Device, system and method for converting first substance into second substance

Abstract

To provide a method for converting one element or isotope into the other element or isotope.SOLUTION: Provided is a system for converting the first substance into the second substance, comprising: a mixing reactor composed so as to obtain a rection mixture containing the first reactant and the second reactant; and a high shear apparatus connected to the mixing reactor so that a fluid passes therethrough. This high shear apparatus is provided with at least a pair of rotor and a complementary-shaped stator symmetrically arranged around a rotary shaft and separated with a shear gap in a range of approximately 10-250 microns and a motor to be rotating the rotor around the rotary shaft, thus energy from the rotor is conducted to the reactants and the reaction between the first reactant and the second reactant is induced to form a product.SELECTED DRAWING: Figure 1A

Description

[Technical Field]

[0001] STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT Not applicable.

[0002] Technical Field The present invention generally relates to breaking and creating bonds between subatomic and atomic particles. Specifically, in some embodiments, the present invention relates to adding subatomic particles to, removing subatomic particles from, or replacing subatomic particles in atomic nuclei. Specifically, in some embodiments, the present invention relates to adding or removing protons or neutrons from nuclei, or converting protons to neutrons or neutrons to protons. Even more specifically, in some embodiments, the present invention relates to obtaining helium-3 from helium-4. Even more specifically, in some embodiments, the present invention relates to converting one element or isotope to another element or isotope. [Background technology]

[0003] Background of the Invention Helium-3 is a light, non-radioactive isotope of helium containing two protons and one neutron. For example, helium-3 has been used many times in both research and industry. It is used in low-temperature physics to achieve temperatures on the order of a few tenths of a kelvin, and in dilution refrigeration in combination with helium-4 to achieve temperatures as low as a few thousandths of a kelvin. Helium-3 is also an important isotope in neutron detection instrumentation. Other uses of helium-3 include medical imaging. Helium-3 is also used in some nuclear fusion processes.

[0004] Although helium-3 has many uses, its abundance on Earth is extremely rare. In fact, while helium is common throughout the universe, it is extremely rare on Earth. Furthermore, not only is helium extremely rare on Earth, but the fraction of helium that is helium-3 is also extremely low. For example, the helium-3 content of the atmosphere near the surface of the Earth is 7.27 ± 0.20 parts per trillion by volume (pptv), and the helium-3 / helium-4 ratio for atmospheric helium is approximately 1.393 × 10 -6 All terrestrial sources have a ratio of less than 1,000,000 helium-4 to 5 helium-3 atoms, making it difficult to obtain sufficient amounts of helium-3 from naturally occurring sources.

[0005] Helium-3 can also be obtained as a product of the decay of tritium (a radioactive isotope of hydrogen containing two neutrons and one proton). This is currently the most common method for obtaining helium-3 commercially. Tritium is radioactive, making it potentially dangerous to inhale or ingest. Tritium can also combine with oxygen to form tritiated water molecules, which can be absorbed through pores in the skin. Not only is tritium dangerous, it is also rare. Tritium is typically produced by neutron activation of lithium-6 in a nuclear reactor. However, this method is expensive and can render reactor components radioactive.

[0006] Other elements are similarly rare and difficult to obtain. Specifically, rare earth elements are difficult to obtain naturally, including the lanthanides, which are becoming increasingly useful as their many applications are commercialized. For example, rare earth elements are used in liquid crystal displays for computer monitors and televisions, fiber optic cables, magnets, glass polishing, DVDs, computer USB drives, catalytic converters, petroleum cracking catalysts, batteries, fluorescent lights, missiles, jet engines, and satellites.

[0007] Therefore, there is a need in the art for efficient and economical systems, apparatus, and methods for obtaining helium-3 and rare earth elements from inexpensive, abundant elements. Furthermore, there is a need for systems, apparatus, and methods for obtaining helium-3 that are safer and produce fewer radioactive by-products than current methods. There is also a need for efficient and economical systems for obtaining rare earth elements from cheaper, more abundant elements. There is also a need for economical methods for converting isotopes of one element to another isotope or element. Summary of the Invention

[0008] This application discloses a high shear system and method that can induce neutron stripping and atomic rearrangement, resulting in changes in atomic number and isotope formation of a given element. The high shear device induces localized high pressure and high temperature, enabling nucleon-nucleon interactions and nuclear rearrangement. Specifically, mechanical energy from the rotor and stator of the high shear device is applied to the nuclei of an element. In one embodiment, this mechanical energy is transferred through particles of an inorganic material, such as a metal (e.g., silver). The resulting energy transfer can create a highly localized region of high pressure and temperature sufficient to overcome the Coulomb barrier and enable nucleon-nucleon interactions between the nuclei of various elements.

[0009] In one embodiment, a high shear system and method for converting Helium-4 to Helium-3 is disclosed. The high shear device induces localized high pressure and temperature that allows for nucleon-nucleon interactions, allowing hydrogen and Helium-4 to interact and produce Helium-3. Specifically, mechanical energy from the rotor and stator of the high shear device is applied to the hydrogen and helium through inorganic particles, such as metals (e.g., silver). The resulting energy transfer creates a highly localized region of high pressure and temperature sufficient to overcome the Coulomb barrier and allow nucleon-nucleon interactions between nuclei of various elements, such as between hydrogen and helium nuclei.

[0010] In one embodiment of the invention, a process utilizes a high shear mechanical reactor to achieve high pressure and high temperature reaction conditions that facilitate the conversion of Helium-4 to Helium-3. Also, in one embodiment, the disclosed method includes dissolving Helium-3 in an ammonium hydroxide solution for long-term storage.

[0011] One embodiment of the present invention provides a system for converting a first substance into a second substance. The system includes a mixing reactor that agitates a mixture to obtain a reactant. The mixture includes a first reactant and a second reactant, along with a solvent, and optionally solid particles suspended or dissolved in the solvent. The system also includes a high shear device in fluid communication with the mixing reactor, the high shear device having at least one stage. At least one stage of the high shear device includes a rotor that encloses an internal space and is symmetrically disposed about an axis of rotation. The high shear device stage also includes an outer casing, the outer casing and the rotor are separated by an annular space, and the distance between the rotor and the outer casing is greater than about 10 microns and less than about 250 microns. The high shear device also includes a motor that rotates the rotor about the axis of rotation, and energy from the rotor rotation is transferred from the rotor to the reactants, optionally via solid particles, thereby inducing a reaction between the first reactant and the second reactant to produce a product.

[0012] One embodiment of the present invention provides a system for converting 4He to 3He. The system includes a mixer-reactor configured to agitate a mixture to obtain a reactant, the mixture including hydrogen, helium, a solvent, and, optionally, inorganic solid particles, which may be suspended in the solvent. The system also includes a high shear device connected to the mixer-reactor for allowing a fluid to pass therethrough. The high shear device includes a rotor surrounding an internal space disposed symmetrically around a rotation axis, and an outer casing disposed with an annular space therebetween, the rotor and the outer casing being spaced apart by a distance of at least about 250 microns. A motor is also provided to rotate the rotor about the rotation axis. Energy generated by the rotation of the rotor is transferred from the rotor to the hydrogen and helium, with the aid of inorganic solid particles as needed, thereby inducing a localized high-temperature and high-pressure region to promote interaction between the hydrogen and helium nuclei and converting some of the 4He in the helium into 3He. The device also includes an intake configured to receive reactants from the mixing reactor, the intake being positioned on the rotation axis and fluidly connected to the internal space of the mixing reactor and a first outlet. Another first outlet is also fluidly connected to the internal space of the mixing reactor and the recirculation inlet, and the product mixture in which the converted 3He dissolved in the solvent can be supplied to the mixing reactor. The system also includes a separation unit for separating at least a portion of the 3He from the solvent, the separation unit including an inlet in fluid communication with the second outlet of the mixing reactor and a sampling outlet for obtaining the 3He.

[0013] One embodiment of the present invention provides a method for long-term storage of 3He, including obtaining 3He, mixing the 3He with an ammonium hydroxide solution under pressure to dissolve the 3He in the ammonium hydroxide solution, and maintaining the pressure to dissolve the 3He in the ammonium hydroxide.

[0014] One embodiment of the present invention provides a method for converting 4He to 3He. The method includes forming a feed stream by combining hydrogen, helium, and a solvent, optionally suspending or dissolving metal particles in the solvent, and introducing the feed stream into an interior volume of a high shear device having an interior volume including at least one rotor and at least one complementary stator, the rotors being symmetrically arranged about an axis of rotation and separated by a gap ranging from about 10 microns to about 250 microns. The method further includes rotating the at least one rotor about the axis of rotation such that mechanical energy is transferred from the rotating rotor to hydrogen and helium nuclei, thereby inducing a localized region of high pressure and temperature to promote a nuclear reaction and convert at least a portion of the 4He to 3He. The method further includes extracting a product stream from the interior volume, the product stream including 3He converted from the 4He, and optionally including one or more of unreacted hydrogen, unreacted helium, and solid particles.

[0015] One embodiment of the present invention provides a method for converting a first element to a different element or isotope of the first element. The method can include providing a feed stream or emulsion containing hydrogen, the first element, and a solvent. The method can further include using a high shear device having an interior space containing at least one rotor and at least one complementary stator symmetrically arranged about an axis of rotation and separated by a gap between the rotor and the stator, introducing the feed stream into the interior space of the high shear device, and rotating the at least one rotor about the axis of rotation to transfer mechanical energy from the rotating rotors to their respective nuclei, thereby inducing localized regions of high pressure and temperature to promote nuclear reactions between the nuclei of the individual elements and hydrogen nuclei, thereby converting at least a portion of the first element to a different element or isotope of the first element. The method can further include extracting a product stream containing the different element or isotope of the first element from the high shear device. Additionally, the process for preparing a feed stream may include dissolving hydrogen in a solvent using a mixing reactor, and the method may further include recycling the product stream to the mixing reactor and extracting at least a portion of the product stream from the mixing reactor to a separation unit, thereby separating at least a portion of the isotopes of the different element or first element from at least a portion of the solvent. The solvent may be selected from the group consisting of ammonium hydroxide solution, water, oil, and combinations thereof. In one embodiment, the feed stream further includes solids. In one embodiment, the solid particles are selected from the group consisting of metals, ceramics, metal oxides, and combinations thereof. In one embodiment, the solids include metal particles. The solids may include particles having an average size ranging from about 2 microns to about 8 microns. Rotating the rotor about the axis of rotation generates a rotational speed of about 100,000,000 s -1 In one embodiment, the shear gap is greater than about 250 microns. In one embodiment, the shear gap is less than about 250 microns.

[0016] In some embodiments of this method, the first element is selected from the group consisting of rare earth elements and the other element is a higher rare earth element. In one embodiment, the first element is a radionuclide. In one embodiment, the first element is a radionuclide of cesium and strontium, and the isotopes of the first element are selected from the group consisting of stable isotopes of the first element. In one embodiment, the first element is selected from the group consisting of strontium-89, strontium-90, and combinations thereof. The isotopes of the first element can be selected from the group consisting of strontium-84, strontium-86, strontium-87, strontium-88, and combinations thereof. The isotopes of the first element can also include predominantly strontium-88. In one embodiment, the first element is selected from the group consisting of cesium-129, cesium-131, cesium-132, cesium-134, cesium-135, cesium-136, cesium-137, and combinations thereof. In one embodiment, the first element is selected from the group consisting of cesium-134, cesium-135, cesium-137, and combinations thereof. Isotopes of the first element can include cesium-133.

[0017] The feed stream may be a contaminated fluid comprising a first element, solid particles, water, and oil. The solid particles may comprise sand. The method may further include introducing an oxygen scavenger into the feed stream. In one embodiment, the oxygen scavenger comprises hydrazine.

[0018] These and other embodiments and potential advantages will become apparent from the detailed description and drawings that follow. [Brief explanation of the drawings]

[0019] For a more detailed description of the preferred embodiment of the present invention, reference will now be made to the accompanying drawings. [Figure 1A] FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of a system for converting helium-4 to helium-3 according to one embodiment of the present invention. [Figure 1B] FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of a system for converting helium-4 to helium-3 according to one embodiment of the present invention. [Figure 1C] FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of a system for converting helium-4 to helium-3 according to one embodiment of the present invention. [Figure 2A] FIG. 2 is a schematic diagram of a system for transmuting one isotope or element into a different isotope or element according to one embodiment of the present invention. [Figure 2B] FIG. 2 is a schematic diagram of a system for transmuting one isotope or element into a different isotope or element according to one embodiment of the present invention. [Figure 2C] FIG. 2 is a schematic diagram of a system for transmuting one isotope or element into a different isotope or element according to one embodiment of the present invention. [Figure 3] FIG. 3 is a schematic diagram of a high shear device according to one embodiment of the present invention. [Figure 4] Figure 4 is a table showing example test results for converting helium-4 to helium-3. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

[0020] Notation and name As used herein, the term "hydrogen" refers to all isotopes and forms of hydrogen, unless expressly or context dictates otherwise. As used herein, "hydrogen-1," "protium," "proton," "H-1," "H-2," "H-3," "H-4," "H-5," "H-6," "H-7," "H-8," "H-9," "H-10," "H-11," "H-12," "H-13," "H-14," "H-15," "H-16," "H-17," "H-18," "H-19," "H-21," "H-22," "H-23," "H-24," "H-25," "H-26," "H-27," "H-28," "H-29," "H-31," "H-32," "H-33," "H-34," "H-35," "H-36," "H-37," "H-3 1 Unless otherwise indicated explicitly or by context, the terms "H" and "H" refer to the hydrogen isotope with one proton. 2 The terms "H," "H-2," and "D" all refer to the one-neutron hydrogen isotope unless otherwise indicated explicitly or by context. 3The terms "H," "H-3," and "T" all refer to the two-neutron isotope of hydrogen, unless expressly or context dictates otherwise. The term "helium," as used herein, refers to all isotopes and forms of helium, unless expressly or context dictates otherwise. As used herein, "helium-3," " 3 The terms "He" and "He-3" refer to the one-neutron isotope unless otherwise indicated explicitly or by context. 4 The terms "He" and "He-4" refer to the two-neutron isotope of helium, unless otherwise indicated explicitly or by context.

[0021] As used herein, the terms "yttrium" and "Y" refer to all isotopes and forms of yttrium, unless expressly or context dictates otherwise. As used herein, the terms "scandium" and "Sc" refer to all isotopes and forms of scandium, unless expressly or context dictates otherwise. As used herein, the terms "cerium" and "Ce" refer to all isotopes and forms of cerium, unless expressly or context dictates otherwise. As used herein, the terms "lanthanum" and "La" refer to all isotopes and forms of lanthanum, unless expressly or context dictates otherwise. As used herein, the terms "praseodymium" and "Pr" refer to all isotopes and forms of praseodymium, unless expressly or context dictates otherwise. As used herein, the terms "neodymium" and "Nd" refer to all isotopes and forms of neodymium, unless expressly or context dictates otherwise. As used herein, the terms "promethium" and "Pm" refer to all isotopes and forms of promethium, unless expressly or context dictates otherwise. As used herein, the terms "samarium" and "Sm" refer to all isotopes and forms of samarium, unless expressly or context dictates otherwise. As used herein, the terms "europium" and "Eu" refer to all isotopes and forms of europium, unless expressly or context dictates otherwise. As used herein, the terms "gadolinium" and "Gd" refer to all isotopes and forms of gadolinium, unless expressly or context dictates otherwise. As used herein, the terms "terbium" and "Tb" refer to all isotopes and forms of terbium, unless expressly or context dictates otherwise. As used herein, the terms "dysprosium" and "Dy" refer to all isotopes and forms of dysprosium, unless expressly or context dictates otherwise.As used herein, the terms "holmium" and "Ho" refer to all isotopes and forms of holmium, unless expressly or context dictates otherwise. As used herein, the terms "erbium" and "Er" refer to all isotopes and forms of erbium, unless expressly or context dictates otherwise. As used herein, the terms "thulium" and "Tm" refer to all isotopes and forms of thulium, unless expressly or context dictates otherwise. As used herein, the terms "ytterbium" and "Yb" refer to all isotopes and forms of ytterbium, unless expressly or context dictates otherwise. As used herein, the terms "lutetium" and "Lu" refer to all isotopes and forms of lutetium, unless expressly or context dictates otherwise. As used herein, the terms "calcium" and "Ca" refer to all isotopes and forms of calcium, unless expressly or context dictates otherwise. As used herein, the terms "strontium" and "Sr" refer to all isotopes and forms of strontium, unless expressly or context dictates otherwise. As used herein, the terms "cesium" and "Cs" refer to all isotopes and forms of cesium, unless expressly or context dictates otherwise. As used herein, the terms "barium" and "Ba" refer to all isotopes and forms of barium, unless expressly or context dictates otherwise.

[0022] As used herein, the terms "shear module," "shear pump," and "high shear device" are used interchangeably. As used herein, the term "psi" means "pounds per square inch," the term "Hz" means "hertz," a common unit of frequency, and the term "rpm" means "revolutions per minute." The terms "reactor," "stirred reactor," and "mixed reactor" are used interchangeably throughout this application.

[0023] Detailed Description I. Overview Disclosed herein are systems and methods for breaking bonds between atomic or subatomic particles or forming new bonds between atomic or subatomic particles. Specifically, in one embodiment, disclosed herein are systems and methods for removing subatomic particles from atomic nuclei. More specifically, in one embodiment, disclosed herein are systems and methods for converting Helium-4 to Helium-3.

[0024] Although the process is described herein with reference to producing helium-3 from helium-4 as an example, one skilled in the art will recognize that the systems and methods disclosed herein can be applied to other nuclides for the purpose of transmuting one isotope or element into a different isotope or element (e.g., lithium-7 to lithium-6, helium-4 to tritium).

[0025] The disclosed systems and methods utilize high pressure and high temperature generated by a shear pump to generate sufficient energy to break and form bonds between atomic and subatomic particles. In one embodiment, this energy is sufficient to remove neutrons from the nuclei of helium-4, producing helium-3. In some embodiments, helium and hydrogen are combined (e.g., dissolved) in ammonium hydroxide to form a solution. In some embodiments, hydrazine, silver powder, or both may be suspended or dissolved in the helium, hydrogen, and ammonium hydroxide solution. Without being limited by theory, hydrazine may act as an oxygen scavenger, preventing or minimizing free oxygen released by the shear pump pressure from interacting with hydrogen. The silver powder may include silver particles having an average particle size ranging from about 2 to about 8 microns. The silver powder allows energy from the shear module rotor to be transferred to the nuclei (e.g., hydrogen and helium nuclei), resulting in a highly localized region of high pressure and temperature sufficient to promote nuclear interactions. The hydrogen-1 nuclei (i.e., protons) undergo a variety of different reactions, effectively removing neutrons from the helium-4 nuclei, producing helium-3 and by-products.

[0026] While the process described herein uses helium as the element, silver powder as the medium for transferring mechanical energy from the shear module to the nuclei, and ammonium hydroxide as the solvent, those skilled in the art will recognize that other elements can be converted, other materials (including, but not limited to, purely inorganic materials such as metals, metal oxides, and ceramics), and other solvents (including, but not limited to, synthetic oil, engine oil, paraffin oil, and soybean oil) can be used depending on the embodiment. In some embodiments, no solids, such as metal particles, are required to effect the conversion. Solid particles are not necessary as long as sufficient shear is provided to cause a nuclear reaction. In one embodiment, the inclusion of solid particles can enhance the degree or speed of interaction. In some embodiments, for example, the inorganic material is selected from the group consisting of nickel, aluminum, titanium, and combinations thereof. A variety of solvents can be used. In some embodiments, the element to be converted, hydrogen, and / or a transfer agent for mechanical force can be dissolved in the solvent. In some embodiments, the solvent includes one or more components selected from water, oil, and ammonium hydroxide. In some embodiments, the solvent is selected from oils such as, but not limited to, soybean oil, engine oil, paraffin oil, synthetic oil, lipids, and combinations thereof. The introduction of more viscous oils can increase the shear forces. In some cases, the amount of solid particulate material can be reduced or substantially eliminated by utilizing more viscous oils as a component of the solvent.

[0027] In some reactions, a proton, rather than a neutron, is removed from a Helium-4 nucleus, creating tritium and a free proton, which can react with another Helium-4 nucleus. Tritium, while radioactive, is relatively harmless to humans unless ingested or inhaled. Furthermore, the decay of tritium to Helium-3 can increase the ultimate yield of Helium-3 produced by the disclosed systems and processes.

[0028] The disclosed system and process for converting Helium-4 to Helium-3 does not appear to produce excessively energetic free neutrons, making the method relatively safe for producing Helium-3, as the equipment used will not become radioactive due to free neutron impacts.

[0029] II. System for converting helium-4 to helium-3 The 3He generation system of the present invention includes at least one stirred reactor, a shear pump (also called a high shear device or shear module), a feed pump, a gas compressor, a pulsation damper (accumulator), and a cryogenic trap. The system may further include one or more pumps other than those described below. The 3He generation system may also include one or more flow control valves. The system may also be electronically connected to a control system for monitoring and controlling the flow into and out of the various components.

[0030] A system for 3He production according to the present invention is described with reference to FIGS. 1A-1C. FIGS. 1A-1C are schematic diagrams of a 3He production system 100 according to one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 1A is a schematic diagram of the system 100 in start-up mode. FIG. 1B is a schematic diagram of the system in run mode. FIG. 1C is a schematic diagram of the system in vacuum mode. The 3He production system 100 includes a stirred reactor 110, a feed pump 120, a shear pump 130, a gas compressor 140, an accumulator pulsation damper 150, a separation unit 160, and a vacuum pump 165. The system 100 also includes a hydrogen source 170 and a helium source 172. In this embodiment, the separation unit 160 is a cryogenic trap. However, in alternative embodiments, other separation units can be used to separate the helium from the solvent. For example, in one embodiment, the separation unit 160 is selected from the group consisting of a distillation column and a cryogenic fractionator.

[0031] In the run mode, as shown in FIG. 1B, hydrogen from hydrogen source 170 and helium from helium source 172 are combined (or optionally dissolved) in a solvent (e.g., ammonium hydroxide solution) in stirred reactor 110. The helium from helium source 172 is intended to contain primarily He4 but may also contain trace amounts of He3 at the natural He3 abundance. The presence of free oxygen reduces the amount of hydrogen available for the process of converting He4 to He3 at the nucleus, such as by combining with hydrogen to form water, thereby reducing the amount of He3 produced. For this reason, in some embodiments, an oxygen scavenger is mixed with the ammonium hydroxide solution. Any suitable oxygen scavenger known in the art can be used. In some embodiments, the oxygen scavenger includes hydrazine. The oxygen scavenger serves to remove or reduce free oxygen that may be released during processing of the mixture in shear module 130, thereby preventing or reducing oxygen from interacting with the hydrogen reactant. Small particles of inorganic material, such as pure metal, are also incorporated and suspended in the mixture. In some embodiments, the mechanical transmission material used is dissolved in a solvent. In some embodiments, hydrogen may be sheared in shear module 130 rather than dissolved in a solvent. Preferably, the hydrogen and / or mechanical energy transmission material are dissolved in a solvent (e.g., a fluid such as water or oil). In some embodiments, the metal particles range from about 2 microns to about 8 microns. In some embodiments, the metal is pure metal. In some embodiments, the metal comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of silver powder. The metal particles may include one or more metals selected from the group consisting of nickel, aluminum, and titanium. In some embodiments, the silver powder may be replaced with one or more other metals, metal oxides, or ceramics. In some embodiments, the stirred reactor 110 is operated with a reactor agitation of 600 rpm to mix the various components of the mixture. However, it is primarily the shear module 130 that creates the intimate mixing of the gas and liquid feed streams. The mixture is pumped by a feed pump 120 from the outlet of the stirred reactor 110 to the inlet of a shear module 130 .The shear module includes a rotor and a stator separated by a shear gap. In some embodiments, the shear gap is greater than about 10 microns. In some embodiments, the shear gap is less than or equal to about 250 microns. In some embodiments, the shear gap ranges from about 10 microns to about 250 microns. In some embodiments, the shear gap is on the order of about 250 microns. In some embodiments, the shear module 130 operates at about 7500 rpm. The high rotor speed and short distance between each rotor and complementary stator (i.e., small shear gap), along with the presence of metal particles, result in energy transfer from the shear module to the elements being processed (e.g., hydrogen and helium). Without being limited by theory, it is believed that the pressure and temperature become so high in a very localized area around a group of nuclei (e.g., hydrogen and helium nuclei) in a short period of time that they begin to interact with one another (e.g., between hydrogen and helium-4 nuclei) and ultimately lead to conversion (e.g., conversion of at least a portion of the reactant helium-4 to helium-3). The mixture exits the shear module 130 through an outlet connected to the recycle inlet of the stirred reactor 110.

[0032] Air from air supply 190 is the power source for gas compressor 140, which provides compressed gas to the intake of pulsation dampener 150. Pulsation dampener 150 provides a continuous flow of the mixture to shear module 130.

[0033] An outlet at or near the top of stirred reactor 110, where headspace gas accumulates, is fluidly connected to the inlet of cryogenic trap 160. Cryogenic trap 160 serves to condense and prevent liquid from entering gas compressor 140. Cryogenic trap 160 provides a sampling outlet for removing gases from system 100, including helium-3 produced by the conversion of helium-4. Cryogenic trap 160 fluidly connects its outlet to the inlet of gas compressor 140, thereby allowing material to be recycled through shear module 130.

[0034] 1A to remove impurities from the system prior to the run mode. In the start-up mode, a solvent, such as an ammonium hydroxide solution, is added to the reactor 110, and the reactor 110 is purged one or more times (e.g., twice) with hydrogen from the hydrogen source 170 and one or more times (e.g., twice) with helium from the helium source 172. A vacuum (e.g., 60 mm of vacuum) is pulled on the reactor 110 with the vacuum pump 165, and then a mixture of reactants (e.g., 50% hydrogen, 50% helium) is added to the reactor 110 using the first reactant (e.g., hydrogen) source 170 and the second reactant (e.g., helium) source 172.

[0035] After purging the system 100 with reactants (e.g., hydrogen and helium), the system 100 is placed in run mode, as shown in FIG. 1B and described further below. In run mode, the vacuum pump 165, which was present in FIG. 1A, can be disconnected and not used. Once run mode is complete, the system is placed in vacuum mode, as shown in FIG. 1C. Gases exiting the headspace of the stirred reactor 110 are drawn into the cryogenic trap 160, where they condense into liquid, and dissolved gases are released from the liquid. Gases can be extracted from a sample extraction point on the cryogenic trap 160. The gases released by drawing the liquid from the stirred reactor 110 include helium-3, which is obtained from the conversion of helium-4.

[0036] In this way, the helium-3 dissolved in ammonium hydroxide can be stored indefinitely without loss. In some embodiments, the vessel is closed, the gas is extracted from it, and the ammonia is condensed in an ice-jacketed vessel. The remaining gas can be analyzed, or the condensate can be recycled to the reactor.

[0037] As noted above, while some embodiments of the present application have been described with reference to obtaining helium-3 from helium-4, those skilled in the art will recognize that the methods and systems described herein may be applied to other nuclei to obtain different isotopes or elements, and therefore the present disclosure is not limited to obtaining helium-3 from helium-4.

[0038] III. Systems that convert one isotope or element into another A system for converting one element to another according to the present invention includes at least one stirred reactor (also called a high shear device or shear module), a shear pump, a feed pump, a gas compressor, an accumulator pulsation damper, and a cryogenic trap. The system may also include one or more pumps other than those described below. The system may also include one or more flow control valves. The system may be in electronic communication with a control system to monitor and control the flows into and out of the various components.

[0039] As discussed further below, the present systems and methods can be used to convert one rare earth element to another. In these embodiments, one rare earth element can act as a proton or neutron acceptor, and another element can act as a proton or neutron donor. Thus, for example, to create element E3 with Y protons, a first element E1 with Y-1 ​​protons can be used with a second element E2 with Y+n protons to convert element E1 to the desired element E3 by transferring a proton from element E2 to element E1. In some embodiments, the proton / neutron donor and acceptor are the same element.

[0040] For example, in one embodiment, a proton from a hydrogen atom can be interacted with the nucleus of a calcium atom, converting a neutron in the calcium nucleus to a proton, thereby producing scandium. Similarly, a proton from a hydrogen atom can be interacted with the nucleus of a strontium atom, converting a neutron in the nucleus of the strontium atom to a proton, thereby producing yttrium. In another embodiment, a proton from a hydrogen atom can be interacted with the nucleus of a barium atom, thereby producing lanthanum. In some embodiments, if the reactants and products are recycled within the system, a product nucleus (e.g., a lanthanum nucleus) can be interacted with a proton from a hydrogen atom to produce a higher rare earth element (e.g., cerium from lanthanum). In addition to obtaining lanthanum from barium, rare earth elements other than lanthanum can also be obtained from the initial barium source if the process is continued for a sufficient period of time. Thus, this process allows the production of lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, promethium, samarium, europium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, and lutetium.

[0041] A system for transmuting elements according to the present invention is described with reference to FIGS. 2A-2C. FIGS. 2A-2C are schematic diagrams of a system 300 for transmuting elements according to one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2A is a schematic diagram of system 300 in start-up mode. FIG. 2B is a schematic diagram of the system in run mode. FIG. 2C is a schematic diagram of the system in vacuum mode. Elemental transmutation system 300 includes a stirred reactor 310, a feed pump 320, a shear pump 330, a gas compressor 340, a pulsation damper 350 serving as an accumulator, a separation unit 360, and a vacuum pump 365. System 300 includes a hydrogen source 370 and a reactive element source 372. The reactive element in reactive element source 372 is in solution. In some embodiments, the reactive element is one of calcium, strontium, and barium. In some embodiments, the barium is in the form of barium hydroxide dissolved in water. In some embodiments, the strontium is in the form of strontium carbonate dissolved in water. In this embodiment, separation unit 360 is a cryogenic trap, although in one embodiment, other methods for separating the reaction products from the solvent include distillation and cryogenic fractional distillation.

[0042] In an operational mode, as shown in FIG. 2B, elements from reactant source 372 are used (e.g., dissolved in) a solvent, such as water or ammonium hydroxide solution, in stirred reactor 310. The reactant elements from reactant source 372 must be in a soluble form before being introduced into shear module 330. Small particles of inorganic material, such as pure metal, are also introduced into the mixture and suspended in the mixture. In some embodiments, the metal particles range from about 2 microns to about 8 microns. In some embodiments, the metal is pure metal. In some embodiments, the metal includes silver powder. In some embodiments, the metal includes one or more metals selected from the group consisting of nickel, aluminum, titanium, and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the silver powder is replaced with other metals, metal oxides, and / or ceramics. In some embodiments, stirred reactor 310 is operated at 600 rpm to mix the various components of the mixture. However, it is primarily the shear module 330 that achieves thorough mixing of the gas and liquid feed streams. The mixture is pumped from the stirred reactor 310 outlet to the shear module 330 inlet by a feed pump 320. The shear module includes at least one rotor and a complementary stator, as described above. In some embodiments, the shear module 330 operates at approximately 7500 rpm. The high rotor speed and small distance between each pair of complementary rotor-stators (shear gap), along with the presence of metal particles, result in energy transfer from the shear module to the elements. The energy transfer from the rotor to the individual hydrogen nuclei and the reactant elements allows them to interact with the reactant elements, converting some of the reactant elements to different elements or different isotopes of the reactant elements. The mixture exits the shear module 330 through an outlet connected to the stirred reactor 310 recycle inlet.

[0043] Air from air supply 390 powers gas compressor 340, which supplies compressed gas to the intake of pulsation dampener 350. Pulsation dampener 350 is configured to maintain a continuous flow of the mixture to shear module 330.

[0044] A tap at or near the top of stirred reactor 310, where headspace gas is present, is in fluid communication with the inlet of cryotrap 360. Cryotrap 360 condenses and serves to prevent or minimize the amount of liquid entering gas compressor 340. Cryotrap 360 provides a sampling port for removing gas from system 300. Additionally, cryotrap 360 fluidly connects its tap to the inlet of gas compressor 340, thereby allowing material to be recycled through shear module 330.

[0045] Prior to the run mode, system 300 may be operated in a start-up mode, as shown in Figure 2A, to remove impurities from the system. In the start-up mode, a solvent, such as an ammonium hydroxide solution, is added to reactor 310, and reactor 310 is purged one or more times (e.g., twice) with an appropriate gas from gas source 370. Vacuum pump 365 may be operated to pull a vacuum (e.g., 60 mm of vacuum) on reactor 310, followed by the addition of gas from first gas source 370 and / or second gas source 372 to reactor 310.

[0046] After purging the system 300 with gas, the system 300 is placed in run mode, as shown in FIG. 2B and described above. In run mode, the vacuum pump 365, seen in FIG. 2A, can be disconnected and not used. Once run mode is complete, the system is placed in vacuum mode, as shown in FIG. 2C. Gases exiting the headspace of the stirred reactor 310 are drawn into the cryotrap 360, where they condense into the liquid, releasing dissolved gases from the liquid. This gas can be extracted through a sample extraction point in the cryotrap 360. The gases released by pumping the liquid out of the stirred reactor 110 include transformed elements (i.e., different elements or isotopes formed in the process).

[0047] As described above, embodiments of the present systems and methods can be used to convert one rare earth element to another rare earth metal. In some embodiments, a liquid rare earth metal (e.g., formed by mixing and dissolving a rare earth metal salt in a suitable carrier fluid or solvent, such as, but not limited to, ammonia or sulfuric acid, or any liquid carrier in which the metal salt is soluble) is passed through a high shear system as disclosed herein, preferably in the presence of an inorganic solid (e.g., silver powder).

[0048] While the examples have been described using calcium, strontium, and barium to produce rare earth elements, those skilled in the art will recognize that other reactants may be used and that different product elements may be obtained depending on the particular reactant selected and the duration of the process. Additionally, while the process and system have been described using hydrogen, those skilled in the art will recognize that other elements may be substituted for hydrogen. Hydrogen was chosen to minimize the effects of electromagnetic forces, which tend to repel nuclei from each other and prevent them from coming close enough to undergo nuclear interactions.

[0049] It should also be noted that the present systems and methods can be adapted for use in purifying drinking water contaminated with radioactive protons. In such an embodiment, the contaminated water is passed through a high-shear device in the presence of hydrogen. One or more passes through the system convert the reactive protons and hydrogen into Helium-3 and Helium-4. Chlorine may be added to the water before consumption. In such an embodiment, a small amount of edible or non-edible oil may be introduced into the high-shear device or the water before the hydrogen is added. This oil may act as a hydrogen carrier, assisting in the destruction of the hydrogen for a fraction of a second (e.g., a few nanoseconds) and initiating the reaction. Multiple passes through the high-shear device may be used with this hydrogen carrier. Hydrogen may be added nearly continuously until the oil / water is saturated with hydrogen gas. If the gas is to be recovered and sold and oxygen may be present (such as in the case of water), an oxygen scavenger (e.g., hydrazine) may be used. If oxygen-free hydrocarbons are used, an oxygen scavenger may not be necessary.

[0050] When considering the production of helium-3, a pure metal (such as, but not limited to, substantially pure silver) that is not an oxide can be used as a carrier to aid in collisions between gas molecules. In embodiments or applications where helium-3 is not the desired end product, other carriers may be used. Examples of other carriers include, but are not limited to, contaminated seawater containing emulsified oil. Thus, the practice of the present invention can also help reduce or eliminate the presence of contaminated or hazardous wastewater, as the hydrogen-based conversion converts the contaminants contained therein into less harmful or non-harmful substances.

[0051] IV. High-shear devices for converting one element or isotope to another

[0052] A description of a high shear device (HSD) suitable for use as shear module 130 in FIGS. 1A-1C to convert helium-4 to helium-3, or as shear module 330 in FIGS. 2A-2C to convert one isotope or element to another, is provided below.

[0053] The energy input (kW / L / min) into the fluid by the HSD can be approximated by measuring the motor energy (kW) and fluid output (L / min). In some embodiments, the energy consumption of a high shear device is 1000 W / m 3 In some embodiments, the energy consumption of the high shear device is greater than about 1000 W / m 3 to approximately 7500kW / m 3 In some embodiments, the energy consumption is limited to a maximum of approximately 7500 W / m 3 In yet another example, the energy consumption of the high shear device is in the range of 7500 W / m 3 The shear rate generated within the high shear device can vary widely and is dependent on the rotor diameter, rotor rotational speed, and rotor-stator gap. In some embodiments, the shear rate generated by the high shear device is greater than about 100,000,000 s -1 For example, in one embodiment, a 12 inch diameter rotor operating at 15,000 rpm with a 1 micron gap will produce a shear rate of approximately 119,700,000 s -1 This becomes:

[0054] Tip speed is the velocity (m / s) corresponding to the end of one or more rotating elements that transfer energy to the reactants. With respect to a rotating element, tip speed is the circumferential distance traveled by the tip of the rotor per unit of time and is roughly defined as V (m / s) = π·D·n, where V is the tip speed, D is the rotor diameter in meters, and n is the rotor rotational speed in revolutions per second. Thus, tip speed is a function of the rotor diameter and rotational speed. Tip speed can also be calculated by multiplying the circumferential distance swept by the rotor tip, i.e., 2πR (e.g., meters), where R is the rotor radius, by the frequency of rotation (e.g., revolutions per minute, rpm).

[0055] Typical rotational speeds for embodiments of high shear devices herein are on the order of 15,000 rpm or higher. Tip speeds vary depending on the size of the motor. In some embodiments, typical tip speeds can be greater than 23 m / s (4,500 ft / min) or even greater than 40 m / s (7,900 ft / min). As used herein, the term "high shear" refers to mechanical devices, such as rotor-stator mills and mixers, capable of tip speeds greater than 5 m / s (1,000 ft / min) and requiring an external mechanically driven power source to deliver energy to the reacting product stream. High shear devices combine high tip speeds with very small shear gaps to impart high shear forces to the materials being processed. This results in very high pressures and temperatures being generated during operation. In further examples, pressures depend on the viscosity of the solution, the rotor tip speed, and the shear gap. Also, localized pressures can significantly exceed 1,050 MPa for short periods of time. Additionally, these localized areas also experience extreme increases in temperature during this short period of time.

[0056] Without being limited to a particular theory regarding the transmutation of one element or isotope, such as helium-4 to helium-3, it is believed that the extreme localized pressure and temperature may be the result of mechanically induced high pressure or hydrodynamic cavitation. It is believed that localized temperatures may exceed 100,000 K during this brief period. Energy trapping due to the inertial force of the collapsing bubble walls confines the extreme temperatures to a very localized region. Therefore, for a short period in a very localized region, the pressure and temperature are sufficient to induce nuclear interactions between, for example, hydrogen and helium-4 nuclei. Some of these interactions result in the transmutation of helium-4 to helium-3. As another example, a proton from a hydrogen atom can interact with the nucleus of a calcium atom, converting one neutron in the calcium nucleus into a proton and producing scandium. Similarly, protons from hydrogen atoms can be interacted with the nuclei of strontium atoms to convert neutrons in the nuclei of strontium atoms into protons, producing yttrium. As another example, protons from hydrogen atoms can be interacted with the nuclei of barium atoms to produce lanthanum. By way of example, if the reactants and products are recycled within the system, lanthanum can be produced into higher rare earth elements, such as cerium, by interacting product nuclei, such as lanthanum nuclei, with protons from hydrogen atoms. If this process is continued for a sufficient period of time, not only can lanthanum be obtained from barium, but rare earth elements other than lanthanum can also be obtained from the initial barium source. Thus, this process can provide for the production of lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, promethium, samarium, europium, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium, ytterbium, and lutetium.

[0057] Referring now to Figure 3, a schematic diagram of high shear device 200 is shown. High shear device 200 includes at least one rotor-stator combination, also known as, but not limited to, generators 220, 230, 240, or stages. High shear device 200 includes at least two generators, and most preferably, the shear device includes at least three generators.

[0058] The first generator 220 includes a rotor 222 and a stator 227. The second generator 230 includes a rotor 223 and a stator 228. The third generator includes a rotor 224 and a stator 229. For each generator 220, 230, 240, the rotor is driven by a rotational input 250. The generators 220, 230, 240 rotate about an axis 260 in a rotational direction 265. The stator 227 is fixedly attached to a wall 255 of the high shear device.

[0059] The generators have gaps between the rotor and the stator. The first generator 220 has a first gap 225, the second generator 230 has a second gap 235, and the third generator 240 has a third gap 245. The widths of these gaps 225, 235, and 245 are between 1 and 250 microns. In one specific example, the gap 225 of the first generator 220 is larger than the approximate gap 235 of the second generator 230, which in turn is larger than the approximate gap 245 of the third generator 240.

[0060] Additionally, the width of the gaps 225, 235, and 245 can have coarse, medium, fine, or ultrafine characteristics. The rotors 222, 223, and 224 and the stators 227, 228, and 229 can have a toothed design. Each generator can have two or more rows of rotor-stator teeth, as known in the art. The rotors 222, 223, and 224 can each have a plurality of rotor teeth spaced apart circumferentially around their periphery. The stators 227, 228, and 229 can each have a plurality of stator teeth spaced apart circumferentially around their periphery. In some embodiments, the rotor inner diameter is approximately 11.8 cm. In some embodiments, the stator outer diameter is approximately 15.4 cm. In a further example, the rotor and stator outer diameters can be approximately 60 mm for the rotor and approximately 64 mm for the stator. Alternatively, other rotor and stator diameters may be used to vary tip speed and shear pressure. In some embodiments, three stages of very fine generators are used, each with a gap of approximately 250 microns or less. In another embodiment, one or more of the three generators 220, 230, and 240 (the generators are sometimes referred to as stages) are used with very fine generators with a gap between approximately 1 and 250 microns. In some embodiments, high shear device 200 has more than three stages of generators, such as four stages of generators. In other embodiments, high shear device 200 may have fewer generators than the three generators 220, 230, and 240 shown.

[0061] High shear device 200 is supplied with a reaction mixture comprising feed stream 205. In one embodiment, feed stream 205 comprises hydrogen, helium, and a solvent, optionally mixed with an oxygen scavenger and micron-sized metal particles, which may be suspended in the mixture. In one embodiment of the present invention, the solvent is an ammonium hydroxide solution, and the oxygen scavenger is hydrazine. However, an oxygen scavenger is not required in all embodiments. Feed stream 205 is pumped through generators 220, 230, and 240 to form product stream 210. Product 210 contains the same chemical mixture as feed stream 205, except that some of the original Helium-4 has been converted to Helium-3. In each generator, rotors 222, 223, and 224 rotate at high speed relative to stationary stators 227 and 228. Rotor 229 rotates, drawing fluid, such as feed stream 205, through the gaps between the outer surface of rotor 222 and the inner surface of stator 227, creating localized high shear conditions. Gaps 225, 235, and 245 create high shear forces that process feed stream 205. The high shear forces between the rotor and stator function to process feed stream 205 and produce product stream 210. In particular, silver powder transfers mechanical energy from rotors 222, 223, and 224 and stators 227, 228, and 229 to elements, such as hydrogen and helium nuclei. The rotors are configured to rotate at a speed commensurate with the rotor diameter and desired tip speed, as described above.

[0062] The choice of high shear device 200 depends on the throughput requirements and the target particle or bubble size in the dispersion 210 at the outlet. A specific example of high shear device 200 is the DISPAXREACTOR® from IKA® Works, Inc., Wilmington, North Carolina, and APV North America, Inc., Wilmington, Massachusetts. For example, the DR2000 / 4 model features a belt drive, a 4M generator, a PTFE sealing ring, a 1" sanitary clamp inlet flange, a 3 / 4" sanitary clamp outlet flange, 2 horsepower, a 7900 rpm output speed, a flow capacity (water) of approximately 300-700 L / hr (generator dependent), and a tip speed of 9.4-41 m / s (approximately 1850 ft / min to approximately 8070 ft / min). Alternate models are available with different inlet / outlet connections, horsepower, nominal tip speeds, output rpm, and nominal flow rates.

[0063] Without being limited to any particular theory, it is believed that the level and extent of high shear mixing can be sufficient to create localized high-pressure, high-temperature conditions that drive otherwise unlikely nuclear reactions. Localized conditions are believed to arise within the high shear device, resulting in elevated temperatures and pressures. The pressure and temperature increases within the high shear device are instantaneous and localized, and the system quickly returns to its bulk, or average, state after exiting the high shear device. In some cases, the localized pressure and temperature are believed to be sufficient to overcome the Coulomb barrier between the nuclei of different atoms, allowing nucleon-nucleon interactions. The mechanisms underlying these various reactions are unknown. However, in the example of converting helium-4 to helium-3, it is believed that at least part of the reaction involves high-energy proton bombardment of the helium-4 nuclei, removing neutrons from the helium-4 nuclei and forming helium-3 nuclei. Additionally, products other than helium-3 can be produced via the present systems and methods. For example, tritium can be produced. Because tritium ultimately decays to helium-3, producing this element may be beneficial. Because helium-4 is an extremely stable nucleus with a higher binding energy than helium-3, this process consumes energy rather than releasing it. Furthermore, because helium-4 is extremely stable, much of the helium-4 exits the high shear device 200 unconverted to helium-3. However, experiments using one embodiment of the present invention have achieved increased helium-3 yields, resulting in 3%, 5%, 7%, 10%, 12%, 14%, or even greater increases in the amount of helium-3 compared to before processing. Thus, by operating the high shear mixer in certain embodiments of the present systems and methods under conditions believed to be effective in stripping neutrons from some of the helium-4 nuclei, some helium-4 nuclei can be converted to helium-3 nuclei.

[0064] As noted above, in some embodiments, the present systems are utilized to convert a first element into an isotope of that element. While not limited to the specific examples detailed herein, it is envisioned that the present systems and methods will be particularly useful for converting, or "transmuting," radioactive isotopes of an element (i.e., "radionuclides" of the element) into non-radioactive isotopes of the element. For example, the present systems and methods may be useful for treating contaminated fluids (such as, but not limited to, water or sludge contaminated with one or more radionuclides) such that at least a portion of the radionuclides are converted to non-radioactive or less radioactive forms of the element (e.g., to the element's naturally occurring non-radioactive isotopes) through contact with hydrogen at high shear. As noted above, high shear provides atomic hydrogen that can react with the element. Preferably, the contaminated fluid to be treated contains oil. If not, oil can be added to the contaminated fluid prior to introduction into the high shear device. The oil may be recycled vegetable oil, engine oil, molten wax, etc. An oxygen scavenger (such as, but not limited to, hydrazine) may be added to the contaminated fluid before it enters the high shear device.

[0065] In some embodiments, a contaminated fluid containing one or more radionuclides of cesium or strontium may be treated as disclosed herein to produce a treated fluid containing stable (or "more stable") isotopes of the elements. The "more stable" isotopes may have a shorter half-life than the radionuclides. The contaminated fluid may contain a first element and solid particles (such as, but not limited to, sand) in water or oil.

[0066] In some embodiments, the contaminated fluid contains at least one radioactive isotope of strontium (i.e., one or both of strontium-89 and strontium-90), at least a portion of which is converted to one or more non-radioactive isotopes of strontium (i.e., one or more of strontium-84, strontium-86, strontium-87, and strontium-88). In some embodiments, the radioactive isotope of strontium is converted primarily to strontium-88.

[0067] In some embodiments, the contaminated fluid contains at least one radioactive isotope of cesium (i.e., one or more of cesium-129, cesium-131, cesium-132, cesium-134, cesium-135, cesium-136, and cesium-137), where at least a portion of the radioactive isotope is converted to cesium-133. In some embodiments, the contaminated fluid contains at least one radioactive isotope of cesium selected from cesium-134, cesium-135, and cesium-137, where at least a portion of the radioactive isotope is converted to cesium-133.

[0068] Those skilled in the art will understand, after reading this disclosure, that the systems and methods disclosed herein are applicable to the conversion of other elements and isotopes.

[0069] Example of a process for converting 4He to 3He. In one specific example of a 4He to 3He process, the reaction contents included two bottles of silver, 99.9% on a metal basis, 5-8 microns, 50 g each; two bottles of hydrazine, 98%, 100 g each; two bottles of silver, 99.9% on a metal basis, 2-3.5 microns, 50 g each; and three bottles of ammonium hydroxide solution, 2.5 liters each. The start-up procedure for adding the reaction contents involved adding three bottles of ammonium hydroxide to reactor 110. While pulling a 60 mm vacuum on reactor 110, system 100 was purged twice with hydrogen and twice with helium. After purging reactor 110 with helium and hydrogen, hydrazine was added to reactor 110 to remove oxygen. After the hydrazine was added, silver powder was added to reactor 110.

[0070] After the start-up procedure was completed, hydrogen and helium from sources 170 and 172 were added to reactor 110 in a ratio of 50% hydrogen by volume (or mole percent) and 50% helium by volume (or mole percent) to achieve a pressure of 20-30 psi in the reactor. Agitation in reactor 110 was performed at 600 rpm to maintain a uniform mixture of the liquid and solid components and gas within reactor 110. From reactor 110, the mixture was pumped by pump 120 into shear module 130, which was operated at 7900 rpm. After exiting shear module 130, the fluid returned to stirred reactor 110, and this process was repeated multiple times over a seven-hour period. After the run time, the liquid from reactor 110 was vacuum distilled and removed into cryogenic trap 160, from which samples were drawn. The samples were analyzed according to the procedures outlined below. The analytical results are shown in the table in Figure 4. The sample taken before reactor 110 was subjected to vacuum is designated Sample 13A, and the sample taken after the liquid in reactor 110 was distilled under reduced pressure and removed into cryogenic trap 160 is designated Sample 13B. Thus, Sample 13A represents the untreated helium, i.e., the helium before it was subjected to interaction with hydrogen using the shearing device, and Sample 13B represents the treated helium, i.e., the helium after it has been subjected to interaction with hydrogen in the shearing device. As can be seen from Figure 4, Sample 13B (the treated helium sample), which contains helium 3 converted from helium 4, contains significantly more helium 3 than Sample 13A (the untreated helium sample).

[0071] Analytical methods for tritium and helium

[0072] To minimize helium diffusion, atmospheric samples (0.5 cc of air) were processed through a high-vacuum line constructed of stainless steel and Corning 1724 glass. After removing H2O vapor and CO2 at -90°C and -95°C, respectively, the amount of noncondensable gases (e.g., He, Ne, Ar, O2, N2, and CH4) was measured using a volume-calibrated gas and capacitance manometer. The gas ratios (N2, N2, Ar, and CH4) were analyzed using a Dycor quadrupole mass spectrometer equipped with a variable leak valve. These results were combined with capacitance manometer measurements to obtain gas concentrations (±2%). Prior to helium isotope analysis, N2 and O2 were removed by reaction with a Zr-Al alloy (SAES-ST707), and Ar and Ne were adsorbed onto activated carbon at 77K and 40K, respectively. According to SAES-ST-101 getters (one in the inlet line and two in the mass spectrometer), HD was obtained. + The ion background is reduced to approximately 1000 ions / sec.

[0073] Helium isotope ratios and concentrations were measured using a VG5400 noble gas mass spectrometer equipped with a Faraday cup (resolution 200) and a Johnston electron multiplier (resolution 600). 4 He (Faraday Cup) 3 The beam of He (multiplier) was analyzed sequentially. The on-axis detector (resolution 600) 3 He + HD + Complete separation from the HD + Peak is less than 2%. HD + Aeon 3 The contribution to the He peak is + When the ions are 1000 / sec, the sensitivity is less than 0.1 / sec. -4 For 2.0 μcc of He (ampere / torr), 3 The He ion signal averages 2500 ions / s and is scattered by the low potential in the mass spectrometer source. 4 He ions or formed 4 The background signal due to He ions was ~15 cps. 3 He / 4All He ratios are calculated using the atmospheric helium ratio (R A ) has been reported as a standard. 3 He / 4 The error in the He ratio is due to the precision of the sample measurement (0.2%) and the deviation from the measurement of the ratio in air (0.2%), resulting in a total error of 0.3% at 2σ for the reported helium isotope value. The helium concentration is derived by comparing the total standard sample with known mass. The value is accurate to 1% (2σ) when measured by peak height comparison.

[0074] The value of tritium is 3 The analysis is performed using the He "internal growth" technique. All He is degassed from 150 g of water on a high vacuum line and sealed in a 3" OD1724 glass ampoule for 60 to 90 days. The glass ampoule is baked at 250°C in helium-free nitrogen gas to minimize helium solubility in the glass. After sealing, the ampoule is stored at -20°C to limit helium diffusion into the bulb during sample storage. During this time, the helium produced by the decay of tritium is released. 3 He accumulates in the flask. A typical blank sample is 4 He is ~10 -9 For cc 3 He is 10 -15 It is cc. 4 The He content is used to calculate the 3 He / 4 Assuming that the He ratio is 3 Blank correction was performed for He. 3 The He content was measured using the VG5400 according to the procedure described above, and the He content was measured using the air standard. 3 The He content was compared with that of a normal sample containing 10 T.U. and stored for 90 days. 3 The signal for the He sample is ~8 × 10 5 atoms (±2%) and 3±1×10 4 pieces 3He blank. The error in the reported tritium values ​​depends on the amount of tritium present and is 2% (2σ) at 10 T.U. Further precision can be achieved by using larger samples and longer storage times.

[0075] While preferred embodiments of the present invention have been shown and described, those skilled in the art may make modifications thereto without departing from the spirit and teachings of the present invention. The embodiments described herein are merely illustrative and are not intended to be limiting. The invention disclosed herein is susceptible to numerous modifications and variations within its scope. Where a numerical range or limitation is explicitly stated, it is to be understood that such explicit range or limitation includes all subsequent ranges or limitations of equivalent magnitude falling within the explicitly stated range or limitation (e.g., from about 1 to about 10 includes 2, 3, and 4; greater than 0.10 includes 0.11, 0.12, and 0.13). The use of the term "optionally" with respect to any element of a claim is intended to mean that the subject element may or may not be required. Both of these alternatives are intended to be within the scope of the claim. Where broad terms such as "comprising," "including," and "having" are used, they should be understood to support narrower terms such as "consisting of," "consisting essentially of," and "consisting substantially of."

[0076] Accordingly, the scope of protection is not limited by the above description, but is limited only by the claims, including all equivalents of the subject matter of the claims. All claims are incorporated herein by reference as an embodiment of the present invention. Accordingly, the claims serve to further describe and add to the preferred embodiments of the present invention. The disclosures of all patents, patent applications, and publications cited herein are hereby incorporated by reference to the extent that they provide exemplary procedural or other details supplementary to those set forth herein.

Claims

1. 1. A system for converting a first substance into a second substance, comprising: a mixing reactor for obtaining a reaction mixture containing a first reactant, a second reactant, and a solvent; and a high shear device connected to the mixing reactor so that a fluid can pass through the high shear device; The high shear device is provided with at least one rotor-stator pair, where the rotor and the stator have complementary shapes and are arranged symmetrically around the rotation axis, separated by a shear gap in the range of about 10 microns to about 250 microns, and a motor configured to rotate the rotor about the rotation axis, thereby transferring energy from the rotor to the reactants to induce a reaction between the first reactant and the second reactant and form a product.

2. 10. The system of claim 1, the first reactant and the second reactant are substantially the same; the first reactant is a soluble form of an element selected from the group consisting primarily of calcium, strontium, and barium; the first reactant contains primarily hydrogen; The first reactant contains primarily a first element, the second reactant contains primarily a second element, and the product contains primarily a third element; or A system in which the first reactant comprises primarily a first element, at least a portion of the second reactant is a first isotope of a second element, and the product comprises primarily a second isotope of the second element, or

3. 3. The system of claim 2, the first reactant comprises primarily a first element, at least a portion of the second reactant is a first isotope of the second element, and the product comprises primarily a second isotope of the second element; the first element comprises primarily hydrogen, the first isotope of the second element is helium-4, and the second isotope of the second element is helium-3.

4. 10. The system of claim 1, wherein the high shear device comprises at least three rotor and stator pairs.

5. 5. The system of claim 4, wherein at least two of the at least three rotor-stator pairs have different shear gaps, or at least two of the at least three rotor-stator pairs have substantially the same shear gaps, or both.

6. 1. A system for converting helium-4 to helium-3, comprising: a mixing reactor for obtaining a reaction mixture containing hydrogen, helium, and a solvent; and a high shear device connected to the mixing reactor so that a fluid can pass through the high shear device; The high shear device is provided with at least one rotor-stator pair, the rotor and a complementary stator being symmetrically arranged about a rotation axis and separated by a shear gap in the range of about 10 microns to about 250 microns, and a motor configured to rotate the rotor about the rotation axis, thereby transferring energy from the rotor to the hydrogen and helium to induce a localized high-temperature and high-pressure region, which promotes interaction between the hydrogen and helium nuclei and converts at least a portion of the helium-4 into helium-3; the high shear device further comprises a feed inlet for receiving the reaction mixture from the mixing reactor, the first outlet of the mixing reactor being in fluid communication with the high shear device by the feed inlet; the high shear device having a first outlet in fluid communication with the recycle inlet of the mixing reactor, for feeding a product mixture containing the converted 3He dissolved in the solvent to the mixing reactor; The system includes a separation unit configured to remove at least a portion of the converted helium-3 from the solvent.

7. 7. The system of claim 6, the solvent comprises at least one component selected from the group consisting of ammonium hydroxide, water, and oil; The mixture also contains an oxygen scavenger, the mixture further comprises at least one metal selected from the group consisting of silver, aluminum, nickel, and titanium; The mixture further comprises metal particles having an average size ranging from about 2 microns to about 8 microns.

8. 8. The system of claim 7, wherein the mixture includes an oxygen scavenger, the oxygen scavenger including hydrazine.

9. 7. The system of claim 6, The motor allows the rotor to rotate at a frequency of at least about 7900 rpm; the mixture reaction is operable at a pressure ranging from about 20 psi to about 30 psi; The mixture contains hydrogen and helium in a molar ratio of about 1; A system in which the helium contains primarily helium-4 or

10. 1. A method for long-term storage of helium-3, comprising: The process of obtaining helium-3, mixing ammonium hydroxide solution with helium-3 under pressure to dissolve the helium-3 in the ammonium hydroxide solution; and maintaining pressure on the helium-3 dissolved in ammonium hydroxide.

11. 1. A method for converting helium-4 to helium-3, comprising the steps of: introducing hydrogen, helium, and a solvent into a high shear device comprising a rotor and a complementary stator symmetrically arranged about an axis of rotation and separated by a shear gap ranging from about 10 microns to about 250 microns; rotating a rotor about an axis of rotation, transferring mechanical energy from the rotating rotor to the nuclei of hydrogen and helium-4 to induce a localized region of high pressure and temperature, promoting a nuclear reaction and converting at least a portion of the helium into helium-3; and extracting a product from the high shear device comprising dissolved 3He converted from 4He.

12. 12. The method of claim 11, mixing the synthetic hydrogen and helium in a solvent to form a feed stream via a mixing reactor; recycling the product back to the reactor; and separating at least a portion of the converted 3He from at least a portion of the solvent by extracting at least a portion of the product from the entrained reactor into a cryogenic trap.

13. 12. The method of claim 11, the feed stream further contains an oxygen scavenger; The solvent contains ammonium hydroxide solution, By rotating the rotor around the rotation axis, it is possible to achieve a rotation speed of approximately 100,000,000 s -1 A method that satisfies one or more of the following:

14. 14. The method of claim 13, wherein the feed stream further comprises an oxygen scavenger, the oxygen scavenger comprising hydrazine.

15. 12. The method of claim 11, further comprising the step of introducing a solid into the high shear device.

16. 16. The method of claim 15, The solid contains metal, The solid contains metal particles having an average size ranging from about 2 microns to about 8 microns, or both.

17. 17. The method of claim 16, wherein the metal comprises silver.

18. 1. A method for converting a first element to a different element or an isotope of the first element, comprising: introducing hydrogen, a first element, and a solvent into a high shear device comprising a rotor and a complementary stator symmetrically arranged about a rotation axis and separated by a shear gap; rotating a rotor about an axis of rotation, thereby transferring mechanical energy from the rotating rotor to the individual nuclei to induce localized regions of high pressure and high temperature, thereby promoting nuclear reactions between the nuclei of the individual elements and hydrogen nuclei to convert at least a portion of the first element into a different element or isotope of the first element; extracting a product stream from the high shear device comprising a different element or isotope of the first element.

19. 20. The method of claim 18, combining hydrogen in a solvent via a mixing reactor and recycling the product stream to the mixing reactor; and extracting at least a portion of the product stream from the mixing reactor to a separation unit whereby at least a portion of the different element or isotopes of the first element are separated from at least a portion of the solvent; or and / or including the step of introducing an oxygen scavenger into the feed stream.

20. 20. The method of claim 19, including the step of introducing an oxygen scavenger comprising hydrazine into the feed stream.

21. 20. The method of claim 18, the solvent comprises at least one component selected from the group consisting of ammonium hydroxide solution, water, oil, and combinations thereof; the feed stream further contains solid particles; Rotating the rotor around the axis of rotation takes approximately 100,000,000 seconds. -1 Generates higher shear rates or the shear gap is greater than about 250 microns; the first element is selected from the group consisting of rare earth elements and the different element is a higher rare earth element; the first element is selected from the group consisting of radionuclides of cesium and strontium, and the isotope of the first element is selected from the group consisting of stable isotopes of the first element; or The first element is a radionuclide, or

22. 22. The method of claim 21, wherein the feed stream comprises solid particles; The method satisfies either or both of the following: the solid particles are selected from the group consisting of metals, ceramics, metal oxides, and combinations thereof; or the average size of the solid particles is in the range of about 2 microns to about 8 microns.

23. 22. The method of claim 21, whether the first element is a radionuclide; the first element is selected from the group consisting of strontium-89, strontium-90, and combinations thereof; the first element is selected from the group consisting of cesium-129, cesium-131, cesium-132, cesium-134, cesium-135, cesium-136, cesium-137, and combinations thereof; The method wherein the feed stream contains a first element, solid particles, water, and / or oil-containing contaminated fluid.

24. 24. The method of claim 23, wherein the isotope of the first element is selected from the group consisting of strontium-84, strontium-86, strontium-87, strontium-88, and combinations thereof.

25. 25. The method of claim 24, wherein the isotopes of the first element comprise primarily strontium-88.

26. 24. The method of claim 23, wherein the first element is selected from the group consisting of cesium-134, cesium-135, cesium-137, and combinations thereof.

27. 24. The method of claim 23, wherein the isotope of the first element comprises cesium-133.

28. 24. The method of claim 23, wherein the feed stream comprises the first element, solid particles comprising sand, water, and a contaminated fluid containing petroleum.

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