Electrolyzer system configuration for enhanced UV advanced oxidation processes

Abstract

A wastewater treatment system includes an actinic radiation reactor and a concentric tube electrode electrochemical cell in fluid communication between an electrolyte source and the actinic radiation reactor. The electrochemical cell is configured to produce a chlorinated effluent comprising sodium hypochlorite. A conduit fluidly couples an outlet of the electrochemical cell to an inlet of the actinic radiation reactor and is configured to deliver the chlorinated effluent to the actinic radiation reactor.

Description

[0001] CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

[0002] This application claims priority under 35 U.S.C. §119(e) to U.S. Provisional Application Serial No. 62 / 818,137, filed on March 14, 2019, entitled “ELECTROLYZER SYSTEM CONFIGURATIONS FOR ENHANCEMENT OF ULTRA VIOLET ADVANCED OXIDATION PROCESSES,” which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for all purposes. background

[0003] 1. Field of the Invention

[0004] Aspects and embodiments disclosed herein generally relate to advanced oxidation systems including ultraviolet radiation reactors with upstream electrochemical devices, methods of operating the advanced oxidation systems, and systems utilizing the advanced oxidation systems.

[0005] 2. Discussion of Related Technologies

[0006] In the past few years, many research works have shown the suitability of advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) for many applications, especially for water treatment (Legrini, O., Oliveros, E., Braun, AM (1993). Photochemical Processes for Water Treatment. Chm. Rev. 1093, 93, 671-698; Bolton et al. (1996). Figures of Merit for the technical development and application of Advanced Oxidation Processes. J. of Advanced Oxidation Technologies, 1, 113-17).

[0007] Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) for water treatment utilize highly reactive free radical species such as hydroxyl radicals (OH - ), used to oxidize toxic or non-biodegradable or less biodegradable harmful water pollutants, such as industrial pollutants.

[0008] Due to the high oxidation potential and low selectivity of hydroxyl radicals, which react with almost every organic compound, AOPs can be used to eliminate pollutants from (contaminated) water, i.e., residues of pesticides, industrial solvents, PFAS, pharmaceuticals, hormones, drugs, personal care products or x-ray contrast agents.

[0009] The versatility of AOPs is further enhanced by the fact that they offer different possible ways for generating hydroxyl radicals, allowing better tailoring to specific process requirements.

[0010] Suitable, conventional chemical applications of AOPs in wastewater treatment utilize expensive reactants / oxidants such as H2O2 and / or O3 for the generation of hydroxyl radicals.

[0011] Peroxone, a combination of the oxidants ozone O 3 and hydrogen peroxide H 2 O 2 , is known as a new advanced oxidation process (peroxone AOP) that can be used to treat contaminated soil, groundwater and wastewater.

[0012] The ozone process uses the oxidant ozone (O3) in combination with the oxidant hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). During this process, very persistent hydroxyl radicals are formed and react with or oxidize most organic contaminants in solution. The addition of hydrogen peroxide accelerates the dissolution of ozone, resulting in an increase in the hydroxyl radical concentration. The net free hydroxyl radical generation rate is approximately 1 mol per mol of ozone.

[0013] Malato et al. (2002). Photocatalysis with solar energy at a pilot-plantscale: an overview. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental 37 1-15 reviewed the use of sunlight to generate hydroxyl radicals.

[0014] In ultraviolet-driven AOPs (UV AOPs), UV radiation is used to generate hydroxyl radicals through photolysis. Conventional UV-driven AOPs for water treatment can be referred to as UV / H2O2 or UV / ozone (UV / O3) or a combination thereof, as H2O2 or O3 is being photolyzed by UV radiation to generate hydroxyl radicals.

[0015] A UV-driven chlorine process, i.e. an AOP that produces hydroxyl radicals by irradiating a chlorinated solution with UV (UV / chlorine AOP), is known from Jing Jin et al. (2011). Assessment of the UV / Chlorine process as an advanced oxidation process. Water Research 45, 1890-1896 and Michael J. Watts et al. (2007). Chlorine photolysis and subsequent OH radical production during UV treatment of chlorinated water. Water Research 41, 2871-2878.

[0016] It is further known from Jing Jin et al. (2011). Assessment of the UV / Chlorine process as an advanced oxidation process. Water Research 45, 1890-1896 that such UV / chlorine AOPs can be used as a treatment option for disinfection byproducts (DBPs) produced during chlorine disinfection in swimming pools, and can be used to inactivate waterborne pathogenic microorganisms and destroy harmful organic compounds in drinking water and wastewater.

[0017] Other UV AOPs are known as UV / TiO2 or UV / S2O8 (Legrini, O., Oliveros, E., Braun, AM (1993). Photochemical Processes for Water Treatment. Chm. Rev. 1093, 671-698).

[0018] Existing AOPs use expensive reactants / oxidants such as H2O2 and / or O3, especially in the case of super-ozonation AOPs using H2O2 and O3, and high energy requirements for free radical generation, such as the high UV irradiation energy used to generate free radicals by UV AOPs. A large number of free radicals are consumed not by oxidation of pollutants, but by side reactions with the organic background of the water matrix (e.g., humins, humic acid, or citric acid).

[0019] Electrochemical devices that produce chemical reactions at electrodes are widely used in industrial and municipal applications. Electrochemical reactions for producing sodium hypochlorite from sodium chloride and water (electrochlorination) include the following:

[0020] Reaction at the anode: 2Cl - →C12+2e - (E 0 氧化 =-1.358V)

[0021] Reaction at the cathode: 2H2O+2e - →H2+2OH - (E 0 还原 =-0.8277V)

[0022] In solution: C12+2OH - →ClO - +Cl - +H2O

[0023] Overall reaction: NaCl + H2O → NaOCl + H2(E 0 电池 =-2.19V)

[0024] Assuming 100% Faradaic efficiency and a 3V cell voltage, the mass production rate of NaOCl is:

[0025] 1kg NaOCl=(2×96500 / 3600×1000 / 70.906)A*h=756.09A*h

[0026] In these reactions, the potentials listed are at 1 M concentrations (activity) of reactants and products and standard conditions (25° C. and 1 atm).

[0027] Overview

[0028] According to aspects of the present invention, a water treatment system is provided. The system includes an actinic radiation reactor, a concentric tube electrode electrochemical cell in fluid communication between an electrolyte source and the actinic radiation reactor, the electrochemical cell configured to produce a chlorinated effluent comprising sodium hypochlorite, and a conduit fluidly coupling an outlet of the electrochemical cell to an inlet of the actinic radiation reactor and configured to deliver the chlorinated effluent to the actinic radiation reactor.

[0029] In some embodiments, the actinic radiation reactor is an ultraviolet advanced oxidation process reactor.

[0030] In some embodiments, the electrolyte comprises water.

[0031] In some embodiments, the system also includes a sensor configured to measure the concentration of one or more pollutants in the water. The sensor is positioned at one of the upstream of the actinic radiation reactor or the downstream of the actinic radiation reactor. The system may also include a controller that is communicated with the sensor and is configured to adjust one or more operating parameters of the system in response to the measured concentration of one or more pollutants. The one or more operating parameters may include one of the following: the power applied to the electrochemical cell, the power applied to the actinic radiation reactor, and the flow rate of the electrolyte or effluent through one of the electrochemical cell or the actinic radiation reactor.

[0032] In some embodiments, the system further comprises a chloride salt source configured to introduce a salt into the electrolyte upstream of the electrochemical cell. The controller can also be configured to adjust the rate at which the salt is introduced into the electrolyte in response to the measured concentration of the one or more contaminants.

[0033] In some embodiments, the electrolyte source comprises a chloride-containing solution source, and the system further comprises: a recirculation conduit configured to return the chlorinated effluent from the outlet of the electrochemical cell to the inlet of the electrochemical cell to form a recirculating brine solution; a source of water to be treated, the source of water to be treated being in fluid communication with the inlet of the actinic radiation reactor via a first conduit; and a second conduit providing selective fluid communication from the recirculation conduit to an introduction point in the first conduit upstream of the inlet of the actinic radiation reactor. The system may also include a valve configured to switch from a closed state to an at least partially open state in response to a concentration of sodium hypochlorite in the recirculating brine solution reaching a predetermined level, and to direct the recirculating brine solution into the water to be treated through the introduction point.

[0034] In some embodiments, the system further comprises a controller operably connected to one or more sensors, the one or more sensors being configured to measure one or more of: a flow rate of water to be treated, a concentration of a contaminant in the water to be treated, a concentration of sodium hypochlorite in the water to be treated, a purity of product water exiting the actinic radiation reactor, a flow rate of product water exiting the actinic radiation reactor, or a concentration of sodium hypochlorite in a recirculating brine solution. The controller can be configured to adjust one or more operating parameters of the system based on one or more signals received from the one or more sensors, the one or more operating parameters comprising one or more of: a state of a valve, power applied to the electrochemical cell, power applied to the actinic radiation reactor, a flow rate of electrolyte through the electrochemical cell, a flow rate of water to be treated through the actinic radiation reactor, or a radiation dose applied to the water to be treated in the actinic radiation reactor.

[0035] In some embodiments, the one or more sensors are configured to measure the concentration of sodium hypochlorite in the recirculating saline solution, and the controller is configured to receive an indication of the concentration of sodium hypochlorite in the recirculating saline solution from the sensors and to send a signal to the valve to at least partially open in response to the concentration of sodium hypochlorite being at or above a predetermined level.

[0036] In some embodiments, the controller is further configured to set the predetermined level based on one or both of the concentration of contaminants in the water to be treated or the desired purity of the product water.

[0037] In some embodiments, the controller is further configured to set the predetermined level based on a desired dosage of UV radiation to be applied to the water to be treated in the actinic radiation reactor.

[0038] In some embodiments, the controller is further configured to set a dose of UV radiation to be applied to the water to be treated in the actinic radiation reactor based on one or more of a predetermined level, a concentration of a contaminant in the water to be treated, a flow rate of the water to be treated, or a desired purity of the product water.

[0039] In some embodiments, the controller is further configured to set the power applied to the electrochemical cell based on one or both of the concentration of contaminants in the water to be treated or the desired purity of the product water.

[0040] In some embodiments, the controller is further configured to set a dosage of UV radiation to be applied to the water to be treated in the actinic radiation reactor based on the concentration of contaminants in the water to be treated and the desired purity of the product water.

[0041] In some embodiments, the controller is further configured to set an amount of chloride to be introduced into the electrolyte based on a predetermined level.

[0042] In some embodiments, the controller is further configured to set the amount of power applied to the electrochemical cell based on a desired amount of time to reach a predetermined concentration level of NaOCl in the chlorinated effluent in the recirculation conduit.

[0043] In some embodiments, the controller is further configured to set a dosage of UV radiation to be applied to the water to be treated in the actinic radiation reactor based on the power applied to the electrochemical cell.

[0044] According to another aspect, a method for treating water in a water treatment system is provided. The method includes directing water to be treated from a water source into an inlet of a concentric tube electrode electrochemical cell, applying power across the electrodes of the electrochemical cell to convert sodium chloride (NaCl) in the water to be treated into sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) in the electrochemical cell and forming a chlorinated effluent comprising NaOCl, directing the chlorinated effluent from an outlet of the electrochemical cell into an inlet of an actinic radiation reactor, exposing the chlorinated effluent to sufficient actinic radiation in the actinic radiation reactor to generate free radicals in the chlorinated effluent, the free radicals reacting with contaminants in the chlorinated effluent to form treated effluent, and directing the treated effluent from the outlet of the actinic radiation reactor to a point of use.

[0045] In some embodiments, exposing the chlorinated effluent to actinic radiation in an actinic radiation reactor includes exposing the chlorinated effluent to ultraviolet light in an actinic radiation reactor.

[0046] In some embodiments, directing the treated effluent to a point of use includes directing the treated effluent to a water source.

[0047] In some embodiments, the method further comprises adding a chloride salt to the water to be treated upstream of the inlet of the electrochemical cell.

[0048] In some embodiments, the method further comprises: recycling the chlorinated effluent from the outlet of the electrochemical cell to the inlet of the electrochemical cell through a recirculation conduit for additional treatment in the electrochemical cell, the additional treatment increasing the concentration of NaOCl in the chlorinated effluent, directing water to be treated from a second source of water to be treated through the first conduit to the inlet of the actinic radiation reactor, and providing selective fluid communication from the recirculation conduit to an introduction point in the first conduit upstream of the inlet of the actinic radiation reactor. The method may further comprise measuring the concentration of sodium hypochlorite in the recirculation conduit with a sensor. The method may further comprise: receiving an indication of the concentration of sodium hypochlorite in the recirculation conduit from the sensor at a controller, and, in response to the indication that the concentration of sodium hypochlorite in the recirculation conduit is at or above a predetermined level, sending a signal to at least partially open a valve providing selective fluid communication between the recirculation conduit and the first conduit.

[0049] In some embodiments, the method further comprises measuring, with one or more sensors operably connected to a controller of the system, one or more of the following: the flow rate of the water to be treated, the concentration of a contaminant in the water to be treated, the concentration of sodium hypochlorite in the water to be treated, the purity of the product water exiting the actinic radiation reactor, the flow rate of the product water exiting the actinic radiation reactor, or the concentration of sodium hypochlorite in the recirculating brine solution. The method may also comprise adjusting, with the controller, one or more operating parameters of the system based on one or more signals received from the one or more sensors, the one or more operating parameters comprising one or more of the following: the state of a valve, the power applied to the electrochemical cell, the power applied to the actinic radiation reactor, the flow rate of the electrolyte through the electrochemical cell, the flow rate of the water to be treated through the actinic radiation reactor, or the radiation dose applied to the water to be treated in the actinic radiation reactor.

[0050] In some embodiments, the method further includes measuring a concentration of sodium hypochlorite in the recirculating saline solution with one or more sensors, receiving, by a controller, an indication of the concentration of sodium hypochlorite in the recirculating saline solution from the one or more sensors, and signaling a valve providing selective fluid communication between the recirculating conduit and the first conduit to at least partially open in response to the concentration of sodium hypochlorite being at or above a predetermined level.

[0051] In some embodiments, the method further includes setting the predetermined level based on one or both of the concentration of contaminants in the water to be treated or the desired purity of the product water.

[0052] In some embodiments, the method further comprises setting the predetermined level based on a desired dosage of UV radiation to be applied to the water to be treated in the actinic radiation reactor.

[0053] In some embodiments, the method further includes setting a dosage of UV radiation to be applied to the water to be treated in the actinic radiation reactor based on one or more of a predetermined level, a concentration of a contaminant in the water to be treated, a flow rate of the water to be treated, or a desired purity of the product water.

[0054] In some embodiments, the method further includes setting the power applied to the electrochemical cell based on one or both of the concentration of contaminants in the water to be treated or the desired purity of the product water.

[0055] In some embodiments, the method further includes setting a dosage of UV radiation to be applied to the water to be treated in the actinic radiation reactor based on the concentration of contaminants in the water to be treated and the desired purity of the product water.

[0056] In some embodiments, the method further includes setting an amount of chloride to be introduced into the electrolyte based on a predetermined level.

[0057] In some embodiments, the method further includes setting an amount of power applied to the electrochemical cell based on a desired amount of time to reach a predetermined concentration level of NaOCl in the chlorinated effluent in the recirculation conduit.

[0058] In some embodiments, the method further includes setting a dosage of UV radiation to be applied to the water to be treated in the actinic radiation reactor based on the power applied to the electrochemical cell.

[0059] According to another aspect, a method of modifying a water treatment system including an advanced oxidation process reactor in fluid communication with a water source to be treated is provided. The method includes installing a concentric tubular electrochemical cell in fluid communication between the water source to be treated and the advanced oxidation process reactor, and providing instructions for operating the electrochemical cell to convert sodium chloride in the water to be treated into sodium hypochlorite.

[0060] In some embodiments, the method further includes providing a sensor configured to measure a concentration of one or more contaminants in the water at one of upstream of the actinic radiation reactor or downstream of the actinic radiation reactor.

[0061] In some embodiments, the method further includes providing a controller in communication with the sensor and configured to adjust one or more operating parameters of the system in response to the measured concentration of the one or more contaminants.

[0062] In some embodiments, the one or more operating parameters include one of: power applied to the electrochemical cell, power applied to the actinic radiation reactor, and flow rate of electrolyte or effluent through one of the electrochemical cell or the actinic radiation reactor.

[0063] In some embodiments, the method further includes providing a recirculation conduit configured to return the chlorinated effluent from the outlet of the electrochemical cell to the inlet of the electrochemical cell to form a recirculating brine solution.

[0064] In some embodiments, the method further includes providing a controller operably connected to one or more sensors configured to measure one or more of the following: the flow rate of water to be treated, the concentration of contaminants in the water to be treated, the concentration of sodium hypochlorite in the water to be treated, the purity of product water exiting the advanced oxidation process reactor, the flow rate of product water exiting the advanced oxidation process reactor, or the concentration of sodium hypochlorite in the recycled brine solution.

[0065] In some embodiments, the method further includes configuring a controller to adjust one or more operating parameters of the system based on one or more signals received from one or more sensors, the one or more operating parameters comprising one or more of: power applied to the electrochemical cell, power applied to the advanced oxidation process reactor, flow rate of electrolyte through the electrochemical cell, flow rate of water to be treated through the advanced oxidation process reactor, or radiation dose applied to the water to be treated in the advanced oxidation process reactor. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0067] The drawings are not intended to be drawn to scale. In the drawings, each identical or nearly identical component illustrated in various figures is represented by a like numeral. For clarity, not every component may be labeled in every figure. In the drawings:

[0068] Figure 1A is an isometric view of an embodiment of a concentric tube electrochemical cell;

[0069] Figure 1B yes Figure 1A Cross-sectional view of a concentric tube electrochemical cell;

[0070] Figure 2A The diagram shows the current flowing through an embodiment of a concentric tube electrochemical cell;

[0071] Figure 2B The diagram shows the current flowing through another embodiment of a concentric tube electrochemical cell;

[0072] Figure 2C The diagram shows the current flowing through another embodiment of a concentric tube electrochemical cell;

[0073] Figure 3 is an isometric view of an embodiment of a single-channel spirally wound electrochemical cell;

[0074] Figure 4 is an isometric view of another embodiment of a single-channel spirally wound electrochemical cell;

[0075] Figure 5 is a partial cross-sectional view of an embodiment of a three-tube concentric tube electrochemical cell;

[0076] Figure 6 is a partial cross-sectional view of an embodiment of a four-tube concentric tube electrochemical cell;

[0077] Figure 7 is a partial cross-sectional view of an embodiment of a five-tube concentric tube electrochemical cell;

[0078] Figure 8is a schematic diagram illustrating an actinic radiation reactor vessel according to one or more embodiments;

[0079] Figure 9A is a diagram illustrating a method according to one or more embodiments Figure 8 a schematic diagram of a portion of the interior of a container;

[0080] Figure 9B is a diagram illustrating a method according to one or more embodiments Figure 8 a schematic diagram of another portion of the interior of the container;

[0081] Figure 10A This is a table of ion concentrations in seawater from different locations;

[0082] Figure 10B It is a table of the salinity of different natural water bodies;

[0083] Figure 11 The graph shows the results of tests for the removal of 1,4-dioxane in an actinic radiation reactor vessel operated under different conditions;

[0084] Figure 12 Figure illustrates an embodiment of a system comprising an actinic radiation reactor vessel and an electrolysis cell upstream of the actinic radiation reactor vessel;

[0085] Figure 13 FIG shows another embodiment of a system comprising an actinic radiation reactor vessel and an electrolysis cell upstream of the actinic radiation reactor vessel;

[0086] Figure 14 FIG shows another embodiment of a system comprising an actinic radiation reactor vessel and an electrolysis cell upstream of the actinic radiation reactor vessel;

[0087] Figure 15 Figure illustrates a control system that may be used with embodiments of the water treatment systems disclosed herein;

[0088] Figure 16 The figure shows the Figure 15 The memory system of the control system;

[0089] Figure 17 Figure shows the arrangement of an electrolytic cell and a recirculation loop for testing the accumulation of oxidants in the electrolyte recirculated through the electrolytic cell;

[0090] Figure 18A The diagram shows the use of Figure 17 A table of the results of the equipment tests;

[0091] Figure 18Bis a table illustrating absorbance of examples of synthetic seawater;

[0092] Figure 19 is a table comparing the concentrations of various ions in examples of synthetic seawater with the concentrations of ions in natural seawater;

[0093] Figure 20 The graph shows the results of tests for the removal of 1,4-dioxane in an actinic radiation reactor vessel containing contaminated water streams having different pH levels;

[0094] Figure 21 The figure shows the results of tests on the removal of 1,4-dioxane in an actinic radiation reactor vessel containing a contaminated water stream with different NaOCl concentrations;

[0095] Figure 22A The figure shows a first set of configurations of a water treatment system as disclosed herein;

[0096] Figure 22B Figure 2 shows a second set of configurations for a water treatment system as disclosed herein;

[0097] Figure 23 is a table illustrating costs associated with producing sodium hypochlorite in different configurations of a water treatment system as disclosed herein;

[0098] Figure 24 is a graph illustrating costs associated with producing sodium hypochlorite in different configurations of a water treatment system as disclosed herein; and

[0099] Figure 25 The graph illustrates the relative costs of salt and energy attributable to producing sodium hypochlorite in a water treatment system as disclosed herein.

[0100] Detailed description

[0101] The aspects and embodiments disclosed herein are not limited to the details of the construction and arrangement of the parts set forth in the description below or illustrated in the accompanying drawings. The aspects and embodiments disclosed herein can be practiced or implemented in a variety of ways. In addition, the words and terms used herein are for descriptive purposes and should not be considered as restrictive. The use of "including," "comprising," "having," "containing," "involving," and variations thereof herein is intended to encompass the items listed thereafter and their equivalents as well as additional items.

[0102] According to at least one aspect, some embodiments of the invention may relate to a system for purifying or reducing the concentration of undesirable components (pollutants) in a water stream. The system may include one or more water sources fluidically connected to at least one actinic radiation reactor. At least one reactor may be configured to irradiate water from the water source. The system may also include one or more oxidant sources. One or more oxidant sources may be arranged to introduce one or more oxidants into the water from the one or more water sources.

[0103] The actinic radiation reactor may be a reactor comprising one or more ultraviolet (UV) lamps that generate ultraviolet light which, when absorbed by the one or more oxidants, causes the generation of free radicals, such as OH - Free radicals can oxidize organic carbon species dissolved in water, such as chloroform or urea, into less undesirable chemicals, such as carbon dioxide and water. Embodiments of treatment processes for removing undesirable substances, such as organic carbon species, from fluids, such as water, may be referred to herein as advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) or free radical scavenging processes. These terms are used synonymously herein.

[0104] Aspects and embodiments disclosed herein generally relate to an AOP system comprising a UV reactor and an electrochemical device for generating an oxidant, such as sodium hypochlorite, for introduction into the UV reactor to promote oxidation of pollutants in the UV reactor, and to methods of using such a system.

[0105] The terms "electrochemical device," "electrochemical cell," "electrolyzer," and grammatical variations thereof, should be understood to encompass "electrochlorination device" and "electrochlorination cell," and grammatical variations thereof. The aspects and embodiments disclosed herein are described as comprising one or more electrodes. The term "metal electrode," or grammatical variations thereof, as used herein, should be understood to encompass electrodes formed from, comprising, or consisting of one or more metals such as titanium, aluminum, or nickel, although the term "metal electrode" does not exclude electrodes comprising or consisting of other metals or alloys. In some embodiments, a "metal electrode" may comprise a plurality of layers of different metals. The metal electrode used in any one or more of the embodiments disclosed herein may comprise a core of a highly conductive metal, such as copper or aluminum, coated with a layer of a metal or metal oxide that is highly resistant to chemical attack by the electrolyte solution, such as titanium, platinum, mixed metal oxides (MMOs), magnetite, ferrite, cobalt spinel, tantalum, palladium, iridium, silver, gold, or other coating material. "Metal electrode" can be coated with an anti-oxidation coating, such as, but not limited to, platinum, mixed metal oxide (MMO), magnetite, ferrite, cobalt spinel, tantalum, palladium, iridium, silver, gold or other coating materials. The mixed metal oxide used in the embodiments disclosed herein can include one or more of the following one or more oxides (an oxide or oxides): ruthenium, rhodium, tantalum (optionally alloyed with antimony and / or manganese), titanium, iridium, zinc, tin, antimony, titanium-nickel alloy, titanium-copper alloy, titanium-iron alloy, titanium-cobalt alloy or other suitable metal or alloy. The anode used in the embodiments disclosed herein can be coated with one or more of platinum, and / or iridium, ruthenium, tin, rhodium or tantalum (optionally alloyed with antimony and / or manganese) one or more oxides. The cathode used in the embodiments disclosed herein can be coated with one or more of platinum, and / or iridium, ruthenium and titanium one or more oxides. The electrode used in the embodiments disclosed herein can include one or more substrates of titanium, tantalum, zirconium, niobium, tungsten and / or silicon. Electrodes for use in any of the electrochemical cells disclosed herein can be formed as or from: plates, sheets, foils, extrudates, and / or sinters.

[0106] The term "tube" as used herein includes cylindrical conduits, however, does not exclude conduits having other cross-sectional geometries, such as conduits having square, rectangular, elliptical or oblong geometries or shaped as any regular or irregular polygonal cross-sectional geometry.

[0107] As used herein, the term "concentric tubes" or "concentric spirals" includes tubes or staggered spirals that share a common central axis, but does not exclude tubes or staggered spirals that are arranged about a common axis that is not necessarily central to each of the concentric tubes or staggered spirals in a set of concentric tubes or staggered spirals or tubes or staggered spirals that have axes that are offset from each other.

[0108] The aspects and embodiments disclosed herein are not limited to the number of electrodes, the spacing between electrodes, the electrode materials, the materials of any spacers between electrodes, the number of passes within the electrochlorination cell, or the electrode coating materials.

[0109] This disclosure describes various embodiments of electrochlorination cells and electrochlorination apparatus that can be used in combination with a UV reactor to perform an advanced AOP process.

[0110] Figure 1A and Figure 1B An example of an electrochlorination cell 100 having concentric tubes 102, 104 manufactured by Electrocatalytic Ltd. is shown. The inner surface of the outer tube 102 and the outer surface of the inner tube 104 are the active electrode areas. The gap between the electrodes is about 3.5 mm. For embodiments utilizing seawater as the feed, the liquid velocity in the axial direction in the gap can be about 2.1 m / s, which results in a highly turbulent flow that reduces the potential for fouling and scaling on the electrode surfaces. The high flow rate and turbulent flow of electrolyte through an electrochlorination cell having concentric tubes as disclosed herein results in a significant advantage in preventing scale formation due to hardness compared to other electrochemical cell configurations (e.g., electrochemical cells having parallel plate electrodes).

[0111] Figure 2A-2C Some possible arrangements of electrodes in a concentric tube electrode (CTE) electrochemical cell are shown. Figure 2A The figure shows an arrangement where the current flows from the anode to the cathode in one pass. Both electrodes are typically made of titanium, with the anode coated with platinum or a mixed metal oxide (MMO). The electrodes are referred to as "mono-polar".

[0112] Figure 2BThe figure shows an arrangement in which current flows in two channels through a device having two outer electrodes and one inner electrode. One of the outer electrodes is coated on the inner surface to act as an anode; the other is uncoated. A portion of the outer surface of the inner electrode is coated, also acting as an anode, while the remaining portion is uncoated. The current flows from the coated outer electrode through the electrolyte to the uncoated portion of the inner electrode, along the inner electrode to the coated portion, and then finally through the electrolyte back to the uncoated outer electrode. The inner electrode is also called a "bipolar" electrode.

[0113] Figure 2C The figure shows an arrangement of current flowing in multiple channels through a device having multiple outer electrodes and one inner electrode. By alternating coated and uncoated outer electrodes and coating the inner electrodes at matching intervals, current can be repeatedly flowed through the electrolyte in multiple channels.

[0114] The rationale for multiple channels is that the total electrode area available for the electrochemical reaction at the surface, and therefore the total rate of production of the oxidant (e.g., sodium hypochlorite), can be increased without a proportional increase in the applied current. Increasing the current would require longer wires or bus bars from the DC power source to the electrochlorination cell, larger electrical connectors on the cell (at Figure 1A lugs 101A and 101B on the outer surface of the outer electrode in the example of FIG. 1 and thicker titanium for the electrode.

[0115] For the same current, a multiple-pass device will have a higher generation rate than a single-pass cell, but the total voltage drop will be higher (roughly proportional to the number of channels). For the same generation rate, a multiple-pass cell will require less current (roughly inversely proportional to the number of channels). For the same power output (kW), power supply cost may be more sensitive to output current than output voltage, favoring multiple-pass cells.

[0116] In fact, there are inefficiencies associated with multi-channel batteries. For example, a portion of the current, known as the "bypass current," can flow directly from the anode to the cathode without passing through the electrolyte in the gap between the outer and inner electrodes (see Figure 2B and Figure 2C Bypass current consumes power but results in less efficient oxidant generation than non-bypass current. Multi-channel cells are also more complex to manufacture and assemble. For example, portions of the outer surface of the inner electrode must be masked before the remaining portion is coated.

[0117] Aspects and embodiments disclosed herein may include electrochemical cells having spirally wound electrodes, non-limiting examples of which are described in Figure 3 and Figure 4In the spirally wound configuration, two spirally wound electrodes, an anode 205 and a cathode 210 forming an anode-cathode pair, are positioned to form a gap 215 between the anode 205 and the cathode 210. Figure 3 The angular difference between the starting end of the spiral marked as θ and / or the terminating end of the spiral can be in the range of from 0 ° to 180 °. The feed electrolyte solution flows through the gap 215 in a direction substantially parallel to the axis of the spiral. A constant or variable DC voltage or an AC current in some embodiments is applied to cross the electrodes or through the electrolyte solution. Anode tab 220 and cathode tab 225 are connected to anode 205 and cathode 210, respectively, or are formed integrally with anode 205 and cathode 210 to provide electrical connections to anode 205 and cathode 210. Electric current flows from anode 205 to cathode 210 in a single channel. Electrochemical reactions and chemical reactions occur at the surface of the electrodes and in the bulk electrolyte solution in the electrochemical cell to produce a product solution.

[0118] The spirally wound electrodes 205, 210 may be housed within a housing 235 (see Figure 4 ), the housing 235 is designed to electrically isolate the electrodes from the external environment and to withstand the fluid pressure of the electrolyte passing through the electrochemical cell. The housing 235 can be non-conductive to the electrolyte solution, chemically non-reactive, and can have sufficient strength to withstand the system pressure. In some embodiments, a solid core, central core element, or fluid flow guide can be provided to prevent fluid from flowing down the center and around the gap.

[0119] Aspects and embodiments disclosed herein may be applied to electrochemical cells comprising concentrically arranged tubular electrodes, a non-limiting example of which is Figure 5-Figure 7 At least some of the concentric tube electrodes may be monopolar or bipolar. A first embodiment comprising three concentric tubes is shown in FIG. Figure 5300. The middle tube electrode 305 is an anode having an oxidation resistant coating, such as platinum or MMO, on both the inner and outer surfaces to fully utilize the surface area of ​​the middle tube electrode 305. The inner tube electrode 310 and the outer tube electrode 315 have no coating and serve as the inner cathode and the outer cathode, respectively. The electrodes are unipolar so that current passes through the electrolyte once per electrode. Each of the electrodes 305, 310, 315 may include a titanium tube. The anode electrical connection 330 is in electrical communication with the middle tube electrode 305. The cathode electrical connection 335 is in electrical communication with the inner tube electrode 310 and the outer tube electrode 315. The electrochlorination cell 300 disclosed herein and other electrochemical cells including concentric tube electrodes may be contained in a non-conductive housing, such as Figure 4 The housing 235 is shown in FIG.

[0120] In embodiments disclosed herein that include multiple anode tube electrodes or cathode tube electrodes, the multiple anode tube electrodes may be collectively referred to as anodes or anode tubes, and the multiple cathode tube electrodes may be collectively referred to as cathodes or cathode tubes. In embodiments that include multiple anode tube electrodes and / or multiple cathode tube electrodes, the multiple anode tube electrodes and / or multiple cathode tube electrodes may be collectively referred to herein as an anode-cathode pair.

[0121] Electrical connections can be made between the inner tube electrode 310 and the outer tube electrode 315 through one or more conductive bridges 340, which can be formed of the same material as the inner tube electrode 310 and the outer tube electrode 315, such as titanium. Electrochemical and chemical reactions occur at the surfaces of the electrodes and in the bulk solution to produce a product solution, such as sodium hypochlorite for disinfection.

[0122] According to another embodiment, the concentric tube electrochemical cell or electrochlorination cell comprises four concentric tube electrodes. An example of a four tube electrochlorination cell is Figure 6 400. A four-tube electrochlorination cell 400 includes an inner tube electrode 405 and a middle tube electrode 410 that act as an anode and can be in electrical communication with an anode electrical connector 425. The inner tube electrode 405 and the middle tube electrode 410 can also be in electrical communication with each other via one or more conductive bridges 450. The outer tube electrode 420 and the middle tube electrode 415 act as cathodes that can be in electrical communication with a cathode electrical connector 430. The outer tube electrode 420 and the middle tube electrode 415 can also be in electrical communication with each other via one or more conductive bridges 455. The outer tube electrode 420 and the middle tube electrode 415 are arranged on opposite sides of the middle anode tube electrode 410. The four-tube electrochlorination cell 400 operates in a manner similar to the three-tube electrochlorination cell 300, except that the feed electrolyte solution flows through three annular gaps 435, 440, and 445 formed in the four-tube electrochlorination cell 400.

[0123] According to another embodiment, the concentric tube electrochlorination cell comprises five concentric tube electrodes. An example of a five-tube electrochlorination cell is Figure 7 500. The five-tube electrochlorination cell 500 includes intermediate tube electrodes 520 and 525 that function as anodes and can be in electrical communication with an anode electrical connector 535. The intermediate tube electrodes 520 and 525 can also be in electrical communication with each other via one or more conductive bridges 565. The inner tube electrode 505, the central tube electrode 510, and the outer tube electrode 515 function as cathodes that can be in electrical communication with a cathode electrical connector 530. The inner tube electrode 505, the central tube electrode 510, and the outer tube electrode 515 can also be in electrical communication with each other via one or more conductive bridges 560. The intermediate tube electrodes 520 and 525 are arranged on opposite sides of the central cathode tube electrode 510. The five-tube electrochlorination cell operates in a manner similar to the four-tube electrochlorination cell 400, except that the feed electrolyte solution flows through four annular gaps 540, 545, 550, and 555 formed in the five-tube electrochlorination cell.

[0124] Electrochemical cells including spirally wound, concentric, radially arranged, and interleaved electrodes are described in more detail in commonly owned PCT Application No. PCT / US2016 / 018213, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

[0125] The system disclosed herein may include an actinic radiation reactor, such as a UV reactor, that receives one or more oxidants generated in an electrochlorination cell as disclosed herein to promote the destruction, such as oxidation, of one or more contaminants in water undergoing treatment in the actinic radiation reactor. The actinic radiation reactor may include a container and a first array of tubes within the container. The first array of tubes may include a first group of parallel tubes and a second group of parallel tubes. Each tube may include at least one UV lamp, and each of the first group of parallel tubes is positioned so that its longitudinal axis is orthogonal to the longitudinal axis of the second group of tubes.

[0126] In examples of actinic radiation reactors used in the systems disclosed herein, organic compounds in the water undergoing treatment can be oxidized by one or more free radical species to form carbon dioxide, which can be removed in one or more downstream unit operations. The actinic radiation reactor can include at least one free radical activation device that converts one or more precursor compounds (e.g., one or more oxidants provided by an electrochlorination device) into one or more free radical scavenging species, such as hydroxyl radicals OH - The actinic radiation reactor may include one or more lamps in one or more reaction chambers to irradiate or otherwise provide actinic radiation to the water and decompose the precursor compound into one or more free radical species.

[0127] The reactor can be divided into two chambers by one or more baffles between the chambers. The baffles can be used to provide mixing or turbulence to the reactor, or to prevent mixing or promote laminar flow, parallel flow paths through the interior (such as in the chamber) of the reactor. In certain embodiments, the reactor inlet is in communication with the first chamber fluid, and the reactor outlet is in communication with the second chamber fluid.

[0128] In some embodiments, at least three reactor chambers are serially arranged in reactor 120, each having at least one ultraviolet (UV) lamp arranged to irradiate the water in the corresponding chamber with light of about 185 nm, 220 nm and / or 254 nm or in a range from about 185 nm to about 254 nm at various power levels. It should be understood that in AOP processes, shorter wavelengths of 185 nm or 220 nm may be preferred because UV light at these wavelengths has sufficient photon energy to generate free radicals from free radical precursors used in processes for oxidizing dissolved organic pollutants. In contrast, disinfection processes in which UV light can be used to kill or disable microorganisms can be effectively operated by UV light at a wavelength of 254 nm generated by a low pressure lamp. Disinfection systems will typically not use more expensive medium pressure UV lamps or high pressure UV lamps that can provide significant UV intensity at the shorter wavelengths of 185 nm or 220 nm.

[0129] One or more lamps can be positioned in one or more actinic radiation reactors by being placed in one or more sleeves or tubes in the reactor. The tube can hold the lamp in place and protect the lamp from the water in the reactor. The tube can be made of any material that is not significantly degraded by the actinic radiation and the water or components in the water in the reactor, while allowing radiation to pass through the material. The tube can have a circular cross-section. In certain embodiments, the tube can be cylindrical, and the material of its construction can be quartz. Each tube can be the same or different shape or size as one or more other tubes. The tube can be arranged in the reactor in various configurations, for example, a sleeve can extend across a portion or the entire length or width of the reactor. The tube can also extend across the internal volume of the reactor.

[0130] Commercially available UV lamps and / or quartz sleeves can be obtained from Hanovia Specialty Lighting, Fairfield, New Jersey; Engineered Treatment Systems, LLC (ETS), Beaver Dam, Wisconsin; and Heraeus Noblelight GmbH of Hanau, Germany. The quartz material selected can be based at least in part on one or more specific wavelengths to be used in the process. The quartz material can be selected to minimize the energy requirements of the UV lamp at one or more wavelengths. The composition of the quartz can be selected to provide a desired or suitable transmittance of the UV light to the water in the reactor and / or to maintain a desired or sufficient level of transmittance of the UV light to the water. In certain embodiments, the transmittance can be at least about 50% for a predetermined period of time. For example, the transmittance can be about 80% or greater for a predetermined period of time. In certain embodiments, the transmittance can be in the range of about 80% to 90% for about six months to about one year. In certain embodiments, the transmittance can be in the range of about 80% to 90% for up to about two years.

[0131] The pipe can be sealed at each end so as not to allow the contents of the reactor to enter the sleeve or pipe. The pipe can be fixed in the reactor so that they remain in place during the entire use of the reactor. In certain embodiments, the pipe is fixed to the wall of the reactor. The pipe can be fixed to the wall using suitable mechanical techniques or other conventional techniques for fixing objects to each other. The material used to fix the pipe is preferably inert and will not interfere with the operation of the reactor or adversely affect the purity of the water or release pollutants into the water.

[0132] Lamp can be arranged in reactor so that they are parallel to each other.Lamp can also be arranged in reactor with different angles from each other.For example, in certain embodiments, lamp can be arranged to illuminate the path or coverage area that forms the angle of about 90 degree, so that they are roughly orthogonal or vertical to each other.Lamp can be arranged in this way so that they form the angle of about 90 degree on vertical axis or horizontal axis or any axis therebetween.

[0133] In certain embodiments, reactor can be included in the array of the pipe in reactor or container, and the array of this pipe comprises the parallel pipes of the first group and the parallel pipes of the second group.Each pipe can comprise at least one ultraviolet lamp, and each parallel pipe of the first group can be arranged to be in the angle of expectation relative to the parallel pipes of the second group.In certain embodiments, this angle can be about 90 degree.Any one or two pipes in the first array and the second array can extend across the internal volume of reactor.The pipe of the first group and the second group can be arranged with roughly the same height (elevation) in reactor.

[0134] Another configuration may involve tubes and / or lamps arranged to provide a uniform intensity level at a corresponding footprint or coverage area in the reactor.Another configuration may involve equispacially arranged tubes having one or more lamps therein.

[0135] The reactor may include one or more arrays of tubes arranged within the reactor or container. The second array of tubes may include a third group of parallel tubes and a fourth group of parallel tubes orthogonal to the third group of parallel tubes, each tube including at least one UV lamp. The fourth group of parallel tubes may also be orthogonal to at least one of the second group of parallel tubes and the first group of parallel tubes.

[0136] In certain embodiments, each array within a reactor or vessel can be positioned at a predetermined distance or height from another array within the reactor. The predetermined distance between a set of two arrays can be the same or different.

[0137] The reactor can be sized based on the number of UV lamps required to remove, degrade, or otherwise convert at least one of the impurities (typically organic carbon-based impurities) into an inert, ionized, or otherwise removable compound, one or more compounds that can be removed from the water, or at least into a compound that can be more easily removed relative to the at least one impurity. The number of lamps required can be based at least in part on the performance characteristics of the lamps, including the lamp intensity and the spectral wavelength of the UV light emitted by the lamps. The number of lamps required can be based at least in part on at least one of the expected TOC concentration or amount in the inlet water stream and the amount of oxidant added to the feed stream or reactor.

[0138] The groups of reactors arranged in series can be arranged in parallel. For example, a first group of reactors in series can be placed in parallel with a second group of reactors in series, wherein each group has three reactors, for a total of six reactors. Any one or more reactors in each group can be in operation at any time. In certain embodiments, all reactors can be in operation, while in other embodiments, only one group of reactors is in operation.

[0139] Commercially available sources of actinic radiation systems as components of free radical scavenging systems include, for example, Quantrol, Naperville, Illinois, as UV systems and actinic radiation systems from Aquionics Incorporated, Erlanger, Kentucky.

[0140] A non-limiting example of an actinic radiation reactor vessel that can be used in aspects and embodiments disclosed herein is Figure 8 600. The reactor vessel 600 generally includes an inlet 610, an outlet 620, and a baffle 615 that divides the reactor vessel 600 into an upper chamber 625 and a lower chamber 630. The reactor vessel 600 may also include a manifold 605 that may be configured to distribute water introduced through the inlet 610 throughout the vessel. In certain embodiments, the manifold 605 may be configured to evenly distribute the water throughout the vessel. For example, the manifold 605 may be configured to evenly distribute the water throughout the vessel so that the reactor operates as a plug flow reactor.

[0141] In some embodiments, the reactor vessel may include more than one baffle 615 to divide the reactor vessel into more than two chambers. Baffles 615 may be used to provide mixing or turbulence to the reactor. In certain embodiments, such as Figure 8 As shown in , the reactor inlet 610 is in fluid communication with the lower chamber 630 , and the reactor outlet 620 is in fluid communication with the upper chamber 625 .

[0142] In some embodiments, at least three reactor chambers are arranged in series in reactor 120, each reactor chamber having at least one ultraviolet (UV) lamp arranged to irradiate the water in the corresponding chamber with light from about 185 nm to about 254 nm, about 220 nm and / or about 254 nm, or in the range from about 185 nm to about 254 nm, 220 nm and / or 254 nm at a desired power level or at various power levels.

[0143] The reactor vessel may also include more than one UV lamp positioned within tubes such as tubes 635a-635c and 640a-640c. Figure 8 As shown, reactor vessel 600 includes a first set of parallel tubes (tubes 635a-635c) and a second set of parallel tubes (not shown). Each set of the first set of parallel tubes is approximately orthogonal to the second set to form a first array 645. Tubes 635a-635c and the second set of parallel tubes are at approximately the same height relative to each other in reactor vessel 600.

[0144] In addition, the reactor vessel may include a third group of parallel tubes and a fourth group of parallel tubes. Each group of parallel tubes in the first group is approximately orthogonal to the second group to form, for example, a second array 650. As exemplarily shown, tubes 640a-640c and the second group of parallel tubes are at approximately the same height relative to each other in the reactor vessel 600. Figure 8 As shown in FIG, the first array 645 can be positioned at a predetermined distance from the second array 650. The container 600 can additionally include a third array 655 and a fourth array 660, each optionally having a similar configuration as the first array 640 and the second array 645.

[0145] In another embodiment, the first tube 635b can be arranged orthogonally to the second tube 640b to form a first array. In addition, one set of tubes, tubes 665a and 665b, can be arranged orthogonally to another set of tubes, tubes 670a and 670b to form a second array. Figure 9A The positions of the lights of the second array are shown in FIG, including lights 714, 720, 722 and 724. Figure 9B 8 shows the positions of the lamps in the first and second arrays, including lamps 726 and 728 of the first array and lamps 714, 720, 722, and 724 of the second array.

[0146] The lamp can produce a pattern, which depends on various properties of the lamp, including size, intensity, and power delivered to the lamp. The light pattern produced by the lamp is the general volume of space into which the lamp emits light. In certain embodiments, the light pattern or illumination volume is defined as the area or volume of space to which the lamp can irradiate or otherwise provide actinic radiation and allow the precursor compound to decompose or be converted into one or more free radical species.

[0147] As shown in the exemplary cross-sectional view of the reactor 600 Figure 9A and Figure 9B As shown in FIG, a first group of tubes 710a-710c are arranged parallel to each other, and a second group of tubes 712a-712c are arranged parallel to each other in reactor 600. As shown, the first group of tubes 710a-710c are arranged orthogonally relative to the second group of tubes 712a-712c. Lights such as lamp 714 are dispersed within tubes 710a-710c and tubes 712a-712c and can produce light pattern 716 when illuminated.

[0148] One or more UV lamps or a group of lamps can be characterized as projecting actinic radiation parallel to an illumination vector. The illumination vector can be defined as the direction in which one or more lamps emit actinic radiation. In an exemplary embodiment, Figure 9A As shown in , a first set of lamps including lamps 720 and 722 is arranged to project actinic radiation parallel to illumination vector 718.

[0149] A first group of UV lamps can be energized, with each UV lamp arranged to project actinic radiation parallel to a first illumination vector. A second group of UV lamps can also be energized, with each UV lamp arranged to project actinic radiation parallel to a second illumination vector. At least one of the illumination direction and intensity of at least one of the first group of UV lamps and the second group of UV lamps can be adjusted. Each group of UV lamps can include one or more UV lamps.

[0150] The number of lamps used or energized, as well as the configuration of lamps in use, can be selected based on the specific operating conditions or requirements of the system. For example, the number of lamps used for a particular process can be selected and controlled based on system characteristics or measured or calculated parameters. For example, measured parameters of the inlet water or treated water may include any one or more of TOC concentration, temperature, or flow rate. The number of lamps energized can also be selected and controlled based on the concentration or amount of oxidant, such as NaOCl, added to the system. For example, if the flow rate of the water to be treated is at or below a certain threshold, such as a nominal flow rate or design flow rate such as 1300 gpm, 12 lamps of a specific configuration can be used. However, if the flow rate of the water to be treated rises above this threshold, more lamps can be used. For example, if the flow rate increases from 1300 gpm to a selected higher threshold, additional lamps can be energized. For example, if the flow rate of the water to be treated reaches 1900 gpm, 24 lamps can be used. Thus, the water flow rate can partially determine which lamps and / or the number of lamps energized in each reactor.

[0151] In certain embodiments, the UV lamps can be operated at one or more illumination intensity levels. For example, one or more lamps can be used that can be adjusted to operate in more than one illumination mode, such as any of dim, rated, and boost modes, for example, low, medium, or high. The illumination intensity of the one or more lamps can be adjusted and controlled based on system characteristics or measured or calculated parameters, such as measured parameters of the inlet water or treated water, including TOC concentration, temperature, and / or flow rate. The illumination intensity of the one or more lamps can also be adjusted and controlled based on the concentration or amount of persulfate added to the system. For example, one or more lamps can be used in dim mode until a predetermined threshold value of a measured parameter of the system, such as a first TOC concentration, is reached. If the measured or calculated TOC concentration reaches or exceeds a second TOC concentration, the one or more lamps can be adjusted to rated mode, which can be above the threshold value. If the measured or calculated TOC concentration reaches or exceeds a second threshold value, the one or more lamps can be further adjusted to boost mode.

[0152] Actinic radiation reactors that can be used in the systems disclosed herein are described in more detail in commonly owned PCT Application No. PCT / US2016 / 030708, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

[0153] Aspects and embodiments disclosed herein provide a method for treating water, the method comprising the steps of: (a) adding a chlorine species to water to be treated so as to dissolve (free chlorine species) in the water to be treated, (b) measuring the demand for chlorine species dissolved in the water to be treated (chlorine species demand) when the chlorine species dissolved in the water to be treated partially reacts with organic components in the water to be treated, and (c) applying an AOP to the water to be treated while controlling the AOP by using the measured demand for chlorine species dissolved in the water to be treated.

[0154] In other embodiments, the chlorine species is chlorine or chlorine dioxide, and the chlorine species will be dissolved in the water to be treated as free chlorine species.

[0155] In other embodiments, the AOP formation controlling hydroxyl radicals is regulated, for example, by adjusting the addition of a chlorine species and / or by adjusting the addition of an alternative oxidizing agent.

[0156] In other embodiments, the AOP is a traditional chemical AOP, a UV-driven AOP, a chlorine species AOP, or a UV-driven chlorine species AOP (UV / chlorine species AOP).

[0157] In other embodiments, the AOP is a UV / chlorine species AOP. The UV / chlorine species AOP that controls the formation of hydroxyl radicals is regulated by adjusting the UV energy irradiating the water to be treated and / or by adjusting the addition of chlorine species.

[0158] In another embodiment, the AOP is a UV / AOP. The UV AOP for controlling hydroxyl radical formation is adjusted by adjusting the intensity of the UV energy irradiating the water to be treated and / or by adjusting the addition of an optional oxidant to the main stream of the water to be treated while adding a chlorine species and / or measuring the demand for a chlorine species in a bypass stream of the water to be treated.

[0159] For UV AOP applications, on-site reaction product generation offers major advantages over bulk chemical dosing in terms of cost and overall process complexity. The two main accelerators commonly used in UV AOP include hydrogen peroxide and bulk hypochlorite.

[0160] For on-site generation of hypochlorite from brine-based solutions, different factors should be considered, such as the presence of divalent ions. The ion concentration and salinity of various natural chlorinated water sources vary. Figure 10A and Figure 10B is tabulated.

[0161] Divalent hardness and subsequent scaling are the primary failure modes in hypochlorite-producing electrolyzers, which can be addressed by at least one of the following improvements:

[0162] Increase the concentration of monovalent ions in the electrolyzer feed stream;

[0163] Adjusting process stream composition to improve electrolyser performance;

[0164] Optimized flow characteristics of a self-cleaning concentric tubular electrochemical cell; or

[0165] • CTE system configuration for producing higher product strength solutions.

[0166] Therefore, for the effective implementation of on-site hypochlorite generation for UV AOP processes, this consideration should be addressed.

[0167] UV AOP processes typically utilize an accelerator, which in some state-of-the-art systems is bulk hypochlorite. Using on-site generation offers significant advantages over the current state of the art; however, divalent hardness presents significant challenges in on-site hypochlorite generation. Therefore, a novel on-site generation system configuration for UV AOP treatment of water is disclosed herein.

[0168] Figure 11The figure shows the results of tests conducted to evaluate the destruction of 1,4-dioxane using a UV AOP process. These tests used a parallel plate electrolyzer to generate the accelerator, using a reverse osmosis (RO) permeate feed. Based on the estimated feed composition, insufficient chloride ions were present to fully generate hypochlorite. However, based on the amount of chloride in the solution, sufficient hypochlorite was generated to achieve effective 1,4-dioxane removal.

[0169] As discussed above, aspects and embodiments disclosed herein can utilize CTE electrochemical cells to generate oxidants that act as accelerators in UV AOP processes. By implementing CTE cells of varying configurations within the context of UV AOP processes, it is possible to facilitate efficient on-site generation of hypochlorite while reducing concerns about scale formation.

[0170] Figure 12 The middle figure shows an embodiment of an online system for producing sodium hypochlorite via a CTE cell for a UV AOP process. As shown, an electrolyte, for example, water to be treated 805 is obtained from a feed source 810 and processed in a CTE electrochemical cell 815, which converts the NaCl present in the electrolyte into NaOCl and outputs a chlorinated effluent 820. The chlorinated effluent 820 is directed from the outlet of the CTE electrochemical cell 815 to the inlet of a UV AOP reactor 825 via a conduit. The pollutants in the chlorinated effluent 820 are oxidized and destroyed by being exposed to UV radiation in the UV AOP reactor 825. The UV AOP reactor 825 outputs purified effluent or product water 830, which is directed to a point of use 835. The effluent 830 can reach or exceed the desired purity. As used herein, the purity of the effluent or product water leaving the actinic radiation reactor refers to the concentration of one or more pollutants in the effluent or product water. In some embodiments, the point of use 835 may be a feed source 810, for example, when the system is used to treat water from a swimming pool, boiler, or other water source and return the treated water to the same source. The point of use 835 may include a shipboard system, a drilling platform system, an aquatic system (e.g., a swimming pool or fountain), a drinking water system, or the bottom of an oil drilling system. The point of use 835 may include a cooling water system of a ship or sea-based platform or a ballast tank of a ship.

[0171] Figure 13 Depicts something like Figure 12The system of systems includes an additional stage for salt addition. A salt (e.g., solid NaCl, liquid brine, or seawater) source 905 can deliver NaCl to the electrolyte / water to be treated 805 before being introduced into the CTE electrochemical cell 815. The salt source 905 can alternatively be a chloride ion source and can supply any of sodium chloride, potassium chloride, calcium chloride, or a combination thereof to the electrolyte / water to be treated 805. The salt or chloride source 905 can alternatively deliver the salt or chloride directly to the feed source 810. By increasing the concentration of salt in the solution, it is possible to reduce the energy required by the CTE cell 815 and increase the output of hypochlorite for delivery to the downstream UV AOP reactor 825.

[0172] One or more sensors 910 may measure one or more parameters, such as chlorine concentration, temperature, flow rate, contaminant concentration, pH, oxidation-reduction potential (ORP), total organic carbon (TOC), dissolved oxygen and / or hydrogen concentration, purity, etc., of any of the electrolyte / water to be treated 805, the chlorinated effluent 820, and / or the purified effluent 830. A controller for the system, described further below, may receive readings from the one or more sensors 910 and adjust one or more operating parameters of the system to obtain desired levels of the one or more parameters read by the one or more sensors 910. The operating parameters of the system may include, for example, the power (current or voltage or both) applied to the CTE electrochemical cell 815, the intensity of the UV light generated in the UVAOP reactor, the dose of UV radiation applied to the water to be treated in the UV AOP reactor, the flow rate of the electrolyte / water to be treated 805 using a valve 915, the rate or amount of salt added to the electrolyte / water to be treated 805 using another valve 920, or any other operating parameter of the system. Such sensors and controllers may also be present in Figure 12 In the system and described below Figure 14 in the system.

[0173] Figure 14A feed and discharge system for producing hypochlorite is depicted. The electrochemical cell in the system can be of the CTE type or the parallel plate electrode (PPE) type. A brine solution 1005 or other solution containing NaCl or chloride is fed to the electrochemical cell 815 from a salt source 905. In some embodiments, additional salt, for example a chloride salt such as NaCl, is added to the brine solution 1005 to increase the salt concentration in the salt source 905 to a desired level. With valve 1025 open and valve 1030 closed, the treated brine solution 1010 is recirculated from the outlet of the electrochemical cell 815 through a recirculation loop 1015 back to the inlet of the electrochemical cell 815 by pump 1020. By recycling the treated brine solution 1010, the total concentration of hypochlorite can be increased relative to the concentration of salt in the solution, and a higher concentration of NaOCl can be obtained in the treated brine solution 1010, which can be produced from a single pass of the brine 1005 through the electrochemical cell 815. When the concentration of NaOCl in the treated, recirculating brine solution 1010 (e.g., as measured by one of the sensors 910) reaches a desired level, valve 1025 can be closed and valve 1030 opened to release the high concentration NaOCl solution 1035 for mixing with the electrolyte / water to be treated 805 and forming the chlorinated effluent 820.

[0174] In alternative embodiments, salt source 905 may be a source of seawater, and it may not be necessary to add additional salt to the salt source to achieve the desired salt concentration in the salt source.

[0175] Additional pumps or valves may be included in any of the systems described above to control the flow of the various aqueous solutions involved, but are not illustrated for purposes of clarity.

[0176] In one or more embodiments, in which any embodiment may be related to one or more aspects, the systems and techniques disclosed herein may utilize one or more subsystems that adjust or regulate or at least facilitate adjustment or regulation of at least one operating parameter, state or condition of at least one unit operation or component of the system, or one or more characteristics or physical properties of a process stream. To facilitate such adjustment and regulation features, one or more embodiments may utilize a controller and an indicator device that provides the status, state or condition of one or more components or processes. For example, at least one sensor may be used to provide an indication of the intensity or extent of, for example, water from a feed source 810 or water entering or leaving an electrochemical cell or UV AOP reactor vessel or one or more other downstream processes. Thus, according to particularly advantageous embodiments, the systems and techniques may involve one or more sensors or other indicator devices, such as a composition analyzer or conductivity cell, that provide an indication of the status, condition, characteristic or quality of, for example, water entering or leaving any unit operation of the system.

[0177] Various operating parameters of the electrochlorination system disclosed herein can be controlled or adjusted by an associated control system or controller based on various parameters measured by various sensors located in different parts of the system. The controller can be programmed or configured to regulate the introduction of chloride-containing compounds (e.g., NaCl or brine) into the water to be treated based on at least one of the flow rate of the water to be treated, the concentration of chloride in the water to be treated, or the level of one or more contaminants in the water to be treated, which water to be treated is introduced into the electrochemical cell upstream of the AOP reactor. The controller can be programmed or configured to regulate the introduction of chloride-containing compounds into the water to be treated based on at least the concentration of chlorine-based compounds in the chloride-containing aqueous solution produced in the electrochemical cell. The controller can also be configured to regulate the concentration of chlorine-based compounds produced in the electrochemical cell based on at least the concentration of one or more contaminants in the water to be treated. The controller can be programmed or configured to regulate the introduction of chloride-containing compounds into the water to be treated based on at least one of the temperature in the electrochemical cell or the pH of the chloride-containing aqueous solution produced in the electrochemical cell.

[0178] The controller may be programmed or configured to adjust one or more of the current across the anode-cathode pair of the electrochemical cell or the voltage applied across the anode-cathode pair based on the flow rate of the water to be treated and / or the rate at which chloride-containing compounds are introduced into the water to be treated. The controller may be programmed or configured to adjust one or more operating parameters of the AOP reactor based on any one or more of the flow rate or contaminant concentration of the chlorinated effluent entering the AOP reactor, the temperature or pH of the chlorinated effluent entering the AOP reactor, or the chloride concentration of the chlorinated effluent entering the AOP reactor.

[0179] The controller for monitoring and controlling the operation of the various elements of the system disclosed herein may include a computer control system. Figure 15 1500. Computer system 1500 may include a processor 1502 connected to one or more memory devices 1504, such as a disk drive, solid-state memory, or other device for storing data. Memory 1504 is typically used to store programs and data during operation of computer system 1500. Components of computer system 1500 may be connected via an interconnect mechanism 1506, which may include one or more buses (e.g., between components integrated into the same machine) and / or networks (e.g., between components residing on separate, discrete machines). Interconnect mechanism 1506 enables communications (e.g., data, instructions) to be exchanged between system components of system 1500. Computer system 1500 also includes one or more input devices 1508, such as a keyboard, mouse, trackball, microphone, touch screen, and one or more output devices 1510, such as a printer, display screen, and / or speakers.

[0180] Output device 1510 can also comprise valve, pump or switch, and they can be used for chloride-containing compound (for example, NaCl, salt water, brackish water or seawater) is introduced into water to be treated and / or be used to control the speed of pump or the state (open or close) of valve of system as disclosed herein from source 905.One or more sensors 1514 can also provide input to computer system 1500.These sensors can comprise such as sensor 910, and sensor 910 can be such as pressure sensor, chemical concentration sensor, temperature sensor or the sensor of any other parameter of interest for system disclosed herein.These sensors can be located in any part of system in which they will be useful, for example, use point 835, electric chlorination cell 815, AOP reactor 825 upstream, or be communicated with feed source 810 fluids.In addition, computer system 1500 can comprise one or more interfaces (not shown), and these one or more interfaces are connected to communication network or are connected to interconnect mechanism 1506 as an alternative by computer system 1500 in addition.

[0181] exist Figure 16 Memory system 1512, shown in greater detail in FIG, typically includes a computer-readable and writable non-volatile recording medium 1602, which stores signals defining a program to be executed by processor 1502 or information to be processed by the program. The medium may include, for example, disk storage or flash memory. Typically, during operation, the processor causes data to be read from non-volatile recording medium 1602 into another memory 1604 that allows the processor to access the information more quickly than medium 1602. This memory 1604 is typically a volatile random access memory, such as dynamic random access memory (DRAM) or static random access memory (SRAM). It may be located in memory system 1512, as shown, or in memory system 1504. Processor 1502 typically manipulates data in integrated circuit memory 1604 and then, after completing processing, copies the data to medium 1602. Various mechanisms are known for managing the movement of data between medium 1602 and integrated circuit memory element 1604, and the aspects and embodiments disclosed herein are not limited thereto. Aspects and embodiments disclosed herein are not limited to a particular memory system 1504 or storage system 1512 .

[0182] The computer system may include specially programmed, dedicated hardware, such as an application specific integrated circuit (ASIC). The aspects and embodiments disclosed herein may be implemented in software, hardware, or firmware, or any combination thereof. In addition, such methods, actions, systems, system elements, and components thereof may be implemented as part of the computer system described above or as independent components.

[0183] Although computer system 1500 is shown by way of example as one type of computer system on which various aspects and embodiments disclosed herein may be practiced, it should be understood that the aspects and embodiments disclosed herein are not limited to such computer systems. Figure 15 The various aspects and embodiments disclosed herein may be implemented on a computer system having the same Figure 15 The various configurations and components shown are practiced on one or more computers.

[0184] Computer system 1500 may be a general-purpose computer system programmable using a high-level computer programming language. Computer system 1500 may also be implemented using specially programmed, dedicated hardware. In computer system 1500, processor 1502 is typically a commercially available processor, such as the well-known Pentium processor available from Intel Corporation. TM or Core TM A processor of this type is a processor. Many other processors are available, including programmable logic controllers. Such processors typically execute an operating system, which may be, for example, the Windows 7 operating system, the Windows 8 operating system, or the Windows 10 operating system available from Microsoft Corporation, the MAC OS System X available from Apple Computer, the Solaris operating system available from Sun Microsystems, or UNIX available from various sources. Many other operating systems may be used.

[0185] The processor and operating system together define a computer platform for writing applications in a high-level programming language. It should be understood that the present invention is not limited to a particular computer system platform, processor, operating system, or network. Furthermore, it should be apparent to those skilled in the art that the aspects and embodiments disclosed herein are not limited to a particular programming language or computer system. Furthermore, it should be understood that other suitable programming languages ​​and other suitable computer systems may also be used.

[0186] One or more parts of computer system can be distributed across one or more computer systems (not shown) that are connected to a communication network.These computer systems can also be general-purpose computer systems.For example, aspects of the present invention can be distributed in one or more computer systems, and described computer system is configured to provide services (for example, server) to one or more client computers, or carries out overall task as a part of distribution system.For example, aspects disclosed herein and embodiment can be carried out on client-server system, and described client-server system includes the parts in one or more server systems that are distributed in according to aspects disclosed herein and embodiment and carry out multiple functions.These parts can be executable code, intermediate code (for example, IL) or the code (interpreted code) (for example, Java) that uses communication protocol (for example, TCP / IP) to communicate on communication network (for example, the Internet).In some embodiments, one or more parts of computer system 1500 can be on wireless network, including for example communicating with one or more other parts on cellular phone network.

[0187] It should be understood that the aspects and embodiments disclosed herein are not limited to execution on any specific system or group of systems. In addition, it should be understood that the aspects and embodiments disclosed herein are not limited to any specific distribution structure, network or communication protocol. Aspects disclosed herein and embodiments can be programmed using object-oriented programming languages ​​such as SmallTalk, Java, C++, Ada or C# (C-Sharp). Other object-oriented programming languages ​​can also be used. Alternatively, functionality, script and / or logic programming languages, such as ladder logic, can be used. Aspects disclosed herein and embodiments can be implemented in a non-programming environment (for example, with the aspect of rendering a graphical user interface (GUI) or the file created in HTML, XML or other formats for performing other functions when viewed in a window of a browser program). Aspects disclosed herein and embodiments can be implemented as programmed or non-programmed elements or any combination thereof.

[0188] In some embodiments, an existing UV AOP system can be modified or upgraded to include elements of the electrochlorination system disclosed herein or to operate according to the system disclosed herein. A method of modifying a UV AOP system cell to increase the destruction rate of contaminants in the UV AOP system can include installing an electrochlorination cell configured to introduce an oxidant into the electrolyte upstream of an inlet of the UV AOP.

[0189] Example 1:

[0190] Figure 18A Contains instructions for making Figure 17Figure 1 shows data on the increased generation of hypochlorite in a process where water is recycled from an electrochlorination cell in a system comprising a product tank 1705 having a hydrogen outlet 1710, a pump 1715, and a CTE electrochemical cell 1720. The initial solution introduced into the product tank is Instant A 3.5 wt% solution of a salt mixture that has been purified by reverse osmosis. Figure 18B An unprocessed Instant is provided The light absorption of a 3.5 wt% solution of the salt mixture at three different wavelengths for comparison. Figure 19 Instant Comparison of the composition of the various components of the salt mixture solution compared to typical seawater.The increased product produced via this loop can then be diluted into the main feed stream for delivery to the downstream UV AOP reactor. Figure 18A The data shown in FIG. 4 show that the concentration of NaOCl in the recirculating solution (e.g., the parameter "Concentration Average") increases significantly with increasing operating time of the recirculating system. Thus, in a system configured with electrolyte recirculation through an electrochemical cell, e.g., Figure 14 As shown, the recirculation time or residence time of the electrolyte in the recirculation loop can be set to achieve a desired concentration of NaOCl in the chlorinated effluent of the electrochemical cell. The desired NaOCl concentration level can be a NaOCl concentration level that effectively destroys / oxidizes a desired amount of a specific one or more pollutants in a downstream UV AOP reactor, wherein the residence time in the UV AOP reactor and / or the UV illumination intensity and / or the total UV dose in the UV AOP reactor are set at the desired level. The power applied to the electrochemical cell can also be set to achieve the desired NaOCl concentration level in the electrolyte in the recirculation loop within a desired time.

[0191] Example 2:

[0192] Tests were conducted to determine the effect of contaminated water pH on the destruction of 1,4-dioxane in water in a UV AOP reactor. The contaminated water was treated with 2 mg / L NaOCl. The UV AOP reactor was operated at a temperature of 89°F with a flow rate of 650 mJ / cm 2 The test was performed at an ultraviolet light intensity of 95% with the contaminated water having an ultraviolet transmittance (UVT) of 95%. The contaminated water contained 0.65 mg / L of total organic compounds (TOC). The destruction of 1,4-dioxane was measured with the contaminated water pH adjusted to about 5.5, about 7, about 7.5, about 8, and about 9.2. The results of this test are given in Figure 20As can be seen in the figure, the destruction of 1,4-dioxane ("Log Destruction" value) is greatest at the lowest pH of 5.5 and least at the highest pH of 9.2. Without wishing to be bound by a particular theory, it is believed that at higher pH, there is greater competition for hydroxyl radicals between contaminants (such as 1,4-dioxane) and other compounds formed at higher pH levels (such as hypochlorous acid).

[0193] Example 3:

[0194] Tests were conducted to determine the effect of NaOCl concentration in contaminated water on the destruction of 1,4-dioxane in water using a UV AOP reactor. The UV AOP reactor was operated at 89°F with a 1300 mJ / cm 2 The UV light intensity was operated at 95% UVT of the contaminated water. The contaminated water contained 0.65 mg / L TOC and a pH of 7.5. The contaminated water was tested by treating it with 2 mg / L NaOCl, 3.9 mg / L NaOCl, and 5.82 mg / L NaOCl. The results of this test are given in Figure 21 As can be seen in the figure, a significant increase in 1,4-dioxane destruction was observed when moving from 2 mg / L NaOCl to 3.9 mg / L NaOCl in the contaminated water, and a smaller increase in 1,4-dioxane destruction was observed when moving from 3.9 mg / L NaOCl to 5.82 mg / L NaOCl. Without wishing to be bound by a particular theory, it is believed that this data suggests that at levels above about 4 mg / L NaOCl and between about 6 mg / L NaOCl, 1,4-dioxane destruction in the UV AOP reactor may be limited by reaction kinetics rather than reactant concentration. Therefore, above a certain concentration of NaOCl, a diminished return may be obtained when adding additional NaOCl to the contaminated water being treated in the UV AOP system.

[0195] Example 4:

[0196] Calculations were performed to determine the potential benefits of using a system including an electrochlorination cell and a system such as Figure 12-14 The relative costs of producing different concentrations of NaOCl in the water to be treated for the systems configured as shown (cases 1-3, respectively). Figure 14 The configuration shown in FIG4 is similar to the configuration shown in FIG4 (Case 4), but in which the salt source 905 is a seawater source and no additional salt is added to the seawater source. Figure 22A and Figure 22B The results of these calculations are shown in Figure 23 The table and Figure 24 and Figure 25 As shown in the figure. Figure 24 , the data for Case 1 are labeled “Online CTE – 250 PPM Salt Presence,” the data for Case 2 are labeled “Online CTE – 250 PPM Salt Added,” the data for Case 3 are labeled “Sidestream CTE – 25 G / L Brine,” the data for Case 4 are labeled “Sidestream CTE – Seawater,” and the data for Case 5 are labeled “Bulk Hypochlorite Feed.”

[0197] Assumptions used in making these calculations include:

[0198] Case 1 Assumptions:

[0199] Energy cost: $0.12 / kwh

[0200] NaCl cost: $0.00 / kg

[0201] Initial NaCl concentration: 250 mg / L

[0202] Concentration of NaOCl produced: Varies (2mg / L-8mg / L)

[0203] Salt efficiency: 0.4% (kg NaOCl / kg NaCl)

[0204] Power efficiency: 33.5kwh / kg NaOCl

[0205] Case 2 Assumptions:

[0206] Energy cost: $0.12 / kwh

[0207] NaCl cost: $0.08 / kg

[0208] Initial NaCl concentration: 250 mg / L

[0209] Concentration of NaOCl produced: Varies (2mg / L-8mg / L)

[0210] Salt efficiency: 0.4% (kg NaOCl / kg NaCl)

[0211] Power efficiency: 33.5kwh / kg NaOCl

[0212] Case 3 Assumptions:

[0213] Energy cost: $0.12 / kwh

[0214] NaCl cost: $0.08 / kg

[0215] Initial NaCl concentration: 25g / L

[0216] Concentration of generated NaOCl: 0.74%

[0217] Salt efficiency: 29% (kg NaOCl / kg NaCl)

[0218] Power efficiency: 4.99kwh / kg NaOCl

[0219] Case 4 Assumptions:

[0220] Energy cost: $0.12 / kwh

[0221] NaCl cost: $0.00 / kg

[0222] Initial NaCl concentration: 35g / L

[0223] Concentration of generated NaOCl: 0.21%

[0224] Salt efficiency: 9% (kg NaOCl / kg NaCl)

[0225] Power efficiency: 3.36kwh / kg NaOCl

[0226] Case 5 Assumptions

[0227] 15% NaOCl concentration

[0228] NaOCl cost: $0.90 / gallon

[0229] As from Figure 23-Figure 25 As can be seen, bulk hypochlorite feeding (Case 5) is able to provide sodium hypochlorite more economically than either of the in-line CTE configurations (Case 1 and 2). Each of the configurations utilizing electrolyte / brine solution recirculation from the outlet of the electrochemical cell back to the inlet of the electrochemical cell (Case 3 and 4) is able to provide sodium hypochlorite more economically than bulk hypochlorite feeding, with the configuration utilizing seawater as the feed to the electrochemical cell (Case 4) being more economical than utilizing brine as the feed to the electrochemical cell supplemented with additional NaCl (Case 3).

[0230] Prophecy Example:

[0231] like Figure 14 The water treatment system is configured as shown in FIG. The system operates at a baseline level of organic contaminants in the feed source and provides product water at the baseline purity to the point of use.

[0232] Such event has occurred, wherein the sensor that measures the concentration of pollutants in feed water or the sensor that measures the concentration of pollutants in product water begins to provide the indication that pollutant concentration rises.The controller of system receives sensor measurement value, and automatically takes measures that product water purity is maintained at desired level.Controller makes other chloride salt be added to salt source, or is added to the stream from the salt source that is guided in electric chlorination cell.In order to produce other NaOCl from the solution of higher salt concentration, controller has increased the power that the electrode that crosses electric chlorination cell applies.Therefore, the concentration of NaOCl in recirculation loop increases.Provide the valve that is connected to the fluid of water stream to be treated from recirculation loop and be partially opened or open more completely than under baseline operating condition, to allow the solution containing NaOCl (or more solution containing NaOCl) from recirculation loop to mix with water to be treated. To generate additional free radicals from the higher concentration of NaOCl in the water to be treated entering the UV AOP reactor, thereby destroying additional contaminants and providing product water of the desired purity, the controller increases the radiation intensity of the UV lamp in the UV AOP reactor or decreases the flow rate of the water to be treated through the UV AOP reactor to provide a higher dose of UV radiation to the water to be treated. Compared to baseline operating conditions, the purity of the product water remains at the desired level even though the concentration of contaminants in the feed water increases.

[0233] After a period of time, the concentration of contaminants in the feed water returns to a baseline level. This is detected by a sensor in the system and communicated to the controller. The controller returns the amount of salt added to the salt source or the flow from the salt source directed in the electrochlorination cell to the baseline level and also returns the power applied to the electrochemical cell and UV AOP reactor to the baseline level. If the flow of the NaOCl-containing solution from the circulation loop to the water to be treated is adjusted upward after detecting a higher concentration of contaminants, the controller also adjusts this flow to return to the baseline level.

[0234] Over a period of time thereafter, the contaminant concentration level in the feed water decreases. This is detected by the system's sensors and communicated to the controller. To save energy and material costs, depending on how the controller is programmed, it can perform one or more actions, including reducing the power applied to the electrochemical cell, reducing the power applied to the UV AOP reactor, reducing the concentration of salt supplied to the electrochemical cell, increasing the flow rate of feed water entering the system, or reducing the amount of NaOCl-containing solution fed to the water to be treated from the recirculation loop.

[0235] The words and terms used herein are for descriptive purposes and should not be construed as limiting. As used herein, the term "plurality" refers to two or more items or components. The terms "comprising," "including," "carrying," "having," "containing," and "involving," whether in the written description or in the claims and the like, are open-ended terms, meaning "including but not limited to." Thus, the use of such terms is intended to encompass the items listed thereafter and their equivalents, as well as additional items. With respect to the claims, only the transitional phrases "consisting of" and "consisting essentially of" are closed or semi-closed transitional phrases, respectively. The use of ordinal terms such as "first," "second," "third," and the like in the claims that modify claim elements does not, by itself, imply any priority, precedence, or order of one claim element relative to another or the temporal order in which the acts of the method are performed, but rather serves merely as a marker to distinguish one claim element having a certain name from another element having the same name (but for the purpose of using ordinal terms) to distinguish the claim elements.

[0236] Having thus described several aspects of at least one embodiment, it will be understood that various changes, modifications, and improvements will readily occur to those skilled in the art. Any feature described in any embodiment may be included in or substituted for any feature of any other embodiment. Such changes, modifications, and improvements are intended to be part of this disclosure and are intended to be within the scope of the present invention. Therefore, the foregoing description and accompanying drawings are by way of example only.

Claims

1. A water treatment system comprising: a concentric tube electrode (CTE) electrochemical cell (815), wherein the electrochemical cell is configurable to be in fluid communication with a source of electrolyte comprising a chloride-containing solution to produce a chlorinated effluent (820) comprising sodium hypochlorite; Actinic radiation reactor (825); as well as a conduit fluidly coupling an outlet of the electrochemical cell to an inlet of the actinic radiation reactor and configured to deliver the chlorinated effluent into the actinic radiation reactor, the system further comprising: a recirculation conduit (1015) configured to return the chlorinated effluent from the outlet of the electrochemical cell to the inlet of the electrochemical cell to form a recirculating brine solution; a first conduit in fluid communication with the inlet of the actinic radiation reactor for introducing water to be treated; a second conduit (1035) providing selective fluid communication from the recirculation conduit to an introduction point in the first conduit upstream of the inlet of the actinic radiation reactor; a chloride salt source (905) configured to introduce the salt into the electrolyte upstream of the electrochemical cell through a valve (920); a sensor (910) positioned one of upstream of the actinic radiation reactor or downstream of the actinic radiation reactor; a valve (1030) configured to switch from a closed state to an at least partially open state in response to a concentration of sodium hypochlorite in the recirculating brine solution reaching a predetermined level and direct the recirculating brine solution into the water to be treated through the introduction point; and A controller (1500) is operably connected to one or more sensors configured to measure one or more of: the flow rate of the water to be treated, the concentration of one or more contaminants in the water to be treated, the concentration of sodium hypochlorite in the water to be treated, the purity of product water exiting the actinic radiation reactor, the flow rate of the product water exiting the actinic radiation reactor, or the concentration of sodium hypochlorite in the recirculating brine solution, wherein the controller is further configured to set the predetermined level based on one or both of the concentration of the contaminants in the water to be treated or the desired purity of the product water.

2. The system of claim 1, wherein the actinic radiation reactor (825) is an ultraviolet advanced oxidation process (AOP) reactor. 3 . The system of claim 1 , wherein the controller is in communication with the sensor and is configured to adjust one or more operating parameters of the system in response to the concentration of the one or more pollutants.

4. The system of claim 3, wherein the one or more operating parameters include: power applied to the electrochemical cell, power applied to the actinic radiation reactor, and the flow rate of electrolyte or effluent through one of the electrochemical cell or the actinic radiation reactor. 5 . The system of claim 4 , wherein the controller is further configured to adjust a rate at which the salt is introduced into the electrolyte in response to a concentration of the one or more contaminants.

6. The system of claim 1 , wherein the controller is configured to adjust one or more operating parameters of the system based on one or more signals received from the one or more sensors, the one or more operating parameters comprising one or more of: a state of the valve, power applied to the electrochemical cell, power applied to the actinic radiation reactor, flow rate of electrolyte through the electrochemical cell, flow rate of water to be treated through the actinic radiation reactor, or a radiation dose applied to the water to be treated in the actinic radiation reactor.

7. The system of claim 1 , wherein the one or more sensors are configured to measure a concentration of the sodium hypochlorite in the recirculating saline solution, and the controller is configured to receive an indication of the concentration of the sodium hypochlorite in the recirculating saline solution from the sensors and, in response to the concentration of sodium hypochlorite being at or above the predetermined level, signal a valve providing selective fluid communication between the recirculation conduit and the first conduit to at least partially open.

8. The system of claim 1, wherein the controller is further configured to set the predetermined level based on a desired dosage of UV radiation to be applied to the water to be treated in the actinic radiation reactor.

9. The system of claim 1 , wherein the controller is further configured to set a dosage of UV radiation to be applied to the water to be treated in the actinic radiation reactor based on one or more of the predetermined level, the concentration of the contaminant in the water to be treated, the flow rate of the water to be treated, or the desired purity of the product water.

10. The system of claim 6, wherein the controller is further configured to set the power applied to the electrochemical cell based on one or both of the concentration of the contaminants in the water to be treated or the desired purity of the product water.

11. The system of claim 6, wherein the controller is further configured to set a dosage of UV radiation to be applied to the water to be treated in the actinic radiation reactor based on the concentration of the contaminants in the water to be treated and the desired purity of the product water.

12. The system of claim 1, wherein the controller is further configured to set an amount of chloride to be introduced into the electrolyte based on the predetermined level.

13. The system of claim 6, wherein the controller is further configured to set the amount of power applied to the electrochemical cell based on a desired amount of time to reach a predetermined concentration level of NaOCl in the chlorinated effluent in the recirculation conduit.

14. The system of claim 6, wherein the controller is further configured to set a dosage of UV radiation to be applied to the water to be treated in the actinic radiation reactor based on the power applied to the electrochemical cell.

15. A method of treating water in a water treatment system according to claim 1, the method comprising: directing water to be treated from a water source into an inlet of a concentric tube electrode electrochemical cell; applying power across electrodes of the electrochemical cell to convert sodium chloride (NaCl) in the water to be treated into sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) in the electrochemical cell and forming a chlorinated effluent comprising the NaOCl; directing the chlorinated effluent from the outlet of the electrochemical cell to the inlet of an actinic radiation reactor; exposing the chlorinated effluent to sufficient actinic radiation in the actinic radiation reactor to generate free radicals in the chlorinated effluent, the free radicals reacting with contaminants in the chlorinated effluent to form a treated effluent; as well as directing the treated effluent from an outlet of the actinic radiation reactor to a point of use; The method further comprises: recycling the chlorinated effluent from the outlet of the electrochemical cell to the inlet of the electrochemical cell through a recirculation conduit for additional treatment in the electrochemical cell, the additional treatment increasing the concentration of NaOCl in the chlorinated effluent; directing water to be treated from a second source of water to be treated through a first conduit into the inlet of the actinic radiation reactor; providing selective fluid communication from the recirculation conduit to an introduction point in the first conduit upstream of the inlet of the actinic radiation reactor; adding a chloride salt to the water to be treated upstream of the inlet of the electrochemical cell; and One or more sensors operably connected to a controller of the system measure one or more of the following: the flow rate of the water to be treated, the concentration of contaminants in the water to be treated, the concentration of sodium hypochlorite in the water to be treated, the purity of the product water exiting the actinic radiation reactor, the flow rate of the product water exiting the actinic radiation reactor, or the concentration of sodium hypochlorite in the recycled brine solution.

16. The method of claim 15, wherein exposing the chlorinated effluent to actinic radiation in the actinic radiation reactor comprises exposing the chlorinated effluent to ultraviolet light in the actinic radiation reactor.

17. The method of claim 15, wherein directing the treated effluent to the point of use comprises directing the treated effluent to the water source.

18. The method according to claim 15, further comprising: receiving, at a controller, from the sensor, an indication of a concentration of the sodium hypochlorite in the recirculation conduit; as well as In response to an indication that the concentration of sodium hypochlorite in the recirculation conduit is at or above a predetermined level, a valve providing selective fluid communication between the recirculation conduit and the first conduit is signaled to at least partially open.

19. The method of claim 15, further comprising adjusting, with the controller, one or more operating parameters of the system based on one or more signals received from the one or more sensors, the one or more operating parameters comprising one or more of: a state of a valve, power applied to the electrochemical cell, power applied to the actinic radiation reactor, a flow rate of water to be treated through the actinic radiation reactor, or a radiation dose applied to the water to be treated in the actinic radiation reactor.

20. The method of claim 18, further comprising: measuring the concentration of the sodium hypochlorite in the recirculating brine solution with the one or more sensors; receiving, by the controller from one or more sensors, an indication of a concentration of the sodium hypochlorite in the recirculating brine solution; as well as In response to the concentration of sodium hypochlorite being at or above a predetermined level, a valve providing selective fluid communication between the recirculation conduit and the first conduit is signaled to at least partially open.

21. The method of claim 18, further comprising setting a predetermined level based on one or both of the concentration of the contaminant in the water to be treated or the desired purity of the product water.

22. The method of claim 18, further comprising setting a predetermined level based on a desired dose of UV radiation to be applied to the water to be treated in the actinic radiation reactor.

23. The method of claim 18, further comprising setting a dosage of UV radiation to be applied to the water to be treated in the actinic radiation reactor based on one or more of a predetermined level, a concentration of the contaminant in the water to be treated, a flow rate of the water to be treated, or a desired purity of the product water.

24. The method of claim 19, further comprising setting the power applied to the electrochemical cell based on one or both of the concentration of the contaminants in the water to be treated or the desired purity of the product water.

25. The method of claim 19, further comprising setting a dosage of UV radiation to be applied to the water to be treated in the actinic radiation reactor based on the concentration of the contaminants in the water to be treated and the desired purity of the product water.

26. The method of claim 18, further comprising setting an amount of chloride to be introduced into the electrolyte based on a predetermined level.

27. The method of claim 19, further comprising setting an amount of power applied to the electrochemical cell based on a desired amount of time to reach a predetermined concentration level of NaOCl in the chlorinated effluent in the recirculation conduit.

28. The method of claim 19, further comprising setting a dosage of UV radiation to be applied to the water to be treated in the actinic radiation reactor based on the power applied to the electrochemical cell.

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