Photoelectric transducer, solar cell module, electronic apparatus, and power source module

Abstract

To provide a photoelectric transducer excellent in adhesion and durability of an output terminal and capable of maintaining power generation efficiency.SOLUTION: A photoelectric transducer has a first substrate, a first electrode, a photoelectric conversion layer, a second electrode, and a sealing member. The first electrode is a transparent electrode and has an output terminal having on the first substrate an end of the first electrode exposed from the sealing member and a metal layer provided on the end. An arithmetical average height (Ra) of a surface having the metal layer at the output terminal is between 0.1 μm and 0.3 μm; 10 point average roughness (Rz) of a surface having the metal layer at the output terminal is between 0.35 μm and 0.75 μm.SELECTED DRAWING: Figure 1

Description

[Technical Field]

[0001] The present invention relates to a photoelectric conversion element, a solar cell module, an electronic device, and a power supply module. [Background technology]

[0002] In recent years, solar cells that use photoelectric conversion elements are expected to have a wide range of applications, not only as an alternative to fossil fuels and a measure against global warming, but also as a stand-alone power source that does not require battery replacement or power wiring, etc. Furthermore, as a stand-alone power source, solar cells are attracting a great deal of attention as one of the energy harvesting technologies required for IoT (Internet of Things) devices, artificial satellites, etc.

[0003] Solar cells include inorganic solar cells that use silicon and other materials that have been widely used for a long time, as well as organic solar cells such as dye-sensitized solar cells, organic thin-film solar cells, and perovskite solar cells. Perovskite solar cells can be manufactured using conventional printing methods without using electrolytes containing organic solvents, and are therefore advantageous in terms of improving safety and reducing manufacturing costs.

[0004] Furthermore, with regard to organic thin-film solar cells and perovskite solar cells, it is known that a plurality of spatially separated photoelectric conversion elements are electrically connected to form a series circuit to increase the output voltage (see, for example, Patent Document 1). Summary of the Invention [Problem to be solved by the invention]

[0005] The object of the present invention is to provide a photoelectric conversion element that has excellent adhesion and durability of the output terminal and can maintain power generation efficiency. [Means for solving the problem]

[0006] The photoelectric conversion element of this embodiment is a photoelectric conversion element having a first substrate, a first electrode, a photoelectric conversion layer, a second electrode, and a sealing member, wherein the first electrode is a transparent electrode, and the first substrate has an output terminal having an end of the first electrode exposed from the sealing member and a metal layer provided on the end, wherein the arithmetic mean height (Ra) of the surface of the output terminal having the metal layer is 0.1 μm or more and 0.3 μm or less, and the 10-point mean roughness (Rz) of the surface of the output terminal having the metal layer is 0.35 μm or more and 0.75 μm or less. [Effects of the Invention]

[0007] According to the present invention, it is possible to provide a photoelectric conversion element that has excellent adhesion and durability of the output terminal and can maintain power generation efficiency. [Brief explanation of the drawings]

[0008] [Figure 1] FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of an example of a solar cell as an embodiment of a photoelectric conversion element. [Figure 2] FIG. 2 is an enlarged view of the output terminal of the solar cell shown in FIG. [Figure 3] FIG. 3 is a schematic diagram of another example of a solar cell as an embodiment of a photoelectric conversion element. [Figure 4] FIG. 4 is a schematic diagram showing an embodiment of a solar cell module. [Figure 5] FIG. 5 is a schematic diagram showing another embodiment of the solar cell module. [Figure 6] FIG. 6 is a schematic diagram showing another embodiment of the solar cell module. [Figure 7] FIG. 7 is a schematic diagram showing another embodiment of the solar cell module. [Figure 8] FIG. 8 is a schematic diagram showing another embodiment of the solar cell module. [Figure 9] FIG. 9 is a schematic diagram showing another embodiment of the solar cell module. [Figure 10]FIG. 10 is a block diagram of a mouse for a personal computer as an example of an electronic device. [Figure 11] FIG. 11 is a schematic external view showing an example of the mouse shown in FIG. [Figure 12] FIG. 12 is a block diagram of a keyboard for a personal computer as an example of an electronic device. [Figure 13] FIG. 13 is a schematic external view showing an example of the keyboard shown in FIG. [Figure 14] FIG. 14 is a schematic external view showing another example of the keyboard shown in FIG. [Figure 15] FIG. 15 is a block diagram of a sensor as an example of an electronic device. [Figure 16] FIG. 16 is a block diagram of a turntable as an example of an electronic device. [Figure 17] FIG. 17 is a block diagram showing an example of an electronic device. [Figure 18] FIG. 18 is a block diagram showing an example in which a power supply IC is further incorporated into the electronic device shown in FIG. [Figure 19] FIG. 19 is a block diagram showing an example in which a power storage device is further incorporated into the electronic device shown in FIG. [Figure 20] FIG. 20 is a block diagram illustrating an example of a power supply module. [Figure 21] FIG. 21 is a block diagram showing an example in which an electricity storage device is further incorporated into the power supply module shown in FIG. [Figure 22] FIG. 22 is a cross-sectional view of a solar cell in the manufacturing process of Example 1. [Figure 23] FIG. 23 is a top view of the end portion of the first electrode in the manufacturing process of Example 1. FIG. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

[0009] (Photoelectric conversion element) The photoelectric conversion element of this embodiment includes a first substrate, a first electrode, a photoelectric conversion layer, a second electrode, and a sealing member, and may further include other members as necessary. The first electrode is a transparent electrode. The photoelectric conversion element has an output terminal on the first substrate, the output terminal having an end of the first electrode exposed from the sealing member and a metal layer provided on the end. The arithmetic mean height (Ra) of the surface of the output terminal having the metal layer is 0.1 μm or more and 0.3 μm or less, and the ten-point mean roughness (Rz) of the surface of the output terminal having the metal layer is 0.35 μm or more and 0.75 μm or less.

[0010] The inventors have found that in the output terminal, the edge of the first electrode (transparent electrode) exposed from the sealing member has unevenness, and the metal layer provided on the edge has a predetermined surface roughness (arithmetic mean height Ra and 10-point mean roughness Rz), which increases the bonding area between the metal layer and the edge of the lower electrode, reduces peeling of the metal layer, and ensures close adhesion.Therefore, a photoelectric conversion element having such a configuration has excellent adhesion and durability of the output terminal, and can maintain power generation efficiency even after being exposed to high-intensity light for a long period of time.

[0011] The photoelectric conversion element means an element capable of converting light energy into electrical energy or electrical energy into light energy, and is used in solar cells, photodiodes, and the like. The photoelectric conversion element may be a so-called forward structure photoelectric conversion element having a first substrate, a first electrode, an electron transport layer, a photoelectric conversion layer, a hole transport layer, and a second electrode in this order, or may be a so-called inverted structure photoelectric conversion element having a first substrate, a first electrode, a hole transport layer, a photoelectric conversion layer, an electron transport layer, and a second electrode in this order. The photoelectric conversion element having the forward structure preferably further includes a passivation layer between the photoelectric conversion layer and the hole transport layer, and the photoelectric conversion element having the inverted structure preferably further includes a passivation layer between the photoelectric conversion layer and the electron transport layer.

[0012] <Output terminal> The output terminal has, on the first substrate, an end portion of the first electrode exposed from the sealing member, and a metal layer provided on the end portion. The arithmetic mean height (Ra) of the surface of the output terminal having the metal layer is 0.1 μm or more and 0.3 μm or less. The surface of the output terminal having the metal layer has a ten-point average roughness (Rz) of 0.35 μm or more and 0.75 μm or less.

[0013] The arithmetic mean height (Ra) of the surface of the output terminal having the metal layer is 0.1 μm or more and 0.3 μm or less, and more preferably 0.15 μm or more and 0.25 μm or less. When Ra is 0.1 μm or more, the surface irregularities improve adhesion to the metal layer, and when Ra is 0.3 μm or less, the surface irregularities are stable, allowing the power generation efficiency to be maintained even after long-term exposure to high-intensity light.

[0014] The ten-point average roughness (Rz) of the surface of the output terminal having the metal layer is 0.35 μm or more and 0.75 μm or less, preferably 0.40 μm or more and 0.70 μm or less, and more preferably 0.45 μm or more and 0.65 μm or less. When Rz is 0.35 μm or more, the discontinuous unevenness improves the adhesion between the metal layer and the transparent electrode, and when Rz is 0.75 μm or less, the fragility caused by the specific convex shape is less likely to appear, ensuring the strength of the structure, which is preferable.

[0015] The arithmetic mean height (Ra) and ten-point mean roughness (Rz) of the surface having the metal layer in the output terminal can be measured using an optical microscope, a contact or optical 3D scanner, a shape analysis laser microscope, etc. Specifically, they can be measured using a shape measurement laser microscope (VK-X100, manufactured by Keyence Corporation) with a 50x objective lens.

[0016] <<End of the first electrode>> The end of the first electrode is the end of the first electrode exposed from the sealing member, and the first substrate has the first electrode on it, and may further have other layers such as the hole transport layer, the photoelectric conversion layer, and the electron transport layer, as necessary. In terms of charge extraction, it is preferable that the end of the first electrode further comprises other layers such as the hole transport layer, the photoelectric conversion layer, and the electron transport layer, and that the end of the first electrode is formed by a plurality of micropores that reach the first electrode. The end of the first electrode may penetrate the first electrode and reach the first substrate.

[0017] The end of the first electrode has surface roughness on the side opposite to the side facing the first substrate, and the arithmetic mean height (Ra) of the end of the first electrode is preferably 0.1 μm or more and 0.3 μm or less, and the 10-point mean roughness (Rz) of the end of the first electrode is preferably 0.35 μm or more and 0.75 μm or less. The arithmetic mean height (Ra) and ten-point mean roughness (Rz) of the end portion of the first electrode can also be measured by the same method as above.

[0018] Examples of methods for forming the end of the first electrode include sandblasting, water blasting, abrasive paper, chemical etching, laser processing, etc. Among these, laser processing is preferred because it allows fine holes to be formed without using sand, etchant, resist, etc., and enables processing to be performed more cleanly and with good reproducibility.

[0019] <<Metal layer>> The metal layer may be formed on an end of the first electrode. The metal layer can generally be the same as that of the second electrode. Examples of materials for the metal layer include metals such as platinum, gold, silver, copper, and aluminum; carbon-based compounds such as graphite, fullerene, carbon nanotubes, and graphene; conductive metal oxides such as ITO, FTO, and ATO; conductive polymers such as polythiophene and polyaniline; and conductive pastes containing metal nanomaterials. These may be used alone or in combination of two or more. Among these, gold (Au) and silver (Ag) are preferred. The average thickness of the metal layer is not particularly limited and can be appropriately selected, but is preferably 0.02 μm or more and 30 μm or less. To improve productivity, it is preferable to deposit the metal layer simultaneously with the deposition of the second electrode. In this case, the average thickness of the second electrode and the average thickness of the metal layer are the same because they are deposited simultaneously. Here, "the same" means that the difference between the average thickness of the second electrode and the average thickness of the metal layer is 10 nm or less. The method for forming the metal layer can be appropriately selected from the methods described in the method for forming the second electrode, and examples thereof include coating, laminating, vapor deposition, CVD, and bonding.

[0020] <First board> The shape, structure, and size of the first substrate are not particularly limited and can be appropriately selected depending on the purpose. The material of the first substrate is not particularly limited as long as it is light-transmitting and insulating, and can be appropriately selected depending on the purpose, and examples thereof include glass, plastic film, ceramic, etc. Among these, when a firing step is included in forming the electron transport layer as described below, a substrate having heat resistance to the firing temperature is preferred. Furthermore, a flexible first substrate is more preferred.

[0021] A second substrate may be provided on the outermost side of the second electrode side. The second substrate may be selected appropriately from the items described above for the first substrate. Hereinafter, the substrate provided at the outermost position on the first electrode side will be referred to as the first substrate, and the substrate provided at the outermost position on the second electrode side will be referred to as the second substrate, and the first substrate and second substrate will be collectively referred to as substrates. The average thickness of the substrate is not particularly limited and can be appropriately selected depending on the purpose, and may be, for example, 50 μm or more and 5 mm or less.

[0022] <First electrode> The first electrode is not particularly limited in shape or size as long as it is a transparent electrode, and can be appropriately selected depending on the purpose. Hereinafter, the electrode provided on the first substrate side will be referred to as the first electrode, the electrode provided on the second substrate side will be referred to as the second electrode, and the first electrode and second electrode will be collectively referred to as the electrode.

[0023] The structure of the first electrode is not particularly limited and can be appropriately selected depending on the purpose, and may be a single-layer structure or a structure in which multiple materials are laminated.

[0024] The material of the first electrode is not particularly limited as long as it is conductive and can be appropriately selected depending on the purpose. Examples include transparent conductive metal oxides, carbon, and metals.

[0025] Examples of transparent conductive metal oxides include indium tin oxide (hereinafter referred to as "ITO"), fluorine-doped tin oxide (hereinafter referred to as "FTO"), antimony-doped tin oxide (hereinafter referred to as "ATO"), niobium-doped tin oxide (hereinafter referred to as "NTO"), aluminum-doped zinc oxide (hereinafter referred to as "AZO"), indium zinc oxide, and niobium titanium oxide. Examples of carbon include carbon black, carbon nanotubes, graphene, and fullerene. Examples of metals include gold, silver, aluminum, nickel, indium, tantalum, and titanium. These may be used alone or in combination of two or more. Among these, transparent conductive metal oxides with high transparency are preferred, and ITO, FTO, ATO, NTO, and AZO are more preferred.

[0026] The average thickness of the first electrode is not particularly limited and can be appropriately selected depending on the purpose, but is preferably 5 nm to 100 μm, more preferably 50 nm to 10 μm. When the first electrode is made of carbon or metal, the average thickness of the first electrode is preferably set to an average thickness that ensures light transmittance.

[0027] The first electrode can be formed by a known method such as a sputtering method, a vapor deposition method, or a spray method.

[0028] The first electrode is preferably formed on a substrate, and a commercially available integrated product in which the first electrode is formed on the substrate in advance can be used. Examples of commercially available integrated products include FTO-coated glass, ITO-coated glass, zinc oxide:aluminum-coated glass, FTO-coated transparent plastic film, ITO-coated transparent plastic film, etc. Other commercially available integrated products include, for example, transparent electrodes in which tin oxide or indium oxide is doped with cations or anions having different valences, or glass substrates provided with metal electrodes in a mesh-like or striped structure that allows light to pass through. These may be used alone or in combination as a mixture or laminate of two or more. In addition, metal lead wires or the like may be used in combination for the purpose of reducing electrical resistance. Furthermore, electrodes in an integrated commercially available product may be appropriately processed to produce a substrate on which a plurality of first electrodes are formed in order to produce a photoelectric conversion module, which will be described later.

[0029] As described above, the photoelectric conversion element has an output terminal that includes an end of the first electrode exposed from the sealing member and a metal layer provided on the end, and because it is integrated with the first electrode, it has the advantage of having excellent durability.

[0030] <Electron transport layer> The electron transport layer refers to a layer that transports electrons generated in the photoelectric conversion layer (described later) to the electrode, and is therefore preferably disposed adjacent to the electrode.

[0031] The shape and size of the electron transport layer are not particularly limited and can be appropriately selected depending on the purpose.

[0032] The electron transport layer may have a single layer structure or a multilayer structure in which a plurality of layers are laminated.

[0033] The electron transport layer contains an electron transport material. The electron transport material is not particularly limited and can be appropriately selected depending on the purpose, but is preferably a semiconductor material.

[0034] The semiconductor material is not particularly limited, and known materials can be used, such as elemental semiconductors and compounds having compound semiconductors. Examples of elemental semiconductors include silicon and germanium. Compound semiconductors include, for example, metal chalcogenides.

[0035] Examples of metal chalcogenides include metal oxides (oxide semiconductors), metal sulfides, metal selenides, and metal tellurides. Examples of metal oxides (oxide semiconductors) include oxides of titanium, tin, zinc, iron, tungsten, zirconium, hafnium, strontium, indium, cerium, yttrium, lanthanum, vanadium, niobium, tantalum, and the like. Examples of metal sulfides include sulfides of cadmium, zinc, lead, silver, antimony, bismuth, and the like. Examples of metal selenides include selenides of cadmium, lead, and the like. Examples of metal tellurides include tellurides of cadmium and the like. Other compound semiconductors include, for example, phosphides of zinc, gallium, indium, cadmium, etc., gallium arsenide, copper-indium-selenide, copper-indium-sulfide, and the like.

[0036] Among semiconductor materials, metal oxides (oxide semiconductors) are preferred, and in particular, at least one of titanium oxide, zinc oxide, tin oxide, and niobium oxide is more preferred, with tin oxide being even more preferred. These may be used alone or in combination of two or more. The crystal type of the semiconductor material is not particularly limited and can be appropriately selected depending on the purpose, and may be single crystal, polycrystalline, or amorphous.

[0037] The electron transport layer preferably contains at least one compound selected from the group consisting of a phosphonic acid compound, a boronic acid compound, a sulfonic acid compound, a halogenated silyl compound, and an alkoxysilyl compound on the electron transport material on the surface facing the photoelectric conversion layer. By containing these compounds on the electron transport material on the surface facing the photoelectric conversion layer, the electron transport layer is expected to control the physical properties of the interface between the electron transport layer and the photoelectric conversion layer. In other words, by coating the electron transport material on the surface facing the photoelectric conversion layer with these compounds, the interface resistance between the electron transport layer and the photoelectric conversion layer can be reduced, and smooth electron transfer can be expected. These compounds may be bonded to the electron transport material by, for example, a covalent bond or an ionic bond.

[0038] The compound is at least one of a phosphonic acid compound, a boronic acid compound, a sulfonic acid compound, a silyl halide compound, and an alkoxysilyl compound. The compound preferably contains a nitrogen atom in terms of compatibility with the photoelectric conversion layer (perovskite layer) described below.

[0039] The phosphonic acid compound is not particularly limited as long as it contains a phosphonic acid group, and can be appropriately selected depending on the purpose. Specific examples will be described later.

[0040] The boronic acid compound is not particularly limited as long as it contains a boronic acid group, and can be appropriately selected depending on the purpose. Specific examples will be described later.

[0041] The sulfonic acid compound is not particularly limited as long as it contains a sulfonic acid group, and can be appropriately selected depending on the purpose. Specific examples will be described later.

[0042] The halogenated silyl compound is not particularly limited as long as it contains a halogenated silyl group, and can be appropriately selected depending on the purpose. Specific examples will be described later.

[0043] The alkoxysilyl compound is not particularly limited as long as it contains an alkoxysilyl group, and can be appropriately selected depending on the purpose. Specific examples will be described later.

[0044] The molecular weight of the compound is not particularly limited and can be appropriately selected depending on the purpose, and may be, for example, from 100 to 500.

[0045] The compound is represented by, for example, the following general formula (X). [ka] In the general formula (X), R1 and R2 represent a hydrogen atom, an alkyl group, an aryl group, or a heterocycle, and may be the same or different. R3 represents a divalent alkylene group, a divalent aryl group, or a divalent heterocycle, and R4 represents a phosphonic acid group, a boronic acid group, a sulfonic acid group, a halogenated silyl group, or an alkoxysilyl group. R1 or R2, R3, and N may together form a ring structure.

[0046] Examples of the compound include the following compounds (X-01) to (X-56). [ka]

[0047] [ka]

[0048] [ka]

[0049] [ka]

[0050] The surface of the metal oxide is preferably coated on the electron transport layer with a compound having a substituent that reacts with the metal oxide, such as phosphonic acid, sulfonic acid, or a silyl halide group. Specific examples of the compound that coats the surface include, but are not limited to, methylphosphonic acid, phenylphosphonic acid, phenethylphosphonic acid, (1-aminoethyl)phosphonic acid, (2-aminoethyl)phosphonic acid, methanesulfonic acid, benzenesulfonic acid, 2-thienylboronic acid, methyltrichlorosilane, and n-hexyltriethoxysilane.

[0051] The average thickness of the electron transport layer is not particularly limited and can be appropriately selected depending on the purpose, but is preferably 5 nm or more and 1 μm or less, and more preferably 10 nm or more and 700 nm or less.

[0052] The surface of the electron transport layer on the photoelectric conversion layer side is preferably as smooth as possible. As an index of smoothness, the smaller the roughness factor, the better. However, in relation to the average thickness of the electron transport layer, the roughness factor of the electron transport layer on the photoelectric conversion layer side is preferably 20 or less, more preferably 10 or less. There is no particular limitation on the lower limit of the roughness factor, which can be appropriately selected depending on the purpose, and is, for example, 1 or more. The roughness factor is the ratio of the actual surface area to the apparent surface area, and is also called the Wenzel roughness factor. The actual surface area can be measured, for example, by measuring the BET specific surface area, and the roughness factor can be calculated by dividing that value by the apparent surface area.

[0053] The method for producing a thin film of the electron transport material in the electron transport layer is not particularly limited and can be appropriately selected depending on the purpose. Examples thereof include a method for forming a thin film of the electron transport material in a vacuum (vacuum film-forming method) and a wet film-forming method. Examples of vacuum film formation methods include sputtering, pulsed laser deposition (PLD), ion beam sputtering, ion-assisted deposition, ion plating, vacuum evaporation, atomic layer deposition (ALD), and chemical vapor deposition (CVD). Examples of wet film-forming methods include the sol-gel method. The sol-gel method is a method in which a gel is produced from a solution through chemical reactions such as hydrolysis, polymerization, and condensation, and then heat treatment is performed to promote densification. When using the sol-gel method, the method for applying the sol solution is not particularly limited and can be appropriately selected depending on the purpose. Examples include dipping, spraying, wire bar coating, spin coating, roller coating, blade coating, and gravure coating. Wet printing methods include relief printing, offset printing, gravure printing, intaglio printing, rubber printing, and screen printing. The temperature during heat treatment after application of the sol solution is preferably 80°C or higher, and more preferably 100°C or higher.

[0054] The method for applying the compound onto the electron transport material is not particularly limited and can be appropriately selected depending on the purpose. For example, a method of applying a solution containing the compound onto a thin film of the electron transport material and then drying the applied solution can be mentioned. The coating method is not particularly limited and can be appropriately selected depending on the purpose. Examples include dipping, spraying, wire bar coating, spin coating, roller coating, blade coating, and gravure coating. The temperature during the drying treatment after the solution is applied is preferably 40°C or higher, more preferably 50°C or higher.

[0055] <Photoelectric conversion layer> The photoelectric conversion layer is not particularly limited as long as it is a layer that performs photoelectric conversion, and can be appropriately selected depending on the purpose. Examples thereof include a perovskite layer and a bulk heterojunction layer.

[0056] <<Perovskite layer>> The perovskite layer refers to a layer that contains a perovskite compound and absorbs light to sensitize the electron transport layer, and is therefore preferably disposed adjacent to the electron transport layer.

[0057] The shape and size of the perovskite layer are not particularly limited and can be appropriately selected depending on the purpose.

[0058] The perovskite compound is a composite material of an organic compound and an inorganic compound, and is represented by the following general formula (5). X α Y β Z γ ...General formula (5) In the general formula (5), the ratio of α:β:γ is 3:1:1, β and γ represent integers greater than 1, X represents a halogen atom, Y represents an organic compound having an amino group, and Z represents a metal ion.

[0059] X in the general formula (5) is not particularly limited and can be appropriately selected depending on the purpose, and examples thereof include halogen atoms such as chlorine, bromine, iodine, etc. These may be used alone or in combination of two or more.

[0060] Y in the general formula (5) is not particularly limited as long as it is an organic cation and can be appropriately selected depending on the purpose. Examples include alkylamine compound ions such as methylamine, ethylamine, n-butylamine, and formamidine, and inorganic alkali metal cations such as Sb atom, Cs atom, Rb atom, and K atom. These may be used alone or in combination of two or more, or inorganic alkali metal cations and organic cations may be used in combination. Among these, organic compounds having an amino group are preferred. In addition, in the case of lead halide-methylammonium perovskite compounds, the peak λmax of the optical absorption spectrum shifts to longer wavelengths in the following order: approximately 350 nm when the halide ion is Cl, approximately 410 nm when the halide ion is Br, and approximately 540 nm when the halide ion is I; therefore, the available spectral width (band width) differs.

[0061] Z in the general formula (5) is not particularly limited and can be appropriately selected depending on the purpose, and examples thereof include ions of metals such as lead, indium, antimony, tin, copper, bismuth, etc. These may be used alone or in combination of two or more.

[0062] The perovskite layer preferably has a layered perovskite structure in which layers made of metal halide and layers in which organic cation molecules are arranged are alternately laminated.

[0063] The average thickness of the perovskite layer is preferably 50 nm or more and 2 μm or less, and more preferably 100 nm or more and 600 nm or less.

[0064] The method for forming the perovskite layer is not particularly limited and can be appropriately selected depending on the purpose. For example, a method of applying a solution in which a metal halide, an alkylamine halide, a cesium halide, or the like is dissolved or dispersed, followed by drying can be used. In addition, examples of methods for forming a perovskite layer include a two-stage precipitation method in which a solution in which a metal halide is dissolved or dispersed is applied and dried, and then the substrate is immersed in a solution in which a halogenated alkylamine is dissolved, thereby forming a perovskite compound. Furthermore, examples of methods for forming a perovskite layer include a method in which a solution in which a metal halide and an alkylamine halide are dissolved or dispersed is applied, and a poor solvent (a solvent with low solubility) for the perovskite compound is added to precipitate crystals. Additionally, examples of methods for forming a perovskite layer include a method in which a metal halide is vapor-deposited in a gas filled with methylamine or the like. Among these, a preferred method is to apply a solution in which a metal halide and an alkylamine halide are dissolved or dispersed, and then add a poor solvent for the perovskite compound to precipitate crystals.

[0065] The method for applying the solution is not particularly limited and can be appropriately selected depending on the purpose, and examples thereof include immersion, spin coating, spraying, dipping, roller coating, air knife coating, etc. Furthermore, the method for applying the solution may be, for example, a method in which the solution is precipitated in a supercritical fluid using carbon dioxide or the like.

[0066] The perovskite layer may also contain a sensitizing dye. The method for forming the perovskite layer containing the sensitizing dye is not particularly limited and can be appropriately selected depending on the purpose. Examples of the method include a method of mixing a perovskite compound with a sensitizing dye, and a method of forming a perovskite layer and then adsorbing the sensitizing dye.

[0067] The sensitizing dye is not particularly limited as long as it is a compound that is photoexcited by the excitation light used, and can be appropriately selected depending on the purpose. Examples of the sensitizing dye include metal complex compounds, coumarin compounds, polyene compounds, indoline compounds, thiophene compounds, cyanine dyes, merocyanine dyes, 9-arylxanthene compounds, triarylmethane compounds, phthalocyanine compounds, and porphyrin compounds. Examples of the metal complex compounds include those described in JP-A-7-500630, JP-A-10-233238, JP-A-2000-26487, JP-A-2000-323191, JP-A-2001-59062, and the like. Examples of the coumarin compound include those described in JP-A Nos. 10-93118, 2002-164089, and 2004-95450, and J. Phys. Chem. C, 7224, Vol. 111 (2007). Examples of the polyene compound include the polyene compounds described in JP-A No. 2004-95450 and Chem. Commun., 4887 (2007). Examples of the indoline compound include the indoline compounds described in JP-A Nos. 2003-264010, 2004-63274, 2004-115636, 2004-200068, 2004-235052, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 12218, Vol. 126 (2004), Chem. Commun., 3036 (2003), Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 1923, Vol. 47 (2008), and the like. Examples of the thiophene compound include those described in J. Am. Chem. Soc., 16701, Vol. 128 (2006), J. Am. Chem. Soc., 14256, Vol. 128 (2006), and the like. Examples of the cyanine dye include those described in JP-A Nos. 11-86916, 11-214730, 2000-106224, 2001-76773, and 2003-7359. Examples of the merocyanine dye include those described in JP-A Nos. 11-214731, 11-238905, 2001-52766, 2001-76775, and 2003-7360. Examples of the 9-arylxanthene compound include the 9-arylxanthene compounds described in JP-A Nos. 10-92477, 11-273754, 11-273755, and 2003-31273. Examples of the triarylmethane compound include the triarylmethane compounds described in JP-A Nos. 10-93118 and 2003-31273. Examples of the phthalocyanine compounds and the porphyrin compounds include those described in JP-A-9-199744, JP-A-10-233238, JP-A-11-204821, JP-A-11-265738, J. Phys. Chem., 2342, Vol. 91 (1987), J. Phys. Chem. B, 6272, Vol. 97 (1993), Electroanal. Chem., 31, Vol. 537 (2002), JP-A-2006-032260, and J. Porphyrins Examples of suitable phthalocyanine compounds include phthalocyanine compounds and porphyrin compounds described in Phthalocyanines, 230, Vol. 3 (1999), Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 373, Vol. 46 (2007), and Langmuir, 5436, Vol. 24 (2008). Among these, metal complex compounds, indoline compounds, thiophene compounds, and porphyrin compounds are preferred.

[0068] <Passivation layer> The photoelectric conversion element having the forward structure preferably further includes a passivation layer between the photoelectric conversion layer and the hole transport layer, and the photoelectric conversion element having the inverted structure preferably further includes a passivation layer between the photoelectric conversion layer and the electron transport layer. The passivation layer preferably contains an amine compound different from the compound contained in the photoelectric conversion layer, and preferably contains a compound represented by the following general formula (6). AX...General formula (6) In the general formula (6), A represents at least one of an amino cation compound, a pyridinium cation compound, an imidazolinium cation compound, and a pyrrolidinium cation compound represented by either the following general formula (7) or the following general formula (8), and X represents a halogen ion. [ka] In the general formula (7), R1 represents any one of -H, -F, -CF3, and -OCH3, n represents 1 or 2, and X represents any one of Br and I. [ka] In the general formula (8), n represents an integer of 3 or more and 12 or less, and X represents either Br or I.

[0069] Specific examples of the general formula (7) include, but are not limited to, (E-1) to (E-12) shown below.

[0070] [ka]

[0071] Specific examples of the general formula (8) include 5-aminopentanoic acid hydroiodide, 5-aminopentanoic acid hydrobromide, 6-aminohexanoic acid hydroiodide, 6-aminohexanoic acid hydrobromide, 7-aminoheptanoic acid hydroiodide, 7-aminoheptanoic acid hydrobromide, 8-aminoheptanoic acid hydroiodide, 8-aminoheptanoic acid hydrobromide, 9-aminononanoic acid hydroiodide, 9-aminononanoic acid hydrobromide, 10-aminodecanoic acid hydroiodide, 10-aminodecanoic acid hydrobromide, 11-aminoundecanoic acid hydroiodide, 12-aminoundecanoic acid hydrobromide, 12-aminododecanoic acid hydroiodide, and 12-aminododecanoic acid hydrobromide.

[0072] The photoelectric conversion element is expected to have the passivation layer between the photoelectric conversion layer and the hole transport layer, thereby controlling the physical properties of the interface. When the photoelectric conversion layer is a perovskite layer, the compound (organic salt or inorganic salt) represented by the general formula (6) is preferably a salt different from the salt constituting the perovskite layer.

[0073] The salt is not particularly limited and can be appropriately selected depending on the purpose, but in particular when a perovskite compound is used in the photoelectric conversion layer, it is preferable that the salt contains a halogen atom, such as chlorine, iodine, or bromine, in terms of compatibility.

[0074] In particular, when a perovskite compound is used in the photoelectric conversion layer, the organic salt is preferably an amine hydrohalide salt from the viewpoint of compatibility. In particular, when a perovskite compound is used in the photoelectric conversion layer, the inorganic salt is preferably an alkali metal halide, such as lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, or cesium, from the viewpoint of compatibility.

[0075] The A is at least one of an amino cation compound, a pyridinium cation compound, an imidazolinium cation compound, and a pyrrolidinium cation compound represented by either of the following general formula (7) and the following general formula (8). [ka] In the general formula (7), R1 represents any one of -H, -F, -CF3, and -OCH3, n represents 1 or 2, and X represents any one of Br and I. [ka] In the general formula (8), n represents an integer of 3 or more and 12 or less, and X represents either Br or I.

[0076] Examples of X in the general formula (6) include a halogen anion such as a bromine (Br) anion and an iodine (I) anion.

[0077] The method for forming the passivation layer between the photoelectric conversion layer and the hole transport layer is not particularly limited and can be appropriately selected depending on the purpose, but for example, a method can be used in which a solution containing a compound (organic salt or inorganic salt) represented by general formula (6) is applied to the photoelectric conversion layer, followed by drying, and then a hole transport layer is formed thereon. Examples of the solution include an aqueous solution and an alcohol. The coating method is not particularly limited and can be appropriately selected depending on the purpose. Examples include dipping, spraying, wire bar coating, spin coating, roller coating, blade coating, and gravure coating. The solution may be applied by, for example, precipitating it in a supercritical fluid using carbon dioxide, etc. There is no limitation on the thickness of this layer, and it may be adsorbed as a single molecule or may be in the form of islands with no continuity. The temperature during the drying treatment after the solution is applied is not particularly limited and can be appropriately selected depending on the purpose. The average thickness of the passivation layer is preferably 0.5 nm or more and 100 nm or less, and more preferably 1 nm or more and 50 nm or less. Furthermore, the compound (organic salt or inorganic salt) represented by the general formula (6) does not need to be uniformly distributed at the interface between the photoelectric conversion layer and the hole transport layer. For example, it may be present in multiple localized regions (e.g., island-like). Furthermore, when the photoelectric conversion layer is a perovskite layer, the perovskite compound may be distributed within the perovskite layer or the hole transport layer by reacting the perovskite compound with a hole transport material of the hole transport layer. In other words, it is sufficient that there is a region in which the compound (organic salt or inorganic salt) represented by the general formula (6) is present between the perovskite layer in which the compound (organic salt or inorganic salt) is not present and the hole transport layer in which the organic salt and inorganic salt are not present.

[0078] <Hole transport layer> The hole transport layer refers to a layer that transports holes generated in the photoelectric conversion layer to an electrode. Therefore, the hole transport layer is preferably disposed adjacent to the photoelectric conversion layer directly or via the salt.

[0079] The hole transport layer contains a compound having a structural unit of the following general formula (1) and a compound represented by the following general formula (2): By mixing the dopant represented by general formula (2), the hole transport solution does not gel, and the resistance of the hole transport layer formed using the ink is reduced.

[0080] [ka] Ar in the general formula (1) 1 represents an aryl group. Examples of the aryl group include a phenyl group, a 1-naphthyl group, and a 9-anthracenyl group. The aryl group may have a substituent. Examples of the substituent include an alkyl group, an alkoxy group, and an aryl group. Ar 2 , and Ar 3 each independently represents an arylene group, a divalent heterocyclic group, or the like. Examples of arylene groups include 1,4-phenylene, 1,1'-biphenylene, and 9,9'-di-n-hexylfluorene. Examples of divalent heterocyclic groups include 2,5-thiophene.

[0081] The compound having the structural unit of the general formula (1) is preferably a compound represented by the general formula (1A), which can reduce the resistance of the hole transport layer.

[0082] [ka] However, in the general formula (1A), Ar 1 represents an aromatic hydrocarbon group which may have a substituent, Ar 2 and Ar 3each independently represents a divalent group of an optionally substituted monocyclic, optionally substituted non-fused polycyclic, or optionally substituted fused polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon group, Ar 4 represents a divalent group of optionally substituted benzene, optionally substituted thiophene, optionally substituted biphenyl, optionally substituted anthracene, or optionally substituted naphthalene, n represents an integer of 2 or more. The weight average molecular weight of the polymer represented by the general formula (1A) is preferably 2,000 or more.

[0083] Ar in the general formula (1A) 1 represents an aromatic hydrocarbon group which may have a substituent, for example, an aryl group which may have a substituent. Examples of the aryl group include a phenyl group, a 1-naphthyl group, a 9-anthracenyl group, etc. Examples of the substituent include an alkyl group, an alkoxy group, an aryl group, etc. Ar 2 and Ar 3 Each independently represents a divalent group of an optionally substituted monocyclic, optionally substituted non-fused polycyclic, or optionally substituted fused polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon group, such as an optionally substituted arylene group or an optionally substituted divalent heterocyclic group. Examples of arylene groups include 1,4-phenylene, 1,1'-biphenylene, and 9,9'-di-n-hexylfluorene. Examples of divalent heterocyclic groups include 2,5-thiophene. Examples of substituents include alkyl groups, alkoxy groups, and aryl groups. Ar4 represents a divalent group of benzene, thiophene, biphenyl, anthracene, or naphthalene, which may be substituted with a substituent, such as an alkyl group, an alkoxy group, or an aryl group.

[0084] The compound represented by the general formula (1A) is preferably a compound represented by the following general formula (1B).

[0085] [ka] In the general formula (1B), R5 represents a methyl group or a methoxy group, R6 and R7 represent an alkoxy group, and n represents an integer of 2 or more.

[0086] The weight average molecular weight of the compound (polymer) represented by the general formula (1) is preferably 2,000 or more and 150,000 or less. The weight average molecular weight can be measured by gel permeation chromatography (GPC).

[0087] Specific examples of the polymer represented by general formula (1) include the following (A-01) to (A-31), but are not limited to these.

[0088] [ka] [ka] [ka] [ka] [ka] [ka]

[0089] [ka] In the general formula (2), M represents any one of boron, aluminum, phosphorus, and antimony, and R2, R3, and R4 each independently represent a hydrogen atom, a halogen atom, an alkyl group, an alkoxy group, an aryl group, a heteroaryl group, an ether bond, or an ester bond.

[0090] Examples of the halogen atom include a fluorine atom, a chlorine atom, a bromine atom, and an iodine atom. Examples of the alkyl group include alkyl groups having a carbon number of 1 to 6. The alkyl group may be substituted with a halogen atom. Examples of the alkoxy group include alkoxy groups having 1 to 6 carbon atoms. The aryl group may, for example, be a phenyl group.

[0091] Specific examples of the compound represented by the general formula (2) include the following (B-1) to (B-17), but are not limited to these.

[0092] [ka] [ka]

[0093] The mass ratio [(1):(2)] of the polymer compound (1) having the structural unit of the general formula (1) to the compound (2) represented by the general formula (2) in the hole transport layer is not particularly limited and can be appropriately selected depending on the purpose. From the viewpoint of hole transport, the mass ratio is preferably 1000:1 to 1000:500, and more preferably 100:1 to 100:50.

[0094] The hole transport layer may further contain, for example, other solid hole transport materials, and may contain other materials as needed. The other solid hole transport material (hereinafter, sometimes simply referred to as "hole transport material") is not particularly limited as long as it has the property of transporting holes and can be appropriately selected depending on the purpose, but it is preferable that it contains an organic compound.

[0095] When an organic compound is used as the hole transporting material, the hole transport layer contains, for example, a plurality of types of organic compounds.

[0096] The organic compound may be, for example, a polymer material. The polymer material used in the hole transport layer is not particularly limited and can be appropriately selected depending on the purpose. Examples thereof include polythiophene compounds, polyphenylene vinylene compounds, polyfluorene compounds, polyphenylene compounds, polyarylamine compounds, and polythiadiazole compounds. Examples of polythiophene compounds include poly(3-n-hexylthiophene), poly(3-n-octyloxythiophene), poly(9,9'-dioctylfluorene-co-bithiophene), poly(3,3'''-didodecyl-quaterthiophene), poly(3,6-dioctylthieno[3,2-b]thiophene), and poly(2,5-bis(3-decylthiophen-2-yl)thieno[3,2 -b]thiophene), poly(3,4-didecylthiophene-co-thieno[3,2-b]thiophene), poly(3,6-dioctylthieno[3,2-b]thiophene-co-thieno[3,2-b]thiophene), poly(3,6-dioctylthieno[3,2-b]thiophene-co-thiophene), or poly(3,6-dioctylthieno[3,2-b]thiophene-co-bithiophene). Examples of polyphenylene vinylene compounds include poly[2-methoxy-5-(2-ethylhexyloxy)-1,4-phenylene vinylene], poly[2-methoxy-5-(3,7-dimethyloctyloxy)-1,4-phenylene vinylene], and poly[(2-methoxy-5-(2-ethylhexyloxy)-1,4-phenylene vinylene)-co-(4,4′-biphenylene vinylene)]. Examples of polyfluorene compounds include poly(9,9'-didodecylfluorenyl-2,7-diyl), poly[(9,9-dioctyl-2,7-divinylenefluorene)-alt-co-(9,10-anthracene)], poly[(9,9-dioctyl-2,7-divinylenefluorene)-alt-co-(4,4'-biphenylene)], poly[(9,9-dioctyl-2,7-divinylenefluorene)-alt-co-(2-methoxy-5-(2-ethylhexyloxy)-1,4-phenylene)], and poly[(9,9-dioctyl-2,7-diyl)-co-(1,4-(2,5-dihexyloxy)benzene)]. Examples of polyphenylene compounds include poly[2,5-dioctyloxy-1,4-phenylene] and poly[2,5-di(2-ethylhexyloxy-1,4-phenylene]]. Examples of the polyarylamine compound include poly[(9,9-dioctylfluorenyl-2,7-diyl)-alt-co-(N,N'-diphenyl)-N,N'-di(p-hexylphenyl)-1,4-diaminobenzene], poly[(9,9-dioctylfluorenyl-2,7-diyl)-alt-co-(N,N'-bis(4-octyloxyphenyl)benzidine-N,N'-(1,4-diphenylene)], poly[(N,N'-bis(4-octyloxyphenyl)benzidine-N,N'-(1,4-diphenylene)], poly poly[(N,N'-bis(4-(2-ethylhexyloxy)phenyl)benzidine-N,N'-(1,4-diphenylene)], poly[phenylimino-1,4-phenylenevinylene-2,5-dioctyloxy-1,4-phenylenevinylene-1,4-phenylene], poly[p-tolylimino-1,4-phenylenevinylene-2,5-di(2-ethylhexyloxy)-1,4-phenylenevinylene-1,4-phenylene], poly[4-(2-ethylhexyloxy)phenylimino-1,4-biphenylene], and the like. Examples of polythiadiazole compounds include poly[(9,9-dioctylfluorenyl-2,7-diyl)-alt-co-(1,4-benzo(2,1′,3)thiadiazole], poly(3,4-didecylthiophene-co-(1,4-benzo(2,1′,3)thiadiazole), and the like. Among these, polythiophene compounds and polyarylamine compounds are preferred in consideration of carrier mobility and ionization potential.

[0097] The hole transport layer may contain not only the above-mentioned polymer but also a low molecular weight compound alone or a mixture of a low molecular weight compound and a high molecular weight compound. The low-molecular-weight hole-transporting material is not particularly limited in chemical structure, and examples thereof include oxadiazole compounds, triphenylmethane compounds, pyrazoline compounds, hydrazone compounds, tetraarylbenzidine compounds, stilbene compounds, spirobifluorene compounds, and thiophene oligomers. Examples of the oxadiazole compound include the oxadiazole compounds disclosed in JP-B No. 34-5466 and JP-A No. 56-123544. Examples of the triphenylmethane compound include the triphenylmethane compounds disclosed in Japanese Patent Publication No. 45-555. Examples of the pyrazoline compounds include those disclosed in Japanese Patent Publication No. 52-4188. Examples of the hydrazone compounds include those disclosed in Japanese Patent Publication No. 55-42380. Examples of the tetraarylbenzidine compound include the tetraarylbenzidine compounds disclosed in JP-A-54-58445. Examples of the stilbene compounds include those disclosed in JP-A Nos. 58-65440 and 60-98437. Examples of spirobifluorene compounds include those disclosed in JP 2007-115665 A, JP 2014-72327 A, JP 2001-257012 A, WO 2004 / 063283 A, WO 2011 / 030450 A, WO 2011 / 45321 A, WO 2013 / 042699 A, and WO 2013 / 121835 A. Examples of the thiophene oligomer include the thiophene oligomers disclosed in JP-A-2-250881 and JP-A-2013-033868.

[0098] When a polymer and a low molecular weight compound are mixed, the difference in their ionization potentials is preferably 0.2 eV or less. Ionization potential is the energy required to remove one electron from a molecule and is expressed in units of electron volts (eV). There are no particular restrictions on the method for measuring ionization potential, but photoelectron spectroscopy is preferred.

[0099] Other materials contained in the hole transport layer are not particularly limited and can be appropriately selected depending on the purpose, and examples thereof include additives and oxidizing agents.

[0100] The additive is not particularly limited and can be appropriately selected depending on the purpose. Examples of the additive include metal iodides such as iodine, lithium iodide, sodium iodide, potassium iodide, cesium iodide, calcium iodide, copper iodide, iron iodide, and silver iodide; quaternary ammonium salts such as tetraalkylammonium iodide and pyridinium iodide; metal bromides such as lithium bromide, sodium bromide, potassium bromide, cesium bromide, and calcium bromide; tetraalkylammonium bromide and pyridinium bromide; metal chlorides such as copper chloride or silver chloride; metal acetates such as copper acetate, silver acetate or palladium acetate; metal sulfates such as copper sulfate or zinc sulfate; metal complexes such as ferrocyanide-ferricyanide or ferrocene-ferricinium ion; sulfur compounds such as sodium polysulfide or alkylthiol-alkyldisulfide; viologen dyes; hydroquinone; and basic compounds such as pyridine, 4-t-butylpyridine or benzimidazole.

[0101] Additionally, an oxidizing agent can be added. The oxidizing agent is not particularly limited and can be appropriately selected depending on the purpose. Examples include tris(4-bromophenyl)aminium hexachloroantimonate, silver hexafluoroantimonate, nitrosonium tetrafluoroborate, silver nitrate, cobalt complexes, and 4-isopropyl-4'-methyldiphenyliodonium tetrakis(pentafluorophenyl)borate. It is not necessary for the oxidizing agent to oxidize the entire hole transport material; partial oxidation is sufficient. The oxidizing agent may or may not be removed from the system after the reaction. By including an oxidizing agent in the hole transport layer, part or all of the hole transport material can be converted into radical cations, thereby improving the conductivity and enhancing the durability and stability of the output characteristics.

[0102] The average thickness of the hole transport layer is not particularly limited and can be appropriately selected depending on the purpose. On the photoelectric conversion layer, the average thickness is preferably 0.01 μm or more and 20 μm or less, more preferably 0.1 μm or more and 10 μm or less, and even more preferably 0.2 μm or more and 2 μm or less.

[0103] The hole transport layer can be formed directly on the photoelectric conversion layer. The method for producing the hole transport layer is not particularly limited and can be appropriately selected depending on the purpose, and examples include a method for forming a thin film in a vacuum, such as vacuum deposition, and a wet film-forming method. Among these, in terms of production costs, the wet film-forming method is particularly preferred, and the method of coating on the photoelectric conversion layer is more preferred. The wet film-forming method is not particularly limited and can be appropriately selected depending on the purpose, and examples thereof include dipping, spraying, wire bar coating, spin coating, roller coating, blade coating, gravure coating, etc. Furthermore, examples of wet printing methods that can be used include relief printing, offset printing, gravure printing, intaglio printing, rubber printing, and screen printing.

[0104] The hole transport layer may also be prepared by forming a film in, for example, a supercritical fluid or a subcritical fluid at a temperature and pressure lower than the critical point. A supercritical fluid is a fluid that exists as a non-aggregating high-density fluid in a temperature and pressure range above the limit (critical point) at which gas and liquid can coexist, does not aggregate even when compressed, and is in a state above the critical temperature and critical pressure. There are no particular limitations on the supercritical fluid and it can be selected appropriately depending on the purpose, but one with a low critical temperature is preferred. The subcritical fluid is not particularly limited as long as it exists as a high-pressure liquid in a temperature and pressure range near the critical point, and can be appropriately selected depending on the purpose. Fluids exemplified as supercritical fluids can also be suitably used as subcritical fluids.

[0105] Examples of supercritical fluids include carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, ammonia, nitrogen, water, alcohol solvents, hydrocarbon solvents, halogen solvents, and ether solvents. Examples of alcohol solvents include methanol, ethanol, and n-butanol. Examples of hydrocarbon solvents include ethane, propane, 2,3-dimethylbutane, benzene, toluene, etc. Examples of halogen solvents include methylene chloride, chlorotrifluoromethane, etc. The ether solvent may, for example, be dimethyl ether. These may be used alone or in combination of two or more. Among these, carbon dioxide is preferred because it has a critical pressure of 7.3 MPa and a critical temperature of 31° C., and therefore can easily produce a supercritical state, and is non-flammable and easy to handle.

[0106] The critical temperature and critical pressure of the supercritical fluid are not particularly limited and can be appropriately selected depending on the purpose. The critical temperature of the supercritical fluid is preferably −273° C. or higher and 300° C. or lower, and more preferably 0° C. or higher and 200° C. or lower.

[0107] Furthermore, in addition to the supercritical fluid and subcritical fluid, an organic solvent and an entrainer can be used in combination. By adding the organic solvent and the entrainer, it is possible to more easily adjust the solubility in the supercritical fluid. The organic solvent is not particularly limited and can be appropriately selected depending on the purpose. Examples thereof include ketone solvents, ester solvents, ether solvents, amide solvents, halogenated hydrocarbon solvents, and hydrocarbon solvents. Examples of the ketone solvent include acetone, methyl ethyl ketone, and methyl isobutyl ketone. Examples of ester solvents include ethyl formate, ethyl acetate, and n-butyl acetate. Examples of the ether solvent include diisopropyl ether, dimethoxyethane, tetrahydrofuran, dioxolane, and dioxane. Examples of the amide solvent include N,N-dimethylformamide, N,N-dimethylacetamide, and N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone. Examples of halogenated hydrocarbon solvents include dichloromethane, chloroform, bromoform, methyl iodide, dichloroethane, trichloroethane, trichloroethylene, chlorobenzene, o-dichlorobenzene, fluorobenzene, bromobenzene, iodobenzene, and 1-chloronaphthalene. Examples of hydrocarbon solvents include n-pentane, n-hexane, n-octane, 1,5-hexadiene, cyclohexane, methylcyclohexane, cyclohexadiene, benzene, toluene, o-xylene, m-xylene, p-xylene, ethylbenzene, and cumene. These may be used alone or in combination of two or more.

[0108] Alternatively, a press treatment may be performed after laminating the hole transport material on the photoelectric conversion layer. By performing the press treatment, the hole transport material is more closely attached to the photoelectric conversion layer, which may improve power generation efficiency. The method of press treatment is not particularly limited and can be selected appropriately depending on the purpose. Examples include press molding using a flat plate, such as an IR (infrared spectroscopy) tablet molding machine, and roll press using rollers. The pressure used for pressing is 10 kgf / cm 2 More than 30kgf / cm is preferable. 2 The above is more preferable. The pressing time is not particularly limited and can be appropriately selected depending on the purpose, but is preferably 1 hour or less. Heat may be applied during the pressing.

[0109] During the pressing process, a release agent may be placed between the press and the electrode. The release agent is not particularly limited and can be appropriately selected depending on the purpose, and examples thereof include fluororesins such as polytetrafluoroethylene, polychlorotrifluoroethylene, tetrafluoroethylene-hexafluoropropylene copolymer, perfluoroalkoxy fluoride resin, polyvinylidene fluoride, ethylene tetrafluoroethylene copolymer, ethylene chlorotrifluoroethylene copolymer, and polyvinyl fluoride. These may be used alone or in combination of two or more.

[0110] --Metal oxide-containing film-- After the pressing step, and before the second electrode is provided, a film containing a metal oxide may be provided between the hole transport layer and the second electrode. The metal oxide is not particularly limited and can be appropriately selected depending on the purpose, and examples thereof include molybdenum oxide, tungsten oxide, vanadium oxide, nickel oxide, etc. These may be used alone or in combination of two or more. Among these, molybdenum oxide is preferred. The method for providing a film containing a metal oxide on the hole transport layer is not particularly limited and can be appropriately selected depending on the purpose. Examples of the method include methods for forming a thin film in a vacuum, such as sputtering and vacuum deposition, and wet film formation methods.

[0111] A preferred wet film-forming method for forming a film containing a metal oxide is a method in which a paste in which a powder or sol of the metal oxide is dispersed is prepared and applied onto the hole transport layer. The wet film-forming method is not particularly limited and can be appropriately selected depending on the purpose, and examples thereof include dipping, spraying, wire bar coating, spin coating, roller coating, blade coating, gravure coating, etc. Furthermore, examples of wet printing methods that can be used include relief printing, offset printing, gravure printing, intaglio printing, rubber printing, and screen printing.

[0112] The average thickness of the film containing a metal oxide is not particularly limited and can be appropriately selected depending on the purpose, but is preferably 0.1 nm or more and 50 nm or less, and more preferably 1 nm or more and 10 nm or less.

[0113] <Second electrode> The second electrode can be formed on the hole transport layer or on a metal oxide in the hole transport layer. The second electrode can generally be the same as the first transparent electrode, and a support is not necessarily required as long as the structure is such that sufficient strength and airtightness are maintained. Examples of materials for the second electrode include metals such as platinum, gold, silver, copper, and aluminum; carbon-based compounds such as graphite, fullerene, carbon nanotubes, and graphene; conductive metal oxides such as ITO, FTO, and ATO; and conductive polymers such as polythiophene and polyaniline. These may be used alone or in combination of two or more. The average thickness of the second electrode is not particularly limited and can be selected appropriately. The second electrode can be formed on the hole transport layer by coating, laminating, vapor deposition, CVD, bonding, or other suitable methods depending on the type of material used and the type of hole transport layer.

[0114] <<Sealing member>> The photoelectric conversion element can effectively use a sealing member that can shield at least the electron transport layer and the hole transport layer from the external environment of the photoelectric conversion element. In other words, in this embodiment, it is preferable that the photoelectric conversion element further includes a sealing member that shields the photoelectric conversion layer from the external environment of the photoelectric conversion element. Any conventionally known material can be used as the sealing member as long as it can reduce the intrusion of excess moisture, oxygen, etc. from the external environment into the sealed interior. The sealing member also has the effect of preventing mechanical damage caused by pressure from the outside, and any conventionally known material can be used as long as it can achieve this effect.

[0115] Sealing methods can be broadly divided into "frame sealing," in which a sealing material is applied to the periphery of the power generation area, which consists of the photoelectric conversion layer of the photoelectric conversion element, and then bonded to the second substrate, and "surface sealing," in which a sealing material is applied to the entire power generation area and then bonded to the second substrate. The former, "frame sealing," allows for the creation of a hollow space inside the seal, making it possible to appropriately adjust the amount of moisture and oxygen inside the seal. Furthermore, since the second electrode does not come into contact with the sealing material, it has the effect of reducing the impact of electrode peeling. On the other hand, the latter, "surface sealing," is excellent at preventing the intrusion of excess water and oxygen from the outside. Furthermore, the large adhesive surface area with the sealing material provides high sealing strength, making it particularly suitable when a flexible substrate is used for the first substrate.

[0116] The type of the sealing member is not particularly limited and can be appropriately selected depending on the purpose, and examples thereof include curable resins, low-melting-point glass resins, etc. The curable resin is not particularly limited as long as it is a resin that is cured by light or heat, and can be appropriately selected depending on the purpose, and among them, acrylic resins and epoxy resins are preferably used.

[0117] The cured acrylic resin may be any known material as long as it is a cured product of a monomer or oligomer having an acrylic group in the molecule. The cured epoxy resin may be any known material as long as it is a cured product of a monomer or oligomer having an epoxy group in the molecule. Examples of the epoxy resin include a water-dispersed type, a solventless type, a solid type, a heat-curing type, a curing agent mixed type, and an ultraviolet-curing type. Among these, the heat-curing type and the ultraviolet-curing type are preferred, and the ultraviolet-curing type is more preferred. Even in the case of an ultraviolet-curing type, heating can be performed, and it is preferred to perform heating even after ultraviolet curing. Examples of the epoxy resin include bisphenol A type, bisphenol F type, novolac type, cyclic aliphatic type, long-chain aliphatic type, glycidyl amine type, glycidyl ether type, glycidyl ester type, etc. These may be used alone or in combination of two or more types.

[0118] The epoxy resin is preferably mixed with a curing agent and various additives as required. The curing agent is classified into amine-based, acid anhydride-based, polyamide-based and other curing agents, and is appropriately selected depending on the purpose. Examples of the amine-based curing agent include aliphatic polyamines such as diethylenetriamine and triethylenetetramine, and aromatic polyamines such as metaphenylenediamine, diaminodiphenylmethane and diaminodiphenylsulfone. Examples of the acid anhydride curing agent include phthalic anhydride, tetrahydrophthalic anhydride and hexahydrophthalic anhydride, methyltetrahydrophthalic anhydride, methylnadic anhydride, pyromellitic anhydride, HET anhydride, and dodecenyl succinic anhydride. Examples of the other curing agents include imidazoles, polymercaptans, etc. These may be used alone or in combination of two or more.

[0119] Examples of the additives include a filler, a gap agent, a polymerization initiator, a desiccant (moisture absorbent), a curing accelerator, a coupling agent, a flexibilizing agent, a colorant, a flame retardant aid, an antioxidant, an organic solvent, etc. Among these, the filler, the gap agent, the curing accelerator, the polymerization initiator, and the desiccant (moisture absorbent) are preferred, and the filler and the polymerization initiator are more preferred.

[0120] The filler is effective in suppressing the intrusion of moisture and oxygen, and also has the effects of reducing volumetric shrinkage during curing, reducing the amount of outgassing during curing or heating, improving mechanical strength, and controlling thermal conductivity and fluidity, making it extremely effective in maintaining stable output in various environments. In particular, the output characteristics and durability of a photoelectric conversion element are not simply affected by the intrusion of moisture and oxygen, but are also affected by the outgassing generated during curing or heating of the sealing member. In particular, the outgassing generated during heating has a significant impact on output characteristics during storage in a high-temperature environment. In this case, by incorporating a filler, gap agent, or desiccant into the sealing material, these materials themselves can suppress the penetration of moisture and oxygen, and the amount of sealing material used can be reduced, thereby achieving the effect of reducing outgassing. This is effective not only during curing, but also when the photoelectric conversion element is stored in a high-temperature environment.

[0121] The filler is not particularly limited and can be appropriately selected depending on the purpose, and preferred examples include crystalline or amorphous inorganic fillers such as silica, talc, alumina, aluminum nitride, silicon nitride, calcium silicate, calcium carbonate, etc. These may be used alone or in combination of two or more. The average primary particle size of the filler is preferably 0.1 μm to 10 μm, more preferably 1 μm to 5 μm. When the amount added is within the preferred range, the effect of suppressing the penetration of moisture and oxygen can be sufficiently obtained, the viscosity becomes appropriate, and it is also effective in improving adhesion to the substrate and defoaming properties, and in controlling the width of the sealing member and workability.

[0122] The content of the filler is preferably 10 parts by mass or more and 90 parts by mass or less, and more preferably 20 parts by mass or more and 70 parts by mass or less, relative to 100 parts by mass of the total amount of the sealing member. When the content of the filler is within the above range, a sufficient effect of suppressing the penetration of moisture and oxygen is obtained, the viscosity is appropriate, and adhesion and workability are also good.

[0123] The gap agent, also called a gap control agent or spacer agent, enables the gap of the sealing member to be controlled. For example, when a sealing member is applied onto a first substrate or a first electrode, and a second substrate is placed thereon for sealing, the gap of the sealing member is made equal to the size of the gap agent by mixing the gap agent into the epoxy resin, and therefore the gap of the sealing member can be easily controlled. Any known material can be used as the gap agent as long as it is granular, has a uniform particle size, and has high solvent resistance and heat resistance. Materials with high affinity for epoxy resin and spherical particle shape are preferred. Specific examples include glass beads, silica microparticles, and organic resin microparticles. These may be used alone or in combination of two or more. The average particle size of the gap agent can be selected according to the gap of the sealing member to be set, but is preferably 1 μm or more and 100 μm or less, and more preferably 5 μm or more and 50 μm or less.

[0124] Examples of the polymerization initiator include a thermal polymerization initiator that uses heat to initiate polymerization, and a photopolymerization initiator that uses light to initiate polymerization. The thermal polymerization initiator is a compound that generates active species such as radicals or cations when heated, and specifically, an azo compound such as 2,2'-azobisbutyronitrile (AIBN), a peroxide such as benzoyl peroxide (BPO), etc. The thermal cationic polymerization initiator is, for example, a benzenesulfonate ester or an alkylsulfonium salt. On the other hand, in the case of an epoxy resin, a photocationic polymerization initiator is preferably used as the photopolymerization initiator. When the epoxy resin is mixed with the photocationic polymerization initiator and irradiated with light, the photocationic polymerization initiator decomposes to generate a strong acid, which then induces polymerization of the epoxy resin, thereby progressing the curing reaction. The photocationic polymerization initiator has the effects of causing little volume shrinkage during curing, not being inhibited by oxygen, and having high storage stability. Examples of the photocationic polymerization initiator include aromatic diazonium salts, aromatic iodonium salts, aromatic sulfonium salts, methacerone compounds, and silanol-aluminum complexes.

[0125] Photoacid generators that generate acid upon irradiation with light can also be used. Photoacid generators act as acids that initiate cationic polymerization, and examples of such photoacid generators include ionic onium salts, such as sulfonium salts and iodonium salts, which are composed of a cation moiety and an anion moiety. These may be used alone or in combination of two or more. The amount of the polymerization initiator added may vary depending on the material used, but is preferably 0.5 parts by mass to 10 parts by mass, and more preferably 1 part by mass to 5 parts by mass, relative to 100 parts by mass of the total amount of the sealing member. When the amount added is within the above range, curing proceeds appropriately, the amount of uncured material remaining can be reduced, and excessive outgassing can be prevented, which is effective.

[0126] The desiccant is also called a moisture absorbent, and is a material that has the function of physically or chemically adsorbing or absorbing moisture. When the desiccant is contained in the sealing member, it is effective because it can further increase the moisture resistance and reduce the effects of outgassing in some cases. The desiccant is preferably particulate, and examples thereof include inorganic water-absorbing materials such as calcium oxide, barium oxide, magnesium oxide, magnesium sulfate, sodium sulfate, calcium chloride, silica gel, molecular sieves, and zeolite. Among these, zeolite and calcium oxide, which have a high moisture absorption capacity, are preferred. These may be used alone or in combination of two or more.

[0127] The curing accelerator is also called a curing catalyst and is used for the purpose of accelerating the curing rate, and is mainly used for thermosetting epoxy resins. Examples of the curing accelerator include tertiary amines or tertiary amine salts such as DBU (1,8-diazabicyclo(5,4,0)-undecene-7) and DBN (1,5-diazabicyclo(4,3,0)-nonene-5); imidazoles such as 1-cyanoethyl-2-ethyl-4-methylimidazole and 2-ethyl-4-methylimidazole; and phosphine or phosphonium salts such as triphenylphosphine and tetraphenylphosphonium tetraphenylborate. These may be used alone or in combination of two or more.

[0128] The coupling agent has the effect of increasing molecular bonding strength, and examples thereof include silane coupling agents, such as 3-glycidoxypropyltrimethoxysilane, 3-glycidoxypropylmethyldimethoxysilane, 3-glycidoxypropylmethyldimethoxysilane, 2-(3,4-epoxycyclohexyl)ethyltrimethoxysilane, N-phenyl-γ-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane, N-(2-aminoethyl)3-aminopropylmethyldimethoxysilane, N-(2-aminoethyl)3-aminopropylmethyltrimethoxysilane, 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane, 3-mercaptopropyltrimethoxysilane, vinyltrimethoxysilane, N-(2-(vinylbenzylamino)ethyl)3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane hydrochloride, and 3-methacryloxypropyltrimethoxysilane. These may be used alone or in combination of two or more.

[0129] Furthermore, epoxy resin compositions commercially available as encapsulants, sealants, or adhesives are known for the sealing member, and can be effectively used in the present embodiment. Among these, there are epoxy resin compositions developed and commercially available for use in solar cells and organic EL devices, such as TB3118, TB3114, TB3124, and TB3125F (all manufactured by ThreeBond Co., Ltd.), WorldRock5910, WorldRock5920, and WorldRock8723 (all manufactured by Kyoritsu Chemical Co., Ltd.), and WB90US(P) (manufactured by Moresco). Examples of commercially available acrylic resins include those under the trade names TB3035B and TB3035C (both manufactured by ThreeBond Co., Ltd.) and NICHIBAN UM (both manufactured by Nichiban Co., Ltd.). These sealing members can be subjected to heat treatment after being cured by irradiation with ultraviolet light or the like, which is effective in this embodiment. By performing heat treatment, it may be possible to reduce the amount of uncured components, which is effective in reducing the amount of outgassing that affects output characteristics, improving sealing performance, and improving output characteristics and their sustainability.

[0130] On the other hand, low-melting-point glass resins are applied and then baked to decompose the resin components, and then the resin is melted using an infrared laser or the like, and the glass substrate is brought into close contact with the resin to seal. At this time, the low-melting-point glass components diffuse into the metal oxide layer and are physically bonded, thereby achieving high sealing performance. Furthermore, since the resin components are eliminated, outgassing does not occur as with ultraviolet-curable resins, which is effective in improving the durability of photoelectric conversion elements. Generally, glass frits or glass pastes are commercially available, and these can be used effectively. In one embodiment, those with lower melting points are preferred.

[0131] The heat treatment temperature is not particularly limited and can be freely set depending on the sealing member used, but is preferably from 50° C. to 200° C., more preferably from 60° C. to 150° C., and even more preferably from 70° C. to 100° C. The heat treatment time is not particularly limited and can be freely set depending on the sealing member used, but is preferably from 10 minutes to 10 hours, more preferably from 20 minutes to 5 hours, and even more preferably from 30 minutes to 3 hours.

[0132] In one embodiment, a sheet-shaped sealing material can also be effectively used. Sheet-type encapsulant is a sheet on which a resin layer is formed in advance. The sheet is made of glass or a film with high gas barrier properties, and corresponds to the second substrate. The sheet-type encapsulant is attached to the second electrode of the photoelectric conversion element and then cured, forming the encapsulating member and substrate at the same time. If the resin layer formed on the sheet covers the entire surface, it becomes "surface encapsulation," but depending on the formation pattern of the resin layer, it can also become "frame encapsulation," which creates a hollow space inside the photoelectric conversion element. By incorporating oxygen into the hollow space inside the sealed region, it becomes possible to stably maintain the hole transport function of the hole transport layer for a long period of time, which may be effective in improving the durability of the photoelectric conversion element. While an oxygen concentration of more than 0% by volume in the hollow space inside the sealed region is effective, it is more preferable that the oxygen concentration be 5.0% by volume or more and 21.0% by volume or less, and even more preferable that the oxygen concentration be 10.0% by volume or more and 21.0% by volume or less.

[0133] The oxygen concentration in the hollow space can be controlled by sealing it in a glove box in which the oxygen concentration is adjusted. The oxygen concentration can be adjusted by using a gas cylinder having a specific oxygen concentration or by using a nitrogen gas generator. The oxygen concentration inside the glove box can be measured using a commercially available oxygen concentration meter or oxygen monitor. The oxygen concentration in the hollow space formed by sealing can be measured, for example, by moisture and residual gas analysis in the sealed package (IVA), atmospheric pressure ionization mass spectrometry (API-MS), etc. Specifically, the photoelectric conversion element is placed in a chamber filled with a high vacuum or an inert gas, the seal is removed in the chamber, and the gas and moisture in the chamber are analyzed by mass spectrometry to quantify all components in the gas contained in the hollow space, and the proportion of oxygen to the total can be calculated to determine the oxygen concentration.

[0134] The gas other than oxygen contained inside the sealed space is preferably an inert gas, such as nitrogen or argon. When sealing, it is preferable to control the dew point as well as the oxygen concentration inside the glove box, which is effective in improving output and durability. The dew point is defined as the temperature at which condensation begins when a gas containing water vapor is cooled. The dew point is not particularly limited, but is preferably 0° C. or lower, more preferably −20° C. or lower. The lower limit is preferably −50° C. or higher.

[0135] The method for forming the sealing member is not particularly limited and can be performed according to a known method. For example, various methods such as a dispensing method, a wire bar method, a spin coating method, a roller coating method, a blade coating method, a gravure coating method, a letterpress printing method, an offset printing method, an intaglio printing method, a rubber printing method, and a screen printing method can be used.

[0136] Furthermore, a passivation layer may be provided between the sealing member and the second electrode. The passivation layer is not particularly limited as long as it is disposed so that the sealing member does not come into contact with the second electrode, and can be appropriately selected depending on the purpose, but aluminum oxide, silicon nitride, silicon oxide, etc. are preferably used.

[0137] <Other materials> The other members are not particularly limited and can be selected appropriately depending on the purpose.

[0138] Hereinafter, an example of a photoelectric conversion element according to this embodiment will be described with reference to the drawings. However, the present invention is not limited to this example, and for example, the number, position, shape, etc. of the following components not described in this embodiment are also included in the scope of the present invention.

[0139] First Embodiment Fig. 1 is a schematic diagram of an example of a solar cell as an embodiment of a photoelectric conversion element, and Fig. 2 is an enlarged view of an output terminal of the solar cell shown in Fig. 1. The solar cell 50 in FIG. 1 has a first substrate 1, a first electrode 2, a (dense) electron transport layer 3, a perovskite layer 5 which is a photoelectric conversion layer, a hole transport layer 7, a second electrode 8, and a sealing member 10 which seals the laminate. The first electrode 2 is in contact with the dense electron transport layer 3 . The dense electron transport layer 3 is in contact with the perovskite layer 5 . The perovskite layer 5 is in contact with the hole transport layer 7. It is preferable to have a passivation layer 6 between the perovskite layer 5 and the hole transport layer 7. In addition, an electrode protection layer 9 may be provided on the second electrode 8. Since the solar cell 50 has the electrode protection layer 9 between the second electrode 8 and the second substrate 11, peeling or damage of the second electrode 8 can be prevented. A second substrate 11 may be provided on the sealing member 10, or the sealing member and the second substrate may be integrally formed. The hole transport layer 7 is in contact with a second electrode 8 .

[0140] The solar cell 50 has an integral output terminal 20, which has an end 21 of the first electrode 2 exposed from the sealing member 10 and a metal layer 22 provided on the end 21, as shown in Figures 1 and 2. The end 21 of the first electrode 2 has an uneven shape, and the metal layer 22 provided on the end 21 also has an uneven shape. The arithmetic mean height (Ra) of the surface of the output terminal 20 having the metal layer 22 is 0.1 μm or more and 0.3 μm or less, and the ten-point mean roughness (Rz) of the surface of the output terminal 20 having the metal layer 22 is 0.35 μm or more and 0.75 μm or less.

[0141] <Second embodiment> FIG. 3 is a schematic diagram of another example of a solar cell as an embodiment of a photoelectric conversion element. The solar cell 60 in FIG. 3 has an output terminal 20 as an integral part, and the output terminal 20 further has, on an end 21 of the first electrode 2 exposed from the sealing member 10, an electron transport layer 23 exposed from the sealing member 10, and a perovskite layer 25 exposed from the sealing member 10, and further has a metal layer 22 provided thereon. This is advantageous in that the arithmetic mean height (Ra) and ten-point mean roughness (Rz) are larger than those of the output terminal 20 shown in FIGS. 1 and 2, improving electrode adhesion and providing superior charge extraction.

[0142] (Photoelectric conversion module) The photoelectric conversion module of this embodiment is formed by electrically connecting a plurality of photoelectric conversion elements of this embodiment in series or in parallel. The photoelectric conversion module preferably has, for example, a plurality of photoelectric conversion elements of this embodiment on a substrate, and further has a second substrate different from the above-mentioned substrate, a sealing member, and other members as necessary. The photoelectric conversion module may be, for example, a photoelectric conversion module.

[0143] The photoelectric conversion module is a photoelectric conversion module in which a plurality of photoelectric conversion elements are provided on a substrate, and it is preferable that the hole transport layers of at least two adjacent photoelectric conversion elements are continuous with each other, and the first electrodes, electron transport layers, and photoelectric conversion layers of at least two adjacent photoelectric conversion elements are separated by the hole transport layer. In such a photoelectric conversion module, the electron transport layer and the photoelectric conversion layer are disconnected, thereby reducing electron recombination due to diffusion, and therefore it is possible to maintain power generation efficiency even after exposure to high-intensity light for a long period of time.

[0144] The photoelectric conversion module can be applied to a power supply device by combining it with a circuit board or the like that controls the generated current. Examples of devices that use power supply devices include electronic desk calculators and wristwatches. Power supply devices having the photoelectric conversion module can also be applied to mobile phones, electronic organizers, electronic paper, and the like. Furthermore, power supply devices having the photoelectric conversion module of the present invention can be used as auxiliary power sources for extending the continuous use time of rechargeable or battery-powered electrical appliances, or as power sources that can be used at night, for example, by combining them with secondary batteries. Furthermore, they can also be used in IoT devices, artificial satellites, and the like as standalone power sources that do not require battery replacement or power wiring.

[0145] (solar cell module) The solar cell module of this embodiment is formed by electrically connecting a plurality of photoelectric conversion elements of this embodiment in series or in parallel. The solar cell module is similar to the photovoltaic conversion module.

[0146] An example of a photoelectric conversion module according to this embodiment will be described below with reference to the drawings. However, the present invention is not limited to this example, and for example, the number, position, shape, etc. of the following components not described in this embodiment are also included in the scope of the present invention.

[0147] Fig. 4 is a cross-sectional view showing an example of a solar cell module of this embodiment. As shown in Fig. 4, a solar cell module 90 has three solar cells 50 shown in Fig. 1, and adjacent solar cells 50 are electrically connected in series. The solar cells 50 located at both ends each have an output terminal 20 integrally therewith, and the output terminal 20 has an end 21 of the first electrode 2 exposed from the sealing member 10 and a metal layer 22 provided on the end 21, as shown in Figs. 1 and 2. The end 21 of the first electrode 2 has an uneven shape, and the metal layer 22 provided on the end 21 also has an uneven shape. The arithmetic mean height (Ra) of the surface of the output terminal 20 having the metal layer 22 is 0.1 μm or more and 0.3 μm or less, and the ten-point mean roughness (Rz) of the surface of the output terminal 20 having the metal layer 22 is 0.35 μm or more and 0.75 μm or less.

[0148] Fig. 5 is a cross-sectional view showing another example of a solar cell module according to this embodiment. As shown in Fig. 5, the solar cell module 100 has a photoelectric conversion element on a first substrate 1, the photoelectric conversion element including a first electrode 2, a dense electron transport layer (dense layer) 3, a porous electron transport layer (porous layer) 4, a perovskite layer 5, a passivation layer 6, a hole transport layer 7, and a second electrode 8. The first electrode 2 and the second electrode 8 have paths that connect them to an output terminal 20. Furthermore, in the solar cell module 100, a second substrate 11 is disposed opposite the first substrate 1 so as to sandwich the photoelectric conversion element therebetween, and a sealing member 10 is disposed between the first substrate 1 and the second substrate 11. In the solar cell module 100, the first electrode 2, the electron transport layer 3, the porous layer 4, and the perovskite layer 5 in the photoelectric conversion element a having the first electrode 2a and the second electrode 8a, and the photoelectric conversion element b having the first electrode 2b and the second electrode 8b are separated by a hole transport layer 7, which is a continuous layer extending between the photoelectric conversion element a and the photoelectric conversion element b.

[0149] Fig. 6 is a cross-sectional view showing an example of the cross-sectional structure of a solar cell module of this embodiment. As shown in Fig. 6, a solar cell module 101 has a photoelectric conversion element on a first substrate 1, the photoelectric conversion element having a first electrode 2, a dense electron transport layer (dense layer) 3, a perovskite layer 5, a passivation layer 6, a hole transport layer 7, and a second electrode 8. The first electrode 2 and the second electrode 8 have paths that connect them to an output terminal 20. Furthermore, in the solar cell module 101, a second substrate 11 is disposed opposite the first substrate 1 so as to sandwich the photoelectric conversion element therebetween, and a sealing member 10 is disposed between the first substrate 1 and the second substrate 11. In the solar cell module 101, the first electrode 2, dense layer 3, and perovskite layer 5 in the photoelectric conversion element a having the first electrode 2a and the second electrode 8a, and the photoelectric conversion element b having the first electrode 2b and the second electrode 8b are separated by a hole transport layer 7, which is a continuous layer extending between the photoelectric conversion element a and the photoelectric conversion element b.

[0150] Fig. 7 is a cross-sectional view showing an example of the cross-sectional structure of a solar cell module of this embodiment. As shown in Fig. 7, a solar cell module 102 has a photoelectric conversion element on a first substrate 1, the photoelectric conversion element including a first electrode 2, a dense electron transport layer (dense layer) 3, a porous electron transport layer (porous layer) 4, a perovskite layer 5, a passivation layer 6, a hole transport layer 7, and a second electrode 8. The first electrode 2 and the second electrode 8 have paths that connect them to an output terminal 20. Furthermore, in the solar cell module 102, a second substrate 11 is disposed opposite the first substrate 1 so as to sandwich the photoelectric conversion element therebetween, and a sealing member 10 is disposed between the first substrate 1 and the second substrate 11. In the solar cell module 102, the first electrode 2 and dense layer 3 of the photoelectric conversion element a having the first electrode 2a and the second electrode 8a, and the photoelectric conversion element b having the first electrode 2b and the second electrode 8b are separated by a porous layer 4, a perovskite layer 5, and a hole transport layer 7, which are continuous layers extending between the photoelectric conversion element a and the photoelectric conversion element b.

[0151] Fig. 8 is a cross-sectional view showing an example of the cross-sectional structure of a solar cell module of this embodiment. As shown in Fig. 8, a solar cell module 103 has a photoelectric conversion element on a first substrate 1, the photoelectric conversion element having a first electrode 2, a dense electron transport layer (dense layer) 3, a porous electron transport layer (porous layer) 4, a perovskite layer 5, a passivation layer 6, a hole transport layer 7, and a second electrode 8. The first electrode 2 and the second electrode 8 have paths that connect them to an output terminal 20. Furthermore, in the solar cell module 103, a second substrate 11 is disposed opposite the first substrate 1 so as to sandwich the photoelectric conversion element therebetween, and a sealing member 10 is disposed between the first substrate 1 and the second substrate 11. In the solar cell module 103, the first electrode 2, dense layer 3, and porous layer 4 of the photoelectric conversion element a having the first electrode 2a and the second electrode 8a, and the photoelectric conversion element b having the first electrode 2b and the second electrode 8b are separated by a perovskite layer 5 and a hole transport layer 7, which are continuous layers extending between the photoelectric conversion element a and the photoelectric conversion element b.

[0152] Fig. 9 is a cross-sectional view showing an example of the cross-sectional structure of a solar cell module of this embodiment. As shown in Fig. 9, a solar cell module 104 has a photoelectric conversion element on a first substrate 1, the photoelectric conversion element including a first electrode 2, a dense electron transport layer (dense layer) 3, a perovskite layer 5, a passivation layer 6, a hole transport layer 7, and a second electrode 8. The first electrode 2 and the second electrode 8 have paths that connect them to an output terminal 20. Furthermore, in the solar cell module 104, a second substrate 11 is disposed opposite the first substrate 1 so as to sandwich the photoelectric conversion element therebetween, and a sealing member 10 is disposed between the first substrate 1 and the second substrate 11.

[0153] In the solar cell module 104, the first electrode 2 and the dense layer 3 in the photoelectric conversion element a having the first electrode 2a and the second electrode 8a, and the photoelectric conversion element b having the first electrode 2b and the second electrode 8b are separated by a perovskite layer 5 and a hole transport layer 7, which are continuous layers extending between the photoelectric conversion element a and the photoelectric conversion element b.

[0154] Solar cell modules 90, 100 to 104 are sealed by a first substrate 1, a sealing member 10, and a second substrate 11. This makes it possible to control the moisture content and oxygen concentration in the hollow space between the second electrode 8 and the second substrate 11. Controlling the moisture content and oxygen concentration in the hollow space of solar cell modules 90, 100 to 104 can improve power generation performance and durability. That is, by further including a second substrate disposed opposite the first substrate so as to sandwich the photoelectric conversion element, and a sealing member disposed between the first and second substrates to seal the photoelectric conversion element, the moisture content and oxygen concentration in the hollow space can be controlled, thereby improving power generation performance and durability. The oxygen concentration in the hollow portion is not particularly limited and can be selected appropriately depending on the purpose, but is preferably 0% or more and 21% or less, more preferably 0.05% or more and 10% or less, and even more preferably 0.1% or more and 5% or less.

[0155] Furthermore, in the solar cell modules 100 to 104, the second electrode 8 and the second substrate 11 are not in contact with each other, so that the second electrode 8 can be prevented from peeling off or being damaged.

[0156] Furthermore, the solar cell modules 100 to 104 have a through portion 15 that electrically connects the photoelectric conversion element a and the photoelectric conversion element b. In the solar cell modules 100 to 104, the second electrode 8a of the photoelectric conversion element a and the first electrode 2b of the photoelectric conversion element b are electrically connected by the through portion 15 that penetrates the hole transport layer 7, thereby connecting the photoelectric conversion element a and the photoelectric conversion element b in series. By connecting a plurality of photoelectric conversion elements in series in this way, the open circuit voltage of the solar cell module can be increased.

[0157] The through-holes 15 may penetrate the first electrode 2 and reach the first substrate 1, or may stop processing inside the first electrode 2 and not reach the first substrate 1. When the through-holes 15 are shaped as micropores that penetrate the first electrode 2 and reach the first substrate 1, if the total opening area of ​​the micropores is too large relative to the area of ​​the through-holes 15, the film cross-sectional area of ​​the first electrode 2 will decrease, increasing the resistance and possibly causing a decrease in photoelectric conversion efficiency. Therefore, the ratio of the total opening area of ​​the micropores to the area of ​​the through-holes 15 is preferably 5 / 100 or more and 60 / 100 or less.

[0158] The method for forming the through-hole is not particularly limited and can be selected appropriately depending on the purpose. Examples include sandblasting, water blasting, chemical etching, laser processing, and methods using abrasive paper. Among these, laser processing is preferred because it allows fine holes to be formed without using sand, etching, resist, etc., thereby enabling clean and reproducible processing. Another reason why laser processing is preferred is that when forming the through-hole 15, at least one of the dense layer 3, porous layer 4, perovskite layer 5, passivation layer 6, hole transport layer 7, and second electrode 8 can be removed by impact peeling using laser processing. This eliminates the need for a mask during stacking, and also allows for the removal of the material forming the photoelectric conversion element and the formation of the through-hole to be easily performed simultaneously.

[0159] Here, the perovskite layer in photoelectric conversion element a and the perovskite layer in photoelectric conversion element b may be separated or extended. When separated, the distance is preferably 1 μm to 100 μm, more preferably 5 μm to 50 μm. When the distance between the perovskite layer in photoelectric conversion element a and the perovskite layer in photoelectric conversion element b is 1 μm to 100 μm, the porous titanium oxide layer and the perovskite layer are disconnected, reducing electron recombination due to diffusion, making it possible to maintain power generation efficiency even after prolonged exposure to high-intensity light. That is, in at least two adjacent photoelectric conversion elements, when the distance between the electron transport layer and perovskite layer in one photoelectric conversion element and the electron transport layer and perovskite layer in the other photoelectric conversion element is 1 μm to 100 μm, it is possible to maintain power generation efficiency even after prolonged exposure to high-intensity light. In at least two adjacent photoelectric conversion elements, the distance between the electron transport layer and perovskite layer in one photoelectric conversion element and the electron transport layer and perovskite layer in another photoelectric conversion element refers to the shortest distance between the outer peripheries (ends) of the electron transport layer and perovskite layer in each photoelectric conversion element.

[0160] The solar cell module of the present embodiment can be applied to a power supply device by combining it with a circuit board or the like that controls the generated current. Examples of devices that use power supply devices include electronic desk calculators and wristwatches. Power supply devices having the photoelectric conversion element of the present embodiment can also be applied to mobile phones, electronic organizers, electronic paper, and the like. Furthermore, power supply devices having the photoelectric conversion element of the present embodiment can be used as auxiliary power sources for extending the continuous use time of rechargeable or battery-powered electrical appliances, or as power sources that can be used at night or other times by combining them with secondary batteries. Furthermore, they can also be used in IoT devices, artificial satellites, and the like as standalone power sources that do not require battery replacement or power wiring.

[0161] (electronic equipment) The electronic device of this embodiment includes at least one of the photoelectric conversion element and photoelectric conversion module of this embodiment, and a device that operates using power generated by photoelectric conversion by at least one of the photoelectric conversion element and photoelectric conversion module, and may further include other devices as necessary. In addition, the electronic device of this embodiment includes at least one of the photoelectric conversion element and photoelectric conversion module of this embodiment, a storage battery capable of storing the electricity generated by photoelectric conversion by at least one of the photoelectric conversion element and photoelectric conversion module, and a device that operates using the electricity stored in the storage battery, and may further include other devices as necessary.

[0162] (Power supply module) The power supply module of this embodiment includes at least one of the photoelectric conversion element and the photoelectric conversion module of this embodiment, a power supply integrated circuit (power supply IC, Integrated Circuit), and may further include other devices as necessary.

[0163] Next, a specific embodiment of an electronic device including at least one of the photoelectric conversion module of this embodiment and the solar cell module of this embodiment, and a device that operates using the power generated by these will be described.

[0164] FIG. 10 is a block diagram of a mouse for a personal computer as an example of the electronic device of this embodiment. As shown in Fig. 10, a photoelectric conversion element 201, a photoelectric conversion module, a power supply IC 202, and a power storage device 203 are combined, and the supplied power is connected to the power supply of a mouse control circuit 204. This allows the power storage device 203 to be charged when the mouse is not in use, and the mouse can be operated using that power, resulting in a mouse that does not require wiring or battery replacement. Eliminating the need for batteries also makes it possible to reduce the mouse's weight, which is an advantage.

[0165] FIG. 11 is a schematic external view showing an example of the mouse shown in FIG. 11, photoelectric conversion element 201, power supply IC 202, and power storage device 203 are mounted inside the mouse, but the top of photoelectric conversion element 201 is covered with a transparent housing so that light can hit photoelectric conversion element 201. It is also possible to mold the entire mouse housing from transparent resin. The arrangement of photoelectric conversion element 201 is not limited to this, and it is possible and sometimes preferable to arrange it in a position where light can be irradiated even when the mouse is covered with a hand.

[0166] Next, another embodiment of an electronic device including the photoelectric conversion module of this embodiment and a device that operates using the power generated by the photoelectric conversion module will be described.

[0167] FIG. 12 is a block diagram of a keyboard for a personal computer as an example of the electronic device of this embodiment. As shown in Fig. 12, a photoelectric conversion element 201, a power supply IC 202, and a power storage device 203 are combined, and the supplied power is connected to the power supply of the keyboard's control circuit 205. This allows the power storage device 203 to be charged when the keyboard is not in use, and the keyboard can be operated using that power, resulting in a keyboard that does not require wiring or battery replacement. Furthermore, eliminating the need for batteries makes it possible to reduce the keyboard's weight, which is an advantage.

[0168] FIG. 13 is a schematic external view showing an example of the keyboard shown in FIG. As shown in Figure 13, photoelectric conversion element 201, power supply IC 202, and power storage device 203 are mounted inside the keyboard, but the top of photoelectric conversion element 201 is covered with a transparent housing so that light can hit photoelectric conversion element 201. It is also possible to mold the entire keyboard housing from transparent resin. The arrangement of photoelectric conversion element 201 is not limited to this. In the case of a small keyboard where the space for incorporating a photoelectric conversion element is small, it is also possible and effective to embed a small photoelectric conversion element in part of the key, as shown in Figure 14.

[0169] Next, another embodiment of an electronic device including the photoelectric conversion module of this embodiment and a device that operates using the power generated by the photoelectric conversion module will be described.

[0170] FIG. 15 is a block diagram of a sensor as an example of the electronic device of this embodiment. As shown in Figure 15, a photoelectric conversion element 201, a power supply IC 202, and a power storage device 203 are combined, and the supplied power is connected to the power supply of a sensor circuit 206. This makes it possible to configure a sensor module A without the need to connect to an external power source or replace batteries. This is effective as it can be applied to a variety of sensors for sensing objects such as temperature and humidity, illuminance, human presence, CO2 concentration, acceleration, UV intensity, noise, geomagnetism, and air pressure. As shown in Figure 15, the sensor module is configured to periodically sense the object to be measured and transmit the read data via wireless communication to a device 207 such as a PC or smartphone. With the advent of the IoT (Internet of Things) society, the number of sensors is expected to increase rapidly. Replacing the batteries in these countless sensors one by one would be extremely time-consuming and impractical. Furthermore, the sensors are often located in places where battery replacement is difficult, such as on ceilings or walls, which makes the work difficult. The ability to supply power via a photoelectric conversion element is also a significant advantage. Furthermore, the photoelectric conversion module of the present invention can obtain high output even under low illuminance, and the output has little dependency on the angle of incident light, offering the advantage of high flexibility in installation.

[0171] Next, another embodiment of an electronic device including the photoelectric conversion module of this embodiment and a device that operates using the power generated by the photoelectric conversion module will be described.

[0172] FIG. 16 is a block diagram of a turntable as an example of the electronic device of this embodiment. 16, a photoelectric conversion element 201, a power supply IC 202, and a power storage device 203 are combined, and the supplied power is connected to the power supply of a turntable control circuit 208. This makes it possible to configure a turntable without the need to connect to an external power supply or replace batteries. Turntables are used, for example, in showcases for displaying products, but the power wiring is unsightly and the display items must be removed when replacing the batteries, which is a lot of work.The use of the photoelectric conversion module of the present invention effectively solves these problems.

[0173] The above describes the photoelectric conversion module of this embodiment, electronic devices having devices that operate using the power generated by these modules, and power supply modules, but these are only a small part of the applications, and the photoelectric conversion module of this embodiment is not limited to these.

[0174] <Application> The photoelectric conversion module of this embodiment can function as a stand-alone power source, and can operate a device using the power generated by photoelectric conversion. Because the photoelectric conversion module of this embodiment can generate power when irradiated with light, there is no need to connect the electronic device to a power source or replace the battery. Therefore, it is possible to operate the electronic device even in places without power supply facilities, to carry it around on one's person, or to operate the electronic device without replacing the battery even in places where battery replacement is difficult. Furthermore, when dry batteries are used, the electronic device becomes heavy and large, which can make it difficult to install on a wall or ceiling or to carry it around. However, the photoelectric conversion module of this embodiment is lightweight and thin, allowing for a high degree of installation flexibility and offering great advantages when worn or carried around.

[0175] As described above, the photoelectric conversion module of this embodiment can be used as a stand-alone power source and can be combined with a variety of electronic devices, such as display devices such as electronic desk calculators, wristwatches, mobile phones, electronic organizers, and electronic paper, computer accessories such as mice and keyboards, various sensor devices such as temperature and humidity sensors and motion sensors, transmitters such as beacons and GPS, auxiliary lights, and remote controls. Furthermore, by imparting flexibility to the photoelectric conversion element or the photoelectric conversion module, it can also be applied to flexible devices.

[0176] The photoelectric conversion module of this embodiment can generate electricity even under low-illuminance light, enabling it to generate electricity indoors and even in dimly lit areas, making it suitable for a wide range of applications. It is also highly safe, as it does not leak like dry batteries and is not prone to accidental ingestion like button batteries. Furthermore, it can be used as an auxiliary power source to extend the continuous operating time of rechargeable or battery-powered electrical appliances. Thus, by combining the photoelectric conversion module of this embodiment with a device that operates using the power generated by the photoelectric conversion, it is possible to create electronic devices that are lightweight, easy to use, have a high degree of installation flexibility, do not require replacement, are highly safe, and are effective in reducing environmental impact.

[0177] Figure 17 shows the basic configuration of an electronic device that combines the photoelectric conversion module of this embodiment with a device that operates using the power generated by the photoelectric conversion. When light is irradiated onto the photoelectric conversion element, power is generated and can be extracted. The device circuit can then operate using that power.

[0178] Since the output of the photoelectric conversion element in the photoelectric conversion module changes depending on the ambient illuminance, the electronic device shown in Figure 17 may not operate stably. In this case, as shown in Figure 18, it is possible and effective to incorporate a power supply IC for the photoelectric conversion element between the photoelectric conversion element and the device circuit to supply a stable voltage to the circuit side. The photoelectric conversion element of a photoelectric conversion module can generate electricity if it is exposed to light with sufficient illuminance, but if the illuminance is insufficient to generate power, the desired power cannot be obtained, which is also a drawback of photoelectric conversion elements. In this case, as shown in Figure 19, by installing a power storage device such as a capacitor between the power supply IC and the equipment circuit, it becomes possible to charge the power storage device with the surplus power from the photoelectric conversion element. Even if the illuminance is too low or no light hits the photoelectric conversion element, the power stored in the power storage device can be supplied to the equipment circuit, enabling stable operation.

[0179] In this way, in an electronic device that combines the photoelectric conversion module of this embodiment with an equipment circuit, by combining a power supply IC and a power storage device, it is possible to operate in an environment without a power source, and it is possible to operate stably without the need for battery replacement, thereby making the most of the benefits of the photoelectric conversion element.

[0180] On the other hand, the photoelectric conversion module of this embodiment can also be used as a power supply module, which is useful. For example, as shown in Fig. 20, when the photoelectric conversion module of this embodiment is connected to a power supply IC for a photoelectric conversion element, a DC power supply module can be configured in which the power generated by the photoelectric conversion of the photoelectric conversion element of the photoelectric conversion module can be supplied at a constant voltage level by the power supply IC. Furthermore, as shown in Figure 21, by adding a power storage device to the power supply IC, it becomes possible to charge the power generated by the photoelectric conversion element of the photoelectric conversion module into the power storage device, making it possible to configure a power supply module that can supply power even when the illuminance is too low or when no light hits the photoelectric conversion element. The power supply module of this embodiment shown in FIGS. 20 and 21 can be used as a power supply module without the need for battery replacement as with conventional primary batteries. [Example]

[0181] EXAMPLES The present invention will be described below with reference to examples and comparative examples, but the present invention is not limited to the examples exemplified here.

[0182] (Production Example 1) <Synthesis of polymer compound (A-17)> A polymer compound (A-17) serving as a hole transport material was synthesized by the reaction shown in the following reaction formula.

[0183] [ka]

[0184] In a 100 ml four-neck flask, 0.66 g (2.0 mmol) of the dialdehyde compound shown in the reaction formula above and 1.02 g (2.0 mmol) of diphosphonate were placed, and after replacing with nitrogen, 75 ml of tetrahydrofuran was added. To this solution, 1.0 mol dm potassium t-butoxide was added. -3 After adding 6.75 ml (6.75 mmol) of tetrahydrofuran solution dropwise and stirring at room temperature for 2 hours, diethyl benzylphosphonate and benzaldehyde were added sequentially and stirred for another 2 hours. Approximately 1 ml of acetic acid was added to terminate the reaction, and the solution was washed with water. After distilling off the solvent under reduced pressure, the solution was purified by reprecipitation using tetrahydrofuran and methanol, yielding 0.95 g of polymer compound (A-17). The number-average molecular weight (Mw) measured by gel permeation chromatography (GPC) was 8,500 and the weight-average Mw was 20,000, calculated as polystyrene. The ionization potential measured using a Riken Keiki AC-2 photoelectron spectrometer was 5.20 eV. All ionization potentials listed below are values ​​measured using the AC-2.

[0185] Example 1 <Fabrication of solar cell module 1> First, 3 g of a 15% by mass aqueous dispersion of tin (IV) oxide (manufactured by Alfa Aesar) was dissolved in 7 g of ultrapure water to obtain a solution, which was then applied to an ITO glass substrate by spin coating and dried at 100°C for 30 minutes to form a first electrode and a dense electron transport layer made of tin oxide on the first substrate. The average thickness of the dense layer was set to 10 nm to 40 nm.

[0186] Thereafter, the laminated body having the glass substrate / ITO / electron transport layer was divided into three cells by laser processing.

[0187] Next, lead(II) iodide (0.5306 g), lead(II) bromide (0.0736 g), methylamine bromide (0.0224 g), and formamidine iodide (0.1876 g) were added to N,N-dimethylformamide (0.8 ml) and dimethyl sulfoxide (0.2 ml), and the mixture was heated and stirred at 60°C. The resulting solution was applied to the porous layer using a spin coating method, while chlorobenzene (0.3 ml) was added to form a perovskite film. The resulting solution was then dried at 150°C for 30 minutes to produce a perovskite layer. The average thickness of the perovskite layer was adjusted to 200 nm to 350 nm.

[0188] Furthermore, a 1 mM solution of 5-aminopentanoic acid hydroiodide, a compound represented by general formula (8), dissolved in isopropyl alcohol was applied by spin coating onto the formed perovskite layer to form a passivation layer containing the compound represented by general formula (8).

[0189] Next, 73.6 mg of polymer compound (A-17) as a hole transport material and 7.4 mg of additive (B-1) were weighed and dissolved in 3.0 ml of chlorobenzene. The resulting solution was applied to the laminate obtained in the previous step by spin coating to prepare a hole transport layer. The average thickness of the hole transport layer was adjusted to 50 nm to 120 nm.

[0190] Next, prior to forming the second electrode, a through hole a for connecting to the ITO layer, which is the first electrode, was formed by laser processing (see symbol a in FIG. 22). In addition, a through hole for connecting the cells in series was formed by laser processing (not shown). In addition, a through portion b was also formed at the end of the first electrode by the following procedure (see symbol b in FIG. 22). 22 is a cross-sectional view of a solar cell in the manufacturing process of Example 1, and the reference numerals and members are the same as those described in FIG.

[0191] <Forming surface roughness on the edge of the first electrode> The glass substrate with the hole transport layer formed on the ITO was mounted on a stage capable of moving in the in-plane direction. A pulsed laser with a laser wavelength of λ = 349 nm was applied perpendicularly to the glass substrate on the stage, with the energy per pulse adjusted to 8.0 μJ and the pulse pitch adjusted to 50 μm. The laser processing area was 10 mm × 10 mm. The micropores obtained under these conditions had an average diameter of 35 μm and an average pitch of 50 μm. Figure 23 shows a schematic diagram of the pitch and diameter of the circular micropores 30. Figure 23 is a top view of the end of the first electrode in the manufacturing process of Example 1. In Figure 23, 31 indicates the pitch of the circular micropores 30, and 32 indicates the diameter of the circular micropores 30.

[0192] Next, after attaching a mask to the end of the first electrode and the area between the cells when they were connected, gold was vacuum-deposited on the hole transport layer and through-hole a to form a second electrode with an average thickness of approximately 60 nm. At the same time, gold was vacuum-deposited on the end of the first electrode and the multiple through-holes b to form a metal layer with an average thickness of approximately 60 nm, obtaining an output terminal.

[0193] Next, a fluorine compound having a silane structure (manufactured by Harves Co., Ltd., product name: DURASURF DS-5935F130) was spin-coated on the second electrode to form an electrode protection layer with an average thickness of 10 nm.

[0194] Thereafter, in order to provide a sealing member, a mask with a width of 1.0 mm was applied from the edge of the ITO glass substrate and the mask between the cells was subjected to etching (deletion) by laser processing to form a portion where the sealing member would come into contact with the glass substrate.

[0195] The entire surface of the glass substrate was covered with an aluminum PET sheet (manufactured by Tesa, pressure-sensitive adhesive A, moisture capture capacity: 60 mg / 100 mm) that integrated the sealing material and the second substrate. 2 , peel strength: 5 N / 1 cm or more, desiccant: calcium oxide) were bonded together using a vacuum bonding device (manufactured by Joyo Optical Co., Ltd., device name: airbag vacuum laminator), and the bonded piece was heated to 80°C using a heating laminator and pressed to form a sealing member and a second substrate, thereby producing three solar cell 1 having the configuration shown in Figure 1. The three obtained solar cell units 1 were electrically connected in series to obtain a solar cell module 1 having the configuration shown in FIG.

[0196] <Evaluation> For the obtained solar cell module 1, the metal layer thickness, the surface roughness of the output terminal (arithmetic mean height (Ra) and 10-point mean roughness (Rz)), the adhesion of the output terminal, the conversion efficiency, and the retention rate after the light resistance test were measured according to the following procedures.

[0197] <Metal layer thickness> Regarding the thickness of the metal layer, the thickness of the metal layer was measured at any 10 points using a shape measuring laser microscope (VK-X100, manufactured by Keyence Corporation) with a 50x objective lens, and the average was calculated as the metal layer thickness.

[0198] <Surface roughness of output terminal> The surface roughness of the surface of the output terminal having the metal layer was measured using a stylus profiling system (DektakXT-E, Bruker Japan Co., Ltd.).

[0199] <Adhesion of output terminals> The adhesion of the output terminal was evaluated by the following peel test. A tape test using cellophane tape was performed 10 times. Cellophane tape (Nichiban Co., Ltd., "Cellotape" (registered trademark), 24 mm wide, for industrial use) was applied to the metal layer of the output terminal, and the tape was peeled off (cellophane tape peeling) repeatedly 1 to 10 times, and the results were evaluated according to the following criteria. -Evaluation criteria- ◯: The metal layer did not peel off even after 10 cellophane tape peeling attempts. △: Peeling of the metal layer occurred after 6 to 10 times of peeling with cellophane tape. ×: Peeling of the metal layer occurred after 1 to 5 cellophane tape peelings.

[0200] <Conversion efficiency (evaluation of solar cell characteristics)> The obtained solar cell module 1 was subjected to a solar simulator (SS-80XIL manufactured by Eiko Seiki Co., Ltd.) at AM1.5G and 100 mW / cm 2 The current-voltage characteristics were measured using a source meter (KETSIGHT B2921BL) as an evaluation device while irradiating light under the conditions. The conversion efficiency η (%) of the solar cell characteristics (initial characteristics) was calculated and evaluated from the obtained current-voltage curve. The results are shown in Table 1. A conversion efficiency η of 15% or more is within the practical range, 17% or more is an excellent evaluation result, 18% or more is a more excellent evaluation result, and less than 15% is outside the practical range.

[0201] <Durability (retention rate of conversion efficiency after light resistance test)> The durability of the obtained solar cell module 1 was evaluated based on the maintenance rate of conversion efficiency after the light resistance test. The conversion efficiency in the initial characteristics is η (%). After 500 hours of continuous irradiation (AM1.5G, 100mW / cm 2 ) was performed, and the conversion efficiency ηx (%) after the light resistance test was measured. The maintenance rate of the conversion efficiency was calculated by the following formula: ηx / η (%). Furthermore, a conversion efficiency retention rate after the light resistance test of 60% or more is within the practical range, 70% or more is an excellent evaluation result, 80% or more is an even better evaluation result, and less than 60% is outside the practical range.

[0202] Examples 2 to 20 Solar cell modules of Examples 2 to 20 were fabricated and evaluated in the same manner as in Example 1, except that the arithmetic mean height (Ra), 10-point mean roughness (Rz), metal layer thickness, and metal layer material of the output terminal were changed to the values ​​and materials shown in Table 1. The evaluation results are shown in Table 1. Ra and Rz were controlled by setting the laser output conditions shown in Table 1.

[0203] (Comparative Examples 1 and 2) Solar cell modules of Comparative Examples 1 and 2 were fabricated and evaluated in the same manner as in Example 1, except that the arithmetic mean height (Ra), 10-point mean roughness (Rz), metal layer thickness, and metal layer material of the output terminal were changed to the values ​​and materials shown in Table 1. The evaluation results are shown in Table 2.

[0204] (Comparative Example 3) A solar cell module of Comparative Example 3 was fabricated and evaluated in the same manner as in Example 1, except that no metal layer was provided on the output terminal and the arithmetic mean height (Ra) and 10-point mean roughness (Rz) of the end of the first electrode in the output terminal were changed to 0.3 μm and 0.5 μm, respectively. The evaluation results are shown in Table 2.

[0205] [Table 1]

[0206] [Table 2]

[0207] As is clear from Examples 1 to 20 and Comparative Examples 1 to 3, the surface of the output terminal having the metal layer has a surface roughness of an average arithmetic height (Ra) of 0.1 μm or more and 0.3 μm or less, and a 10-point average roughness (Rz) of 0.40 μm or more and 0.75 μm or less, so that the metal layer of the output terminal adheres tightly without peeling off, and it was found that a photoelectric conversion element having such a configuration can maintain power generation efficiency even after being exposed to high-intensity light for a long period of time.

[0208] For example, aspects of the present invention are as follows. <1> A photoelectric conversion element having a first substrate, a first electrode, a photoelectric conversion layer, a second electrode, and a sealing member, the first electrode is a transparent electrode, an output terminal on the first substrate, the output terminal having an end of the first electrode exposed from the sealing member and a metal layer provided on the end; the arithmetic mean height (Ra) of the surface of the output terminal having the metal layer is 0.1 μm or more and 0.3 μm or less; The photoelectric conversion element is characterized in that the surface of the output terminal having the metal layer has a ten-point average roughness (Rz) of 0.40 μm or more and 0.75 μm or less. <2> The metal layer has an average thickness of 0.02 μm or more and 30 μm or less. <1> The photoelectric conversion element is described in 1. <3> The metal layer is made of either Au or Ag. <1> or <2> The photoelectric conversion element is described in 1. <4> The average thickness of the second electrode and the average thickness of the metal layer are the same. <1> from <3> The photoelectric conversion element according to any one of the above items. <5> The photoelectric conversion layer contains a perovskite compound represented by the following general formula (5): <1> from <4> The photoelectric conversion element according to any one of the above items. X α Y β Z γ ...General formula (5) In general formula (5), the ratio of α:β:γ is 3:1:1, β and γ represent integers greater than 1, X represents a halogen atom, Y represents an organic compound having an amino group, and Z represents a metal ion. <6> The photoelectric conversion layer contains at least one of Sb atoms, Cs atoms, Rb atoms, and K atoms. <1> from <5> The photoelectric conversion element according to any one of the above items. <7> a passivation layer and a hole transport layer are provided between the photoelectric conversion layer and the second electrode; The passivation layer contains an amine compound different from the compound contained in the photoelectric conversion layer. <1> from <6> The photoelectric conversion element according to any one of the above items. <8> an electron transport layer between the first electrode and the photoelectric conversion layer; The electron transport layer contains at least tin oxide. <1> from <7> The photoelectric conversion element according to any one of the above items. <9> The aforementioned <1> from <8> a plurality of adjacent photoelectric conversion elements according to any one of the above items; The solar cell module is characterized in that adjacent photoelectric conversion elements are electrically connected in series or in parallel. <10> The aforementioned <9> a solar cell module according to the present invention; and a device that operates using power generated by photoelectric conversion of the solar cell module. <11> The aforementioned <9> and a power supply integrated circuit.

[0209] The aforementioned <1> from <8> The photoelectric conversion element according to any one of <9> The photoelectric conversion module according to <10> and the electronic device described in <11> The power supply module described in the above can solve the above-mentioned problems in the prior art and achieve the object of the present invention. [Explanation of symbols]

[0210] 1 First board 2 First electrode 3 Electron transport layer (dense layer) 5 Perovskite Layer 6 Passivation Layer 7. Hole transport layer 8 Second electrode 9 Electrode protective layer 10 Sealing member 11 Second board 20 Output terminal 21 End of first electrode 22 Metal layer 50, 60 solar cells 90, 100~104 solar cell modules [Prior art documents] [Patent documents]

[0211] [Patent Document 1] Japanese Patent Publication No. 2020-053616

Claims

1. A photoelectric conversion element having a first substrate, a first electrode, a photoelectric conversion layer, a second electrode, and a sealing member, the first electrode is a transparent electrode, an output terminal on the first substrate, the output terminal having an end of the first electrode exposed from the sealing member and a metal layer provided on the end; an arithmetic mean height (Ra) of a surface of the output terminal having the metal layer is 0.1 μm or more and 0.3 μm or less; A photoelectric conversion element, characterized in that the surface of the output terminal having the metal layer has a ten-point average roughness (Rz) of 0.35 μm or more and 0.75 μm or less.

2. 2. The photoelectric conversion element according to claim 1, wherein the average thickness of the metal layer is 0.02 [mu]m or more and 30 [mu]m or less.

3. 3. The photoelectric conversion element according to claim 1, wherein the metal layer is made of either Au or Ag.

4. 3. The photoelectric conversion element according to claim 1, wherein the second electrode and the metal layer have the same average thickness.

5. 3. The photoelectric conversion element according to claim 1, wherein the photoelectric conversion layer contains a perovskite compound represented by the following general formula (5): X α Y β Z γ ・・・General formula (5) In general formula (5), the ratio of α:β:γ is 3:1:1, β and γ represent integers greater than 1, X represents a halogen atom, Y represents an organic compound having an amino group, and Z represents a metal ion.

6. 3. The photoelectric conversion element according to claim 1, wherein the photoelectric conversion layer contains at least one of Sb atoms, Cs atoms, Rb atoms, and K atoms.

7. a passivation layer and a hole transport layer are provided between the photoelectric conversion layer and the second electrode; 3. The photoelectric conversion element according to claim 1, wherein the passivation layer contains an amine compound different from a compound contained in the photoelectric conversion layer.

8. an electron transport layer between the first electrode and the photoelectric conversion layer; 3. The photoelectric conversion element according to claim 1, wherein the electron transport layer contains at least tin oxide.

9. A photoelectric conversion element according to claim 1 or 2, wherein the photoelectric conversion element is arranged adjacent to each other, A solar cell module, wherein adjacent photoelectric conversion elements are electrically connected in series or in parallel.

10. The solar cell module according to claim 9 ; and a device that operates using power generated by photoelectric conversion of the solar cell module.

11. A power supply module comprising: the solar cell module according to claim 9; and a power supply integrated circuit.

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