Nanowire structured electrodes for batteries

Abstract

Disclosed herein are various embodiments of electrodes that use nanowire structures to improve coulombic efficiency and voltage output of batteries. For example, an electrode may include a copper foil layer and copper nanowires protruding from one surface of the copper foil layer or from both surfaces of the copper foil layer.

Description

[0001] Related applications

[0002] This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 532,433, filed on August 14, 2023, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. Background Technology

[0003] Traditional lithium-ion batteries consist of a cathode, an anode, a current collector, and an electrolyte in contact with and between the cathode and anode. Typically, a flat metal foil made of copper or aluminum is used as the current collector, on which the anode and cathode active materials are coated. Anode-less batteries also exist, without anode material coating. The surface area of ​​the current collector is crucial to battery performance and lifespan. Increasing the current collector surface area allows for higher current densities and lower internal resistance, enabling the battery to deliver more power and reducing the risk of overheating or damage to the battery assembly. Furthermore, at the same charging current, batteries made from current collectors with larger surface areas have lower specific current densities. This benefits the battery by promoting more uniform metal deposition, reducing the formation of metal dendrites or byproducts, and resulting in higher coulombic efficiency and longer cycle life. Additionally, increased surface area reduces overpotential during charge and discharge cycles, leading to higher energy efficiency and cycle life. A larger current collector surface area ensures that the active materials in the electrodes are utilized more effectively, thereby improving the overall capacity and efficiency of the battery. The battery voltage is determined by the potential difference between the reactions occurring at the anode and cathode. A larger potential difference results in a higher voltage. This potential difference is inherently determined by the properties of the electrode materials, making it challenging to further increase the voltage through conventional means. Higher voltage in a battery translates to better power and energy output, which is crucial for applications requiring high energy density and performance. However, since voltage is primarily determined by the inherent characteristics of the electrode materials, achieving significant improvements in battery voltage using current technologies is challenging. Therefore, there is an urgent need for advanced electrode technologies that can effectively increase battery voltage. Innovations in electrode material composition, structure, and design will provide new avenues for enhancing the potential difference, thereby improving the overall power and energy capacity of the battery. Summary of the Invention

[0004] This application provides an electrode for use in a battery, the electrode comprising: a conductive substrate layer; and a first plurality of electrodeposited, predominantly vertically aligned nanowires protruding from a first surface of the substrate layer.

[0005] The first multiple nanowires can be made of materials selected from the group consisting of: copper, silver, nickel, zinc, tin, platinum, chromium, cadmium, palladium, brass, gold, manganese, aluminum, iron, lead, titanium, silicon-based materials, carbon-based materials, graphene-based materials, ZnS, ZnO, ZnSe, CdMnTe, CdS, ZnTe, GaSe, InSe, CdSe, CuInGaSe2, CdTe, CuInSe2, Ni(OH)2, indium-doped tin oxide, fluorine-doped tin oxide, conductive polymers, and combinations thereof. Attached Figure Description

[0006] Figure 1 and Figure 2 Alternating views of an illustrative electrode comprising a substrate layer and multiple electrodeposited, predominantly vertically aligned nanowires according to an embodiment are shown.

[0007] Figure 3 An alternative illustrative electrode according to an embodiment is shown, comprising a substrate layer and multiple electrodeposited, predominantly vertically aligned nanowires aligned on both sides of the substrate layer.

[0008] Figures 4A-4B An illustrative battery is shown, comprising a cathode, an anode, and an electrolyte, wherein the anode consists of a substrate layer and a first plurality of electrodeposited, predominantly vertically aligned nanowires protruding from a first surface of the substrate layer.

[0009] Figures 5A-5B An illustrative battery is shown, comprising an anode, a first cathode, a first electrolyte, a second cathode, and a second electrolyte. The anode consists of a substrate layer and a first plurality of electrodeposited, predominantly vertically aligned nanowires protruding from a first surface of the substrate layer, and a second plurality of electrodeposited, predominantly vertically aligned nanowires protruding from a second surface of the substrate layer. The anode, together with the two sets of cathodes and electrolytes, forms two cells.

[0010] Figures 6-8 Various scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of electrodes comprising a substrate layer and nanowires according to embodiments are shown.

[0011] Figures 9A-9B and Figure 10 Various SEM images of electrodes comprising nanowires with lithium deposits and a substrate layer according to embodiments are shown.

[0012] Figures 11A-11B Cyclic voltammetry (CV) plots of the electrodeposited copper nanowire anode, with primary vertical alignment, are shown according to an embodiment.

[0013] Figure 11C The charge / discharge curves of the electrodeposited copper nanowire anode, with primary vertical alignment, according to an embodiment are shown.

[0014] Figure 12A A cross-sectional SEM image of an electrode comprising a substrate layer and multiple predominantly vertically aligned copper oxide (CuO) nanowires according to an embodiment is shown.

[0015] Figure 12B A top-view SEM image of an electrode comprising CuO nanowires with lithium deposits and a substrate layer according to an embodiment is shown.

[0016] Figure 13 A CV curve of CuO nanowire anode testing according to an embodiment is shown.

[0017] Figure 14 A CV curve of a bare copper anode test according to an embodiment is shown.

[0018] Figure 15 The coulombic efficiency of copper nanowire anodes and copper anodes without nanowires is shown using 1M LiPF6 electrolyte via the Aurbach method.

[0019] Figure 16 The coulombic efficiency of copper nanowire anodes and copper anodes without nanowires is shown using M47 electrolyte via the Aurbach method.

[0020] Figure 17 Coulombic efficiency tests of copper nanowire anodes and non-nanowire copper anodes using M47 electrolyte via a simple deposition-exfoliation method are shown.

[0021] Figures 18A-18B A CV curve is shown for the electrodeposition of copper nanowires with predominantly vertical alignment according to an embodiment. Detailed Implementation

[0022] As used in this article, " Fill rate "" refers to the ratio of the volume of the nanowire to the total volume of the space between the nanowires. For example, the filling rate of multiple nanowires in an electrode can be 20%.

[0023] As used herein, “vertical alignment” means that the nanowire is tilted relative to the substrate layer at an angle greater than 70°, preferably greater than 75°, and more preferably greater than 80°.

[0024] As used herein, the term "major" means that the amount of a subset of the subject (e.g., vertically aligned nanowires) is greater than 60%, preferably greater than 70%, more preferably greater than 80%, and particularly preferably greater than 90% relative to the amount of the whole subject (e.g., the total amount of individual nanowires).

[0025] As used herein, the term “approximately” immediately preceding a numerical value means a range of that value plus or minus 10%, for example, “approximately 50” means 45 to 55, “approximately 25,000” means 22,500 to 27,500, etc., unless the context of this disclosure otherwise, or is inconsistent with such interpretation.

[0026] As used herein, the singular forms “a” and “the” include plural references unless the context explicitly specifies otherwise. Unless otherwise defined, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art. Nothing in this disclosure should be construed as an admission that the embodiments described herein are not entitled to precede this disclosure by any prior invention. As used in this document, the term “comprising” means “including, but not limited to”.

[0027] While various compositions, methods, and apparatuses are described in relation to “comprising” various components or steps (which are interpreted as meaning “including, but not limited to”), compositions, methods, and apparatuses may also be “substantially composed of various components and steps” or “consisting of various components and steps,” and such terms should be interpreted as defining substantially closed groups of members.

[0028] Regarding the use of virtually any plural and / or singular terms in this document, those skilled in the art can convert from plural to singular and / or from singular to plural in a manner appropriate to the context and / or application. For clarity, various singular / plural substitutions may be explicitly described herein.

[0029] Those skilled in the art will understand that, in general, the terminology used herein, and especially in the appended claims (e.g., the body of the appended claims), is generally intended to be “open-ended” (e.g., the term “comprising” should be interpreted as “including but not limited to,” the term “having” should be interpreted as “having at least,” the term “including” should be interpreted as “including but not limited to,” etc.). Those skilled in the art will further understand that if there is an intention to introduce a particular number of claim statements, then that intention will be explicitly stated in the claims, and where such a statement is absent, that intention does not exist. For example, as a means of aiding understanding, the appended claims may contain the use of the introductory phrases “at least one” and “one or more” to introduce claim statements. However, the use of such phrases should not be construed as implying that the introduction of the indefinite article “a (a, an)” into the claim statement limits any particular claim containing such an introduction to an embodiment containing only one such statement, even when the same claim includes the introducing phrase “one or more” or “at least one” and an indefinite article such as “a” (e.g., “a” should be interpreted as meaning “at least one” or “one or more”); the same applies to the use of definite articles used to introduce claim statements. Furthermore, even when a specific number of introduced claim statements is explicitly stated, those skilled in the art will recognize that such a statement should be interpreted as meaning at least the number stated (e.g., a statement of “two statements” without other modifiers means at least two statements, or two or more statements). Furthermore, in cases where a convention similar to "at least one of A, B, and C" is used, this construction is generally intended to enable those skilled in the art to understand the convention (e.g., "a system having at least one of A, B, and C" will include, but is not limited to, systems having only A, only B, only C, both A and B, both A and C, both B and C, and / or both A, B, and C). In cases where a convention similar to "at least one of A, B, or C" is used, this construction is generally intended to conform to the convention as understood by those skilled in the art (e.g., "a system having at least one of A, B, or C" will include, but is not limited to, systems having only A, only B, only C, both A and B, both A and C, both B and C, and / or both A, B, and C). Those skilled in the art will further understand that virtually any extractive words and / or phrases presenting two or more alternative terms, whether in the description, claims, or drawings, should be understood to imply the possibility of including one, any, or both terms. For example, the phrase “A or B” would be understood to include the possibility of “A” or “B” or “A and B”.

[0030] Furthermore, where features or aspects of this disclosure are described in accordance with the Markush Group, those skilled in the art will recognize that this disclosure is also described in accordance with any individual member of the Markush Group or a subgroup of its members.

[0031] As those skilled in the art will understand, for any and all purposes, such as in providing a written description, all scopes disclosed herein also encompass any and all possible subscopes and combinations thereof. Any listed scope can be readily identified as sufficiently descriptive and enabling the same scope to be decomposed into at least two equal halves, thirds, quarters, fifths, tenths, etc. As a non-limiting example, each scope discussed herein can be readily decomposed into a lower third, a middle third, and an upper third, etc. As those skilled in the art will also understand, all language such as “up to,” “at least,” etc., includes the stated number and refers to a scope that can subsequently be decomposed into subscopes as discussed above. Finally, as those skilled in the art will understand, a scope includes each individual member. Thus, for example, a group having 1-3 units means a group having 1, 2, or 3 units. Similarly, a group having 1-5 units means a group having 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 units, and so on.

[0032] This disclosure is not limited to the specific systems, devices, and methods described, as these can vary. The terminology used in this description is for the purpose of describing a particular version or embodiment only and is not intended to be limiting.

[0033] According to a first embodiment of this application, the battery may include an anode consisting of multiple nanowires protruding from the surface of a substrate layer.

[0034] In the first embodiment, the battery may further include a cathode and an electrolyte in contact with the cathode and anode and disposed between the cathode and anode.

[0035] According to a second embodiment of this application, the battery may include an anode having a first plurality of nanowires protruding from a first surface of a substrate and a second plurality of nanowires protruding from a second surface of the substrate layer (which is opposite to the first surface).

[0036] In a second embodiment, the battery may further include a second cathode and a second electrolyte. A second plurality of nanowires and a substrate layer form a second anode. The second anode, the second cathode, and the second electrolyte form a second battery.

[0037] Nanowire-structured electrodes can be assembled to increase discharge voltage and coulombic efficiency in a battery. In some embodiments, the electrode is an anode. In some embodiments, the anode includes a substrate layer and a first plurality of electrodeposited, predominantly vertically aligned nanowires protruding from the substrate layer. The first plurality of nanowires are configured to have a higher surface area than a substrate without nanowires. In some embodiments, the nanowires are composed of a conductive material. The nanowires are configured to retain positive charge carriers during electrodeposition during battery charging. The nanowires are configured to retain positive charge carriers between the nanowires and at the ends of the nanowires. The nanowire structure allows for an increase in the total amount of positive charge carriers deposited on the anode (relative to a conventional anode). In some embodiments, the nanowires are configured to alloy with the positive charge carriers. In some embodiments, the anode may include a second plurality of nanowires protruding from the surface of the substrate layer opposite the first plurality of nanowires.

[0038] Figure 1 An illustrative electrode is shown having a substrate layer 102 and multiple electrodeposited, predominantly vertically aligned nanowires 101 protruding from the surface of the substrate layer 102. In some embodiments, the multiple nanowires 101 and the substrate layer 102 are composed of the same material. In some embodiments, the multiple nanowires 101 have a conductivity greater than 1.0 × 10⁻⁶. 3 The material is composed of S / m (Siemens per meter). In some embodiments, the multiple nanowires 101 are composed of copper, silver, nickel, zinc, tin, platinum, chromium, cadmium, palladium, brass, gold, manganese, aluminum, iron, lead, titanium, silicon-based materials, carbon-based materials, graphene-based materials, ZnS, ZnO, ZnSe, CdMnTe, CdS, ZnTe, GaSe, InSe, CdSe, CuInGaSe2, CdTe, CuInSe2, Ni(OH)2, indium-doped tin oxide, fluorine-doped tin oxide, conductive polymers, or alloys or composites of the above materials. In some embodiments, the substrate layer 102 has an electrical conductivity greater than 1.0 × 10⁻⁶. 3 The substrate layer 102 is composed of materials such as S / m. In some embodiments, the substrate layer 102 is composed of copper, silver, nickel, zinc, tin, platinum, chromium, cadmium, palladium, brass, gold, manganese, aluminum, iron, lead, titanium, silicon-based materials, carbon-based materials, graphene-based materials, indium-doped tin oxide, fluorine-doped tin oxide, conductive polymers, or alloys or composites of the above materials. In some embodiments, the substrate layer 102 is a foil.

[0039] Each of the plurality of nanowires 101 has a height 103 that is effective for retaining positive charge carriers used in a battery. In some embodiments, each of the plurality of nanowires 101 has a height of approximately 1. 5 Approximately 10 Approximately 15 Approximately 20 Approximately 25 Approximately 30 Approximately 35 Approximately 40 Approximately 45 Approximately 50 Approximately 55 Approximately 60 Approximately 65 Approximately 70 Approximately 75 Approximately 80 Approximately 85 Approximately 90 Approximately 95 Approximately 100 Or a height of 103 within a value range of any two of these values. In some embodiments, each of the plurality of nanowires 101 has approximately 1 Up to approximately 100 Or about 10 Up to approximately 25 The height is 103. In some embodiments, the multiple nanowires 101 have a height of approximately 1. Up to approximately 100 Or about 10 Up to approximately 25 The average height is 103.

[0040] The multiple nanowires 101 can have any fill rate that is effective for retaining positive charge carriers used in the battery. In some embodiments, the multiple nanowires 101 have a fill rate of about 5%, about 10%, about 15%, about 20%, about 25%, about 30%, about 35%, about 40%, about 45%, about 50%, about 55%, about 60%, or any two of these values. In some embodiments, the multiple nanowires 101 have a fill rate of about 5% to about 40% or about 15% to about 25%.

[0041] In some embodiments, the electrode has approximately 5 10 Approximately 15 Approximately 20 Approximately 25 Approximately 30 Approximately 35 Approximately 40 Approximately 45 Approximately 50 Approximately 55 Approximately 60 Approximately 65 Approximately 70 Approximately 75 Approximately 80 Approximately 85 Approximately 90 Approximately 95 Approximately 100 Approximately 105 Approximately 110 Approximately 115 Approximately 120 Approximately 125 Approximately 130 Approximately 135 Approximately 140 Approximately 145 Approximately 150 Approximately 155 Approximately 160 Approximately 165 Approximately 170 Approximately 175 Approximately 180 Approximately 185 Approximately 190 Approximately 195 Approximately 200 Approximately 205 Approximately 210 Approximately 215 Approximately 220 Approximately 225 Approximately 230 Approximately 235 Approximately 240 Approximately 245 Approximately 250 Or a thickness of 104 within the range of any two of these values. In some embodiments, the electrode has a thickness of approximately 10. Up to approximately 120 Or about 20 Up to approximately 100 The thickness is 104. In some embodiments, the electrode is flexible.

[0042] Figure 2The top surface of an illustrative electrode is shown, having a substrate layer 202 and multiple nanowires 201 protruding from the surface of the substrate layer 202. In some embodiments, each of the multiple nanowires 201 has a substantially identical diameter 203. In some embodiments, at least some of the multiple nanowires 201 have a diameter 203 different from that of the other nanowires in the multiple nanowires 201. Each of the multiple nanowires 201 has a diameter 203 that is effective for retaining positive charge carriers used in a battery. In some embodiments, each of the multiple nanowires 201 has a diameter of approximately 0.01 mm. 0.02 Approximately 0.03 0.04 Approximately 0.05 0.06 0.07 Approximately 0.08 0.09 Approximately 0.1 Approximately 0.2 Approximately 0.3 Approximately 0.4 Approximately 0.5 Approximately 0.6 Approximately 0.7 Approximately 0.8 Approximately 0.9 Approximately 1 Approximately 2 Approximately 3 Approximately 4 Approximately 5 Approximately 6 Approximately 7 Approximately 8 Approximately 9 Approximately 10 Approximately 12 Approximately 14 Approximately 16 Approximately 18 Approximately 20 Approximately 25 Approximately 30 Or a diameter 203 within a range of any two of these values. In some embodiments, each of the plurality of nanowires 201 has a diameter of approximately 0.05. Up to approximately 10 Or approximately 0.2 Up to approximately 3 The diameter is 203. In some embodiments, each of the plurality of nanowires 201 has a diameter of approximately 0.05 mm. Up to approximately 10 Or approximately 0.2 Up to approximately 3 The average diameter is 203.

[0043] Figure 3 An illustrative electrode is shown having a substrate layer 303, a first plurality of nanowires 301 protruding from a first surface of the substrate layer 303, and a second plurality of nanowires 302 protruding from a second surface of the substrate layer 303. In some embodiments, the second surface of the substrate layer 303 is opposite to the first surface of the substrate layer 303. In some embodiments, the first plurality of nanowires 301, the second plurality of nanowires 302, and the substrate layer 303 are composed of the same material. In some embodiments, the first plurality of nanowires 301 have a conductivity greater than 1.0 × 10⁻⁶. 3 The material composition is S / m. In some embodiments, the first plurality of nanowires 301 is composed of copper, silver, nickel, zinc, tin, platinum, chromium, cadmium, palladium, brass, gold, manganese, aluminum, iron, lead, titanium, silicon-based materials, carbon-based materials, graphene-based materials, ZnS, ZnO, ZnSe, CdMnTe, CdS, ZnTe, GaSe, InSe, CdSe, CuInGaSe2, CdTe, CuInSe2, Ni(OH)2, indium-doped tin oxide, fluorine-doped tin oxide, conductive polymers, or alloys or composites of the above materials. In some embodiments, the second plurality of nanowires 302 is composed of materials with an electrical conductivity greater than 1.0 x 10⁻⁶. 3 The material composition of S / m. In some embodiments, the second plurality of nanowires 302 is composed of one of the following: copper, silver, nickel, zinc, tin, platinum, chromium, cadmium, palladium, brass, gold, manganese, aluminum, iron, lead, titanium, silicon-based materials, carbon-based materials, graphene-based materials, ZnS, ZnO, ZnSe, CdMnTe, CdS, ZnTe, GaSe, InSe, CdSe, CuInGaSe2, CdTe, CuInSe2, Ni(OH)2, indium-doped tin oxide, fluorine-doped tin oxide, conductive polymers, or alloys or composites of the above materials. In some embodiments, the substrate layer 303 is a foil.

[0044] Each of the first plurality of nanowires 301 and the second plurality of nanowires 302 has a height 304 effective for retaining positive charge carriers used in a battery. In some embodiments, the first plurality of nanowires 301 and the second plurality of nanowires 302 have substantially the same average height. In some embodiments, the first plurality of nanowires 301 and the second plurality of nanowires 302 have different average heights. In some embodiments, each of the first plurality of nanowires 301 has approximately 1 5 Approximately 10 Approximately 15 Approximately 20 Approximately 25 Approximately 30 Approximately 35 Approximately 40 Approximately 45 Approximately 50 Approximately 55 Approximately 60 Approximately 65 Approximately 70 Approximately 75 Approximately 80 Approximately 85 Approximately 90 Approximately 95 Approximately 100 Or a height within a range of values ​​between any two of these values. In some embodiments, each of the first plurality of nanowires 301 has a height of approximately 1. Up to approximately 100 Or about 10 Up to approximately 25 The height. In some embodiments, the first plurality of nanowires 301 has a height of approximately 1. Up to approximately 100 Or about 10 Up to approximately 25 The average height. In some embodiments, each of the second plurality of nanowires 302 has an average height of approximately 1. 5 Approximately 10 Approximately 15 Approximately 20 Approximately 25 Approximately 30 Approximately 35 Approximately 40 Approximately 45 Approximately 50 Approximately 55 Approximately 60 Approximately 65 Approximately 70 Approximately 75 Approximately 80 Approximately 85 Approximately 90 Approximately 95 Approximately 100 Or a height of 304 within a value range of any two of these values. In some embodiments, each of the second plurality of nanowires 302 has approximately 1 Up to approximately 100 Or about 10 Up to approximately 25 The height is 304. In some embodiments, the second plurality of nanowires 302 has a height of approximately 1. Up to approximately 100 Or about 10 Up to approximately 25 The average height is 304.

[0045] Each of the first plurality of nanowires 301 and the second plurality of nanowires 302 may have any fill rate that is effective for retaining positive charge carriers used in the battery. In some embodiments, the first plurality of nanowires 301 and the second plurality of nanowires 302 have substantially the same fill rate. In some embodiments, the first plurality of nanowires 301 and the second plurality of nanowires 302 have different fill rates. In some embodiments, the first plurality of nanowires 301 has a fill rate of about 5%, about 10%, about 15%, about 20%, about 25%, about 30%, about 35%, about 40%, about 45%, about 50%, about 55%, about 60%, or a value range between any two of these values. In some embodiments, the first plurality of nanowires 301 has a fill rate of about 10% to about 40% or about 15% to about 25%. In some embodiments, the second plurality of nanowires 302 has a fill rate of approximately 5%, approximately 10%, approximately 15%, approximately 20%, approximately 25%, approximately 30%, approximately 35%, approximately 40%, approximately 45%, approximately 50%, approximately 55%, approximately 60%, or a value range between any two of these values. In some embodiments, the second plurality of nanowires 302 has a fill rate of approximately 10% to approximately 40% or approximately 15% to approximately 25%.

[0046] Each of the first plurality of nanowires 301 and the second plurality of nanowires 302 has a diameter 306 effective for retaining positive charge carriers used in a battery. In some embodiments, the first plurality of nanowires 301 and the second plurality of nanowires 302 have substantially the same average diameter. In some embodiments, the first plurality of nanowires 301 and the second plurality of nanowires 302 have different average diameters. In some embodiments, each of the first plurality of nanowires 301 has a diameter of approximately 0.01 mm. 0.02 Approximately 0.03 0.04 Approximately 0.05 0.06 0.07 Approximately 0.08 0.09 Approximately 0.1 Approximately 0.2 Approximately 0.3 Approximately 0.4 Approximately 0.5 Approximately 0.6 Approximately 0.7 Approximately 0.8 Approximately 0.9 Approximately 1 Approximately 2 Approximately 3 Approximately 4 Approximately 5 Approximately 6 Approximately 7 Approximately 8 Approximately 9 Approximately 10 Approximately 12 Approximately 14 Approximately 16 Approximately 18 Approximately 20 Approximately 25 Approximately 30 Or a diameter within a range of any two of these values. In some embodiments, each of the first plurality of nanowires 301 has a diameter of approximately 0.05. Up to approximately 10 Or approximately 0.2 Up to approximately 3 The diameter. In some embodiments, each of the first plurality of nanowires 301 has a diameter of approximately 0.05 mm. Up to approximately 10 Or approximately 0.2 Up to approximately 3 The average diameter is 203. In some embodiments, each of the second plurality of nanowires 302 has a diameter of approximately 0.01. 0.02 Approximately 0.03 0.04 Approximately 0.05 0.06 0.07 Approximately 0.08 0.09 Approximately 0.1 Approximately 0.2 Approximately 0.3 Approximately 0.4 Approximately 0.5 Approximately 0.6 Approximately 0.7 Approximately 0.8 Approximately 0.9 Approximately 1 Approximately 2 Approximately 3 Approximately 4 Approximately 5 Approximately 6 Approximately 7 Approximately 8 Approximately 9 Approximately 10 Approximately 12 Approximately 14 Approximately 16 Approximately 18 Approximately 20 Approximately 25 Approximately 30 Or a diameter of 306 within the range of any two of these values. In some embodiments, each of the second plurality of nanowires 302 has a diameter of approximately 0.05. Up to approximately 10 Or approximately 0.2 Up to approximately 3 The diameter is 306. In some embodiments, each of the second plurality of nanowires 302 has a diameter of approximately 0.05. Up to approximately 10 Or approximately 0.2 Up to approximately 3 The average diameter is 306.

[0047] In some embodiments, the electrode has approximately 5 10 15 Approximately 20 Approximately 25 Approximately 30 Approximately 35 Approximately 40 Approximately 45 Approximately 50 Approximately 55 Approximately 60 Approximately 65 Approximately 70 Approximately 75 Approximately 80 Approximately 85 Approximately 90 Approximately 95 Approximately 100 Approximately 105 Approximately 110 Approximately 115 Approximately 120 Approximately 125 Approximately 130 Approximately 135 Approximately 140 Approximately 145 Approximately 150 Approximately 155 Approximately 160 Approximately 165 Approximately 170 Approximately 175 Approximately 180 Approximately 185 Approximately 190 Approximately 195 Approximately 200 Approximately 205 Approximately 210 Approximately 215 Approximately 220 Approximately 225 Approximately 230 Approximately 235 Approximately 240 Approximately 245 Approximately 250 Approximately 255 Approximately 260 Approximately 265 Approximately 270 Approximately 275 Approximately 280 Approximately 285 Approximately 290 Approximately 295 Approximately 300 Approximately 305 Approximately 310 Approximately 315 Approximately 320 Approximately 325 Approximately 330 Approximately 335 Approximately 340 Approximately 345 Approximately 350 Approximately 355 Approximately 360 Approximately 365 Approximately 370 Approximately 375 Approximately 380 Approximately 385 Approximately 390 Approximately 395 Approximately 400 Or a thickness of 305 within the range of any two of these values. In some embodiments, the electrode has approximately 10 Up to approximately 300 Or approximately 25 Up to approximately 60 The thickness is 305. In some embodiments, the electrode is flexible.

[0048] Nanowire-structured electrodes can be fabricated using a template-based electrodeposition method comprising: (1) attaching a template with predominantly vertically aligned pores to a substrate having a conductive surface; (2) placing them in an electrochemical bath as cathodes and placing an anode parallel to them (anode facing the template side), and filling the gap between the anode and cathode with an electrolyte, wherein the cathode and electrolyte are selected in relation to the material of the nanowires to be grown; (3) electrodepositing multiple nanowires of desired length through the pores defined in the template; (4) removing the anode from the electrochemical bath, followed by thorough cleaning and drying; and (5) dissolving the template to release the multiple nanowires. Electrodes with predominantly vertically aligned nanowires on both sides can be fabricated by repeating steps (1)-(5) above on both sides of the substrate.

[0049] Nanowire-structured electrodes can also be coated with commonly used anodic active materials capable of reversibly intercalating with metal ions, thus serving as the anode of the battery. The coating material can consist of graphite, silicon-based materials, lithium titanate, graphene, carbon nanotubes, carbon nanofibers, carbon particles, tin oxide, tin sulfide, sodium titanate, titanium oxide, cobalt oxide, nickel oxide, manganese oxide, iron oxide, binders, polyvinylidene fluoride, sodium carboxymethyl cellulose, styrene-butadiene rubber, polyacrylic acid, and combinations thereof. The active material can be coated onto the surface of the nanowires, and / or deposited in the gaps between the nanowires, and / or deposited on top of the nanowires.

[0050] The electrodes described above can be used to assemble batteries. Figure 4AAn illustrative battery is shown, comprising a cathode 401, an anode 402, and an electrolyte 403. In some embodiments, the battery further includes one or more separators 404. In some embodiments, the cathode 401 includes a cathode current collector 405 and a cathode active material 406. In some embodiments, the anode 402 includes an anode current collector 407 and an anode active material 408. In some embodiments, the anode includes a conductive substrate layer serving as the anode current collector 407, and multiple nanowires 408 protruding from the surface of the substrate layer 407 as the anode active material. In some embodiments, the multiple nanowires 408 and the substrate layer 407 are composed of the same material. In some embodiments, the multiple nanowires 408 have a conductivity greater than 1.0 × 10⁻⁶. 3 The material composition is S / m. In some embodiments, the multiple nanowires 408 are composed of copper, silver, nickel, zinc, tin, platinum, chromium, cadmium, palladium, brass, gold, manganese, aluminum, iron, lead, titanium, silicon-based materials, carbon-based materials, graphene-based materials, ZnS, ZnO, ZnSe, CdMnTe, CdS, ZnTe, GaSe, InSe, CdSe, CuInGaSe2, CdTe, CuInSe2, Ni(OH)2, indium-doped tin oxide, fluorine-doped tin oxide, conductive polymers, or alloys or composites of the above materials. In some embodiments, the substrate layer 407 has an electrical conductivity higher than 1.0 × 10⁻⁶. 3 The substrate layer 407 is composed of materials such as S / m. In some embodiments, the substrate layer 407 is composed of copper, silver, nickel, zinc, tin, platinum, chromium, cadmium, palladium, brass, gold, manganese, aluminum, iron, lead, titanium, silicon-based materials, carbon-based materials, graphene-based materials, indium-doped tin oxide, fluorine-doped tin oxide, conductive polymers, or alloys or composites of the above materials. In some embodiments, the substrate layer 407 is a foil. In some embodiments, the electrolyte 403 is injected into multiple nanowires 408.

[0051] like Figure 4B As shown, in some embodiments, the anodic active material 409 may be coated onto an anodic current collector 407 having multiple nanowires 408 to form an anode 402. In some embodiments, the coated anodic active material 409 may be composed of graphite, silicon-based materials, lithium titanate, graphene, carbon nanotubes, carbon nanofibers, carbon particles, tin oxide, tin sulfide, sodium titanate, titanium oxide, cobalt oxide, nickel oxide, manganese oxide, iron oxide, binder, polyvinylidene fluoride, sodium carboxymethyl cellulose, styrene-butadiene rubber, polyacrylic acid, and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the coated anodic active material 409 may be coated to coat the surface of the nanowires, and / or deposited in the gaps between the nanowires, and / or deposited on top of the nanowires.

[0052] Figure 5AAn illustrative battery is shown, comprising a first cathode 501, an anode 502, a first electrolyte 503, a second cathode 504, and a second electrolyte 505. In some embodiments, the battery further includes one or more separators 506, 507. In some embodiments, the cathode includes cathode current collectors 508, 509 and cathode active materials 510, 511. In some embodiments, the anode 502 includes an anode current collector 512 and anode active materials 513, 514. In some embodiments, the anode 502 includes a first plurality of nanowires 513 and a second plurality of nanowires 514 protruding from both surfaces of the substrate current collector 512 as anode active materials. In some embodiments, the second surface of the substrate layer is opposite to the first surface of the substrate layer. In some embodiments, the first plurality of nanowires 513, the second plurality of nanowires 514, and the substrate layer 512 are composed of the same material. In some embodiments, the first plurality of nanowires 513 have a conductivity greater than 1.0 × 10⁻⁶. 3 The material composition is S / m. In some embodiments, the first plurality of nanowires 513 are composed of copper, silver, nickel, zinc, tin, platinum, chromium, cadmium, palladium, brass, gold, manganese, aluminum, iron, lead, titanium, silicon-based materials, carbon-based materials, graphene-based materials, ZnS, ZnO, ZnSe, CdMnTe, CdS, ZnTe, GaSe, InSe, CdSe, CuInGaSe2, CdTe, CuInSe2, Ni(OH)2, indium-doped tin oxide, fluorine-doped tin oxide, conductive polymers, or alloys or composites of the above materials. In some embodiments, the second plurality of nanowires 514 are composed of materials with an electrical conductivity higher than 1.0 × 10⁻⁶. 3 The material composition of S / m. In some embodiments, the second plurality of nanowires 514 is composed of copper, silver, nickel, zinc, tin, platinum, chromium, cadmium, palladium, brass, gold, manganese, aluminum, iron, lead, titanium, silicon-based materials, carbon-based materials, graphene-based materials, ZnS, ZnO, ZnSe, CdMnTe, CdS, ZnTe, GaSe, InSe, CdSe, CuInGaSe2, CdTe, CuInSe2, Ni(OH)2, indium-doped tin oxide, fluorine-doped tin oxide, conductive polymers, or alloys or composites of the above materials. In some embodiments, the substrate layer 512 is composed of copper, silver, nickel, zinc, tin, platinum, chromium, cadmium, palladium, brass, gold, manganese, aluminum, iron, lead, titanium, silicon-based materials, carbon-based materials, graphene-based materials, indium-doped tin oxide, fluorine-doped tin oxide, conductive polymers, or alloys or composites of the above materials.

[0053] In some embodiments, the combination of a first plurality of nanowires 513 and a substrate layer 512 forms a first anode, and the first anode, a first cathode 501, and a first electrolyte 503 form a first battery. In some embodiments, the combination of a second plurality of nanowires 514 and a substrate layer 512 forms a second anode, and the second anode, a second cathode 504, and a second electrolyte 505 form a second battery. Compared to conventional structures including a first anode comprising a first substrate layer and a second anode comprising a second substrate layer, using a single substrate layer 512 having a first plurality of nanowires 513 and a second plurality of nanowires 514 to form two anodes allows for a reduction in space. In some embodiments, electrolytes 503 and 505 are injected into the plurality of nanowires 513 and 514.

[0054] like Figure 5B As shown, in some embodiments, a first anode active material 515 may be coated onto an anode current collector 512 having a first plurality of nanowires 513 to form a first anode of a first battery; in some embodiments, a second anode active material 516 may be coated onto an anode current collector 512 having a second plurality of nanowires 514 to form a second anode of a second battery. In some embodiments, the coated anode active materials 515, 516 may be composed of graphite, silicon-based materials, lithium titanate, graphene, carbon nanotubes, carbon nanofibers, carbon particles, tin oxide, tin sulfide, sodium titanate, titanium oxide, cobalt oxide, nickel oxide, manganese oxide, iron oxide, binders, polyvinylidene fluoride, sodium carboxymethyl cellulose, styrene-butadiene rubber, polyacrylic acid, and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the coated anode active materials 515, 516 may be coated to coat the surface of nanowires, and / or deposited in the gaps between nanowires, and / or deposited on the top of nanowires.

[0055] The battery can be any type of battery. In some embodiments, the battery is one of lithium-based, sodium-based, solid-state, potassium-based, aluminum-based, zinc-based, or semi-solid-state batteries.

[0056] Exemplary embodiments – The following exemplary embodiments are merely illustrative of possible embodiments of the invention and are not intended to imply that the invention is limited to these embodiments. As those skilled in the art will recognize, different combinations of the features disclosed herein can be arranged in any construction and all such constructions are intended to be within the scope of the invention.

[0057] Example 1: Single-sided Cu nanowire anode - A copper nanowire anode, comprising a substrate layer and multiple nanowires, was fabricated. As discussed above, the anode was fabricated via templated electrodeposition. Figure 6A cross-sectional scanning electron microscope (SEM) image of a copper anode, including a substrate layer 602 containing copper foil and copper nanowires 601 protruding from the substrate layer 602, is shown. The copper nanowires 601 have an average diameter of approximately 800 nm and a cross-sectional area of ​​approximately 22 nm. The average height and fill factor are approximately 18%. The SEM image was acquired at a magnification of 1532x and a voltage of 15.00kV. Figure 7 An SEM image of the top surface of the copper anode is shown. The image reveals copper nanowires 701 protruding from the surface of the substrate. This SEM image was acquired at 1055x magnification and 15 kV. The copper foil and copper nanowires 701 have an average diameter of approximately 800 nm and a diameter of approximately 22 nm. The average height and approximately 18% fill rate.

[0058] Example 2: Double-sided Cu nanowire anode - A copper nanowire anode comprising a substrate layer, a first plurality of nanowires, and a second plurality of nanowires was fabricated. The anode was fabricated by template electrodeposition. Figure 8 A cross-sectional SEM image of a copper anode is shown, comprising a substrate layer 802 containing copper foil and copper nanowires 801 protruding from the substrate layer 802. The first plurality of nanowires 801 have an average diameter of approximately 800 nm and a cross-sectional area of ​​approximately 15 nm. The average height and fill factor are approximately 18%. The second multi-nanowire 801 has an average diameter of approximately 800 nm and a fill factor of approximately 15%. The average height and approximately 18% fill factor are shown. The SEM image was acquired at a magnification of 1352x and a voltage of 15.00kV.

[0059] Example 3: Single-sided Cu anode with lithium - Lithium ions are deposited onto a copper nanowire anode as described in Example 1. The lithium deposition involves charging the copper nanowire anode with a lithium cobalt oxide cathode or a pure lithium cathode. A portion of the anode is then removed using a focused ion beam (FIB). Figure 9A An SEM image of a copper anode with lithium ions deposited after charging is shown. The copper anode includes a substrate layer containing copper foil and copper nanowires 901 protruding from the substrate layer, as well as lithium ions 902 deposited on the anode to fill the gaps between the copper nanowires 901 and even further deposited on top of the nanowire layer to cover the entire nanowire structure. The SEM image was acquired at 1860x magnification and 5.00 kV. Figure 9BA cross-sectional SEM image of a copper nanowire anode with lithium deposition after charging, at a 15° angle along the edge etched by FIB, is shown. This copper nanowire anode comprises a copper nanowire and lithium composite or alloy 903. The copper nanowire and lithium composite or alloy 903 contains lithium ions deposited to completely fill the gaps between the copper nanowires. The image also shows the penetration of lithium ions into the copper nanowire anode, which allows for bottom-up deposition to form a bulk layer of the copper nanowire and lithium composite or alloy 903. The SEM image was acquired at 25080x magnification and 5.00 kV. Figure 10 SEM images of the top surface of a copper nanowire anode with lithium ions 1001 deposited on it are shown. The original nanowire tips are still visible, indicating that lithium ions are deposited between the nanowire gaps, but have not yet fully filled the gaps due to the controlled charging time.

[0060] Example 4: Comparison of Cu nanowire anodes and lithium anodes - The electrochemical performance of the copper nanowire anode, as described in Example 1, was tested relative to a pure lithium metal electrode control. Cyclic voltammetry (CV) tests were performed on the copper nanowire anode, pure lithium metal electrode, polyethylene membrane, and standard 1.0 M LiPF6 electrolyte. Figure 11A The CV curve of the test results is shown. The results show that an oxidation peak 1101 appears starting from -3V due to the reaction of copper with lithium. This result means that the copper nanowire structure provides an anode potential that is about 2.5V lower than that of pure lithium metal, which means that when the lithium metal anode is replaced with a copper nanowire anode, the overall battery potential can be increased by about 2.5V.

[0061] CV tests were also performed on battery cells with copper nanowire anodes, cathodes including lithium cobalt oxide and graphene, polyethylene films, and standard 1.0M LiPF6 electrolytes. Figure 11B The results from the tests are shown in the CV curve. The curve shows a reduction peak 1102 starting at approximately 6.8V. This indicates that the discharge voltage begins at around 6.8V when using a copper nanowire anode, which is about 2.6V higher than the standard 4.2V from conventional lithium-ion batteries.

[0062] Charge and discharge tests were performed on a battery cell with a copper nanowire anode, a cathode including lithium cobalt oxide and graphene, a polyethylene film, and a standard 1.0 M LiPF6 electrolyte. Figure 11C The results from the tests are shown in the charge / discharge curve. The curve shows a consistent discharge plateau of approximately 5V for the 1103. This is approximately 1.3V higher than the standard 3.7V from the anode used in conventional lithium-ion batteries.

[0063] Example 5: CuO nanowire anode- Annealing the copper nanowire anode described in Example 1 in air at 400°C for 2 hours resulted in the formation of CuO nanowire anodes. Figure 12A A SEM image of a CuO nanowire anode, comprising CuO nanowires 1201 and a CuO substrate 1202, is shown. This image demonstrates that the CuO nanowire anode maintains its position relative to... Figure 6 The same nanowire structure is shown, but its crystalline copper structure has been transformed into CuO.

[0064] Lithium ions were then deposited onto the CuO nanowire anode. The lithium deposition involved charging the CuO nanowire anode in a standard 1.0M LiPF6 electrolyte using either a lithium cobalt oxide cathode or a pure lithium cathode. Figure 12B SEM images of the top surface of a CuO nanowire anode with lithium ions deposited on it are shown. The deposition of lithium ions on the CuO nanowire anode results in a mesoporous structure, while Figure 10 The lithium ions deposited on the copper nanowire anode resulted in a dense composite / alloy film, indicating a completely different lithium deposition mechanism when using Cu nanowire anodes versus CuO nanowire anodes.

[0065] Similar to the test in Example 1, the electrochemical performance of the CuO nanowire anode was tested relative to a pure lithium anode control. Figure 13 The CV curve of the test results is shown. The curve shows the oxidation peak starting at 0V, indicating that only lithium is reacting during battery discharge. This result demonstrates that even though the CuO nanowire anode inherits the nanostructure from the Cu nanowire anode, it does not possess the same ability to increase the discharge potential.

[0066] Example 6: Cu anode without nanowires - Similar to the test described in Example 1, the electrochemical performance of pure copper foil was tested relative to a pure lithium anode control. Figure 14 The CV curve of the test results is shown. The curve shows the oxidation peak starting at 0V, indicating that only lithium is reacting during battery discharge. This result demonstrates that using copper alone does not provide the beneficial electrochemical performance achieved using a copper nanowire anode.

[0067] The results from Examples 1, 5, and 6 indicate that the altered reaction potential of Cu nanowire anodes compared to pure lithium metal is due to the combined effect of both the material and the structure.

[0068] Example 7: Coulombic efficiency of single-sided Cu nanowire anodes and Cu without nanowires using the Aurbach method. contrast- Using the same half-cell structure described in Examples 5 and 6, assembled with a pure lithium metal electrode, polyethylene film, and standard 1.0 M LiPF6 electrolyte, the charge-discharge performance of the Cu nanowire anode was tested relative to a pure Cu anode without nanowires. Figure 15 The coulombic efficiency test using 1M LiPF6 electrolyte via the Aurbach method is shown. The single-sided Cu nanowire anode shows 93.54% ( The coulomb efficiency of 1.10% is better than that of 92.38%. A nanowire-free Cu anode (1.09%) was used. Similar tests were conducted based on another electrolyte, M47, composed of lithium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide:dimethoxyethane:trifluorotoluene (Lithium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide:Dimethoxyethane:Trifluorotoluene) = 1:1.2:3, and the results were... Figure 16 As shown in the figure. Similarly, the single-sided Cu nanowire anode showed 99.45% ( The coulomb efficiency is 0.01%, which is better than 99.29%. A 0.01% nanowire-free Cu anode was used. Furthermore, a third set of tests was conducted on the same half-cell structure using the M47 electrolyte but with a simple and typical direct deposition-stripping method. Figure 17 Typical charge-discharge data and five-cycle coulombic efficiency for the two batteries are shown. Similarly, the single-sided Cu nanowire anode shows an average efficiency of 98.7% (…). The coulomb efficiency of 1.43% is better than that of 97.7%. 4.74%) of nanowire-free Cu anode.

[0069] The consistent trend of single-sided Cu nanowire anodes outperforming non-nanowire Cu anodes in coulombic efficiency provides solid evidence for the structural advantages of anodes with multiple nanowires. Higher coulombic efficiency is known to benefit batteries by providing longer cycle life, improved capacity retention, slower degradation, enhanced energy efficiency, and improved battery safety. This indicates that nanowire electrodes offer significant advantages over commonly used non-nanowire electrodes.

[0070] Example 8: Morphology of copper nanowires - The electrochemical performance of copper nanowire anodes with varying nanowire diameters was tested relative to a pure lithium anode control. CV tests were performed on copper nanowire anodes with an average diameter of 200 nm and those with an average diameter of approximately 800 nm. Results from the tests on the copper nanowire anodes with an average diameter of 200 nm and those with an average diameter of approximately 800 nm were presented at [data missing]. Figure 18A and Figure 18BThe graph shows that the oxidation initiation points 1501 and 1502 are in similar regions. However, the reduction and oxidation peaks were observed to be shifted by different diameters. This result demonstrates the influence of copper nanowire morphology on battery performance.

[0071] The various features and functions disclosed above, as well as other features and functions, or alternatives thereof, can be combined into many other different systems, methods, or applications. Various alternatives, modifications, alterations, or improvements that are not currently foreseeable or anticipated can then be made by those skilled in the art, each of which is also intended to be covered by the disclosed embodiments.

[0072] This disclosure is not limited to the specific embodiments described herein, which are intended as illustrative of various aspects. Many modifications and variations can be made without departing from its spirit and scope, as will be apparent to those skilled in the art. Based on the description, it will be apparent to those skilled in the art that functionally equivalent methods and apparatuses within the scope of this disclosure, other than those listed herein, are available. Such modifications and variations are intended to fall within the scope of the appended claims. This disclosure is limited only by the terms of the appended claims and the full scope of the equivalents granted by such claims. It should be understood that this disclosure is not limited to specific methods, reagents, compounds, compositions, or biological systems, which are of course subject to variation. It should also be understood that the terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only and is not intended to be limiting.

Claims

1. An electrode for use in a battery, comprising: A conductive substrate layer; as well as First plurality of electrodeposited predominantly vertically aligned nanowires protruding from a first surface of the substrate layer, wherein the first plurality of nanowires are made of a material selected from the group consisting of: copper, silver, nickel, zinc, tin, platinum, chromium, cadmium, palladium, brass, gold, manganese, aluminum, iron, lead, titanium, silicon-based materials, carbon-based materials, graphene-based materials, ZnS, ZnO, ZnSe, CdMnTe, CdS, ZnTe, GaSe, InSe, CdSe, CuInGaSe2, CdTe, CuInSe2, Ni(OH)2, indium-doped tin oxide, fluorine-doped tin oxide, conductive polymers, and combinations thereof.

2. The electrode of claim 1, wherein the substrate layer is made of a material selected from the group consisting of: copper, silver, nickel, zinc, tin, platinum, chromium, cadmium, palladium, brass, gold, manganese, aluminum, iron, lead, titanium, silicon-based materials, carbon-based materials, graphene-based materials, indium-doped tin oxide, fluorine-doped tin oxide, conductive polymers, and combinations thereof.

3. The electrode of claim 1, wherein the first plurality of nanowires are made of copper.

4. The electrode of claim 1, wherein the electrode can be used alone as a current collector for further coating of active materials in the battery.

5. The electrode of claim 1, wherein the first plurality of nanowires has an average height in a range of about 1 to about 100 .

6. The electrode of claim 1, wherein the nanowires in the first plurality of nanowires have a density of approximately 0.01 Up to approximately 30 The average diameter within the range.

7. The electrode of claim 1, wherein the first plurality of nanowires has a fill rate in the range of about 5% to about 60%.

8. The electrode of claim 1, wherein the electrode has a radius of approximately 5 Up to approximately 250 The thickness is within the range.

9. The electrode of claim 1, further comprising a second plurality of nanowires protruding from a second surface of the substrate layer, wherein the first surface is opposite to the second surface.

10. The electrode of claim 9, wherein the first plurality of nanowires and the second plurality of nanowires on opposite surfaces of the substrate are capable of serving as two electrodes for two batteries.

11. The electrode of claim 10, wherein the substrate layer is capable of serving as a current collector for both the first battery and the second battery.

12. A battery, comprising: cathode; anode; as well as An electrolyte, which is in contact with the cathode and the anode and is located between the cathode and the anode; The anode is the electrode as described in claim 1.

13. The battery of claim 12, wherein the battery is one of a lithium-based battery, a sodium-based battery, a solid-state battery, a potassium-based battery, an aluminum-based battery, a zinc-based battery, or a semi-solid-state battery.

14. The battery of claim 12, wherein the anode can be used alone as a current collector for further coating of active material in the battery.

15. The battery of claim 12, wherein, Metal ions are deposited on the anode, wherein the metal is selected from the group consisting of lithium, sodium, zinc, aluminum, and combinations thereof.

16. The battery of claim 15, wherein the metal ions occupy the space between the nanowires in the first plurality of nanowires.

17. The battery of claim 12, wherein the metal ions are further deposited on top of the nanowire layer.

18. The battery of claim 15, wherein the metal ion is a lithium ion.

19. The battery of claim 15, wherein the metal ion is a sodium ion.

20. Two batteries, said two batteries comprising a first battery and a second battery, wherein: The first battery includes a first cathode, an anode, and a first electrolyte in contact with the first cathode and the anode and located between the first cathode and the anode, wherein the anode is the electrode as described in claim 9; The second battery includes a second cathode, the anode, and a second electrolyte that is in contact with the second cathode and the anode and is located between the second cathode and the anode; The first and second batteries share the same anode; and The first plurality of nanowires and the second plurality of nanowires can respectively form the two batteries with the two sets of cathodes and electrolytes.

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