Apparatus and method for generating energy by using antimatter

Abstract

An apparatus 100 for converting one or more photons at least one of input or generated within the apparatus into electrical energy comprises at least one substrate 110. The substrate comprises an oper

Description

Technical field The present disclosure relates to apparatus for generating energy by using antimatter, for example from matter-antimatter dipoles including a combination of electrons and positrons. Moreover, the present disclosure relates to methods for generating energy by using antimatter, for example by using aforesaid apparatus. Background In modern physics, there occur "ordinary matter" and corresponding antimatter. Antimatter may be conventionally thought of as being matter with reversed charge, parity and time, known as CPT reversal. Antimatter occurs in natural processes, for example in cosmic ray collisions occurring in the Earth's upper atmosphere and also as a component generated during radioactive decay, for example from radioactive decay giving rise to beta particles being emitted. On Earth, antimatter tends to annihilate with ordinary matter to generate corresponding electromagnetic radiation, for example photons. However, it is known to store antimatter under vacuum conditions in at least one of strong electrostatic fields and magnetic fields for periods of up to circa 1000 hours. For example, the ALPHA project at CERN is concerned with generating positrons for research purposes, wherein the ALPHA project makes use of a high-energy particle accelerator to generate high-energy ordinary matter particles at an energy of GeV that are applied to a high atomic weight ("high-Z") target to generate a range of secondary particles, wherein a portion of the secondary particles are positrons at high energy; a decelerator is then used to decelerate the high energy positrons to provide corresponding lower-energy positrons, and a vacuum storage ring arrangement is then used to store the lower-energy positrons for use in various experiments and research, for example antigravity research. As described in a published PCT patent application PCT / IB2022 / 057745 ("System and method for generating power", inventor Ian Clague), it is shown that a given photon may be considered to be a composite particle comprising an electron and a positron orbiting around each other; as the electron has a positive mass and the positron has a negative mass, their corresponding photon has zero mass, enabling the photon to propagate at "the speed c of light", namely 299,792,458 metres per second, in vacuum. An energy of the photon (namely E = hf wherein h is Plank's constant, E is the energy of the photon and f is the frequency of the photon) is determined by parameters of a precession orbit of the electron in relation to its corresponding positron in the photon; for example, lower energy infra-red photons have a larger precession orbit and therefore a longer corresponding wavelength than, example, a gamma ray photon. Such orbits are, for example, manifest in interference fringes generated using photons, for example in optical diffraction gratings. Referring to FIG. 1, there is shown a pair of "ordinary matter" masses indicated generally by 10, wherein the pair of masses 10 includes a first ordinary matter mass Mi and a second ordinary matter mass M2 separated by a distance R. In an absence of other external gravitational forces acting on the masses, the masses Mi, M2 mutually attract with forces Fi, F2 mutually directed towards each other. The forces Fi, F2 each have a magnitude as given by Equation 1 (Eq. 1), pursuant to classical Newtonian mechanics: wherein G is a universal gravitational constant. The forces Fi, F2 are equal and directionally opposite such that the masses Mi, M2 in aggregate provide a net zero force. In an event that the mass Mi is antimatter, the mass Mi has a negative sign in Equation 1, wherein the force Fi is directed away from the mass M2, such that the mass M2 appears to "chase” the mass Mi, and the mass Mi seeks to "escape" from the mass M2. The masses Mi, M2 in such a situation become an antimatter-matter dipole indicated generally by 20 in FIG. 1, which is not normally encountered on Earth, because the antimatter mass Mi would normally annihilate with air molecules to generate annihilation energy, unless the mass Mi were held within a vacuum vessel. Creating vacuum conditions on the Earth's surface for storing antimatter often requires ancillary equipment such as a vacuum chamber and vacuum pumps. Conventionally, antimatter is very difficult and costly to generate on earth. Positrons are an example of an antimatter particle that are generated by directing high-energy GeV particles beams at high atomic number, namely "high-Z", targets, wherein a myriad of secondary particles are thereby generated of which a portion are positrons. Alternatively, positrons are generated when certain radioactive isotopes decay by giving rise to beta-particles (namely b-particles). Such beta-particles are effectively high-energy electrons; thus, radioactive beta-particle-emitting sources are used as positron generators in positron tomography apparatus. In view aforesaid, antimatter has so far only been used in research studies and in specialist scientific equipment. However, astronomers are aware of examples of large quantities of antimatter present in the Universe, by inference of galaxy formations and from gravitational characteristics of black holes. However, as elucidated in the aforesaid patent application PCT / IB2022 / 057745, it will be appreciated that antimatter may be used to at least one of converting and producing energy, for example electrical energy, on account of characteristics of the dipole as indicated by 20. Practical implementations will be described below. Summary The present disclosure seeks to provide an improved practical apparatus for generating energy, for example electrical energy, using antimatter, by other approaches than merely annihilation of such antimatter to generate thermal energy as occurs naturally in nature. Moreover, the present disclosure seeks to provide a corresponding improved practical method for generating energy, for example electrical energy, using antimatter. According to a first aspect, there is provided an apparatus for generating energy, for example electrical energy, using antimatter as defined in the appended claim 1. The apparatus is of advantage in that the apparatus is susceptible to being implemented in a compact form, for example fabricated onto a minute substrate using lithographic techniques. There is provided an apparatus for converting one or more photons at least one of input or generated within the apparatus into electrical energy, wherein the apparatus includes at least one substrate including an operating region in which the one or more photons are spatially separated to generate corresponding one or more matter-antimatter dipoles, wherein the operating region is configured to support propagation of the one or more matter-antimatter dipoles therearound or therealong when in operation, wherein the apparatus further includes an energy collection arrangement for extracting energy from the propagating one or more matter-antimatter dipoles to generate the electrical energy. Optionally, the apparatus is configured for the at least one substrate to support the operating region configured as a loop region, wherein the loop region is implemented using one or more optical materials that exhibit, when in use, a non-linear optical effect that causes the one or more photons to spatially separate into corresponding one or more electrons and one or more positrons to generate the one or more matter-antimatter dipoles propagating around the loop region, while maintaining a wavefunction of the one or more photons within the loop region. Optionally, the apparatus is configured for the at least one substrate to support the operating region configured as a linear region, wherein the linear region is implemented using one or more optical materials that exhibit, when in use, a non-linear optical effect that causes the one or more photons to spatially separate into corresponding one or more electrons and one or more positrons to generate the one or more matter-antimatter dipoles propagating along the linear region, while maintaining a wavefunction of the one or more photons within the linear region. Optionally, in the apparatus, the non-linear optical effect includes an optical Kerr effect that causes spatial separation of photons into their corresponding electrons and positrons. Optionally, in the apparatus, the one or more optical materials include at least one of: Lithium Niobate, Barium Titanate, Barium Niobate, Graphene, doped Graphene, n-doped optically-transmissive material, p-doped optically-transmissive material. Optionally, in the apparatus, the one or more optical materials include a zero band-gap material. More optionally, in the apparatus, the one or more optical materials include one or more superconducting polymers for use in waveguides of the operating region; for example, bis(ethylenedithio)-tetrathiafulvalen is used for such one or more superconducting polymers. Optionally in the apparatus, the at least one substrate includes a dielectric material. More optionally, in the apparatus, the dielectric material of the at least one substrate includes at least one of: silica, quartz, sapphire. Optionally, the at least one substrate includes a dielectric layer formed onto a bulk Silicon substrate, wherein the operating region is fabricated onto the dielectric layer, remote from the Silicon substrate. Optionally, in the apparatus, the operating region includes at least two waveguides that are mutually spatially disposed on the at least one substrate to support spatial segregation of the one or more electrons and the one or more positrons to generate the one or more corresponding matter-antimatter dipoles, and to maintain coherence of wavefunctions defining the one or more photons giving rise the one or more matterantimatter dipoles as they propagate within the operating region. Optionally, in the apparatus, the energy collection arrangement for extracting energy includes one or more electrodes configured to have their elongate axes substantially parallel or in a curved formation to the operating region to collect electrons therefrom arising from the one or more antimatter-matter dipoles, wherein the one or more electrodes are configured to be included within wavefunctions of photons propagating in the operating region. Optionally, the apparatus is included in plurality configured in an array formation. More optionally, the array formation is implemented as at least one of: a solar photovoltaic energy-generating array, a portable diesel generator, a fixed-location power generation facility, a road vehicle, a smart phone, a portable personal computer, an electronic appliance, a satellite arrangement, an aircraft. According to a second aspect, there is provided a method as defined in the appended claim 12. There is provided a method for (namely, a method of) operating an apparatus to convert one or more photons at least one of input or generated within the apparatus into electrical energy, wherein the method includes: (i) configuring the apparatus to include at least one substrate including an operating region in which the one or more photons are able to propagate; (ii) spatially separating the one or more photons to generate corresponding one or more matter-antimatter dipoles, wherein the operating region is configured to support propagation of the one or more matter-antimatter dipoles therearound or therealong when in operation; and (iii) using an energy collection arrangement of the apparatus to extract energy from the propagating one or more matter-antimatter dipoles to generate the electrical energy. Optionally, the method includes configuring the apparatus to include the at least one planar substrate to support the operating region configured as a loop region, wherein the loop region is implemented using one or more optical materials that exhibit, when in use, a non-linear optical effect that causes the one or more photons to spatially separate into corresponding one or more electrons and one or more positrons to generate the one or more matter-antimatter dipoles that propagating around the loop region, while maintaining a wavefunction of the one or more photons within the loop region. Optionally, the method includes configuring the apparatus to include the at least one substrate to support the operating region implemented as a linear region, wherein the linear region is implemented using one or more optical materials that exhibit, when in use, a non-linear optical effect that causes the one or more photons to spatially separate into corresponding one or more electrons and one or more positrons to generate the one or more matter-antimatter dipoles that propagate along the linear region, while maintaining a wavefunction of the one or more photons within the linear region. Optionally, in the method, the non-linear optical effect includes an optical Kerr effect that causes spatial separation of photons into their corresponding electrons and positrons. Optionally, in the method, the one or more optical materials include at least one of: Lithium Niobate, Barium Titanate, Barium Niobate, Graphene, doped Graphene, n-doped optically-transmissive material, p-doped optically-transmissive material. Optionally, in the method, the one or more optical materials include a zero band-gap material. More optionally, in the method, the one or more optical materials include one or more superconducting polymers for use in waveguides of the operating region; for example, bis(ethylenedithio)-tetrathiafulvalen is used for such one or more superconducting polymers. Optionally, in the method, the at least one substrate includes a dielectric material. More optionally, in the method, the dielectric material of the at least one substrate includes at least one of: silica, quartz, sapphire. Optionally, the at least one substrate includes a dielectric layer formed onto a bulk Silicon substrate, wherein the operating region is fabricated onto the dielectric layer, remote from the Silicon substrate. Optionally, the method further includes configuring the operating region to include at least two waveguides that are mutually spatially disposed on the at least one substrate to support spatial segregation of the one or more electrons and the one or more positrons to generate the one or more corresponding matter-antimatter dipoles, and to maintain coherence of wavefunctions defining the one or more photons giving rise the one or more matter-antimatter dipoles as they propagate within the operating region. Optionally, the method includes configuring the energy collection arrangement for extracting energy to include one or more electrodes to have their elongate axes substantially parallel or in a curved formation to the operating region to collect electrons therefrom arising from the one or more antimatter-matter dipoles, wherein the one or more electrodes are configured to be included within wavefunctions of photons propagating in the operating region (140; 340A, 340B). Optionally, the method includes configuring the apparatus to be configured in plurality in an array formation. More optionally, the method includes implementing the array formation as at least one of: a solar photovoltaic energy-generating array, a portable diesel generator, a fixed-location power generation facility, a road vehicle, a smart phone, a portable personal computer, an electronic appliance, a satellite arrangement, an aircraft. According to a third aspect, there is provided a software product stored on a machine-readable data carrier, wherein the software product is executable on computing hardware for implementing the method of the second aspect. Beneficially, the one or more non-linear optical effects include an optical Kerr effect. The optical Kerr effect results in a refractive index change that causes the substrate electrons to group with other electrons, and likewise substrate positrons to group with other positrons, resulting in an enhanced positron-electron dipole, and thereby enhanced acceleration experienced by the electrons and the positrons within the apparatus. Description of diagrams Embodiments of the invention will be described with reference to the following drawings, wherein: FIG. 1 is a schematic illustration of mutual gravitation forces acting on masses of various types; FIG. 2 is a schematic illustration of a force acting on a circular path for generating energy; FIG. 3 is a schematic illustration of an apparatus of the present disclosure for generating energy; FIGs. 4A, 4B are schematic illustrations of practical implementations of the apparatus of FIG.3; FIG. 5 is a schematic cross-sectional view of a pair of waveguides of a loop waveguide structure of the apparatus of FIG. 3, wherein the waveguides are separated by a distance "x", a thickness height "h" above a substrate, wherein each waveguide has a width "w"; FIG. 6 is a schematic illustration of use applications for the apparatus of FIG. 3; FIG. 7 is a schematic illustration of an alternative apparatus of the present disclosure for generating energy; and FIG. 8 is a flow chart depicting steps of a method for generating energy from photons by using the apparatus of FIGs. 3 and 7. Description of embodiments From first principles in mechanics, it will be appreciated that 1 Joule of work is done in moving a force a 1 Newton by a distance of 1 metre, as defined by Equation 2 (Eq. 2): E = F d Eq. 2 wherein E = work done by a force F-, d = distance through which the force F is moved corresponding to the work done. Conveniently, as illustrated in FIG. 2 and indicated generally by 30, the distance L is constrained to a circular path 40 so that the force F acts along the circular path 40 having a radius L, allowing the force F to do work in a conveniently compact spatial region 50. Conveniently, as will be described in greater detail later, the spatial region 50 is confined to an optical substrate 60, wherein the circular path 40 is formed using a looped waveguide structure, for example a circular waveguide structure, fabricated on the substrate 60. The force F is conveniently generated by creating at least one matter-antimatter dipole in the looped waveguide structure, wherein photons are separated into their respective electrons and positrons to generate corresponding matter-antimatter dipoles by using an optical Kerr effect, wherein the dipole circulates around the circular path 40 to generate energy that may be extracted from the substrate 60 using pickup electrodes (not shown in FIG. 2) formed onto the substrate 60 to generate electrical energy. The looped waveguide structure is fabricated so that a given photon wavefunction is coherently maintained when its matterantimatter dipole is circulating around the circular path 40, thereby avoiding annihilation of its positron with matter constituting the waveguide structure. The waveguide structure is beneficially implemented by using at least two optical waveguides that are formed spatially sufficiently closely together on the substrate 60 that a given photon wavefunction is able to spatially encompass the at least two waveguides without causing decoherence of the photon wavefunction. Typically, the at least two waveguides are spatially separated by a distance which is comparable to, or less than, a wavelength of the photon wavefunction. Conveniently, electrodes formed in the substrate 60 that are configured alongside the waveguide structure are used to collect energy from the matter-antimatter dipoles circulating around the circular path 40, wherein bunching of the matter-antimatter dipoles is caused by using appropriate control signal applied to electrodes (not shown in FIG. 2) that are disposed orthogonally to the waveguide structure. The circular path 40 thereby effectively becomes a resonant cavity for the matter-antimatter dipoles from which energy may be coupled out, to provide electrical output energy. It will be appreciated that the aforesaid optical Kerr effect causes photons to be separated spatially into their corresponding electrons and photons, thereby causing spatial segregation of electrons with other electrons, and positrons with other positrons to occur in the waveguide structure. Conveniently, the substrate 60 is fabricated from a dielectric material, for example from silica, quartz, sapphire or similar, and the waveguide structure is fabricated from an optically transmissive material that exhibits the aforesaid optical Kerr effect, for example Lithium Niobate, Barium Titanate, Barium Niobate, Graphene, doped Graphene and so forth. The substrate 60 and its corresponding components parts as described in the foregoing may be configured in plural form in arrays, indicated by 70 in FIG. 2, to deliver larger amounts of electrical energy; optionally, the arrays 70 are configured as solar panels that are exposed to incident solar radiation when in operation to provide photons from which matterantimatter dipoles are generated. Such arrays 70 with their corresponding photon sources, namely an apparatus pursuant to the present disclosure, may thus be used as an alternative to nuclear power stations, diesel generators and similar. Optionally, collected solar photons may be used to provide the photon sources. Optionally, a portion of electric energy generated by the arrays 70 may be fed back into their photon sources, for example when the photon sources are implemented using one or more lasers, for example one or more pulse-mode lasers. The one or more lasers are optionally integrated into a same package as the substrate 60. Moreover, beneficially, such arrays 70 with their corresponding photon sources, may be retrofitted to existing power plants to function as energy generators to extend a useful service operating life of the power plants, as will be described in greater detail with reference to FIG. 6. The implementation, namely an apparatus, as illustrated in FIG. 2 is elucidated in the foregoing in overview. Next, a detailed reduction-to-practice of the apparatus will be described with reference to FIGs. 3 to 5. Referring next to FIG. 3, there is shown an illustration of an apparatus of the present disclosure, wherein the apparatus is indicated generally by 100. The apparatus 100 includes at least one substrate 110, for example a plurality of such substrates 110. The at least one substrate 110 is manufactured from a dielectric material, for example silica, fused silica, quartz, sapphire, a ceramic material, or similar. The at least one substrate 110 is beneficially a planar element having an upper planar surface 120A and a lower planar surface 120B. The at least one lower planar surface 120B is useable to support the at least one substrate 110 mechanically. The at least one substrate 110 is beneficially in a range of 0.5 mm to 3 mm thick. The upper planar surface 120A is manufactured to a mirror finish, as required for the fabrication of microelectronic devices through use of microlithographic processes. During manufacture, a layer of optical material is formed, for example by using vapour phase deposition, on the upper planar surface 120A, wherein the optical material is patterned using one or more microlithographic processes to form an input waveguide structure 130 that is optically coupled to a loop waveguide structure 140. Optionally, the layer of optical material includes at least one of: Lithium Niobate, Barium Titanate, Barium Niobate, Graphene, doped Graphene or any other material that exhibits a non-linear optical effect, in particular the optical Kerr effect that functions to segregate photons into their corresponding electrons and photons within a spatial envelope of their corresponding Schrodinger wavefunctions; the optical material is thereby referred as being a "non-linear optical material". Moreover, the loop waveguide structure 140 is optionally round in plan view, or elongate in one Cartesian direction with two straight portions 150 and two rounded end portion 160, as illustrated in plan view. The layer of optical material used in beneficially in a range of 100 nm to 3 mm thick to allow for reactive ion etching (RIE) or wet chemical etching through a lithographically-defined resist during manufacture. At a connection 150 at which the input waveguide structure 130 couples to the loop waveguide structure 140, there is provided an optical bridge arrangement, as described in more detail later. The optical bridge arrangement enables, when in use, photons to be fed along the input waveguide structure 130, wherein the photons then couple efficiently to the loop waveguide structure 140. Optionally, the input waveguide structure 130 intersects at an acute angle, for example an angle of less than 10 degrees when joining at the optical bridge structure to the loop waveguide structure 140. The loop waveguide structure 140 beneficially has a general radius in a range 50 mm to 20 mm, more optionally in a range of 100 mm to 2 mm. The input waveguide structure 130 optionally extends to an edge of the substrate 110, to allow in use for optical radiation including photons propagating along an optical fibre 180 to be coupled into the input waveguide structure 130; alternatively, a laser may be abutted to the edge of the substrate 110 to inject photons into the input optical waveguide 130. As an alternative or addition to using the input waveguide structure 130 to inject photons into the loop waveguide structure 140, the substrate 110 may be illuminated in use with photons from above the loop waveguide structure 140, for illuminating the loop waveguide structure 140 with an evanescent optical beam that skims the upper planar surface 120A. The photons may be generated from one or more lasers 145, for example one or more pulsed lasers; optionally, the one or more lasers 145 are packaged together with the substrate 110 in a protective enclosure, for example a canned semiconductor DIL-type package. As another example, the substrate 110 may be mounted between a pair of planar mirrors 190 whose planes are mutually substantially parallel and are substantially orthogonal to a plane of the upper planar surface 120A; optionally, the mirrors 190 are slightly curved to distribute light generated by the one or more lasers 145; optionally, the mirrors 190 are implemented as a single cylindrical mirror encompassing the substrate 110; the plane mirrors 190 form an optical cavity in which the substrate 110 is mounted in use and is bathed in a photon plasma generated from at least one of: one or more lasers 145, alternatively or additionally collected solar radiation. Thus, photons for the apparatus 100 may, for example, be provided from collected solar radiation; optionally, the apparatus 100 may be disposed in a manner akin to contemporary solar arrays to provide for ultra-high efficiency in converting incident solar radiation to electrical energy. Referring next to FIGs. 4A, 4B, there is shown an illustration of the input waveguide structure 130, the optical bridge arrangement denoted by 200 and the loop waveguide structure 140. In FIG. 4A, the input waveguide structure 130 is optionally implemented as a single waveguide supported on the substrate 110. At the optical bridge arrangement denoted by 200, the loop waveguide structure 140 is implemented locally as a single waveguide that has the single waveguide of the input waveguide structure 130 coupling thereto at a shallow angle, as illustrated; for example, the shallow angle is less than 10 degrees. Where the loop waveguide structure 140 is non-local, namely remote, from the optical bridge arrangement 200, the loop waveguide structure 140 branches into a least two waveguides 195A, 195B that are separated by a distance "x", even in regions where the loop waveguide structure 140 is curved around to form a loop. The two waveguides 195A, 195B are fabricated from a thin layer of non-linear optical material, for example Lithium Niobate, Barium Titanate, Barium Niobate, Graphene, doped Graphene and so forth; the non-linear material is chosen to exhibit the optical Kerr effect when in use that causes photons present in the waveguides 195A, 195B to spatially separate into corresponding electrons and positrons. Optionally, the waveguides 195A, 195B are mutually differently doped, for example one of the waveguides 195A being n-type doped and the other waveguide 195A, 195B being p-type doped, to enhance spatial segregation of photons between the waveguide 195A, 195B, to form matter-antimatter dipoles. The distance x is sufficiently small, such that a coherence of wavefunction is maintained between the waveguides 195A, 195B, for photons and their corresponding matterantimatter dipoles propagating therealong. Thus, the waveguides 195A, 195B exhibit the optical Kerr effect, that results in photons spatially separating out into a surplus of electrons propagating along one of the waveguides 195A, 195B, for example the waveguide 195A, and a surplus of positrons propagating along the other of the waveguides 195A, 195B, for example the waveguide 195B. This spatial separation occurs while the wavefunctions of the photons have a spatial extent that includes both of the waveguides 195A, 195B, thereby preventing the positrons of the photons annihilating with the waveguides 195A, 195B. The spatial separation of the electrons and their respective positrons creates corresponding matter-antimatter dipoles that are able to propagate around the loop waveguide structure 140; on account of the dipoles being able to create a force that is moving, energy may be extracted from the substrate 110 and its associated structures. Electrodes 210 disposed alongside the one of the waveguides 195A, 195B that has excess electrons allows power to be extracted by at least one of electromagnetic induction and capacitive coupling to be output as an electrical signal. Further electrodes 220 are disposed orthogonally to the waveguides 195A, 195B, wherein the electrodes 210 are insulated from the electrodes 200 by a dielectric layer such vapour-phase deposited Silicon Dioxide, where they mutually overlap. The further electrodes 220 are optionally used as control electrodes to modulate movement of the matter-antimatter dipoles to arrange them into bunches to create oscillations of dipole density propagating around the loop waveguide structure 140; the further electrodes 220 either straggle both of the waveguides 195A, 195B, or only one of the waveguides 195A, 195B. The oscillations allow for the aforesaid at least one of electromagnetic induction and capacitive coupling to the electrodes 210 to generate the electrical signal. Referring next to FIG. 4B, the optical bridge arrangement 200 of FIG. 4A is implemented as an optical bridge arrangement 800 shown in FIG. 4B. In FIG. 4B, the waveguides 195A, 195B are each continued uninterrupted around their respective loops, wherein the input waveguide structure 130 is provided as a single waveguide 850 at a periphery of the substrate 110, wherein the single waveguide 850 straggles over the waveguides 150A, 150B with a thin layer of dielectric material interposed between the single waveguide 850 where it straggles a region of width x between the waveguides 150A, 150B; the thin layer of dielectric material is advantageously vapour-phased grown Silicon Dioxide or an optically transmissive polymeric material, for example polyamide. Next, operation of the apparatus 100 will be described with reference to FIGs, 4A, B. In operation, the electrodes 220 are used to control separation of the photons between the waveguides 195A, 195B into regions of excess electrons and excess positrons in combination with the optical Kerr effect, as well as controlling a direction of propagation around the waveguides 195A, 195B, and also control bunching of the photons around the waveguides 195A, 195B, so that the electrodes 210 are most efficiently able to couple to the waveguides 195A, 195B to generate the aforesaid signal corresponding the electrical energy extracted from the apparatus 100. Optionally, when the apparatus 100 is provided with photons from the aforesaid one or more lasers, for example the one or more lasers 145, the one or more lasers 145 are optionally operated in pulsed mode, wherein control signals applied to the electrodes 220 are temporally synchronized to pulses of the one or more lasers. At least one of the aforesaid bunching and the one or more lasers being operated in pulse modes, assists electrical energy coupling from the waveguides 195A, 195B to the electrodes 220. Alternatively, optionally, the one or more lasers 145 are operated in a continuous manner, and electrons are steadily removed via the electrodes 210 as they occur in the waveguides 195A, 195. However, it will be appreciated that more than the aforesaid two waveguide 195A, 195B may be used in the apparatus 100. Beneficially, the electrodes 210 are optionally coupled to a capacitor arrangement 225, for example implemented as a chip capacitor that is flip mounted to the substrate 110. Moreover, for a cycle of operation, the one or more lasers 145 are beneficially operated in a given pulse mode, wherein the capacitor arrangement 225 is set to a starting potential prior to the one or more lasers 145 being pulsed; photons provided from the one or more lasers 145 being pulsed propagate to the waveguide structure 140, wherein the photons are spatially separated into corresponding electrons and positrons on account of the optical Kerr effect, hereby forming corresponding matter-antimatter dipoles that propagate around the waveguide structure 140, wherein the matter-antimatter dipoles accelerate; accelerated electrons of the matter-antimatter dipoles are coupled to the electrodes 210 and charge the capacitor arrangement 225. After the pulses of the one or more lasers 145 have ceased, the capacitor arrangement 225 is discharged to extract energy therefrom to provide energy output from the apparatus 100, wherein the capacitor arrangement 225 is returned to the starting potential. Optionally, the cycle is repeated, for example at a repetition rate in excess of 100 MHz. A manner of operation of the apparatus 100 will next be described in more detail; the manner of operation is referred to as being an "electron accelerator". The apparatus 100 beneficially functions by using an initial priming cycle followed thereafter by one or more operating cycles, during which the apparatus 100 continuously generates accelerated electrons from which energy may be produced. The priming cycle is started by a laser pulse being provided from the one or more lasers 145, wherein the laser pulse pushes photons into the waveguide structure 140. These pushed photons separate into positrons, which are beneficially retained to retain inside non-linear optical material of the waveguide structure 140, as well as electrons which are available for acceleration. After the initial priming cycle, one or more operating cycles are performed that feed electrons into the waveguide structure 140. In each of the one or more operating cycles, a repeat laser pulse provided from the one or more lasers 145 continues to supply positrons into the waveguide structure 140. Electrons generated by the laser pulse first slow down naturally as they encounter impediments of the crystalline structure of non-linear material of the waveguide structure 140. The electrons are then accelerated. However, in an example situation, there will be no net energy gain resulting from this acceleration since these electrons left the one or more laser 145 as photons travelling at the speed of light. In the apparatus 100, they electrons effectively slowed down and then speeded up back to their starting velocity. Optionally, during the operating cycle, the capacitor arrangement 225 provides a source of slow electrons that may be accelerated to achieve a gain in energy. Referring next to FIG. 5, there is shown a schematic cross-sectional view of the waveguides 195A, 195B of the loop waveguide structure 140 of the apparatus 100 of FIG. 3, likewise FIGs. 4A and 4B, wherein the waveguides 195A, 195B are separated by a distance "x", wherein the distance x is optionally in a range of 30 nm to 1 mm. The distance x is chosen when designing the apparatus 100 to be sufficiently small that a given photon wavefunction may be sustained simultaneously in both waveguides 195A, 195B, and yet sufficiently far apart for the optical Kerr effect to enable different concentrations of electrons and positrons to propagate along the waveguides 195A, 195B to generate moving matter-antimatter dipoles. The waveguides 195A, 195B have a thickness height "h" above the substrate 110, wherein each waveguide 195A, 195B has a width "w"; the height h is optionally in a range of 10 nm to 3 mm, and the width w is optionally in a range of 30 nm to 3 mm. Optionally, the waveguides 195A, 195B are at least one of: mutually different widths wi, W2, mutually different height h; for example, such a difference is beneficially arranged to enhance spatial separation of electrons and positrons in the waveguides 195A, 195B. The waveguides 195A, 195B are, for example, designed to support photon propagation therealong having a wavelength in a range 100 nm to 2 mm, more optionally substantially 1500 nm. A wavelength of substantially 1500 nm is used in the contemporary telecoms industry, enabling manufacturing of the apparatus 100 to benefit from standard off-the-shelf telecoms components. Referring next to FIG. 6, the apparatus 100 is susceptible to being mass produced on a standard contemporary semiconductor production line, for example a semiconductor line configured to produce optical modulators for the telecoms industry. As aforementioned, the apparatus 100 may be used individually or in small groups for providing power in portable electronic apparatus such as smart phones 250 and portable computers 260, or in large arrays for major electrical energy generation systems 270. The apparatus 100 is capable of efficiently converting photons input into the apparatus 100 into corresponding electrical energy of the aforementioned signal. The apparatus 100 may be used in automotive products 280, for example for assisting to propel electric vehicles. The apparatus 100 may be used in large numbers as a substitute to portable diesel generators 290, as a retrofit to existing power stations that are scheduled for closure (for example coal-fired power stations and nuclear power stations that are to be decommissioned). Additionally, the apparatus 100 may be used in aerospace, for example to assist to generate electrical power in space systems such as satellites 295. On account of the apparatus 100 utilizing the substrate 110 manufactured from an environmental benign dielectric material, the apparatus 100 is environmentally friendly in its manufacture, and does not give rise to toxic and dangerous by-products when in operation, for example greenhouse gas emissions such as Carbon Dioxide. Thus, use of the apparatus 100 is capable of reducing Carbon Dioxide emissions to atmosphere, thereby mitigating anthropogenically-forced climate change. As the substrate 110 is optionally beneficially manufactured from silica or quartz, made essentially from types of sands, the apparatus 100 may be manufactured from materials that are plentifully available to industry, namely using sustainable technology. Referring next to FIG. 7, there is shown an alternative implementation of the apparatus 100, wherein the alternative implementation is indicated generally by 300. The apparatus 300 includes the substrate 110 with its various structures coupled to one or more lasers 145, alternatively fed from an alternative photon source, for example solar radiation collectors. The various structures include a layer 310 of non-linear optical material, for example at least one of: Lithium Niobate, Barium Titanate, Barium Niobate, Graphene, doped-Graphene, n-type doped non-linear optically-transmissive material, p-type doped non-linear optical material. The nonlinear optically-transmissive material is beneficially arranged to exhibit the optical Kerr effect that causes photons propagating in the non-linear optically-transmissive material to spatially separate into respective electrons and positrons. A dielectric material layer 320 is formed onto the layer 310, wherein the dielectric material includes, for example, vapourphase grown or deposited Silicon Dioxide or a polymeric insulator such as polyamide. The layer 310 is photolithographically formed into an input waveguide 330, a bifurcated-waveguide bridge region 335 and at least two linear waveguides 340A, 350B; optionally, at least two linear waveguides 340A, 350B are slightly curved but maintain a small gap x therebetween. The at least two linear waveguides 340A, 350B are optionally differentially doped with n-type and p-type dopants. The waveguides 340A, 340 are dimensioned in cross-section in a similar manner to the waveguides 195A, 195B as illustrated in FIG. 5. In operation, the aforesaid non-linear optically-transmissive material causes different concentrations of electrons and positrons to propagate in the waveguides 340A, 350B by causing a distortion in wavefunctions of photons propagating from the input waveguide 330 to the at least two waveguides 340A, 340B; such separation results in the formation of matter-antimatter dipoles. The waveguides 340A, 340B are provided with wire bonding pads 360 that are connected elongate electrodes 370 whose orientation is substantially orthogonal to elongate axes of the at least two waveguides 340A, 350B. As shown, the electrodes 390 either overlay both the at least two waveguides 340A, 350B, or only one of the at least two waveguides 340A, 350B to assist control of separating out electrons and positrons of photons into their respect waveguides 340A, 350B. As aforementioned, the waveguides 340A, 340B are separated by a distance "x" that is sufficiently small to enable photons to propagate along the at least two waveguides 340A, 340B, but without their positrons annihilating with matter constituting the at least two waveguides 340A, 340B. Moreover, wirebonding pads 380 are coupled to one or more electron-pickoff-electrodes 390 that are disposed with their elongate axes substantially parallel to elongate axes of the at least two electrodes 340A, 340B. The electrodes 390 are sufficiently close to at least one of the at least two electrodes 340A, 340B, such that the wavefunction of the photons propagating along the at least two waveguides 340A, 340B includes the one or more electrodes 390 within spatial envelopes of their wavefunctions. In operation, optionally, it will be appreciated that when electrons are extracted from the pads 380, corresponding positrons may be harvested from ends of the waveguides 340A, 340B extended to an edge of the substrate 110 by mounting the apparatus 300 within a vacuum enclosure and applying an electric field to an edge of the substrate 110 at which the ends of the at least two waveguides 340A, 340B are exposed; the positrons may be annihilated with matter of a target (not shown) to generate additional heat energy using the apparatus 300. Optionally, for the aforesaid apparatus 100, 300, the substrate 110 is mounted on a major plane of a magnet arrangement, for example a flat planar Neodymium magnet, whose magnetic field lines are arranged to be orthogonal to a plane of the substrate 110. Beneficially, the magnetic field lines assist the non-linear characteristics of the apparatus 100, for example implemented as 300, to cause separation of the photons into their respective electrons and positrons in the at least two waveguides 195A, 195B, 340A, 340B of the apparatus 100, 300. Optionally, the electrodes 390 are coupled to a capacitor arrangement 395, wherein the capacitor arrangement 395 is optionally implemented as one or more chip capacitors mounted to the substrate 110. Moreover, for a cycle of operation, the one or more lasers 145 are beneficially operated in a given pulse mode, wherein the capacitor arrangement 395 is set to a starting potential prior to the one or more lasers 145 being pulsed; photons provided from the one or more lasers 145 being pulsed propagate to the waveguides 340A, 340B, wherein the photons are spatially separated into corresponding electrons and positrons on account of the optical Kerr effect, hereby forming corresponding matter-antimatter dipoles that propagate around the waveguides 340A, 340B, wherein the matter-antimatter dipoles accelerate; accelerated electrons of the matter-antimatter dipoles are coupled to the electrodes 390 and charge the capacitor arrangement 395. After the pulses of the one or more lasers 145 have ceased, the capacitor arrangement 395 is discharged to extract energy therefrom to provide energy output from the apparatus 300, wherein the capacitor arrangement 395 is returned to the starting potential. Optionally, the cycle is repeated, for example at a repetition rate in excess of 100 MHz. A manner of operation of the apparatus 300 will next be described in more detail; the manner of operation is referred to as being an "electron accelerator". The apparatus 100 beneficially functions by using an initial priming cycle followed thereafter by one or more operating cycles, during which the apparatus 300 continuously generates accelerated electrons from which energy may be produced. The priming cycle is started by a laser pulse being provided from the one or more lasers 145, wherein the laser pulse pushes photons into the waveguides 340A, 340B. These pushed photons separate into positrons, which are beneficially retained to retain inside non-linear optical material of the waveguides 340A, 340B, as well as electrons which are available for acceleration. After the initial priming cycle, one or more operating cycles are performed that feed electrons into the waveguide 340A, 340B. In each of the one or more operating cycles, a repeat laser pulse provided from the one or more lasers 145 continues to supply positrons into the waveguides 340A, 340B. Electrons generated by the laser pulse first slow down naturally as they encounter impediments of the crystalline structure of non-linear material of the waveguides 340A, 340B. The electrons are then accelerated. However, in an example situation, there will be no net energy gain resulting from this acceleration since these electrons left the one or more laser 145 as photons travelling at the speed of light. In the apparatus 300, they electrons effectively slowed down and then speeded up back to their starting velocity. Optionally, during the operating cycle, the capacitor arrangement 395 provides a source of slow electrons that may be accelerated to achieve a gain in energy. Referring next to FIG. 8, there is shown steps of an algorithm, also referred to as being a method, indicated generally by 600. Optionally, the algorithm 600 is beneficially implemented using a computing device 650 that is configured to execute a software product recorded on a machine-readable data storage medium. Such control includes operation of the one or more lasers 145, and voltages applied to the electrodes 220, 370; it will be appreciated that the one or more lasers 145 may be operated in a continuous mode, alternatively a pulsed mode, or switchable therebetween. Moreover, potentials applied to the 220, 370 may be constant voltages or varied in a pulsed manner, or switchable therebetween. The algorithm 600 is used to convert one or more photons at least one of input or generated within the apparatus 100, 300 into electrical energy. Beneficially, the algorithm 600 includes steps 610 to 640. In the step 610, the algorithm 600 includes configuring the apparatus 100, 300 to include at least one substrate 110 including an operating region, for example including the loop waveguide structure 140 or the at least two waveguide 340A, 340B, in which the one or more photons are able to propagate. In the step 620, the algorithm 600 includes spatially separating the one or more photons to generate corresponding one or more matter-antimatter dipoles, wherein the operating region is configured to support propagation of the one or more matter-antimatter dipoles therearound or therealong when in operation. In the step 630, the algorithm 600 includes using an energy collection arrangement, for example implemented using the electrodes 210, 370, of the apparatus 100, 300 to extract energy from the propagating one or more matter-antimatter dipoles to generate the electrical energy. 5 In the optional step 640, the algorithm 600 includes configuring the apparatus 100, 300 to be included in plurality in an array formation. Optionally, the array formation includes a solar photovoltaic energygenerating array, a portable diesel generator, a fixed-location power generation facility, a road vehicle, a smart phone, a portable personal 10 computer, an electronic appliance, a satellite arrangement, an aircraft, for example as described in the foregoing. It is to be understood that arrangements of components illustrated in the aforesaid diagrams and described above are exemplary and that other arrangements may be possible within the scope of the claims as appended 15 herewith. Although the disclosure and its advantages have been described in detail, it is to be understood that various changes, substitutions, and alterations may be made herein without departing from the spirit and scope of the disclosure as defined by the appended claims.

Claims

1. An apparatus (100; 300) for converting one or more photons at least one of input or generated within the apparatus (100; 300) into electrical energy, wherein the apparatus (100; 300) includes at least one substrate (110) including an operating region (140; 340A, 340B) in which the one or more photons are spatially separated to generate corresponding one or more matter-antimatter dipoles, wherein the operating region (140; 340A, 340B) is configured to support propagation of the one or more matterantimatter dipoles therearound or therealong when in operation, wherein the apparatus (100; 300) further includes an energy collection arrangement (210; 390) for extracting energy from the propagating one or more matter-antimatter dipoles to generate the electrical energy.

2. An apparatus (100) of claim 1, wherein the apparatus (100) is configured for the at least one substrate (110) to support the operating region (140) configured as a loop region (140), wherein the loop region (140) is implemented using one or more optical materials that exhibit, when in use, a non-linear optical effect that causes the one or more photons to spatially separate into corresponding one or more electrons and one or more positrons to generate the one or more matter-antimatter dipoles propagating around the loop region (140), while maintaining a wavefunction of the one or more photons within the loop region (140).

3. An apparatus (300) of claim 1, wherein the apparatus (300) is configured for the at least one substrate (110) to support the operating region (340A, 340B) configured as a linear region (340A, 340B), wherein the linear region (340A, 340B) is implemented using one or more optical materials that exhibit, when in use, a non-linear optical effect that causes the one or more photons to spatially separate into corresponding one or more electrons and one or more positrons to generate the one or more matter-antimatter dipoles propagating along the linear region (340A,340B), while maintaining a wavefunction of the one or more photons within the linear region (340A, 340B).

4. An apparatus (100; 300) of claim 2, 3 or 4, wherein the non-linear optical effect includes an optical Kerr effect that causes spatial separation of photons into their corresponding electrons and positrons.

5. An apparatus (100; 300) of claim 2, 3 or 4, wherein the one or more optical materials include at least one of: Lithium Niobate, Barium Titanate, Barium Niobate, Graphene, doped Graphene, n-doped optically-transmissive material, p-doped optically-transmissive material.

6. An apparatus (100, 300) of claim 2, 3, 4 or 5, wherein the one or more optical materials include a zero band-gap material.

7. An apparatus (100, 300) of claim 6, wherein the one or more optical materials include one or more superconducting polymers for use in waveguides of the operating region, wherein the one or more superconducting polymers optionally include bis(ethylenedithio)-tetrathiafulvalen.

8. An apparatus (10, 300) of one of the preceding claims, wherein the at least one substrate (110) includes a dielectric material.

9. An apparatus (100, 300) of claim 8, wherein the dielectric material of the at least one substrate (110) includes at least one of: silica, quartz, sapphire.

10. An apparatus (100, 300) of claim 8, wherein the at least one substrate (110) includes a dielectric layer formed onto a bulk Silicon substrate, wherein the operating region is fabricated onto the dielectric layer, remote from the Silicon substrate (110).

11. An apparatus (100; 300) of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the operating region (140; 340A, 340B) includes at least two waveguides(195A, 195B; 340A, 340B) that are mutually spatially disposed on the at least one substrate (110) to support spatial segregation of the one or more electrons and the one or more positrons to generate the one or more corresponding matter-antimatter dipoles, and to maintain coherence of wavefunctions defining the one or more photons giving rise the one or more matter-antimatter dipoles as they propagate within the operating region (140; 340A, 340B).

12. An apparatus (100; 300) of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the energy collection arrangement (210) for extracting energy includes one or more electrodes (210; 390) configured to have their elongate axes substantially parallel or in a curved formation to the operating region (140, 340A, 340B) to collect electrons therefrom arising from the one or more antimatter-matter dipoles, wherein the one or more electrodes (210; 390) are configured to be included within wavefunctions of photons propagating in the operating region (140; 340A, 340B).

13. An apparatus (100; 300) of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the apparatus (100; 340) is included in plurality configured in an array formation.

14. An apparatus (100; 300) of claim 10, wherein the array formation is implemented as at least one of: a solar photovoltaic energy-generating array, a portable diesel generator, a fixed-location power generation facility, a road vehicle, a smart phone, a portable personal computer, an electronic appliance, a satellite arrangement, an aircraft.

15. A method (600) for operating an apparatus (100; 300) to convert one or more photons at least one of input or generated within the apparatus (100; 300) into electrical energy, wherein the method includes:(i) configuring the apparatus (100; 300) to include at least one substrate (110) including an operating region (140; 340A, 340B) in which the one or more photons are able to propagate;(ii) spatially separating the one or more photons to generate corresponding one or more matter-antimatter dipoles, wherein the operating region (140; 340A, 340B) is configured to support propagation of the one or more matter-antimatter dipoles therearound or therealong when in operation; and(iii) using an energy collection arrangement (210) of the apparatus (100; 300) to extract energy from the propagating one or more matterantimatter dipoles to generate the electrical energy.

16. A method (600) of claim 15, wherein the method includes configuring the apparatus (100) to include the at least one planar substrate (110) to support the operating region (140) configured as a loop region (140), wherein the loop region (140) is implemented using one or more optical materials that exhibit, when in use, a non-linear optical effect that causes the one or more photons to spatially separate into corresponding one or more electrons and one or more positrons to generate the one or more matter-antimatter dipoles that propagating around the loop region (140), while maintaining a wavefunction of the one or more photons within the loop region (140).

17. A method (600) of claim 15, wherein the method includes configuring the apparatus (300) to include the at least one substrate (110) to support the operating region (340A, 340B) implemented as a linear region (340A, 340B), wherein the linear region (340A, 340B) is implemented using one or more optical materials that exhibit, when in use, a non-linear optical effect that causes the one or more photons to spatially separate into corresponding one or more electrons and one or more positrons to generate the one or more matter-antimatter dipoles that propagate along the linear region (340A, 340B), while maintaining a wavefunction of the one or more photons within the linear region (340A, 340B).

18. A method (600) of claim 16 or 17, wherein the non-linear optical effect includes an optical Kerr effect that causes spatial separation of photons into their corresponding electrons and positrons.

19. A method (600) of claim 16, 17 or 18, wherein the one or more optical materials include at least one of: Lithium Niobate, Barium Titanate, Barium Niobate, Graphene, doped Graphene, n-doped optically-transmissive material, p-doped optically-transmissive material.

20. A method (600) of claim 16, 17, 18 or 19, wherein the one or more optical materials include a zero band-gap material.

21. A method (600) of claim 20, wherein the one or more optical materials include one or more superconducting polymers for use in waveguides of the operating region, wherein the one or more superconducting polymers optionally include bis(ethylenedithio)-tetrathiafulvalen.

22. A method (600) of claims 15 to 21, wherein the at least one substrate (110) includes a dielectric material.

23. A method (600) of claim 17, wherein the dielectric material of the at least one substrate (110) includes at least one of: silica, quartz, sapphire.

24. A method (600) of claim 22, wherein the at least one substrate (110) includes a dielectric layer formed onto a bulk Silicon substrate, wherein the operating region is fabricated onto the dielectric layer, remote from the Silicon substrate (110).

25. A method (600) of any one of claims 15 to 24, wherein the method further includes configuring the operating region (140; 340A, 340B) to include at least two waveguides (195A, 195B; 340A, 340B) that are mutually spatially disposed on the at least one substrate (110) to support spatial segregation of the one or more electrons and the one or more positrons to generate the one or more corresponding matter-antimatterdipoles, and to maintain coherence of wavefunctions defining the one or more photons giving rise the one or more matter-antimatter dipoles as they propagate within the operating region (140; 340A, 340B).

26. A method (600) of any one of claims 15 to 25, wherein the method includes configuring the energy collection arrangement (210) for extracting energy to include one or more electrodes (210; 390) to have their elongate axes substantially parallel or in a curved formation to the operating region (140; 340A, 340B) to collect electrons therefrom arising from the one or more antimatter-matter dipoles, wherein the one or more electrodes are configured to be included within wavefunctions of photons propagating in the operating region (140; 340A, 340B).

27. A method (600) of any one of claims 15 to 26, wherein the method includes configuring the apparatus (100; 340) to be configured in plurality in an array formation.

28. A method (600) of claim 27, wherein the method includes implementing the array formation as at least one of: a solar photovoltaic energy-generating array, a portable diesel generator, a fixed-location power generation facility, a road vehicle, a smart phone, a portable personal computer, an electronic appliance, a satellite arrangement, an aircraft.

29. A software product stored on a machine-readable data carrier, wherein the software product is executable on computing hardware (650) for implementing a method (600) of any one of claims 15 to 28.

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