coupling the orbital confinement reactor device(s) 105 with a heat exchange system and by applying one or more techniques to collect electrical energy from the heat thus collected.For example, when reactor operating temperatures can be maintained on the order of 1000 K, a coolant can be circulated through one or more components of the orbital confinement reactor device(s) 105, using the heat to generate work. In this way, the thermal generators 120 can be or include systems that include, but are not limited to, compressors, turbines, turbomachinery, and / or thermoelectric generators, as well as liquid heat transfer systems to conduct heat from the orbital confinement reactor device(s) 105 to the thermal generator(s) 120. Additionally and / or alternatively, the thermal generator(s) 120 can also include heating systems that utilize at least a portion of the thermal energy as a heat source. In some embodiments, the exemplary system 100 includes one or more electric generators 125 to directly capture electrical energy from the orbital confinement reactor device(s) 105. As described in the preceding sections, collisional energy transfer in a recirculating ion plasma induces axial harmonic motion of the ions orthogonal to the electric field applied between the electrodes. The frequency of the axial motion may be in the radio frequency (RF) range and may be characteristic of the mass-to-charge ratio of the ions. As such, each of the orbital confinement reactor devices 105 can extract electricity by actively regulating the axial harmonic motion of the ions, and the energy thus generated can be converted into useful electricity by the power electronics included as part of the electric generators 125.In some embodiments, electric generators 125 include one or more component systems for producing direct current and / or alternating current electricity from RF energy extracted from the orbital confinement reactor device(s) 105. For example, electric generators 125 may include RF-to-DC rectifier systems so that the exemplary system 100 can be used to store electricity in grid storage by means of multi-cell batteries, liquid metal batteries, or the like. Additionally and / or alternatively, Exemplary System 100 operates to generate neutrons for one or more purposes through the selection of the fuel ion source(s) 110 and / or operating parameters. In this way, Exemplary System 100 can be operationally coupled with systems for utilizing neutrons in applications including, but not limited to, radioisotope formation, hydrogen production, and waste treatment. Nuclear uses, manufacturing of tritium by neutron bombardment of lithium, obtaining nuclear fission fuel, analysis of materials including neutron spectroscopy and / or neutron imaging and / or neutron activation analysis, processing of materials by neutron irradiation, detection of materials, medical imaging, medical therapy including neutron capture therapy and / or neutron beam therapy, testing of materials and components, or other uses in scientific research, as understood by a person having ordinary knowledge of the technique. In some embodiments, Exemplary System 100 includes one or more groups of orbital confinement reactor devices 105 applied to one of a number of uses. For example, one or more orbital confinement reactor devices 105 may be used to generate heat, one or more orbital confinement reactor devices 105 may be used to generate electricity, and one or more orbital confinement reactor devices 105 may be used to generate neutrons. In some embodiments, a single orbital confinement reactor device 105 may be used to generate heat and electricity, heat and neutrons, or combinations thereof.This versatility in application is facilitated by the selection of the operating parameters, the fuel ion source(s), and the internal structures of the orbital confinement reactor device(s) 105, described with reference to FIGURE 2A, FIGURE 2B, FIGURE 2C, FIGURE 3, FIGURE 4, FIGURE 5, and FIGURE 6 below. Figure 2A, Figure 2B, and Figure 2C illustrate an exemplary reactor device 200, including internal structures for generating and sustaining nuclear fusion and for extracting energy, as described with reference to Figure 1. Figure 2A and Figure 2B depict the exemplary reactor device 200 in cross-section and focus on different internal structures to simplify the description and clarify the visual illustration. It is understood, however, that the exemplary reactor device 200 includes the structures described in Figure 2A, Figure 2B, and / or Figure 2C, except where inclusion is physically impossible. Figure 2A is a schematic diagram illustrating an exemplary reactor device 200 incorporating a two-part outer electrode 210, according to several embodiments. The exemplary reactor device 200 is an example of one or more orbital confinement reactor devices 105 of Figure 2A, Figure 2B, and Figure 2C, configured to extract electrical energy by regulating the harmonic axial motion of ions in the fusion plasma. The exemplary reactor device 200 includes a cathodic inner electrode (205), an anodic outer electrode (210), magnetic field generators (215), a high-voltage power supply (220), and radiation shielding (225). The exemplary reactor device 200 is configured to generate power using a fusion plasma generated between the inner electrode 205 and the outer electrode 210. For that For this purpose, the inner electrode 205 defines a longitudinal axis 230 of the exemplary reactor device 200. The outer electrode 210, in turn, is arranged concentrically with the longitudinal axis 230 with a larger inner diameter than the outer diameter of the inner electrode 205, defining an offset between the inner electrode 205 and the outer electrode 210. In this way, the electrode arrangement defines a chamber 235 between the inner electrode 205 and the outer electrode 210. During operation, a fusion plasma is generated in the chamber 230 and maintained at or near criticality through the combined application of electric and magnetic fields. In some embodiments, the inner electrode 205 is electrically coupled to the high-voltage power supply 220 and configured to create an electrostatic field between the inner electrode 205 and the outer electrode 210. The inner electrode 205 may be, or include, an emitter material 240 such that the inner electrode 205 acts as a source of free electrons. The emitter material 240 may be arranged as an emitter coating on a conductive core. In this way, the emitter material 240 is configured to inject electrons into the chamber 235 when the inner electrode 205 is energized and / or heated. The emitter material 240 may be, or include, a refractory material characterized by having thermionic emission properties at temperatures characteristic of fusion reactions.Emitter material 240 can be characterized by its high electron emission properties, whether through photoemission, thermionic emission, or field emission. Emitter material 240 can be or include tungsten, thoriated tungsten, barium oxides (e.g., Ba-O), lanthanum hexaboride (LaB6), cerium hexaboride (CeB6), as well as mixtures, alloys, compounds, or combinations thereof. In the context of exemplary reactor 200, photoemission refers to a material that emits electrons in chamber 235 in response to irradiation by energetic photons, such as photons generated by a fusion plasma. The emitter material 240 is configured to emit electrons approximately perpendicular to the longitudinal axis 230, due at least in part to the orientation of the inner electrode 205 with respect to the outer electrode 210. As such, the inner electrode 205 is oriented to minimize stopping power losses due to collisions with orbiting ions, as described in more detail with reference to FIGURE 5. Advantageously, injecting electrons perpendicularly from the inner electrode 205 and curving the electron trajectories in the same direction as the orbiting ions by means of the Lorentz force created by the magnetic field generators 215 can increase the interaction lengths between electrons and ions to distances on the order of 1 x 10⁸ cm and can increase the probability of a fusion reaction (e.g., as described by the cross-sections for a particular interaction and / or reaction).Advantageously, injecting electrons in this way reduces the effects of. Qfrirznn / eznz / E / YiAi space charge and allows the fusion plasma to be denser than with electrostatic confinement of ions alone. For example, at elevated temperatures above approximately 1000 K, the emitter material 240 emits electrons into the chamber 235, reducing space charge effects and densifying the plasma beyond the density provided by electrostatic ion confinement. The inner electrode 205 can be operationally coupled with one or more heating systems to raise the temperature of the emitter material 240. The elevated temperature can be produced by various methods and systems, including, but not limited to, resistive heating, induction heating, and electron and ion bombardment during operation. It is understood that the emitter material 240 can generate a significant electron current at temperatures below 1000 K, such as at the operating temperatures of the exemplary reactor device 200. As previously described, the ion density, and therefore the available power, of the Exemplary Reactor Device 200 is governed by the number of ions orbiting the inner electrode 205 (N). The number of ions can be increased by emitting electrons from the inner electrode 205 to compensate for space charge limitations. Electrons can be confined within the reactor for periods of time by applying an axial magnetic field that meets or exceeds the Hull cutoff condition and functions as a magnetron for electron confinement. While confined, the electrons travel at speeds that reduce electron drag and the stopping capacity of the fuel and reaction product ions, thereby reducing the loss of ion kinetic energy to electrons and increasing the fusion reaction rate and power in the reactor. The magnetic field generator(s) 215 may be arranged coaxially with respect to the longitudinal axis 230. In this way, the magnetic field generator(s) 215 are configured to form a magnetic field substantially parallel to the longitudinal axis 230 in the chamber 235. The magnetic field generator(s) 215 may be or include electromagnets, permanent magnets, or a combination thereof. The magnetic field generator(s) 215 may apply a magnetic field at an intensity ranging from 0.01 Tesla to 10 Tesla. The magnetic field generator(s) 215 may thus serve as a magnetron, generating a magnetic field at an intensity that exceeds the Hull cutoff condition for a given fusion reaction.As previously described, the field strength, and thus the operating parameters of the magnetic field generator(s) 215 used to overcome the Hull cut-off condition, is specific to each type of fusion reaction. Furthermore, the magnetic field strength can be used as a control variable to adjust the factor. Qfrirznn / eznz / E / YiAi k of the exemplary reactor device 200 when it is in operation, as described in more detail with reference to FIGURE 4. In some embodiments, the inner electrode 205 and the outer electrode 210 are solids of revolution and are shaped to be symmetric about the longitudinal axis 230. In this context, a solid of revolution describes a shape that is symmetric about one or more axes of revolution, for example, as defined by a two-dimensional shape that is symmetric about an axis in a plane passing through the axis. In some embodiments, the electrodes 205 and 210 are solids of revolution that incorporate openings, holes, conduits, or other features that are not rotationally symmetric about the longitudinal axis 230, as described in more detail below. In this way, electrodes 205 and 210 are configured to form a substantially logarithmic electrostatic field in the chamber when energized. A logarithmic electrostatic field, as previously described, refers to an electric field generated between electrodes 205-210, with the inner electrode 205 serving as the negative cathode and the outer electrode 210 serving as the positive anode, where the electric field strength increases logarithmically between the outer electrode 210 and the inner electrode 205, following the positive-to-negative convention for electric fields. In some embodiments, the inner electrode 205 is characterized by an aspect ratio greater than one along the longitudinal axis 230. In this context, the term aspect ratio describes the ratio of a first characteristic dimension aligned with the longitudinal axis 230 to a second characteristic dimension aligned normal to the longitudinal axis 230. For example, when the inner electrode 205 is a solid of revolution characterized by a radial dimension that depends on the axial position (e.g., r = f(z)), the greater-than-one aspect ratio describes a structure where the length of the inner electrode 205 is greater than its widest point. As such, the inner electrode 205 can define an axial profile, along the longitudinal axis 230, that includes one or more wider regions and one or more narrower regions.For example, the inner electrode 205 can define a side profile aligned with the longitudinal axis 230 that includes a taper at each end, so that the width of the inner electrode 205 is wider between the ends than at the ends. In some embodiments, the outer electrode 210 has a length 245 along the longitudinal axis 230 greater than the largest diameter of the inner electrode 205. For example, the outer electrode 210 may be a solid of revolution about the longitudinal axis 230 and may define a negative space about the longitudinal axis 230 which, together with the inner electrode 205, defines the chamber 235. In the example, the outer electrode 210 does not make contact. Qfrirznn / eznz / E / YiAi with the inner electrode 205 along the length 245, as illustrated in FIGURE 2A, FIGURE 2B, FIGURE 2C and FIGURE 3. The outer electrode 210 may include one, two, or more envelopes that can be used to excite or regulate the harmonic axial motion of ions parallel to the longitudinal axis 230. In some embodiments, the outer electrode includes two anodic envelopes 210-1 and 210-2, arranged laterally with respect to the longitudinal axis 230. As described previously, the anodic envelopes 210-1 and 210-2 may be solids of revolution, symmetric about the longitudinal axis 230. In this context, the phrase "arranged laterally" refers to the fact that the anodic envelopes 210-1 and 210-2 are arranged in the exemplary reactor device 200 in different and / or non-overlapping positions along the longitudinal axis 230. In some embodiments, the anodic envelopes 210-1 and 210-2 are connected by an imaging current circuit 250. In these configurations, a dielectric insulator 255 is arranged between and electrically insulates the anodic envelopes 210-1 and 210-2. In some embodiments, the inner electrode 205 and the outer electrode 210 are electrically isolated from each other by a first dielectric insulator 260 and a second dielectric insulator 265. The first dielectric insulator 260 can be mechanically coupled to a first end 270 of the inner electrode 205 and can electrically isolate the high-voltage power supply 220 from the outer electrode 210. The second dielectric insulator 265 can be disposed in the chamber 235 between a second end 275 of the inner electrode 205 and the outer electrode 210 and can electrically isolate the second end 275 from the outer electrode 210. The first dielectric insulator 260 can define an isolated cavity 280. The high-voltage power supply 220 can be disposed at least partially within the isolated cavity 280. The high-voltage power supply 220 may be or include a DC voltage source, including but not limited to a Van de Graaff source, a Pelletron source, or a solid-state switching power generator. In some embodiments, the high-voltage power supply 220 is electrically coupled to the inner electrode 205 and operates in a range of approximately 50 kV DC to approximately 4.0 MV DC. Since the inner electrode 205 functions as both a source of electrons to be injected into the cavity 235 and as a source of an electrostatic field to trap ions in orbit around the inner electrode 205, the voltage applied to the inner electrode 205 by the high-voltage power supply 220 may be dynamic during one or more stages of operation of the exemplary reactor device 200.For example, the electron flow and the force applied to orbiting ions can be scaled proportionally with the applied voltage. As such, the applied voltage can be a control parameter for the exemplary reactor device 200. Furthermore, the applied voltage can be varied based, at least in part, on the type of ions injected into chamber 235, as described. Qfrirznn / eznz / E / YiAi Previously, the force applied to the ions orbiting around the inner electrode 205 is a function of the charge-to-mass ratio, so the applied voltage can vary with the fuel ion mass, the fuel ion charge, or a combination of both. In this way, the 220 high-voltage power supply can operate from approximately 50 kV DC to approximately 4.0 MV DC, approximately 50 kV DC to approximately 3.9 MV DC, approximately 50 kV DC to approximately 3.8 MV DC, approximately 50 kV DC to approximately 3.7 MV DC, approximately 50 kV DC to approximately 3.6 MV DC, approximately 50 kV DC to approximately 3.5 MV DC, approximately 50 kV DC to approximately 3.4 MV DC, approximately 50 kV DC to approximately 3.3 MV DC, approximately 50 kV DC to approximately 3.2 MV DC, approximately 50 kV DC to approximately 3.0 MV DC, approximately 50 kV DC to approximately 2.9 MV DC, and approximately 50 kV DC to approximately 2.8 MV DC. DC, approximately 50 kV DC to approximately 2.7 MV DC, approximately 50 kV DC to approximately 2.6 MV DC, approximately 50 kV DC to approximately 2.5 MV DC, approximately 50 kV DC to approximately 2.4 MV DC, approximately 50 kV DC to approximately 2.3 MV DC, approximately 50 kV DC to approximately 2.1 MV DC, approximately 50 kV DC to approximately 2.0 MV DC, approximately 50 kV DC to approximately 1.9 MV DC, approximately 50 kV DC to approximately 1.8 MV DC, approximately 50 kV DC to approximately 1.7 MV DC, approximately 50 kV DC to approximately 1.6 MV DC, approximately 50 kV DC to approximately 1.5 MV DC, approximately 50 kV DC to approximately 1.4 MV DC, approximately 50 kV DC to approximately 1.3 MV DC, approximately 50 kV DC to approximately 1.2 MV DC, approximately 50 kV DC to approximately 1.1 MV DC, approximately 50 kV DC to approximately 1.0 MV DC, approximately 50 kV DC to approximately 0.9 MV DC, approximately 50 kV DC to approximately 0.8 MV DC, approximately 50 kV DC to approximately 0.7 MV DC, approximately 50 kV DC to approximately 0.6 MV DC, approximately 50 kV DC to approximately 0.5 MV DC, approximately 50 kV DC to approximately 0.4 MV DC, approximately 50 kV DC to approximately 0.3 MV DC, or approximately 50 kV DC to approximately 0.2 MV DC, including fractions or interpolations thereof. For example, in some modes, the high-voltage power supply 220 applies a negative voltage of approximately 650 kV DC to the inner electrode 205. In this context, the term approximately is used to indicate a value within 10% of the stated value. For example, a stated value of approximately. Qfrirznn / eznz / E / YiAi 650 kV is used to indicate a value from 585 kV DC to 715 kV DC. It is understood that the values ​​are given as magnitudes without reference to polarity. For example, the inner electrode 205 may be negatively polarized with respect to the outer electrode 210, so that the applied voltage supplied by the high-voltage power supply 220 to the inner electrode 205 is negative. Radiation shielding 225 may be or include structural elements of Exemplary Reactor Device 200, or additional material, including but not limited to lead or tungsten shielding, pools, or the like. Exemplary Reactor 200 may be at least partially surrounded by radiation shielding 225, such that the radiation shielding 225 can be used to absorb and reduce potentially harmful radiation. Although nuclear fusion produces few or no long-lived radioactive byproducts, energetic particles may be produced and may penetrate the physical enclosure of Exemplary Reactor Device 200. As such, radiation shielding 225 may be or include materials selected to absorb foreseeable energetic particles, based at least in part on the operating mode of Exemplary Reactor Device 200.For example, when the Exemplary Reactor Device 200 is configured to generate radioisotopes for medical use, the radiation shielding 225 can be structured to absorb energetic neutrons. Figure 2B is a schematic diagram illustrating an exemplary reactor device 200 incorporating a one-part outer anode 205, according to several embodiments. As illustrated in Figure 2A, the exemplary reactor device includes the inner electrode 205, the outer electrode 210, the magnetic field generators 215, the high-voltage power supply 220, and the radiation shielding 225. Figure 2B illustrates an exemplary reactor device 200 that includes fluid conduits 285, openings 290, and ports 295. Although the discussion of the exemplary reactor device 200 has focused on a configuration that includes a two-part outer electrode 210, the exemplary reactor device 200 can also include a one-part outer electrode 210, as illustrated in Figure 2B.It is envisaged that fluid conduits 285, openings 290, and / or ports 295 can be included in either configuration, as well as other electrode configurations with more parts. The fluid conduits 285 can be integrated into the inner electrode 205, the outer electrode 210, the radiation shielding 225, or a combination thereof. As shown, the fluid conduit(s) 285 define one or more channels within the outer electrode 210. In this way, the fluid conduit(s) 285 can define one or more coolant loops through the outer electrode 210, through which a coolant can flow. The coolant, in turn, can transport heat away from the exemplary reactor device 200 and can transfer the heat to a working fluid via a heat exchanger. External heat is supplied to the exemplary reactor device 200 to drive the thermal generator(s) 120 of FIGURE 1. Similarly, the fluid conduit(s) can be coupled, directly or via a heat exchanger, to thermoelectric generators, turbines, and / or turbomachinery so that heat generated internally in the exemplary reactor device 200 can be removed. Advantageously, the fluid conduit(s) 285 can extract usable energy from the exemplary reactor device 200 and can also serve to control operating parameters. In an illustrative example, the fluid conduit(s) 285 arranged inside the inner electrode 205 can be used to modulate the thermionic emission of the emitter material 240, since heat removal from the inner electrode 205 modulates the temperature, which, in turn, affects the thermionic emission. The coolant may be or include a fluid liquid that exhibits a phase transition to a gas at temperatures above the operating temperature of the exemplary reactor device 200 and a phase transition to a solid at temperatures below the operating temperature of the exemplary reactor device 200. For example, when the operating temperature of a fusion plasma in chamber 235 may be approximately 1000 K, the fluid conduit(s) 285 may be configured to receive a coolant, including but not limited to, molten salt, high-pressure water, supercritical carbon dioxide, or other cooling systems as described with reference to FIGURE 1. The aperture(s) 290 may be defined at one or more points on the outer electrode 210, such that the exemplary reactor device can be operationally coupled to an ion source, as described in more detail with reference to FIGURE 3. The aperture(s) 290 may be substantially linear and may be coupled to an ion source by a vacuum-tight mechanical coupling, for example, with a shutter, gate valve, and / or one or more differential vacuum stages interposed between the ion source and the chamber 235, such that ions can be injected controllably into the chamber 235 along a precise injection path. For this purpose, the aperture(s) 290 may define an alignment with respect to the longitudinal axis 230 that defines the injection path.The injection trajectory, in turn, can correspond to an entry step angle of a stable elliptical orbit of an ion of a given mass-to-charge ratio around the inner electrode 205. In this context, the term entry step angle describes the angle taken by a positively charged ion in three dimensions along the alignment of the aperture 290, with respect to the longitudinal axis 230, where the angle corresponds to a trajectory that is likely to result in trapping the ion in an elliptical orbit around the inner electrode 205. As described previously, the injection point, kinetic energy, and entry step angle can each depend on the mass-to-charge ratio of the fuel ions, such that the injection parameters can be determined accordingly. Qfrirznn / eznz / E / YiAi accuracy based on a target application using computer simulation. In an illustrative example, the ions can include protons (m / z = 1), deuterium ions (m / z = 2), tritium ions (m / z = 3), lithium-6 ions (m / z = 6) or boron-11 ions (m / z = 11). The outer electrode 210 further defines the port(s) 295 that extend through the outer electrode 210 and into the chamber 235. The port(s) 295 can be seamlessly coupled with a vacuum system external to the exemplary reactor device 200, which can be used to create and maintain a vacuum environment between the inner electrode 205 and the outer electrode 210. A substantial vacuum condition can be created through one or more ports 295, for example, at number densities of 1 x 10¹⁰ to 1 x 10¹⁶ atoms / cm³ (corresponding to approximately 50 micro-Pa to 50 Pa). Advantageously, the vacuum thus created can improve reaction efficiency by reducing collision losses with dispersed gas atoms diffusing into the chamber 235 during operation. In terms of the triple product merit factor, the higher number densities imply higher magnetic fields in chamber 235, allowing for a greater flow of electrons to compensate for space charge effects, while keeping the temperature and confinement time within ranges that correspond to a target for the intended fusion operating regime, as described in more detail with reference to FIGURE 7.For that purpose, the exemplary reactor device 200 operates at number densities of approximately 1x1011 to approximately 1x1018 atoms / cm3, from approximately 1x1012 to approximately 1x1018 atoms / cm3, from approximately 1x1013 to approximately 1x1018 atoms / cm3, from approximately 1x1014 to approximately 1 χ1018 atoms / cm3, from approximately 1 χ1015 to approximately 1 x1018 atoms / cm3, from approximately 1x1016 to approximately 1x1018 atoms / cm3, from approximately 1 x 1017 to approximately 1 x1018 atoms / cm3, including fractions or interpolations thereof. For example, Exemplary Reactor Device 200 can operate from approximately 1x1013 to approximately 1x1015 atoms / cm3 to maintain a net positive energy output of Exemplary Reactor Device 200. Figure 2C is a schematic diagram illustrating an exemplary reactor device 200 incorporating a two-part outer anode 210 in a three-quarters section, according to some embodiments. The sectional view in Figure 2C is intended to illustrate the rotational symmetry of the exemplary reactor device 200 about the longitudinal axis 230. As described with reference to Figure 2A and Figure 2B, the exemplary reactor device 200, and constituent elements such as the inner electrode 205, the outer electrode 210, the magnetic field generators 215, and the chamber 235. Figure 3 is a schematic diagram illustrating an exemplary ion injection system 300, according to several modalities. The exemplary ion injection system Qfrirznn / eznz / E / YiAi 300 is illustrated without other components of exemplary reactor device 200, but it is understood that the described elements represent components of an exemplary fuel ion source 110 coupled with exemplary reactor device 200, configured to inject ions into chamber 235. The exemplary ion injection system 300 includes an ion source 305 and beam optics 310 for forming and injecting ions 315 into chamber 235. The ion source 305 is illustrated as a plasma-based ion source, such as a duoplasmatron, an electron-cyclotron resonance device, a microwave-induced plasma device, an inductively coupled ion source, or another device configuration that generates an ion-rich plasma. In some embodiments, the ion source 305 includes a duoplasmatron. In the illustrative duoplasmatron example, an ion beam is produced from a plasma that has been confined within a hollow chamber between the anode and cathode. The ions 315 are accelerated, collimated, shaped, and / or focused using beam optics 310, such as an Einzel lens. For example, to generate a proton beam, a source gas containing hydrogen can be dissociated into the plasma, and the hydrogen ion beam can then be extracted by an extraction grid, shaped, collimated, and directed toward the aperture 290.A similar procedure can be applied to form larger ion beams, based on the selection of the ion source gas. In some embodiments, ions 315 are injected into chamber 235 through aperture 290, in a trajectory likely to result in the capture of ions 315 in an orbit 320 around the inner electrode 205, as described in more detail with reference to Figure 2A and Figure 2B. The trajectory may correspond to an angle tangential to a surface of the inner electrode. The tangential angle may improve capture efficiency and may coalesce the ions 315 in orbit 320. Although the term optics is used, it is understood that the beam optics components 310 operate by applying electric fields to form ions 315 into a beam and redirecting the ion beam 315 into the chamber 235 through the aperture 290. Similarly, although FIGURE 3 illustrates only a portion of a section through the exemplary reactor device 200 along the longitudinal axis 230, it is understood that in the illustrated exemplary configuration, the outer electrode 210 and the inner electrode 205 are rotationally symmetric solids about the longitudinal axis 230. Figure 4 is a schematic diagram illustrating an exemplary reactor device 200 and an exemplary magnetic field generator configuration 215, according to certain embodiments. The exemplary magnetic field generator configuration 215 can be implemented in the exemplary reactor device 200, as described in more detail with reference to Figure 2A and Figure 2B. The exemplary magnetic field generator configuration 215 includes magnetic field generators 215 arranged around Qfrirznn / eznz / E / YiAi of the chamber 235 to generate a magnetic field 405 substantially parallel to the longitudinal axis 230 within the chamber 235. The magnetic field generators 215 can be arranged around the chamber 235 such that, within the chamber 235, the polarity of the magnetic field 405 is aligned with the longitudinal axis 230. In some embodiments, the magnetic field 405 can be oriented with a first polarity such that the electrons emitted from the inner electrode 205 are forced to orbit in the same direction as the positive ions, in accordance with the Lorentz force applied to the electrons. In some embodiments, the magnetic field 405 can be oriented with a second polarity, approximately opposite to the first polarity, such that the electrons emitted from the inner electrode 205 are forced to orbit in the opposite direction to the positive ions. For example, at higher magnetic field strengths, above the Hull cutoff condition, electrons emitted into chamber 235 are forced to quickly return to the inner electrode 205, preventing a short circuit between electrodes 205 and 210 and reducing space charge effects, which in turn allow for densification of the fusion plasma. In contrast, at weaker magnetic field strengths, electrons can be emitted without being deflected from the outer electrode 210 and may cause a short circuit or arcing in the fusion plasma. To maintain a fusion plasma within a target range of the triple fusion product, the magnetic field 405 used to trap electrons in an orbital path around the inner electrode 205 within chamber 235 can be applied from approximately 0.01 Tesla to approximately 10.0 Tesla, from approximately 0.01 Tesla to approximately 9.0 Tesla, and from approximately 0.01 Tesla to approximately 9.0 Tesla.0.01 Tesla to approximately 8.0 Tesla, from approximately 0.01 Tesla to approximately 7.0 Tesla, from approximately 0.01 Tesla to approximately 6.0 Tesla, from approximately 0.01 Tesla to approximately 5.0 Tesla, from approximately 0.01 Tesla to approximately 4.0 Tesla, from approximately 0.01 Tesla to approximately 6.0 Tesla, from approximately 0.01 Tesla to approximately 5.0 Tesla, from approximately 0.01 Tesla to approximately 4.0 Tesla, from approximately 0.01 Tesla to approximately 3.0 Tesla, from approximately 0.01 Tesla to approximately 2.0 Tesla, from approximately 0.01 Tesla to approximately 1.9 Tesla, from approximately 0.01 Tesla to approximately 1.8 Tesla, from approximately 0.01 Tesla to approximately 1.7 Tesla, from approximately 0.01 Tesla to approximately 1.6 Tesla, from approximately 0.01 Tesla to approximately 1.5 Tesla, from approximately 0.01 Tesla to approximately 1.4 Tesla, from approximately 0.01 Tesla to approximately 1.3 Tesla, from approximately 0.01 Tesla to approximately 1.2 Tesla, from approximately 0.01 Tesla to approximately 1.1 Tesla, from approximately 0.01 Tesla to approximately 1.0 Tesla, from approximately 0.01 Tesla to approximately 0.9 Tesla, from approximately 0.01 Tesla to. Qfrirznn / eznz / E / YiAi approximately 0.8 Tesla, from approximately 0.01 Tesla to approximately 0.7 Tesla, from approximately 0.01 Tesla to approximately 0.6 Tesla, from approximately 0.01 Tesla to approximately 0.5 Tesla, from approximately 0.01 Tesla to approximately 0.4 Tesla, from approximately 0.01 Tesla to approximately 0.3 Tesla, from approximately 0.01 Tesla to approximately 0.2 Tesla, from approximately 0.01 Tesla to approximately 0.1 Tesla, or from approximately 0.01 Tesla to approximately 0.05 Tesla, including fractions or interpolations thereof. Figure 5 is a schematic diagram illustrating an extreme view representation of the exemplary reactor device 200 of Figure 2A, Figure 2B, and Figure 2C, which describe orbital trajectories of emitted electrons 505 and orbiting ions 510, according to some embodiments. The illustrated orbital trajectories are not drawn to scale but are intended to illustrate concepts of the operation of the exemplary reactor device 200. It is understood that the shape, relative dimensions, and orbital trajectories indicated by the arrows are illustrative and not limiting. As described in more detail with reference to FIGURE 2A, FIGURE 2B, and FIGURE 2C, during the operation of the exemplary reactor device 200, ions 510 are injected tangentially between the inner electrode 205 and the outer electrode 210 and into an electrostatic field with sufficient energy to assume stable elliptical orbits around the inner electrode 205. During one elliptical orbit 520, the ions 510 accelerate toward the negatively polarized inner electrode 205, converting potential energy into kinetic energy, until they reach the perigee point of the elliptical orbit 520. After reaching perigee, the ions 510 decelerate as they move away from the negative cathode potential and store potential energy until they reach the apogee point of the elliptical orbit 520. The ions 510 can complete millions of elliptical orbits 520 in the reactor over a period of time on the order of of a second.Additionally, the elliptical orbit of 520 ions may exhibit apsidal precession around the central cathode 205 such that the elliptical orbits of 510 ions may cross the elliptical orbits of other 510 ions by millions of times, increasing the probability of a relatively improbable 525 fusion event. Eventually, collisions between 510 ions in overlapping orbital paths result in 525 fusion events, releasing fusion reaction products, including but not limited to charged particles (alphas, helium-3, protons, tritium, etc.), radiation, and thermal energy. The inner electrode 205, which includes the emitter material 240, injects electrons 505 into the chamber 235. Through interaction with the magnetic field 405, the electrons 505 are curved into partial orbits around the inner electrode 205, eventually returning to it. In some embodiments, the emitter material 240 is an isotropic emitter, such that electrons are emitted in all radial directions. Qbirznn / rznz / E / YiAi substantially equally, as demonstrated by multiple electron orbital paths 515. As a result, the influence of electrons 505 on the ion density 510 in chamber 235 can be substantially uniform around the inner electrode 205. Advantageously, maintaining a substantially symmetric electron distribution 505 around the inner electrode 205 can reduce self-structuring in plasmas that can inhibit nuclear fusion, induce arc overflow, or present other operational problems. Figure 6 is a graph 600 illustrating the reaction rate (ordinate) and ion density (abscissa) for an exemplary orbital confinement reactor device 105 according to several embodiments. Graph 600 illustrates different operating regimes 605 characterized by different ion densities, measured in atoms / cm³, and reaction rates, measured in fusion events per second, plotted along an operating curve 610 that describes an illustrative operating window of the exemplary device 105. It is understood that the details described with reference to the exemplary reactor device 200, such as operating parameters, internal structures, and material configurations, can be configured so that the exemplary system 100 operates in one or more of the operating regimes 605. The operating regimes 605 correspond to different applications as described in more detail with reference to Figure 1.For example, Figure 600 includes a first regime 6051, where Exemplary Device 105 operates as a neutron generator applied, for example, to neutron-based imaging. A second regime 605-2 describes the operation as a high-flux neutron generator, for example, in the production of isotopes for medical use. A third regime 605-3 describes the operation as a compact power source, whereby the reaction rate and ion density are high enough to generate net positive energy from Exemplary Device 105. As described in more detail with reference to FIGURE 1, FIGURE 2A, FIGURE 2B, FIGURE 2C, FIGURE 3, FIGURE 4, and FIGURE 5, the operating regimes 605 are not discrete but are included as examples within the range of the operating curve 610 to illustrate the dependence of the reaction rate on the ion density for a given set of conditions. For example, the operating curve 610 can describe the relationship between ion density and reaction rate for a given electron temperature, operating pressure, magnetic field strength, etc. For Figure 600, the operating curve 610 describes the values ​​of the reaction rate and ion density for an exemplary device 105 operating at an average electron temperature of 125 keV. Figure 600 illustrates that the exemplary device 105 can operate as a neutron source and / or as a power source, but that different operating regimes 605 may involve different operating parameters and configurations. Structurally, a device A specialized neutron generator may exclude one or more components used to extract energy from the fusion plasma, including but not limited to the current circuit in Figure 250, the dielectric insulator 255, or the outer electrode composite envelopes 210-1 and 210-2. Figure 600 also illustrates the influence of ion density on ionic temperature 5, and how ion density and ionic temperature are correlated with recirculation frequency and fusion cross section (σ), as described in more detail with reference to the preceding theoretical introduction. Advantageously, the net fusion power exceeding 1 kW, corresponding to the third operating regime 605-3, can be generated by the exemplary device 105 having a chamber size on the order of 10 cm. The chamber size can be described by a range within which the exemplary device 105 operates as described with reference to FIGURE 6. For example, the inner radius, corresponding to the radius of the inner electrode, can be from approximately 0.1 cm to approximately 40.0 cm.However, as the inner radius decreases, the electron flow and / or the number of electrons injected 15 from the emitter material 240 into the chamber 235 may also decrease, so that the design approximates that of the Kingdon trap, which is limited in its electron emission due to the reduction in surface area and, consequently, in the number of fusion events that can occur per given time period, generating no net positive energy output. In contrast, when the distance between the inner electrode 205 and the outer electrode 210 is relatively small, loss mechanisms, such as ion collisions with the inner electrode 205, bremsstrahlung losses, and electron arcing or short-circuiting with the outer electrode 210, become significant, thus reducing the fusion reaction rate. In this way, the inner electrode can have a radius that varies from approximately 0.1 cm to approximately 40.0 cm, from approximately 0.1 cm to approximately 25 cm, from approximately 30.0 cm, from approximately 0.1 cm to approximately 20.0 cm, from approximately 0.1 cm to approximately 15.0 cm, from approximately 0.1 cm to approximately 10.0 cm, from approximately 0.1 cm to approximately 9.5 cm, from approximately 0.1 cm to approximately 9.0 cm, from approximately 0.1 cm to approximately 8.5 cm, from approximately 0.1 cm to approximately 8.0 cm, from approximately 0.1 cm to approximately 7.5 cm, from approximately 0.1 cm to approximately 7.0 cm, from approximately 0.1 cm to approximately 6.5 cm, from approximately 0.1 cm to approximately 6.0 cm, from approximately 0.1 cm to approximately 5.5 cm, from approximately 0.1 cm to approximately 5.0 cm, from approximately 0.1 cm to approximately 4.5 cm, from approximately 0.1 cm to approximately 4.0 cm, from approximately 0.1 cm to approximately 3.5 cm, from approximately 0.1 cm to approximately 3.0 cm, from approximately 0.1 cm a. Qfrirznn / eznz / E / YiAi approximately 2.5 cm, from approximately 0.1 cm to approximately 2.0 cm, from approximately 0.1 cm to approximately 1.5 cm, from approximately 0.1 cm to approximately 1.0 cm, or from approximately 0.1 cm to approximately 0.5 cm, including fractions and interpolations thereof. Similarly, the dimensions of the outer electrode 210 are likewise characterized by a range within which the exemplary device 105 operates as described in reference FIGURE 6. For example, the outer radius, corresponding to the radius of the outer electrode 210 oriented toward the chamber 235, can range from approximately 1 cm to approximately 20 cm. As the outer radius decreases, the electron flow toward the outer electrode 205 can increase, thereby mitigating the effect of electron injection on the space charge, reducing the ion density, and shifting the device to the left on the operating curve 610. Similarly, as the outer radius increases, the energy required to maintain compact orbits for ions and electrons increases, since the distance between the chamber 235 and the magnetic field generators 215 increases. Thus,The outer electrode can have a radius that varies from approximately 1 cm to approximately 100 cm, from approximately 1 cm to approximately 90 cm, from approximately 1 cm to approximately 80 cm, from approximately 1 cm to approximately 70 cm, from approximately 1 cm to approximately 60 cm, from approximately 1 cm to approximately 50 cm, from approximately 1 cm to approximately 40 cm, from approximately 1 cm to approximately 30 cm, from approximately 1 cm to approximately 20 cm, from approximately 1 cm to approximately 19 cm, from approximately 1 cm to approximately 18 cm, from approximately 1 cm to approximately 17 cm, from approximately 1 cm to approximately 16 cm, from approximately 1 cm to approximately 15 cm, from approximately 1 cm to approximately 14 cm, from approximately 1 cm to approximately 13 cm, from approximately 1 cm to approximately 12 cm, from approximately 1 cm to approximately 11 cm, from approximately 1 cm to approximately 10 cm,from approximately 1 cm to approximately 9 cm, from approximately 1 cm to approximately 8 cm, from approximately 1 cm to approximately 7 cm, from approximately 1 cm to approximately 6 cm, from approximately 1 cm to approximately 5 cm, from approximately 1 cm to approximately 4 cm, from approximately 1 cm to approximately 3 cm, or from approximately 1 cm to approximately 2 cm, including fractions and interpolations thereof. FIGURE 7 is a block diagram illustrating an exemplary process 700 for generating energy or neutrons using an orbital confinement reactor device, of Qfrirznn / eznz / E / YiAi according to some modalities. The blocks of Exemplary Process 700 represent operations that can be implemented autonomously (e.g., without human intervention) by means of a computer device. The computer device may be or include control circuitry operatively coupled with the components of the orbital confinement reactor device, such as Exemplary Reactor Device 200 of FIGURE 2A, FIGURE 2B, and FIGURE 2C, such that the operations of Exemplary Process 700 can be dynamically controlled in terms of timing, frequency, and / or magnitude, as part of a control scheme to maintain the criticality (e.g., k = 1) of nuclear fusion in chamber 235. As such, it is understood that some of the operations illustrated in FIGURE 7 may be omitted, reordered, and / or repeated, depending, for example, on the target application of Exemplary Reactor Device 200. In block 705, exemplary process 700 includes energizing the inner electrode 205. The voltage applied to the inner electrode 205, for example, by the high-voltage power supply 220, can be from 50 kV DC to approximately 4.0 MV DC, including fractions thereof, as described in more detail with reference to FIGURE 2A. Energizing the inner electrode 205 serves to trap ions in elliptical orbits around the longitudinal axis 230, as described in more detail with reference to FIGURE 5, and also serves to increase electron emission from the emitter material 240 by field emission. Heating the inner electrode 205 can increase electron emission from the emitter material 240 through thermionic emission.Heating can be active, through resistive heating elements or by resistive heating of the emitter material 240, or it can be passive, through collisions of electrons and ions with the inner electrode 205. In block 710, exemplary process 700 involves injecting ions into chamber 235. As described in more detail with reference to FIGURE 3, ions 315 can be injected into chamber 235 at a tangential angle to a surface of the inner electrode. Injection at the tangential angle can cause the ions to interact with the electrostatic field and enter orbit 320 around the inner electrode 205. Ion injection can be an intermittent or continuous process, as part of criticality maintenance by managing the energy and ion population parameters during operation of the exemplary reactor device 200. In some embodiments, ion injection can be manipulated as a control variable as part of a closed-loop control system. In block 715, exemplary process 700 includes generating the magnetic field 405 in chamber 235. The magnetic field 405 can be generated by magnetic field generators 215, aligned with the longitudinal axis 230, using an arrangement of magnetic field generators 215 that creates a magnetron in chamber 235. As part of the electron capture in chamber 235, the magnetic field 405 can be characterized by a Qfrirznn / eznz / E / YiAi intensity that corresponds to a Hull cut-off condition that redirects the electrons back towards the inner electrode 205. As described in more detail with reference to FIGURE 5, the electron orbits 515 can be partial, such that the electrons can form a substantially circular orbit that does not complete a circuit around the inner electrode 205, although complete electron orbits can occur. In some embodiments, the Exemplary Process 700 may optionally include flowing the coolant through the conduits 285. When energy dissipation in the Exemplary Reactor Device 200 generates heat, the flow of coolant through the conduits 285 can extract thermal energy from the fusion reactions and can serve as a control parameter to maintain stable reactor operation. As described in more detail with reference to Figure 1, the heat extracted from the Exemplary Reactor Device 200 can be converted into electricity using thermoelectric generators, turbines, or the like, or it can be used for heating through coupling with heat exchangers. In some embodiments, the coolant may be or include materials that are liquid at elevated temperatures and / or pressures, such as up to and including 1000 K. As part of the power generation in the context of the exemplary system 100 of FIGURE 1, the exemplary process 700 may optionally include applying an RF voltage signal to the outer electrode 210 in block 725. The axial harmonic motion of the orbiting ions can be regulated by applying RF voltage to the imaging current circuit 250. In this way, electricity can be extracted directly from the fusion plasmas and transformed into usable electricity by power electronics, including, but not limited to, inverters or rectifiers. As such, utilizing the heat and electrical energy extracted from the exemplary device, the exemplary process 700 may optionally include converting the energy into electricity in block 730. For example, when the exemplary reactor device 200 is operating as a power source (e.g., the third operating regime 605-3 in FIGURE 6), the net fusion energy output of the exemplary device 200 may be converted into electricity for distribution to the electrical grid and / or for storage in capacitors, batteries, pumped storage, or the like. In contrast, when the exemplary reactor device 200 operates as a neutron source, direct electrical generation from block 725 may be omitted, and the exemplary reactor device 200 may operate without connection to the thermal generators 120. The processes explained above are described in terms of computer software and hardware. The techniques described may constitute machine-executable instructions embedded within a tangible or non-transitory machine-readable storage medium (e.g., a computer), which, when executed by a machine, Qfrirznn / eznz / E / YiAi will cause the machine to perform the described operations. Additionally, the processes can be embedded within hardware, such as an application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) or otherwise. A tangible machine-readable storage medium includes any mechanism that provides (i.e., stores) information in a non-transient form accessible by a machine (e.g., a computer, a network device, a personal digital assistant, a manufacturing tool, any device with an array of one or more processors, etc.). For example, a machine-readable storage medium includes writable / non-writable media (e.g., read-only memory (ROM), random-access memory (RAM), magnetic disk storage media, optical storage media, flash memory devices, etc.). The foregoing description of illustrated embodiments of the invention, including those described in the Abstract, is not intended to be exhaustive nor to limit the invention to the precise embodiments disclosed. Although the specific embodiments of, and examples of, the invention are described herein for illustrative purposes, various modifications within the scope of the invention are possible, as will be recognized by those skilled in the relevant art. These modifications may be made to the invention in view of the foregoing detailed description. The terms used in the following claims shall not be construed as limiting the invention to the specific embodiments disclosed in the specification. Rather, the scope of the invention shall be determined entirely by the following claims, which shall be interpreted in accordance with established doctrines of claim interpretation.

Claims

1. An orbital confinement fusion device, characterized in that it comprises: an inner cathodic electrode defining a longitudinal axis of the device; the inner electrode comprising an emitter material; an outer anodic electrode, concentric with the longitudinal axis and defining a chamber between the inner and outer electrodes; and a plurality of magnetic field generators arranged coaxially with respect to the longitudinal axis, the plurality of magnetic field generators configured to form a magnetic field parallel to the longitudinal axis in the chamber.

2. The device according to claim 1, characterized in that the inner and outer electrodes are solids of revolution, symmetric about the longitudinal axis, and are shaped to form a substantially logarithmic electrostatic field in the chamber when energized.

3. The device according to any of the preceding claims, wherein the inner electrode is characterized by an aspect ratio greater than one along the longitudinal axis, and wherein the outer electrode has a length along the longitudinal axis greater than a larger diameter of the inner electrode.

4. The device according to any of the preceding claims, characterized in that the outer electrode comprises: a first anodic envelope and a second anodic envelope, arranged laterally with respect to the longitudinal axis; and a dielectric insulator disposed between and electrically insulating the first anodic envelope and the second anodic envelope.

5. The device according to any of the preceding claims, wherein the magnetic field is characterized by a magnetic field strength that exceeds a Hull cutoff condition for trapping electrons in an orbital path around the inner electrode within the chamber.

6. The device according to any of the preceding claims, characterized in that the plurality of magnetic field generators comprise permanent magnets.

7. The device according to any of the preceding claims, characterized in that the plurality of magnetic field generators comprise electromagnets.

8. The device according to any of the preceding claims, further characterized in that it comprises a high voltage power supply, electrically coupled to the inner electrode, and operating in a range of approximately 50 kV DC to approximately 4.0 MV DC.

9. The device according to any of the preceding claims, characterized in that the inner electrode defines a first end and a second end, the device further comprises: a first dielectric insulator mechanically coupled to the first end and isolating the first end from the outer electrode; and a second dielectric insulator disposed in the chamber between the second end and the outer electrode and isolating the second end from the outer electrode.

10. The device according to claim 9, characterized in that the first dielectric insulator defines an insulating cavity and electrically isolates the high-voltage power supply from the outer electrode.

11. The device according to any of the preceding claims, characterized in that the outer electrode defines an aperture, an alignment of the aperture defining an injection path, the injection path corresponding to an entry step angle of a stable elliptical orbit of an ion of a given mass-charge ratio around the inner electrode.

12. The device according to claim 11, characterized in that the ion is a proton (m / z = 1), a deuterium ion (m / z = 2), a tritium ion (m / z = 3), a lithium ion (m / z = 6) or a boron-11 ion (m / z = 11).

13. The device according to any of the preceding claims, characterized in that the outer electrode further defines a port fluidly coupled with the chamber and an external environment, the port being configured to be fluidly coupled with a vacuum system.

14. The device according to any of the preceding claims, characterized in that the emitter material is disposed in or integrated into the inner electrode, and wherein the emitter material is configured to inject electrons into the chamber when the inner electrode is energized.

15. The device according to any of the preceding claims, characterized in that the emitter material is a thermionic emitter material.

16. The device according to any of the preceding claims, characterized in that it further comprises an image current device electrically coupled to the outer electrode and configured to generate electrical energy from a plurality of charged particles orbiting the inner electrode, the plurality of charged particles exhibiting harmonic axial motion aligned with the longitudinal axis. Qfrirznn / eznz / E / YiAi 17. The device according to any of the preceding claims, further characterized in that it comprises a fluid conduit arranged in the outer electrode or in the inner electrode.

18. The device in accordance with any of the preceding claims, wherein the device is characterized by having physical dimensions on the order of tens of centimeters.

19. The device according to any of the preceding claims, characterized in that the device is electrically coupled to an electrical power system configured to receive electrical power or heated coolant from the device.

20. A method for generating fusion energy by orbital confinement in a fusion device, wherein the fusion device comprises: an inner cathodic electrode defining a longitudinal axis of the device; the inner electrode comprising an emitter material; an outer anodic electrode, concentric with the longitudinal axis and defining a chamber between the inner and outer electrodes; and a plurality of magnetic field generators arranged coaxially with respect to the longitudinal axis of the device, the plurality of magnetic field generators configured to form a magnetron; and wherein the method comprises: energizing the inner electrode at a voltage of approximately 50 kV DC at approximately 4.0 MV DC, thus forming a logarithmic electrostatic field between the inner and outer electrodes and injecting a plurality of electrons into the chamber; injecting a fuel ion beam into the chamber at an angle tangential to a surface of the inner electrode, causing the fuel ions to interact with the electrostatic field and enter an elliptical orbit around the inner electrode; and generating a magnetic field aligned with the longitudinal axis using the plurality of magnetic field generators, the magnetic field characterized by an intensity corresponding to a Hull cutoff condition and redirecting the electrons back towards the inner electrode.

21. The method according to claim 20, characterized in that the fusion device further comprises a fluid conduit formed in the inner or outer electrode, the method further comprising: flowing a coolant through the fluid conduit; heating the coolant through contact with the outer electrode; and generating electricity using the heated coolant. Qfrirznn / eznz / E / YiAi 22. The method according to claims 20-21, further characterized in that it comprises: applying a radio frequency (RF) voltage signal to the outer electrode using a charge imaging circuit, wherein a frequency of the RF voltage signal corresponds to an oscillation of charged particles in the chamber along a direction aligned with the longitudinal axis; generating an RF current using the charge imaging circuit; and generating a direct current from the RF current using an RF-to-DC rectifier circuit.

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