Systems and methods for stellarator neutron sources - Patents.com

Abstract

The present disclosure is directed to a system for generating neutrons, the system including a stellarator optimized for fast particle confinement. In some embodiments, the stellarator optimized for fast particle confinement is selected from a quasi-axisymmetric stellarator, a quasi-symmetric stellarator, a quasi-isomagnetic stellarator, or a quasi-omnidirectional stellarator. The present disclosure is also directed to a method of generating neutrons using the systems of the present disclosure, particularly systems incorporating a stellarator optimized for fast particle confinement.

Description

[Technical field]

[0001] Statement regarding federally funded research This invention was made with Government support under DE-AC02-09CH11466 awarded by the U.S. Department of Energy. The Government has certain rights in this invention.

[0002] CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This disclosure claims benefit of the filing date of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 319,588, filed March 14, 2022, the entire disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference.

[0003] The present disclosure is directed generally to neutron sources, and more particularly to systems for producing neutrons, including stellarators capable of fast particle confinement. [Background technology]

[0004] Neutron sources, i.e. devices capable of emitting neutrons, allow the synthesis of useful isotopes. There are many types of neutron sources, ranging from hand-held radioactive sources to research reactors and fission sources in neutron research facilities. Fusion neutron sources have been described for several applications. A common early concept was to use a blanket of nuclear fuel, such as uranium or plutonium, to generate energy. Lehnert (1975) and Kolesnichenko et al. (1976) present this possibility as the first logical step in nuclear fusion power (see Lehnert, B. 1975. Nuclear Instruments and Methods 129(1):27-30; Kolesnichenko, Ya I., and SNReznik. 1976. Nuclear Fusion 16(1):97). Hendel and Jassby (1990) list this application in their review of experimental results from tokamak neutron sources (see Hendel, HW, and DL Jassby. 1990. Nuclear Science and Engineering 106(2):114-37).

[0005] The concept of using a beam of ions (which may be injected as neutral atoms) and a plasma target to create a fusion event was developed in the 1970s as the "wet wood burner" concept, evoking the idea that if the plasma could not be ignited, an external heat source could cause combustion. An early article describing the concept was written by Dawson et al. (1971) (see Dawson, JM, HP Furth, and FH Tenney. 1971. Physical Review Letters 26(19):1156-60). Dawson describes a system in which deuterium is injected via a neutral beam into a cold tritium plasma for the purpose of producing thermonuclear energy. Dawson's target plasma is contained in a torus, and the paper states that a tokamak is the most practical option for magnetic confinement.

[0006] Variations on the "wet wood combustor" concept envision different kinds of devices for magnetic confinement of plasma. Dawson et al. (1971), Jassby (1977), and Hendel and Jassby (1990) describe the use of tokamaks (see Jassby, DL 1977. Nuclear Fusion 17(2):309). Others describe unconventional plasma targets such as magnetic mirrors and screw taps. Lehnert (1975) describes a high-density, low-temperature screw trap. Price et al. (1986) describe high-voltage linear devices such as magnetic mirrors (see Price, Robert E., Geoffrey W. Shuy, and James T. Woo. 1986. Fusion Technology 10(3P2B):1412-17). Forest et al. (2020) describe a high-field magnetic mirror (see Forest, Cary, et al. 2020. PPPL Colloquium, Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory, Princeton, NJ, USA, October 14). SHINE technologies and Heikken (1988) describe systems where the target is not in a plasma state, such as a solid target or a gas target (see SHINE Technologies, https: / / www.shinefusion.com / ; Heikkinen, DW 1988. UCRL-98946; CONF-881151-13. Lawrence Livermore National Lab., CA (USA). SHINE, Kolesnichenko et al. (1976), and Hendel et al. (1986) recommend the injection of a deuterium beam into a deuterium target due to the greater availability and safety of deuterium.

[0007] The Large Helical Device (LHD), operated by the Japan Institute for Fusion Science and described by Seki et al. (2019), is a plasma physics experiment (see Seki, Ryosuke, et al. 2019. Plasma and Fusion Research 14:3402126-3402126). The LHD is configured to include a negative ion-based neutral beam injector, whereby a negative ion-based neutral beam is injected into a deuterium plasma contained by a stellarator. Such a reaction produces neutrons, but such stellarators are not optimized for fast particle confinement, and as a result, the neutron production rate was impractically low for any economic purpose. Furthermore, the objective of the experiment was not the economic production of neutrons, but to support a model of plasma physics for creating a thermonuclear energy power plant.

[0008] The SHINE commercial fusion neutron source delivers 5×10 deuterium ions per second to a gaseous deuterium target. 11 The neutron rate (n / s) for deuterium ions to gaseous tritium is 3×10 13 The TFTR tokamak has been configured to introduce a deuterium beam into a deuterium plasma, resulting in a neutron rate of 1 × 10 for short pulses, in principle, as part of a plasma physics experiment by Hendel and Jassby (1990). 17 It was possible to produce DD neutrons at a rate of n / s.

[0009] To date, the creation of useful isotopes via neutron irradiation has been a very costly process. In fact, the isotopes produced according to such processes are incredibly expensive to manufacture and / or purchase in useful quantities. For example, tritium currently costs tens of thousands of dollars per gram on the open market. Future estimates for fusion power indicate that approximately 300 grams of tritium per day would be required to produce approximately 800 MW of power, which would require millions of dollars of tritium per day.

[0010] To facilitate economical isotope production, it would be useful to develop a system capable of producing large amounts of neutrons. Summary of the Invention

[0011] Disclosed herein are systems and methods for producing neutrons. In particular, the systems and methods disclosed herein utilize one or more stellarators optimized for fast particle confinement. Ions, such as deuterium ions, are accelerated via a negative ion based neutral beam to energies where the deuterium-deuterium ("DD") fusion cross section is significant (e.g., at least greater than 100 millibarns) and injected (as neutral atoms) into a stellarator optimized for fast ion confinement to generate a neutron flux. These neutrons can be used to irradiate one or more target materials (e.g., solid targets, liquid targets, gaseous targets) to produce the desired isotopes.

[0012] A first aspect of the present disclosure is a system comprising: (i) a casing defining a first volume, (ii) a blanket defining a second volume, the blanket encasing the casing, (iii) a stellarator optimized for fast particle containment, the stellarator adapted to confine a plasma in the first volume and enclosing the blanket, (iv) at least a first negative ion based neutral beam injector for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a first angular orientation, (v) optionally at least a second negative ion based neutral beam injector for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a second angular orientation, and (vi) an electron heater adapted to heat electrons in the plasma. In some embodiments, the plasma is a deuterium plasma.

[0013] In some embodiments, the system comprises at least two first negative ion based neutral beam injectors for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a first angular orientation. In some embodiments, the system comprises at least four first negative ion based neutral beam injectors for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a first angular orientation. In some embodiments, the system comprises at least six first negative ion based neutral beam injectors for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a first angular orientation.

[0014] In some embodiments, the system includes at least one second negative ion based neutral beam injector for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a second angular orientation, hi some embodiments, the first and second angular orientations are opposite angular orientations.

[0015] In some embodiments, the system includes at least two second negative ion based neutral beam injectors for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a second angular orientation, hi some embodiments, the first and second angular orientations are opposite angular orientations.

[0016] In some embodiments, the system further comprises at least one material transport system. In some embodiments, a first of the at least one material transport system is in communication with the first volume. In some embodiments, the first of the at least one material transport system is communicatively coupled to the material separation system. In some embodiments, a second of the at least one material transport system is in communication with the second volume. In some embodiments, the second of the at least one material transport system is communicatively coupled to the material separation system. In some embodiments, the second of the at least one material transport system is adapted to introduce a flowable target into the second volume. In some embodiments, the second of the at least one material transport system is adapted to introduce a solid target into the second volume.

[0017] In some embodiments, the electronic heater is communicatively coupled to the controller.

[0018] In some embodiments, the stellarator optimized for fast particle confinement is a quasi-axisymmetric stellarator. In some embodiments, the stellarator optimized for fast particle confinement is a quasi-symmetric stellarator. In some embodiments, the stellarator optimized for fast particle confinement is a quasi-isomagnetic stellarator. In some embodiments, the stellarator optimized for fast particle confinement is a quasi-omnigenous stellarator.

[0019] In some embodiments, a stellarator optimized for fast particle containment comprises: (a) a plurality of planar shaping coils, where an array including the plurality of planar shaping coils surrounds the plasma axis, but where any individual planar shaping coil of the plurality of planar shaping coils does not surround the plasma axis; and (b) a plurality of planar surrounding coils, where each individual planar surrounding coil of the plurality of surrounding coils surrounds the plasma axis.

[0020] In some embodiments, a stellarator optimized for high velocity particle confinement comprises: (a) a magnetic field shaping coil system including one or more magnetic field shaping units defining a gap adapted to confine a plasma, each magnetic field shaping unit comprising (i) one or more structural mounting elements and (ii) one or more shaping coils disposed on a surface of the one or more structural mounting elements; and (b) a plurality of surrounding coils surrounding the plasma and the magnetic field shaping coil system, wherein the one or more shaping coils and the plurality of surrounding coils comprise one or more superconducting materials.

[0021] In some embodiments, a stellarator optimized for fast particle confinement comprises: (a) an air gap adapted to confine a plasma having a plasma axis; (b) a plurality of planar shaping coils, where an array including the plurality of planar shaping coils surrounds the plasma axis, but where any individual planar shaping coil of the plurality of planar shaping coils does not surround the plasma axis; and (c) a plurality of planar surrounding coils, where each individual planar surrounding coil of the plurality of surrounding coils surrounds the plasma axis.

[0022] In some embodiments, a stellarator optimized for fast particle confinement comprises: (a) a gap adapted to confine a plasma, the gap including at least two sides; (b) at least two planar shaping coils, a first of the at least two sides being proximate to the first of the at least two sides but not surrounding the gap, and a second of the at least two sides being proximate to the second of the at least two sides but not surrounding the gap; and (c) a plurality of planar surrounding coils, each individual planar surrounding coil of the plurality of surrounding coils surrounding a plasma axis.

[0023] In some embodiments, a stellarator optimized for high velocity particle confinement comprises: (a) a plurality of structural supports; (b) one or more magnetic field shaping units operably connected to the plurality of structural supports, each magnetic field shaping unit comprising one or more planar surface mounted shaping coils; and (c) a plurality of planar surrounding coils, wherein the plurality of structural supports, the one or more magnetic field shaping units, and the plurality of surrounding coils collectively define a gap adapted to confine a plasma therein.

[0024] A second aspect of the present disclosure is a system for generating neutrons comprising: (i) a casing defining a first volume; (ii) a blanket defining a second volume; (iii) a stellarator optimized for fast particle confinement, the stellarator adapted to confine a plasma in the first volume, the blanket being positioned between the stellarator and the casing; (iv) at least a first negative ion based neutral beam injector for introducing a first beam of energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a first angular orientation; (v) optionally at least a second negative ion based neutral beam injector for introducing a second beam of energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a second angular orientation; and (vi) an electron heater adapted to heat electrons in the plasma.

[0025] In some embodiments, the system comprises at least two first negative ion based neutral beam injectors for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a first angular orientation. In some embodiments, the system comprises at least four first negative ion based neutral beam injectors for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a first angular orientation. In some embodiments, the system comprises at least six first negative ion based neutral beam injectors for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a first angular orientation.

[0026] In some embodiments, the system includes at least one second negative ion based neutral beam injector for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a second angular orientation, hi some embodiments, the first and second angular orientations are opposite angular orientations.

[0027] In some embodiments, the system includes at least two second negative ion based neutral beam injectors for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a second angular orientation, hi some embodiments, the first and second angular orientations are opposite angular orientations.

[0028] In some embodiments, the system further comprises at least one material transport system. In some embodiments, a first of the at least one material transport system is in communication with the first volume. In some embodiments, the first of the at least one material transport system is communicatively coupled to the material separation system. In some embodiments, a second of the at least one material transport system is in communication with the second volume. In some embodiments, the second of the at least one material transport system is communicatively coupled to the material separation system. In some embodiments, the second of the at least one material transport system is adapted to introduce a flowable target into the second volume. In some embodiments, the second of the at least one material transport system is adapted to introduce a solid target into the second volume.

[0029] In some embodiments, the electronic heater is communicatively coupled to the controller.

[0030] In some embodiments, the stellarator optimized for fast particle confinement is a quasi-axisymmetric stellarator. In some embodiments, the stellarator optimized for fast particle confinement is a quasi-symmetric stellarator. In some embodiments, the stellarator optimized for fast particle confinement is a quasi-isomagnetic stellarator. In some embodiments, the stellarator optimized for fast particle confinement is a quasi-omnidirectional stellarator.

[0031] In some embodiments, a stellarator optimized for fast particle containment comprises: (a) a plurality of planar shaping coils, where an array including the plurality of planar shaping coils surrounds the plasma axis, but where any individual planar shaping coil of the plurality of planar shaping coils does not surround the plasma axis; and (b) a plurality of planar surrounding coils, where each individual planar surrounding coil of the plurality of surrounding coils surrounds the plasma axis.

[0032] In some embodiments, a stellarator optimized for high velocity particle confinement comprises: (a) a magnetic field shaping coil system including one or more magnetic field shaping units defining a gap adapted to confine a plasma, each magnetic field shaping unit comprising (i) one or more structural mounting elements and (ii) one or more shaping coils disposed on a surface of the one or more structural mounting elements; and (b) a plurality of surrounding coils surrounding the plasma and the magnetic field shaping coil system, wherein the one or more shaping coils and the plurality of surrounding coils comprise one or more superconducting materials.

[0033] In some embodiments, a stellarator optimized for fast particle confinement comprises: (a) an air gap adapted to confine a plasma having a plasma axis; (b) a plurality of planar shaping coils, where an array including the plurality of planar shaping coils surrounds the plasma axis, but where any individual planar shaping coil of the plurality of planar shaping coils does not surround the plasma axis; and (c) a plurality of planar surrounding coils, where each individual planar surrounding coil of the plurality of surrounding coils surrounds the plasma axis.

[0034] In some embodiments, a stellarator optimized for fast particle confinement comprises: (a) a gap adapted to confine a plasma, the gap including at least two sides; (b) at least two planar shaping coils, a first of the at least two sides being proximate to the first of the at least two sides but not surrounding the gap, and a second of the at least two sides being proximate to the second of the at least two sides but not surrounding the gap; and (c) a plurality of planar surrounding coils, each individual planar surrounding coil of the plurality of surrounding coils surrounding a plasma axis.

[0035] In some embodiments, a stellarator optimized for high velocity particle confinement comprises: (a) a plurality of structural supports; (b) one or more magnetic field shaping units operably connected to the plurality of structural supports, each magnetic field shaping unit comprising one or more planar surface mounted shaping coils; and (c) a plurality of planar surrounding coils, wherein the plurality of structural supports, the one or more magnetic field shaping units, and the plurality of surrounding coils collectively define a gap adapted to confine a plasma therein.

[0036] A third aspect of the present disclosure is a method for generating neutrons, the method including generating a negative ion neutral beam, such as for accelerating neutral atoms to an energy where the DD cross section is significant, injecting the generated negative ion neutral beam into a stellarator optimized for fast particle confinement, and controlling the electron temperature such that the beam deceleration time is long enough for the fast ions to generate neutrons at a desired flux. In some embodiments, the method further includes forming tritium by irradiating deuterium using the generated neutrons. In some embodiments, the method further includes capturing and filtering a plasma from the stellarator to separate any tritium formed. In some embodiments, the stellarator optimized for fast particle confinement is a quasi-isomagnetic stellarator. In some embodiments, the stellarator optimized for fast particle confinement is a quasi-omnigenous stellarator.

[0037] In some embodiments, a stellarator optimized for high velocity particle confinement comprises: (a) a magnetic field shaping coil system including one or more magnetic field shaping units defining a gap adapted to confine a plasma, each magnetic field shaping unit comprising (i) one or more structural mounting elements and (ii) one or more shaping coils disposed on a surface of the one or more structural mounting elements; and (b) a plurality of surrounding coils surrounding the plasma and the magnetic field shaping coil system, wherein the one or more shaping coils and the plurality of surrounding coils comprise one or more superconducting materials.

[0038] In some embodiments, a stellarator optimized for fast particle confinement comprises: (a) an air gap adapted to confine a plasma having a plasma axis; (b) a plurality of planar shaping coils, where an array including the plurality of planar shaping coils surrounds the plasma axis, but where any individual planar shaping coil of the plurality of planar shaping coils does not surround the plasma axis; and (c) a plurality of planar surrounding coils, where each individual planar surrounding coil of the plurality of surrounding coils surrounds the plasma axis.

[0039] In some embodiments, a stellarator optimized for fast particle confinement comprises: (a) a gap adapted to confine a plasma, the gap including at least two sides; (b) at least two planar shaping coils, a first of the at least two sides being proximate to the first of the at least two sides but not surrounding the gap, and a second of the at least two sides being proximate to the second of the at least two sides but not surrounding the gap; and (c) a plurality of planar surrounding coils, each individual planar surrounding coil of the plurality of surrounding coils surrounding a plasma axis.

[0040] In some embodiments, a stellarator optimized for high velocity particle confinement comprises: (a) a plurality of structural supports; (b) one or more magnetic field shaping units operably connected to the plurality of structural supports, each magnetic field shaping unit comprising one or more planar surface mounted shaping coils; and (c) a plurality of planar surrounding coils, wherein the plurality of structural supports, the one or more magnetic field shaping units, and the plurality of surrounding coils collectively define a gap adapted to confine a plasma therein.

[0041] For a general understanding of the features of the present disclosure, reference is made to the drawings, in which like reference numbers are used throughout to identify identical elements. [Brief description of the drawings]

[0042] [Figure 1] FIG. 1 illustrates a block diagram of a system for generating neutrons according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 2A] 1 illustrates a cross-sectional view of a system for generating neutrons according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 2B] 1 illustrates a cross-sectional view of a system for generating neutrons according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Diagram 3] 1 illustrates a negative ion based neutral beam implanter according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 4A] 1 illustrates a stellarator for use in the systems of the present disclosure, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 4B] 4A and 4B illustrate a stellarator for use in the systems of the present disclosure, in accordance with some embodiments of the present disclosure. Specifically, FIG. 4B illustrates a magnetic field shaping coil system, and thus a plurality of planar surrounding coils that surround the plasma. [Figure 4C] 1 illustrates a top-down view of a stellarator for use in the systems of the present disclosure, in accordance with some embodiments of the present disclosure. [Figure 4D] 1 illustrates a cross-sectional view of a stellarator for use in the systems of the present disclosure, according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. [Diagram 5] 1 provides a flowchart of a method for generating neutrons according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

[0043] It is also to be understood that, unless expressly stated to the contrary, in any method claimed in this specification that includes two or more steps or actions, the order of the method steps or actions is not necessarily limited to the order in which the method steps or actions are recited.

[0044] As used herein, the singular terms "a," "an," and "the" include plural referents unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Similarly, the word "or" is intended to include "and" unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. The term "includes" is defined inclusively, such that "including A or B" means including A, B, or A and B.

[0045] As used herein in the specification and claims, "or" should be understood to have the same meaning as "and / or" as defined above. For example, when separating items in a list, "or" or "and / or" should be interpreted as inclusive, i.e., including at least one of, but also including two or more of, a number or list of elements, and optionally including additional unlisted items. Only terms clearly indicated otherwise, such as "only one of" or "exactly one of," or, when used in the claims, "consisting of," will refer to the inclusion of exactly one element of a number or list of elements. In general, as used herein, the term "or" should be interpreted as indicating exclusive alternatives (i.e., "one or the other, but not both") only when preceded by a term of exclusivity, such as "either," "one of," "only one of," or "exactly one of." "Consisting essentially of," when used in the claims, shall have its ordinary meaning as used in the field of patent law.

[0046] Terms such as "comprising," "including," "having," and the like are used interchangeably and have the same meaning. Similarly, "comprises," "includes," "has," and the like are used interchangeably and have the same meaning. Specifically, each of the terms is defined consistently with the general U.S. patent law definition of "comprising," and therefore is interpreted as being open-ended, meaning "at least the following," and also not excluding additional features, limitations, aspects, and the like. Thus, for example, "a device having components a, b, and c" means that the device includes at least components a, b, and c. Similarly, the phrase "a method with steps a, b, and c" means that the method includes at least steps a, b, and c. Additionally, although steps and processes may be outlined in a particular order herein, one of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that the ordering of steps and processes may vary.

[0047] As used herein in the specification and claims, the phrase "at least one" in reference to a list of one or more elements should be understood to mean at least one element selected from any one or more of the elements in the list of elements, but not necessarily including at least one of each element specifically listed in the list of elements, and not excluding any combination of elements in the list of elements. This definition also allows that elements other than the elements specifically identified in the list of elements to which the phrase "at least one" refers may optionally be present, whether related or unrelated to those elements specifically identified. Thus, as a non-limiting example, "at least one of A and B" (or, equivalently, "at least one of A or B" or, equivalently, "at least one of A and / or B") can refer to, in one embodiment, at least one, optionally, two or more A, and no B (and optionally including elements other than B); in another embodiment, at least one, optionally, two or more B, and no A (and optionally including elements other than A); in yet another embodiment, at least one, optionally, two or more A, and at least one, optionally, two or more B (and optionally including other elements), etc.

[0048] References throughout this specification to "one embodiment" or "one embodiment" mean that a particular feature, structure, or characteristic described in connection with an embodiment is included in at least one embodiment. Thus, the appearances of the phrases "in one embodiment" or "in one embodiment" in various places throughout this specification do not necessarily all refer to the same embodiment. Furthermore, the particular features, structures, or characteristics may be combined in any suitable manner in one or more embodiments.

[0049] The present disclosure is directed to a system for producing neutrons, the system including a stellarator optimized for fast particle finement. The present disclosure is also directed to a method of producing neutrons using the system of the present disclosure, in particular a system incorporating a stellarator optimized for fast particle confinement.

[0050] system 1 provides an overview of a system 100 of the present disclosure. In some embodiments, the system 100 includes a casing 104 defining a first volume 105, a blanket 102 defining a second volume 103 encasing the casing 104, and a stellarator 101 adapted to confine a plasma within the first volume 105, the stellarator 101 enclosing the blanket 102. The stellarator 101 utilized in the disclosed system 100 is optimized for past particle confinement. A suitable stellarator 101 optimized for past particle confinement is described further herein.

[0051] In some embodiments, the system 100 further includes at least a first negative ion based neutral beam injector 106 for injecting first energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a first angular orientation, and optionally at least a second negative ion based neutral beam injector 107 for injecting second energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a second angular orientation. In some embodiments, the at least first negative ion based neutral beam injector 106 and the optional at least second negative ion based neutral beam injector 107 are each in communication, such as in fluid communication, with the first volume 105. In some embodiments, the system 100 includes at least one of the optional second negative ion based neutral beam injectors.

[0052] In some embodiments, the system 100 further includes at least one electronic heater 108 adapted to heat electrons in the plasma. In some embodiments, the system 100 includes one electronic heater 108. In other embodiments, the system 100 includes two or more electronic heaters 108. In some embodiments, the electronic heater 108 is in communication with the first volume 105. In some embodiments, the electronic heater 108 is communicatively coupled to the controller 109.

[0053] In some embodiments, the system further comprises one or more heat transfer systems 110 for adjusting thermal properties of the blanket 101, the second volume 103, and / or the casing 104. In some embodiments, the system 100 further comprises a material transport system 111 for introducing one or more target materials to the second volume 103 and / or removing synthesized materials from the second volume 103. In some embodiments, the material transport system 111 is coupled to a material separation system 112 such that the one or more synthesized materials may be separated from one another and / or from the one or more target materials.

[0054] 2A and 2B further depict the system 100 of the present disclosure. The system 100 of the present disclosure incorporates a stellarator 101 optimized for fast particle confinement. In some embodiments, the stellarator 101 optimized for fast particle confinement is configured to confine at least 85%, at least 90%, at least 95%, at least 96%, at least 97%, at least 98%, at least 98.5%, at least 99% of the fast particles in the plasma containing the fast particles. Any stellarator 101 can be used as part of the system of the present disclosure, provided that the stellarator is optimized for fast particle confinement. Non-limiting examples of suitable stellarators 101 optimized for fast particle confinement are described further herein.

[0055] According to one embodiment of the present disclosure, a stellarator 101 optimized for high velocity particle containment is shown in Figures 2A and 2B as including a blanket 102, which defines a second volume 103. In some embodiments, the blanket 102 protects the components of the stellarator 101 from hot, energetic neutrons produced by nuclear fusion reactions in the plasma. As the neutrons are slowed down by the blanket 102, their kinetic energy is converted to thermal energy and collected by a heat transfer system 110 in communication with the blanket 102 and / or the second volume 103.

[0056] A second volume 103 defined by a blanket 102 encases a first volume 105 defined by a casing 104. The first volume 105 is adapted to contain a plasma, and the plasma contained in the first volume 105 is confined by the stellarator 101. In some embodiments, the plasma is configured to flow in an angular direction 125 (see FIG. 2A). Although the angular direction 125 of the plasma in the first volume 105 is depicted in FIG. 2A as counterclockwise, one skilled in the art will understand that the angular direction may be clockwise depending on the configuration of the magnetic field introduced to the plasma by the stellarator 101. In some embodiments, the angular direction may depend on the heating system and / or fuel supply system incorporated in the disclosed system.

[0057] In some embodiments, the second volume 103 is configured to hold one or more targets including a target material that can react with neutrons to provide a synthesized material. In this regard, the target material is a precursor of the synthesized material. In some embodiments, the one or more targets are solid targets, e.g., ceramic targets. Ceramic target materials can include, for example, metal oxides or metal hydrides. Other target materials include molybdenum (wherein materials synthesized from molybdenum target materials can include, for example, 98In another embodiment, the target material is lithium. Other examples of target materials and materials synthesized therefrom include the lithium-6 isotope ( 6 Li) and a target material containing Molybdenum-99 ( 99 Mo) to produce molybdenum-98( 98 and target materials containing Cr(Mo).

[0058] In some embodiments, the target material is a precursor of a pharmaceutical radioisotope. In some embodiments, one or more targets are liquid targets. In some embodiments, the liquid target comprises a dispersion or slurry containing the target material. Examples of such liquid targets include, but are not limited to, molten lithium metal (Li), heavy water (DO), or molten salts such as lithium beryllium fluoride (FLiBe). In some embodiments, one or more targets are in a gas or are themselves a gas.

[0059] In some embodiments, the system of the present disclosure includes one or more material transport systems and / or one or more material separation systems. In some embodiments, the system of the present disclosure includes two different material transport systems. In some embodiments, the first material transport system 111 is in communication with the second volume 103 and the second material transport system 113 is in communication with the first volume 105. In some embodiments, the system 100 of the present disclosure includes two separate material separation systems 112 and 114, whereby the first material separation system 112 is in communication with the first material transport system 111 and the second material separation system 113 is in communication with the second material separation system 114. In other embodiments, the first material transport system and the second material transport system 111 and 113 are in communication with a single material separation system.

[0060] In some embodiments, the target material is introduced into the second volume 103 through one or more material transfer systems 111 in communication with the second volume 103. In some embodiments, each material transfer system 111 includes an inlet 111A (for introducing the target material into the second volume 103) and an outlet 111B (for removing the synthesized material and / or remaining target material from the second volume 103). For liquid target material or target material dispersed in a liquid, the liquid and / or target material may enter or leave the second volume 103 via the material transfer system 111. In some embodiments, the material transfer system 111 communicates with a material separation system 112 adapted to capture and / or separate the synthesized material from the target material. In some embodiments, the material separation system 112 is adapted to capture and / or separate the target material from one or more synthesized materials and / or separate two different synthesized materials from each other, the materials synthesized in the second volume 103. For example, the material separation system 112 may be utilized to process material from the second volume 103 after the target material present in the second volume 103 has been irradiated by the generated neutrons.

[0061] In some embodiments, material transfer system 113 and material separation system 114 are used to introduce, remove, and / or separate at least one isotope of hydrogen (e.g., deuterium or tritium) or helium (e.g., helium-3) from the plasma confined in first volume 105. For example, if a gas containing helium-3 is synthesized in first volume 105, the helium-3 may be separated from the remaining plasma and gas in the first volume using material transfer system 113 and / or material separation system 114-114.

[0062] In some embodiments, the system 100 includes one or more negative ion based neutral beam injectors (see 106 and 107 in FIGS. 2A and 2B). In some embodiments, the one or more negative ion based neutral beam injectors are configured to inject energetic neutral atoms into the plasma contained within the first volume 105. In some embodiments, the one or more negative ion based neutral beam injectors inject the neutral atoms in the same angular direction as the angular direction of the flow of the plasma within the first volume 105. In other embodiments, the one or more negative ion based neutral beam injectors inject the neutral atoms in an angular direction opposite to the angular direction of the flow of the plasma within the first volume 105.

[0063] In some embodiments, the system 100 includes one negative ion based neutral beam injector. In other embodiments, the system 100 includes two negative ion based neutral beam injectors, where each of the at least two negative ion based neutral beam injectors can be configured to introduce neutral atoms in any angular direction. In yet other embodiments, the system 100 includes three negative ion based neutral beam injectors, where each of the at least three negative ion based neutral beam injectors can be configured to introduce neutral atoms in any angular direction. In further embodiments, the system 100 includes four negative ion based neutral beam injectors, where each of the at least four negative ion based neutral beam injectors can be configured to introduce neutral atoms in any angular direction. In still further embodiments, the system 100 includes five negative ion based neutral beam injectors, where each of the at least five negative ion based neutral beam injectors can be configured to introduce neutral atoms in any angular direction. Even in still further embodiments, the system 100 includes six or more negative ion based neutral beam injectors. In some embodiments, system 100 includes 10 or more negative ion based neutral beam injectors, where each of the at least 10 negative ion based neutral beam injectors can be configured to introduce neutral atoms in any angular direction. In some embodiments, system 100 includes 20 or more negative ion based neutral beam injectors, where each of the at least 20 negative ion based neutral beam injectors can be configured to introduce neutral atoms in any angular direction.

[0064] In some embodiments, the system 100 includes at least two negative ion based neutral beam injectors, where a first negative ion based neutral beam injector 106 introduces neutral atoms in a first angular direction and a second negative ion based neutral beam injector 107 introduces neutral atoms in a second angular direction, where the first and second angular directions are opposite or substantially opposite to each other. In some embodiments, the system 100 includes two or more negative ion based neutral beam injectors 106, where each of the two or more negative ion based neutral beam injectors 106 is configured to introduce neutral atoms in a first angular direction (such as the same angular direction of the flow of plasma in the first volume 105) and at least one negative ion based neutral beam injector 107 is configured to introduce neutral atoms in a second angular direction, where the first and second angular directions are opposite or substantially opposite to each other. In some embodiments, the system 100 includes three or more negative ion based neutral beam injectors 106, where each of the two or more negative ion based neutral beam injectors 106 is configured to introduce neutral atoms in a first angular direction (such as the same angular direction of the plasma flow in the first volume 105) and at least one negative ion based neutral beam injector 107 is configured to introduce neutral atoms in a second angular direction, where the first and second angular directions are opposite or substantially opposite to each other.

[0065] In some embodiments, the system 100 includes four or more negative ion based neutral beam injectors 106, where each of the two or more negative ion based neutral beam injectors 106 is configured to introduce neutral atoms in a first angular direction (such as the same angular direction of the flow of plasma in the first volume 105) and at least one negative ion based neutral beam injector 107 is configured to introduce neutral atoms in a second angular direction, where the first and second angular directions are opposite or substantially opposite to each other (depicted in FIG. 2A). In some embodiments, the system 100 includes four or more negative ion based neutral beam injectors 106, where each of the two or more negative ion based neutral beam injectors 106 is configured to introduce neutral atoms in a first angular direction (such as the same angular direction of the flow of plasma in the first volume 105) and at least one negative ion based neutral beam injector 107 is configured to introduce neutral atoms in a second angular direction, where the first and second angular directions are opposite or substantially opposite to each other.

[0066] In some embodiments, each of the negative ion based neutral beam injectors is configured to inject energetic neutral atoms into the plasma, the neutral atoms having an energy of at least about 100 keV. In other embodiments, each of the negative ion based neutral beam injectors is configured to inject energetic neutral atoms into the plasma having an energy of at least about 150 keV. In other embodiments, each of the negative ion based neutral beam injectors is configured to inject energetic neutral atoms into the plasma having an energy of at least about 200 keV. In other embodiments, each of the negative ion based neutral beam injectors is configured to inject energetic neutral atoms into the plasma having an energy of at least about 250 keV. In yet other embodiments, each of the negative ion based neutral beam injectors is configured to inject energetic neutral atoms into the plasma having an energy of at least about 300 keV. In further embodiments, each of the negative ion based neutral beam injectors is configured to inject energetic neutral atoms into the plasma having an energy of at least about 400 keV. Even in further embodiments, each of the negative ion based neutral beam injectors is configured to inject energetic neutral atoms having an energy of at least about 500 keV into the plasma. In still further embodiments, each of the negative ion based neutral beam injectors is configured to inject energetic neutral atoms having an energy of at least about 600 keV into the plasma. Even in still further embodiments, each of the negative ion based neutral beam injectors is configured to inject energetic neutral atoms having an energy of at least about 700 keV into the plasma. Even in still further embodiments, each of the negative ion based neutral beam injectors is configured to inject energetic neutral atoms having an energy of at least about 800 keV into the plasma. Even in still further embodiments, each of the negative ion based neutral beam injectors is configured to inject energetic neutral atoms having an energy of at least about 900 keV into the plasma.Even in still further embodiments, each of the negative ion based neutral beam injectors is configured to inject energetic neutral atoms having an energy of at least about 1000 keV into the plasma. Even in still further embodiments, each of the negative ion based neutral beam injectors is configured to inject energetic neutral atoms having an energy of at least about 1200 keV into the plasma. Even in still further embodiments, each of the negative ion based neutral beam injectors is configured to inject energetic neutral atoms having an energy of at least about 1500 keV into the plasma. Even in still further embodiments, each of the negative ion based neutral beam injectors is configured to inject energetic neutral atoms having an energy of at least about 2000 keV into the plasma.

[0067] Any negative ion based neutral beam injector may be utilized as part of the system of the present disclosure, provided that the negative ion based neutral beam injector is capable of injecting energetic neutral atoms into the plasma. An exemplary negative ion based neutral beam injector is illustrated in FIG. 3. In certain such embodiments, each negative ion based neutral beam injector 300 may include an outer housing 302 having a first end 304 and a second end 306 opposite the first end. The injector 300 may also include an ion source 310, an accelerator 320, and a neutralizer 330. In some embodiments, the negative ion based neutral beam injector may also include other components, including, but not limited to, a residual ion dump 340, and one or more control parts 350, such as valves and / or shutters. In some embodiments, ions 315 (such as deuterium or tritium ions) are accelerated from the ion source 310 by an accelerator 320 and pass through a neutralizer 330, where the ions eventually become neutral atoms (such as deuterium or tritium atoms) before exiting the injector at the second end 306.

[0068] Another suitable negative ion based neutral beam injector is described in PCT Publication No. WO2014039579, the entire disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference. Another suitable negative ion based neutral beam injector is the Heating Neutral Beam (HNB) for the ITER experiment, described in Hemsworth et al. (2017) (Hemsworth, RS, et al. 2017. New Journal of Physics 19(2):025005), the entire disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference.

[0069] The system 100 also includes an electron heater 108 configured to regulate the temperature of electrons in the plasma confined in the first volume 105. In some embodiments, the electron heater 108 is an electron cyclotron resonance heater. In some embodiments, the electron heater 108 is another neutral beam injector. In some embodiments, the electron heater 108 is a radio frequency heater operating at a harmonic of the electron cyclotron resonance. In some embodiments, the electron heater 108 ensures that a significantly higher electron temperature is maintained in the plasma compared to the ion temperature in the plasma, such as at least about 2 times, e.g., at least about 2.25 times, at least about 2.5 times, at least about 2.75 times, at least about 3 times, etc. In some embodiments, the ion temperature can be kept low by ensuring that the particle fueling leads to a broad density profile. It is believed that the low ion temperature ensures that the electron density and the beam particle density can be rather high, which contribute less to the plasma pressure. As an example, the low ion temperature may be about 2 keV, at which value the thermonuclear DD reaction rate is negligible.

[0070] In some embodiments, the electronic heater 108 is communicatively coupled to the controller 109. In some embodiments, the controller 109 commands the electronic heater 108 to adjust the power delivered to the plasma. A larger power (e.g., about 1 MW) raises the electron temperature of the plasma above the temperature that the electrons in the plasma would otherwise be. For example, without power to the electronic heater, the electron temperature may be about 10 keV, while with heating from the electronic heater of about 1 MW, the electron temperature may be about 13 keV. In some embodiments, the electronic heater 108 is commanded by the controller 109 to deliver an amount of power that brings the temperature of the electrons in the plasma to a value that results in the highest neutron production rate in the plasma while satisfying all operational constraints. An example of this required electronic heating power may be about 1 MW. A reasonable range of electronic heating power may be between 0.5 MW and 10 MW, depending on the size of the stellarator, the strength of the magnetic field, and other parameters. An example of this optimal electron temperature may be about 13 keV. A reasonable range for optimal electron temperatures can be from 10 keV to 50 keV, depending on the size of the stellarator, the strength of the magnetic field, and other parameters. An example neutron velocity is about 2×10 17 neutrons / second. A reasonable range of neutron velocities is between 5×10 and 10×10, depending on the size of the stellarator, the strength of the magnetic field, and other parameters. 16 Neutrons / sec ~1×10 18 An example of an operational constraint is that the density of high energy beam injected deuterium ions must be between about 10 18 ions / m 3 It may be that the neutron production rate increases with electron temperature, but so does the density of high energy beam injected deuterium ions. At the maximum density of high energy beam injected deuterium ions the plasma becomes unstable.

[0071] In some embodiments, the system further comprises a heat transfer system 110 for adjusting thermal properties of the stellarator 101. In some embodiments, the heat transfer system 110 includes an inlet 110A through which cold air or liquid or gaseous coolant may enter a portion of the second volume 103, and an outlet 110B through which warmer air or warmed coolant may exit the second volume 103 to effectuate the removal of excess heat from the second volume 103, the blanket 102, and / or the stellarator 101.

[0072] Stellarator As described herein, the system 100 of the present disclosure includes a stellarator 101 optimized for high velocity particle confinement. Any stellarator having any coil configuration may be utilized, provided the stellarator is optimized for high velocity particle confinement.

[0073] 4A, a stellarator generally includes an array of magnetic coils 410 that function to define a magnetic field that can confine a plasma, such as confining the plasma within a first volume 420 as described herein. In some embodiments, the stellarator includes additional coils outside the magnetic coils and may further include one or more structural supports.

[0074] A stellarator is said to be "optimized" when its magnetic field satisfies a property known as omnigeneity, or quasi-omnigeneity ("QO"). This property and several subcategories are described by Helander (see Helander, Per. 2014. Reports on Progress in Physics 77(8):087001, the entire disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference). Plasma particles on an omnigenetic or QO magnetic field do not cross the magnetic field and exit the stellarator. This property is a property of the geometry of the magnetic field that the stellarator produces. The omnigenetic state is a strict mathematical property, and the magnetic field is either omnigenetic or not. Due to various considerations, including finite engineering tolerances, it is not possible to build a perfect QO stellarator. Such approximately QO stellarators have been constructed such that the plasma they confine has been observed to behave substantially in the way that a QO plasma is predicted to behave (see Dinklage, A., et al. 2018. Nature Physics 14(8):855-60).

[0075] A subset of QO configurations are the so-called quasi-symmetric configurations, which are also described in Helander (2014). Quasi-symmetric stellarators exhibit another particular property of the magnetic field, namely that the amplitude of the magnetic field exhibits symmetry in a coordinate system that follows the direction of the magnetic field. Again, quasi-symmetry is an exact mathematical quantity, and it is close to impossible to build a stellarator that produces a perfect quasi-symmetric magnetic field. However, such approximately quasi-symmetric stellarators have been built such that the plasma they confine is observed to behave substantially in the way that a quasi-symmetric plasma is expected to behave (see Canik, JM, et al. 2007. Physical Review Letters 98(8):085002). Quasi-symmetric magnetic fields can be further subdivided into quasi-helically symmetric ("QH") and quasi-axially symmetric ("QA") magnetic fields, both of which are rigorously defined in Helander (2014). The quasi-omnisymmetricity and / or quasi-symmetry of a magnetic field configuration can be appreciated by those skilled in the art.

[0076] Energetic particle confinement refers to the ability of a magnetic field to contain charged particles whose average gyroscopic radius is not small compared to the scale length of the magnetic field amplitude. An example of an energetic particle is a deuterium ion of about 1 MeV in a stellarator where the magnetic field is about 6 Tesla (gyroscopic radius about 2 cm) and the scale length of the magnetic field amplitude is about 20 cm. QO, QH, and QA stellarators can all be said to be "optimized for energetic particle confinement," although QH and QA are considered superior in this regard (see Landreman, Matt, and Elizabeth Paul. 2022. Physical Review Letters 128(3):035001). Landreman and Paul (2022) describe some further designs for QH and QA stellarators.

[0077] In some embodiments, the stellarator 101 optimized for high velocity particle confinement is a quasi-omnigenous stellarator. An example of a suitable quasi-omnigenous stellarator Wendelstein 7-X ("W7-X"), as described by Dinklage et al. (2018).

[0078] In some embodiments, the stellarator 101 optimized for high velocity particle containment is a quasi-axisymmetric stellarator. Although a QA stellarator has not been built, one device that has been designed and modeled was the National Compact Stellarator Experiment ("NCSX") described in Williamson et al. (2005) (see Williamson, D., et al. 2005. Fusion Engineering and Design, Proceedings of the 23rd Symposium of Fusion Technology, 75-79 (November): 71-74).

[0079] In some embodiments, the stellarator 101 optimized for high velocity particle confinement is a quasi-symmetric stellarator or one with quasi-helical symmetry. An example of a quasi-helical symmetric stellarator is the Helically Symmetric Experiment ("HSX") described in Canik et al. (2007).

[0080] In some embodiments, the stellarator 101 optimized for high velocity particle confinement is a quasi-isomagnetic stellarator.

[0081] A stellarator containing one or more surrounding coils and one or more shaped columns. In some embodiments, a suitable stellarator 101 comprises: (a) a magnetic field shaping coil system including one or more magnetic field shaping units defining a gap adapted to confine a plasma, each magnetic field shaping unit comprising: (i) one or more structural mounting elements; and (ii) one or more planar shaping coils disposed on a surface of the one or more structural mounting elements; and (b) a plurality of planar surrounding coils surrounding the magnetic field shaping coil system.

[0082] In another embodiment, a suitable stellarator 101 comprises: (a) a magnetic field shaping coil system including one or more magnetic field shaping units defining a gap adapted to confine a plasma, each magnetic field shaping unit comprising (i) one or more structural mounting elements and (ii) one or more shaping coils disposed on a surface of the one or more structural mounting elements; and (b) a plurality of surrounding coils surrounding the plasma and the magnetic field shaping coil system, wherein the one or more shaping coils and the plurality of surrounding coils comprise one or more superconducting materials.

[0083] In yet another embodiment, a suitable stellarator 101 comprises (a) an air gap adapted to confine a plasma having a plasma axis; (b) a plurality of planar shaping coils, where an array including the plurality of planar shaping coils surrounds the plasma axis, but where no individual planar shaping coil of the plurality of planar shaping coils surrounds the plasma axis; and (c) a plurality of planar surrounding coils, where each individual planar surrounding coil of the plurality of surrounding coils surrounds the plasma axis.

[0084] In yet a further embodiment, a suitable stellarator 101 comprises: (a) a gap adapted to confine a plasma, the gap including at least two sides; (b) at least two planar shaping coils, a first of the at least two sides being adjacent to the first of the at least two sides but not surrounding the gap, and a second of the at least two sides being adjacent to the second of the at least two sides but not surrounding the gap; and (c) a plurality of planar surrounding coils, each individual planar surrounding coil of the plurality of surrounding coils surrounding the plasma axis.

[0085] Even in further embodiments, a suitable stellarator 101 comprises (a) a plurality of structural supports; (b) one or more magnetic field shaping units operably connected to the plurality of structural supports, each magnetic field shaping unit comprising one or more planar surface mounted shaping coils; and (c) a plurality of planar surrounding coils, wherein the plurality of structural supports, the one or more magnetic field shaping units, and the plurality of surrounding coils collectively define a gap adapted to confine a plasma therein.

[0086] 4B-4D, in some embodiments, a stellarator 101 for use in the systems of the present disclosure comprises a magnetic field shaping system 203 surrounding a cavity 201 that confines the plasma 200. In some embodiments, the cavity 201 is configured such that the maximum dimension from the plasma axis 205 of any contained plasma 200 to an outer edge (not shown) of the contained plasma is less than 20 meters, such as less than 10 meters, such as less than 5 meters, such as less than 4 meters, such as less than 3 meters, such as less than 2 meters, such as less than 1 meter, such as less than 0.5 meters, etc.

[0087] In some embodiments, the plasma 200 has a topology that roughly approximates that of a torus. In some embodiments, the plasma 200 is centered about a "plasma axis" 205, which is the magnetic field lines that map to their origin after one toroidal rotation. In some embodiments, the plasma axis 205 has a topology of a loop or roughly approximates a loop.

[0088] The magnetic field shaping system 203 includes a plurality of magnetic field shaping units 210. In some embodiments, the magnetic field shaping system 203 may include at least 2, at least 4, at least 6, at least 8, at least 10, at least 12, at least 16, at least 20, at least 24, at least 30, at least 36, at least 48, at least 54, at least 60, at least 70, at least 80, at least 90, at least 100, at least 110, at least 120, at least 130, at least 150, at least 170 magnetic field shaping units 210. Each of the magnetic field shaping units 210 includes one or more structural attachment elements 211 having a surface 215. In some embodiments, the surface 215 of each magnetic field shaping unit 211 faces the air gap 201. In some embodiments, each magnetic field shaping unit 210 further includes one or more additional components 216. The one or more additional components include, but are not limited to, a first wall for handling the plasma flux, a structure mounted on the first wall, a breeding blanket for breeding radioisotopes from the fusion neutron flux, a cryostat, and / or neutron shielding.

[0089] In some embodiments, each magnetic field shaping unit 210 comprises a single structural mounting element 211. In other embodiments, each magnetic field shaping unit 210 comprises two structural mounting elements 211. In yet other embodiments, each magnetic field shaping unit 210 comprises three structural mounting elements 211. In further embodiments, each magnetic field shaping unit 210 comprises four or more structural mounting elements 211. In some embodiments, the structural mounting elements 211 comprise steel. In some embodiments, the structural mounting elements 211 comprise metal. In some embodiments, the structural mounting elements 211 comprise a composite material, such as G-10.

[0090] The magnetic field shaping unit 210 may have any size and shape. In some embodiments, the magnetic field shaping unit 210 defines an extruded circular annulus cross section structure. In other embodiments, the magnetic field shaping unit 210 has any shape, including a shape with a non-constant cross section. For example, as illustrated in FIG. 4C, in some embodiments, the magnetic field shaping unit 410 has a wedge shape (positioned such that, from a perspective perpendicular to the plasma axis and the curvature direction, the narrower portion of the wedge faces the curvature direction of the plasma axis and the wider portion of the wedge faces the curvature direction of the plasma axis). In some embodiments, the magnetic field shaping unit 410 has a generally wedge shape. In other embodiments, the magnetic field shaping unit has a cross-sectional shape similar to or the same as the plasma at that location. In other embodiments, the magnetic field shaping unit 210 has a cross-sectional shape similar to or the same as the plasma with a certain normal offset distance.

[0091] In some embodiments, one or more shaping coils 212 are disposed on a surface 215 of each of the one or more structural mounting elements 211. It is believed that the one or more shaping coils 212 of the present disclosure are relatively easy to manufacture, assemble, and incorporate into a magnetic field shaping unit. Furthermore, it is believed that the one or more magnetic field shaping coils 212 can enable precise control of the shape of the plasma.

[0092] Each of the one or more shaped coils 212 is a planar coil. A "planar" coil is one whose shape is substantially in one plane. In some embodiments, each of the shaped coils 212 does not individually surround the plasma axis 205. Stated another way, no single shaped coil 212 surrounds the plasma 200 or the plasma axis 205. While no individual shaped coil 212 surrounds the plasma axis 205, an array including multiple shaped coils 212 attached to a surface 215 of one or more structural mounting elements 211 will collectively surround the plasma axis 205. In some embodiments, the individual shaped coils may be positioned on opposite sides of the plasma or on different sides of a gap.

[0093] Each of the one or more shaped coils 212 is not interconnected with any of the other shaped coils, at least as illustrated in FIG. 4B. In addition, each of the one or more shaped coils is not interconnected with any of the surrounding coils 230 described herein (see FIG. 4B). In some embodiments, the one or more shaped coils 212 are removably coupled to a surface 215 of the one or more surface mounting elements 211.

[0094] In some embodiments, the planar shaped coil has an average coil radius that is smaller than the semimajor axis of the plasma and smaller than the semiminor axis of the plasma. As used herein, the "semimajor axis" of the plasma is the average distance between the plasma axis and the geometric center of the stellarator 101. As used herein, the "semiminor axis" of the plasma is the average closest distance between each point on the plasma boundary and the plasma axis. The plasma boundary may be represented by a set of toroidal Fourier amplitudes, where the semimajor axis is represented by the amplitude of the mode with toroidal mode number 0 and poloidal mode number 0, and the semiminor axis is represented by the amplitude of the mode with toroidal mode number 0 and poloidal mode number 1.

[0095] The shaped coils 212 may have different sizes and shapes. In some embodiments, the shaped coils may be circular or approximately circular. In other embodiments, the shaped coils may be rectangular or approximately rectangular. In still other embodiments, the shaped coils may be rectangular with rounded corners or approximately rectangular with rounded corners. In some embodiments, each magnetic field shaping unit may include one or more coils having different shapes. For example, the magnetic field shaping unit 210 may include ten shaped coils, where three of the shaped coils may have a substantially approximately circular shape, four of the shaped coils may have a substantially rectangular shape, and three of the coils may have a substantially rectangular shape with rounded corners (not shown).

[0096] In some embodiments, the stellarator 101 used in the systems of the present disclosure may include between about 10 and 10,000 formed coils. In other embodiments, the stellarator 101 used in the systems of the present disclosure may include between about 50 and 5,000 formed coils. In still other embodiments, the stellarator 101 used in the systems of the present disclosure may include between about 100 and about 5,000 formed coils. In further embodiments, the stellarator 101 used in the systems of the present disclosure may include between about 100 and about 4,000 formed coils. In still further embodiments, the stellarator 101 used in the systems of the present disclosure may include between about 100 and about 3,000 formed coils. In even further embodiments, the stellarator 101 used in the systems of the present disclosure may include between about 100 and about 2,000 formed coils. In even further embodiments, the stellarator 101 used in the systems of the present disclosure may include between about 100 and about 1,000 formed coils.

[0097] In some embodiments, the magnetic field shaping unit 210 may include about 5 to about 150 shaped coils 212. In other embodiments, the magnetic field shaping unit 210 may include about 5 to about 100 shaped coils 212. In still other embodiments, the magnetic field shaping unit 210 may include about 5 to about 80 shaped coils 212. In further embodiments, the magnetic field shaping unit 210 may include about 5 to about 70 shaped coils 212. Even in further embodiments, the magnetic field shaping unit 211 may include about 5 to about 60 shaped coils 212. Even in still further embodiments, the magnetic field shaping unit 210 may include about 5 to about 50 shaped coils 212. Even in still further embodiments, the magnetic field shaping unit 210 may include about 5 to about 45 shaped coils 212. Even in still further embodiments, the magnetic field shaping unit 210 may include about 5 to about 40 shaped coils 212. In even further embodiments, the magnetic field shaping unit 210 may include from about 5 to about 35 shaping coils 212. In even further embodiments, the magnetic field shaping unit 210 may include from about 5 to about 30 shaping coils 212. In even further embodiments, the magnetic field shaping unit 211 may include from about 5 to about 25 shaping coils 212.

[0098] Referring to FIG. 4B, the stellarator 101 used in the system of the present disclosure also includes a plurality of surrounding coils 230 surrounding the plasma axis 205. Each of the surrounding coils 230 is disposed around and surrounds the outer surface of the magnetic field shaping system 203. Each of the surrounding coils 230 of the plurality of surrounding coils is planar. Furthermore, each of the surrounding coils 230 of the plurality of surrounding coils is not interconnected with any of the other surrounding coils 230. In addition, each of the surrounding coils 230 of the plurality of surrounding coils is not interconnected with any of the shaping coils 212. In other words, none of the surrounding coils 230 is interconnected with any of the other planar surrounding coils 230 or any of the other shaping coils 212, as depicted in FIG. 4B and FIG. 4C. In some embodiments, each of the surrounding coils 230 is supported by a structural component 231. In some embodiments, the structural component 231 and the magnetic field shaping unit 210 may be coupled to other structural members that react to unbalanced forces and torques.

[0099] In some embodiments, the surrounding coil does not exhibit the N-fold rotational symmetry of the toroidal field (TF) coil. If the surrounding coil were N-fold rotational symmetry as the TF coil in the prior art, the planar shaped coil would require an irreducible amount of current length (amperes*meters) to correct this field. If the surrounding coil could be non-N-fold rotational symmetric, the current length requirement of the planar shaped coil could be significantly reduced. Our analysis shows that it could be reduced by nearly 10 times by allowing the surrounding coil to be more favorably positioned.

[0100] In some embodiments, the stellarator 101 used in the systems of the present disclosure includes from about 3 to about 150 surrounding coils. In other embodiments, the stellarator 101 used in the systems of the present disclosure includes from about 3 to about 100 surrounding coils. In yet other embodiments, the stellarator 101 used in the systems of the present disclosure includes from about 3 to about 75 surrounding coils. In further embodiments, the stellarator 101 used in the systems of the present disclosure includes from about 3 to about 50 surrounding coils. In still further embodiments, the stellarator 101 used in the systems of the present disclosure includes from about 3 to about 25 surrounding coils. Even further embodiments, the stellarator 101 used in the systems of the present disclosure includes from about 3 to about 15 surrounding coils. Even further embodiments, the stellarator 101 used in the systems of the present disclosure includes from about 3 to about 10 surrounding coils. In some embodiments, the spacing between each surrounding coil can range from about 10 cm to about 1 m.

[0101] The forming coil 212 and the surrounding coil 230 may include one or more superconducting materials. A superconductor is a material that achieves superconductivity. Superconductivity occurs when a material exceeds a critical temperature (T c Superconductivity is the property of certain materials to conduct direct current (DC) electricity without energy loss when cooled below a certain temperature (called superconductivity). Electric current in a superconductor can continue indefinitely. Exemplary superconducting materials include Nb-Ti, Nb3Sn, MgB2, LaBaCuO x , LSCO (e.g., La 2-x Sr x CuO4, etc.), YBCO (e.g. YBa2Cu3O x or YBa2Cu3O7), REBCO, bismuth-based copper oxide superconductors (BSCCO) (Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8 (Bi-2212) and Bi2Sr2Ca2Cu3O 10 (including Bi-2223), TBCCO (e.g., Tl2Ba2Ca2Cu3O 10 or Tl m Ba2Ca n-1 Cu n O 2n+m+2+δ ), HgBa2Ca2Cu3O x, and other mixed-valence copper oxide perovskite materials. In some embodiments, the forming coil and the surrounding coil may be included on the same material. In other embodiments, the forming coil and the surrounding coil may be included on different materials.

[0102] In some embodiments, the stellarator 101 used in the disclosed system further includes one or more additional coils, such as one or more control coils and / or one or more saddle coils. In some embodiments, the control coils and / or saddles are planar. In some embodiments, the control coils and / or saddles are non-planar. In some embodiments, the control coils and / or saddles are superconducting. In some embodiments, the control coils and / or saddles are non-interconnected, specifically, they are not interconnected with any of the disclosed coils (e.g., surrounding coils, shaping coils) or with any of the others of the plasma axis. In some embodiments, the control coils and / or saddle coils are disposed between the plasma boundary and the magnetic field shaping system. In some embodiments, the control coils and / or saddle coils are disposed on the non-plasma axis facing side, outwardly of the magnetic field shaping system. The control coils are coils included as a contingency for unexpected error sources. These errors may result from errors in the assembly of the magnet system or from unexpected plasma physics. Before measuring the errors, the appropriate current in the control coil is not known. During normal operation of the stellarator 101, when the stellarator 101 and plasma are operating at their respective design points, the control current has zero current. The design of the stellarator magnetic field does not include any contribution from the control coils.

[0103] method The present disclosure is also directed to methods of generating neutrons and / or synthesizing one or more materials using the system 100 of the present disclosure, particularly a system incorporating a stellarator 101 optimized for high velocity particle containment.

[0104] Referring to FIG. 5, a method 500 may include generating (510) a negative ion based neutral beam (such as with one or more negative ion based neutral beam injectors) to accelerate ions (such as deuterium ions) to energies where the ion-ion fusion cross section is high (e.g., 100 millibarns or more) (which in the context of deuterium ions is the energy where the DD cross section is significant).

[0105] In some embodiments, the method 500 may include injecting (520) a negative ion based neutral beam into the stellarator 101 optimized for fast particle confinement (e.g., using one or more negative ion based neutral beam injectors 106). In some embodiments, the stellarator 101 optimized for fast particle confinement is a quasi-axisymmetric stellarator. In some embodiments, the stellarator 101 optimized for fast particle confinement is a quasi-symmetric stellarator. In some embodiments, the stellarator 101 optimized for fast particle confinement is a quasi-isomagnetic stellarator. In some embodiments, the stellarator 101 optimized for fast particle confinement is a quasi-omnidirectional stellarator. In some embodiments, a stellarator 101 optimized for fast particle confinement comprises: (a) a plurality of planar shaping coils, where an array including the plurality of planar shaping coils surrounds a plasma axis, but any individual planar shaping coil of the plurality of planar shaping coils does not surround the plasma axis, and (b) a plurality of planar surrounding coils, where each individual planar surrounding coil of the plurality of surrounding coils surrounds the plasma axis. In some embodiments, a stellarator 101 optimized for fast particle confinement comprises: (a) a magnetic field shaping coil system including one or more magnetic field shaping units defining a gap adapted to confine a plasma, each magnetic field shaping unit comprising: (i) one or more structural mounting elements, and (ii) one or more shaping coils disposed on a surface of the one or more structural mounting elements; and (b) a plurality of surrounding coils surrounding the plasma and the magnetic field shaping coil system, where the one or more shaping coils and the plurality of surrounding coils comprise one or more superconducting materials.In some embodiments, a stellarator 101 optimized for fast particle confinement comprises (a) an air gap adapted to confine a plasma having a plasma axis; (b) a plurality of planar shaping coils, where an array including the plurality of planar shaping coils surrounds the plasma axis, but where any individual planar shaping coil of the plurality of planar shaping coils does not surround the plasma axis; and (c) a plurality of planar surrounding coils, where each individual planar surrounding coil of the plurality of surrounding coils surrounds the plasma axis. In some embodiments, a stellarator 101 optimized for fast particle confinement comprises: (a) a gap adapted to confine a plasma, the gap including at least two sides; (b) at least two planar shaping coils, a first of the at least two sides being proximate to the first of the at least two sides but not surrounding the gap, and a second of the at least two sides being proximate to the second of the at least two sides but not surrounding the gap; and (c) a plurality of planar surrounding coils, each individual planar surrounding coil of the plurality of surrounding coils surrounding the plasma axis. In some embodiments, a stellarator 101 optimized for high velocity particle confinement comprises: (a) a plurality of structural supports; (b) one or more magnetic field shaping units operably connected to the plurality of structural supports, each magnetic field shaping unit comprising one or more planar surface mounted shaping coils; and (c) a plurality of planar surrounding coils, wherein the plurality of structural supports, the one or more magnetic field shaping units, and the plurality of surrounding coils collectively define a gap adapted to confine a plasma therein.

[0106] In some embodiments, the method 500 may include injecting 520 a negative ion based neutral beam into a stellarator 101 optimized for fast particle containment (including any of those described above) and controlling 530 the electron temperature (such as with the electron heater 108) such that the neutron flux is at its maximum value but still meets operational constraints. The operational constraints may include a maximum injection power to maintain stability (e.g., about 2 MW) and a maximum fast particle density (e.g., about 10 18 ions / m 3 ).

[0107] The method may also include forming tritium (540) by irradiating deuterium with the generated neutrons in the plasma of the stellarator and / or in the blanket 102. The method may include capturing (550) and filtering / processing the plasma from the stellarator to separate any tritium formed (such as by using any one of the material transfer and / or separation systems described herein). The method may also include allowing (560) the generated neutrons to enter a volume, such as the second volume 103. The method may also include cooling (570) the interior volume of the space.

[0108] The method may also include forming a modified material by allowing neutrons to irradiate a target material located outside the first volume and within an interior volume of the space, such as the second volume 103 (580). The target material should be a precursor of the desired synthesized material. In some embodiments, the target material is a ceramic. In some embodiments, the target material is molybdenum and the synthesized material is an isotope of molybdenum. In some embodiments, the isotope of molybdenum is 98 The target material is Mo. In some embodiments, the target material is hydrogen, helium, or deuterium. In some embodiments, the target material is a precursor to a pharmaceutical agent. The method may also include removing (590) the modified material from the interior volume of the space.

[0109] Additional Embodiments A first additional embodiment is a system for generating neutrons comprising: (i) a casing defining a first volume; (ii) a blanket defining a second volume; (iii) a stellarator adapted to confine a plasma within the first volume, the blanket being positioned between the stellarator and the casing; (iv) at least a first negative ion based neutral beam injector for introducing first energetic neutral atoms into the plasma in a first angular orientation; and (v) at least a second negative ion based neutral beam injector for introducing second energetic neutral atoms into the plasma in a second angular orientation. and (vi) an electron heater adapted to heat electrons in the plasma, the stellarator comprising: (a) a magnetic field shaping coil system including one or more magnetic field shaping units, each magnetic field shaping unit comprising: (i) one or more structural mounting elements; and (ii) one or more planar shaping coils disposed on a surface of the one or more structural mounting elements; and (b) a plurality of planar surrounding coils surrounding the magnetic field shaping coil system. The magnetic field shaping coil system defines a gap that confines the plasma, and the planar surrounding coils surround the magnetic field shaping coil system, such that the planar surrounding coils thus surround the plasma confined within the gap. In some embodiments, the stellarator does not include any non-planar coils.

[0110] In some embodiments, the system comprises at least two first negative ion based neutral beam injectors for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a first angular orientation. In some embodiments, the system comprises at least four first negative ion based neutral beam injectors for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a first angular orientation. In some embodiments, the system comprises at least six first negative ion based neutral beam injectors for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a first angular orientation.

[0111] In some embodiments, the system includes at least one second negative ion based neutral beam injector for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a second angular orientation, hi some embodiments, the first and second angular orientations are opposite angular orientations.

[0112] In some embodiments, the system includes at least two second negative ion based neutral beam injectors for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a second angular orientation, hi some embodiments, the first and second angular orientations are opposite angular orientations.

[0113] In some embodiments, the stellarator further comprises one or more controllers. In some embodiments, the stellarator further comprises one or more control coils and / or one or more saddle coils. In some embodiments, the one or more control coils and / or the one or more saddle coils are communicatively coupled to the controller.

[0114] In some embodiments, each of one or more of the planar shaped coils is a superconducting coil. In some embodiments, each of the plurality of planar surrounding coils is a superconducting coil. In some embodiments, the plurality of planar shaped coils and the plurality of planar surrounding coils are both superconducting coils.

[0115] In some embodiments, the stellarator includes between about 3 and about 100 planar surrounding coils. In some embodiments, the stellarator includes at least four planar surrounding coils. In some embodiments, the plurality of planar surrounding coils includes one or more superconducting materials. In some embodiments, the plurality of planar surrounding coils are not interconnected with each other. In some embodiments, the plurality of planar surrounding coils are not interconnected with each other and with any of the forming coils.

[0116] In some embodiments, the stellarator comprises at least four magnetic field shaping units. In some embodiments, each of the one or more magnetic field shaping units comprises one structural mounting element. In some embodiments, the one structural mounting element is wedge shaped. In some embodiments, each of the one or more magnetic field shaping units comprises two or more structural mounting elements.

[0117] In some embodiments, the one or more planar shaped coils are not interconnected with each other. In some embodiments, the one or more planar shaped coils are not interconnected with each other and with none of the planar surrounding coils.

[0118] In some embodiments, each of the one or more magnetic field shaping units comprises about 5 to about 100 shaping coils. In some embodiments, each of the one or more magnetic field shaping units comprises about 5 to about 50 shaping coils. In some embodiments, a surface of the one or more structural mounting elements faces the air gap.

[0119] In some embodiments, each planar shaped coil of the one or more planar shaped coils is generally rectangular, generally rectangular with rounded corners, or generally circular in shape.

[0120] In some embodiments, the second volume is configured to hold one or more target materials. In some embodiments, the first angular orientation is the same as the direction of the plasma flow. In some embodiments, the second angular orientation is opposite to the first angular orientation.

[0121] In some embodiments, the system further comprises a material transport system.

[0122] In some embodiments, the at least first and optionally at least second negative ion based neutral beam injector includes an ion source, an accelerator, and a neutralizer.

[0123] In some embodiments, the electron heater is an electron cyclotron resonance heating system. In some embodiments, the electron heater is communicatively coupled to a controller. In some embodiments, the controller is adapted to instruct the electron heater to heat electrons in the plasma.

[0124] In some embodiments, the first and second energetic neutral atoms are deuterium atoms, hi some embodiments, the plasma comprises a deuterium plasma.

[0125] A second additional embodiment is a system for generating neutrons comprising: (i) a casing defining a first volume; (ii) a blanket defining a second volume; (iii) a stellarator adapted to confine a plasma within the first volume, the blanket being positioned between the stellarator and the casing; (iv) at least a first negative ion based neutral beam injector for introducing first energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a first angular orientation; and (v) optionally at least a second negative ion based neutral beam injector for introducing second energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a second angular orientation. and (vi) an electron heater adapted to heat electrons in the plasma, the stellarator comprising: (a) a magnetic field shaping coil system including one or more magnetic field shaping units, each magnetic field shaping unit comprising: (i) one or more structural mounting elements; and (ii) one or more shaping coils disposed on a surface of the one or more structural mounting elements; and (b) a plurality of surrounding coils surrounding the plasma and the magnetic field shaping coil system, the one or more shaping coils and the plurality of surrounding coils comprising one or more superconducting materials. In some embodiments, each of the one or more shaping coils disposed on a surface of the one or more structural mounting elements does not surround the plasma. In some embodiments, the one or more shaping coils are planar. In some embodiments, each surrounding coil of the plurality of surrounding coils is planar.

[0126] In some embodiments, the shape of each of the one or more shaped coils is generally rectangular, generally rectangular with rounded corners, or generally circular. In some embodiments, each of the one or more magnetic field shaping units comprises about 5 to about 100 shaped coils. In some embodiments, each of the one or more magnetic field shaping units comprises about 5 to about 50 shaped coils. In some embodiments, the one or more planar shaped coils are not interconnected with each other.

[0127] In some embodiments, each of the one or more magnetic field shaping units comprises one structural mounting element. In some embodiments, the one structural mounting element is wedge-shaped. In some embodiments, each of the one or more magnetic field shaping units comprises two or more structural mounting elements.

[0128] In some embodiments, a plurality of surrounding coils surround the plasma confined within the gap. In some embodiments, the stellarator includes about 3 to about 100 surrounding coils. In some embodiments, the stellarator includes at least 4 surrounding coils.

[0129] In some embodiments, the plurality of surrounding coils comprises one or more superconducting materials. In some embodiments, the plurality of planar surrounding coils are not interconnected with one another.

[0130] In some embodiments, the stellarator further comprises one or more control coils and / or one or more saddle coils, hi some embodiments, the one or more control coils and / or the one or more saddle coils are communicatively coupled to the controller.

[0131] In some embodiments, the second volume is configured to hold one or more target materials. In some embodiments, the first angular orientation is the same as the direction of the plasma flow. In some embodiments, the second angular orientation is opposite to the first angular orientation.

[0132] In some embodiments, the system further comprises a material transport system.

[0133] In some embodiments, the at least first and optionally at least second negative ion based neutral beam injector includes an ion source, an accelerator, and a neutralizer.

[0134] In some embodiments, the electron heater is an electron cyclotron resonance heating system. In some embodiments, the electron heater is communicatively coupled to a controller. In some embodiments, the controller is adapted to instruct the electron heater to heat electrons in the plasma.

[0135] In some embodiments, the first and second energetic neutral atoms are deuterium atoms, hi some embodiments, the plasma comprises a deuterium plasma.

[0136] In some embodiments, the system comprises at least two first negative ion based neutral beam injectors for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a first angular orientation. In some embodiments, the system comprises at least four first negative ion based neutral beam injectors for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a first angular orientation. In some embodiments, the system comprises at least six first negative ion based neutral beam injectors for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a first angular orientation.

[0137] In some embodiments, the system includes at least one second negative ion based neutral beam injector for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a second angular orientation, hi some embodiments, the first and second angular orientations are opposite angular orientations.

[0138] In some embodiments, the system includes at least two second negative ion based neutral beam injectors for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a second angular orientation, hi some embodiments, the first and second angular orientations are opposite angular orientations.

[0139] A third additional embodiment is a system for generating neutrons comprising: (i) a casing defining a first volume; (ii) a blanket defining a second volume; (iii) a stellarator adapted to confine a plasma within the first volume, the blanket being positioned between the stellarator and the casing; (iv) at least a first negative ion based neutral beam injector for introducing first energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a first angular orientation; and (v) at least a second negative ion based neutral beam injector for introducing second energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a second angular orientation. and (vi) an electron heater adapted to heat electrons in the plasma, wherein the stellarator comprises a plurality of planar shaping coils, where an array including the plurality of planar shaping coils surrounds the plasma axis, but any individual planar shaping coil of the plurality of planar shaping coils does not surround the plasma axis, and a plurality of planar surrounding coils, where each individual planar surrounding coil of the plurality of surrounding coils surrounds the plasma axis. In some embodiments, each of the plurality of planar shaping coils is a superconducting coil. In some embodiments, each of the plurality of planar surrounding coils is a superconducting coil. In some embodiments, the plurality of planar shaping coils and the plurality of planar surrounding coils are both superconducting coils. In some embodiments, the plasma is a deuterium plasma.

[0140] In some embodiments, the plurality of planar shaped coils are not interconnected with each other. In some embodiments, the plurality of planar shaped coils are not interconnected with each other and are not interconnected with any one of the plurality of surrounding coils.

[0141] In some embodiments, the plurality of planar surrounding coils are not interconnected with each other. In some embodiments, the plurality of planar surrounding coils are not interconnected with each other and with none of the plurality of planar shaped coils.

[0142] In some embodiments, the stellarator further comprises one or more control coils and / or one or more saddle coils. In some embodiments, the one or more control coils and / or the one or more saddle coils are not superconducting coils.

[0143] In some embodiments, each planar shaped coil of the one or more planar shaped coils is generally rectangular, generally rectangular with rounded corners, or generally circular in shape.

[0144] In some embodiments, the stellarator comprises about 10 to about 10,000 formed coils. In some embodiments, the stellarator comprises about 100 to about 2,000 formed coils. In some embodiments, the stellarator includes about 3 to about 100 planar surrounding coils. In some embodiments, the stellarator comprises at least 4 planar surrounding coils.

[0145] In some embodiments, the system comprises at least two first negative ion based neutral beam injectors for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a first angular orientation. In some embodiments, the system comprises at least four first negative ion based neutral beam injectors for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a first angular orientation. In some embodiments, the system comprises at least six first negative ion based neutral beam injectors for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a first angular orientation.

[0146] In some embodiments, the system includes at least one second negative ion based neutral beam injector for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a second angular orientation, hi some embodiments, the first and second angular orientations are opposite angular orientations.

[0147] In some embodiments, the system includes at least two second negative ion based neutral beam injectors for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a second angular orientation, hi some embodiments, the first and second angular orientations are opposite angular orientations.

[0148] A fourth additional embodiment is a system for generating neutrons comprising: (i) a casing defining a first volume and having at least two sides; (ii) a blanket defining a second volume; (iii) a stellarator adapted to confine a plasma within the first volume, the blanket being positioned between the stellarator and the casing; (iv) at least a first negative ion based neutral beam injector for introducing first energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a first angular orientation; and (v) optionally at least a second negative ion based neutral beam injector for introducing second energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a second angular orientation. and (vi) an electron heater adapted to heat electrons in the plasma, wherein the stellarator comprises at least two planar shaping coils, a first of the at least two planes positioned near a first of the at least two planes but not surrounding an air gap, and a second of the at least two planes positioned near a second of the at least two planes but not surrounding an air gap; and (c) a plurality of planar surrounding coils, each individual planar surrounding coil of the plurality of surrounding coils surrounding a plasma axis.

[0149] In some embodiments, the at least two faces are on opposite sides of the confined plasma.

[0150] In some embodiments, the at least two planar shaped coils are not interconnected with each other. In some embodiments, the at least two planar shaped coils are not interconnected with each other and with none of the plurality of surrounding coils.

[0151] In some embodiments, the plurality of planar surrounding coils are not interconnected with each other. In some embodiments, the plurality of planar surrounding coils are not interconnected with each other and with none of the at least two planar forming coils.

[0152] In some embodiments, the at least two planar shaped coils include one or more superconducting materials. In some embodiments, the plurality of surrounding coils include one or more superconducting materials. In some embodiments, the plurality of surrounding coils and the at least two planar shaped coils both include one or more superconducting materials.

[0153] In some embodiments, the stellarator further comprises one or more control coils and / or one or more saddle coils. In some embodiments, the one or more control coils and / or the one or more saddle coils are not superconducting coils.

[0154] In some embodiments, each of the at least two planar shaped coils is generally rectangular, generally rectangular with rounded corners, or generally circular in shape. In some embodiments, the stellarator includes about 3 to about 100 planar surrounding coils. In some embodiments, the stellarator includes at least 4 planar surrounding coils.

[0155] In some embodiments, the second volume is configured to hold one or more target materials. In some embodiments, the first angular orientation is the same as the direction of the plasma flow. In some embodiments, the second angular orientation is opposite to the first angular orientation.

[0156] In some embodiments, the system further comprises a material transport system.

[0157] In some embodiments, the at least first and optionally at least second negative ion based neutral beam injector includes an ion source, an accelerator, and a neutralizer.

[0158] In some embodiments, the electron heater is an electron cyclotron resonance heating system. In some embodiments, the electron heater is communicatively coupled to a controller. In some embodiments, the controller is adapted to instruct the electron heater to heat electrons in the plasma.

[0159] In some embodiments, the first and second energetic neutral atoms are deuterium atoms, hi some embodiments, the plasma comprises a deuterium plasma.

[0160] In some embodiments, the system comprises at least two first negative ion based neutral beam injectors for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a first angular orientation. In some embodiments, the system comprises at least four first negative ion based neutral beam injectors for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a first angular orientation. In some embodiments, the system comprises at least six first negative ion based neutral beam injectors for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a first angular orientation.

[0161] In some embodiments, the system includes at least one second negative ion based neutral beam injector for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a second angular orientation, hi some embodiments, the first and second angular orientations are opposite angular orientations.

[0162] In some embodiments, the system includes at least two second negative ion based neutral beam injectors for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a second angular orientation, hi some embodiments, the first and second angular orientations are opposite angular orientations.

[0163] A fifth additional embodiment is a system for generating neutrons comprising: (i) a casing defining a first volume and having at least two sides; (ii) a blanket defining a second volume; (iii) a stellarator adapted to confine a plasma within the first volume, the blanket being positioned between the stellarator and the casing; (iv) at least a first negative ion based neutral beam injector for introducing first energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a first angular orientation; and (v) an injector for introducing second energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a second angular orientation. and optionally at least a second negative ion based neutral beam injector; and (vi) an electron heater adapted to heat electrons in the plasma, wherein the stellarator comprises: (a) a plurality of structural supports; (b) one or more magnetic field shaping units operably connected to the plurality of structural supports, each magnetic field shaping unit comprising one or more planar surface mounted shaping coils; and (c) a plurality of planar surrounding coils, wherein the plurality of structural supports, the one or more magnetic field shaping units, and the plurality of surrounding coils collectively define a gap adapted to confine the plasma therein.

[0164] In some embodiments, the stellarator includes about 3 to about 100 planar surrounding coils. In some embodiments, the stellarator includes at least 4 planar surrounding coils. In some embodiments, the plurality of planar surrounding coils includes one or more superconducting materials. In some embodiments, the plurality of planar surrounding coils are not interconnected with one another.

[0165] In some embodiments, the stellarator comprises at least four magnetic field shaping units. In some embodiments, each of the one or more planar surface mounted formed coils are not interconnected with one another. In some embodiments, each planar formed coil of the one or more planar surface mounted formed coils is generally rectangular, generally rectangular with rounded corners, or generally circular in shape.

[0166] In some embodiments, each of the one or more magnetic field shaping units comprises about 5 to about 100 planar surface mounted formed coils. In some embodiments, each of the one or more magnetic field shaping units comprises about 5 to about 50 planar surface mounted formed coils. In some embodiments, the one or more planar surface mounted formed coils comprise a superconducting material.

[0167] In some embodiments, the stellarator further comprises one or more controllers.

[0168] In some embodiments, the stellarator further comprises one or more control coils and / or one or more saddle coils. In some embodiments, the one or more control coils and / or the one or more saddle coils are communicatively coupled to the controller. In some embodiments, each of the one or more shaping coils does not individually surround the plasma.

[0169] In some embodiments, the second volume is configured to hold one or more target materials. In some embodiments, the first angular orientation is the same as the direction of the plasma flow. In some embodiments, the second angular orientation is opposite to the first angular orientation.

[0170] In some embodiments, the system further comprises a material transport system.

[0171] In some embodiments, the at least first and optionally at least second negative ion based neutral beam injector includes an ion source, an accelerator, and a neutralizer.

[0172] In some embodiments, the electron heater is an electron cyclotron resonance heating system. In some embodiments, the electron heater is communicatively coupled to a controller. In some embodiments, the controller is adapted to instruct the electron heater to heat electrons in the plasma.

[0173] In some embodiments, the first and second energetic neutral atoms are deuterium atoms, hi some embodiments, the plasma comprises a deuterium plasma.

[0174] In some embodiments, the system comprises at least two first negative ion based neutral beam injectors for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a first angular orientation. In some embodiments, the system comprises at least four first negative ion based neutral beam injectors for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a first angular orientation. In some embodiments, the system comprises at least six first negative ion based neutral beam injectors for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a first angular orientation.

[0175] In some embodiments, the system includes at least one second negative ion based neutral beam injector for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a second angular orientation, hi some embodiments, the first and second angular orientations are opposite angular orientations.

[0176] In some embodiments, the system includes at least two second negative ion based neutral beam injectors for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a second angular orientation, hi some embodiments, the first and second angular orientations are opposite angular orientations.

[0177] A sixth additional embodiment is a system for generating neutrons comprising: (i) a casing defining a first volume; (ii) a blanket defining a second volume, the blanket encasing the casing; (iii) a stellarator optimized for high velocity particle confinement, the stellarator adapted to confine a plasma within the first volume, the blanket encasing the casing; (iv) at least a first negative ion based neutral beam injector for introducing first energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a first angular orientation; and (v) a second energetic neutral atom injector for introducing second energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a second angular orientation. and (vi) an electron heater adapted to heat electrons in the plasma, the stellarator comprising: (a) a magnetic field shaping coil system including one or more magnetic field shaping units, each magnetic field shaping unit comprising: (i) one or more structural mounting elements; and (ii) one or more planar shaping coils disposed on a surface of the one or more structural mounting elements; and (b) a plurality of planar surrounding coils surrounding the magnetic field shaping coil system. The magnetic field shaping coil system defines a gap that confines the plasma, and the planar surrounding coils surround the magnetic field shaping coil system, so that the planar surrounding coils thus surround the plasma confined within the gap. In some embodiments, the stellarator does not include any non-planar coils.

[0178] In some embodiments, the stellarator further comprises one or more controllers. In some embodiments, the stellarator further comprises one or more control coils and / or one or more saddle coils. In some embodiments, the one or more control coils and / or the one or more saddle coils are communicatively coupled to the controller.

[0179] In some embodiments, each of one or more of the planar shaped coils is a superconducting coil. In some embodiments, each of the plurality of planar surrounding coils is a superconducting coil. In some embodiments, the plurality of planar shaped coils and the plurality of planar surrounding coils are both superconducting coils.

[0180] In some embodiments, the stellarator includes between about 3 and about 100 planar surrounding coils. In some embodiments, the stellarator includes at least four planar surrounding coils. In some embodiments, the plurality of planar surrounding coils includes one or more superconducting materials. In some embodiments, the plurality of planar surrounding coils are not interconnected with each other. In some embodiments, the plurality of planar surrounding coils are not interconnected with each other and with any of the forming coils.

[0181] In some embodiments, the stellarator comprises at least four magnetic field shaping units. In some embodiments, each of the one or more magnetic field shaping units comprises one structural mounting element. In some embodiments, the one structural mounting element is wedge shaped. In some embodiments, each of the one or more magnetic field shaping units comprises two or more structural mounting elements.

[0182] In some embodiments, the one or more planar shaped coils are not interconnected with each other. In some embodiments, the one or more planar shaped coils are not interconnected with each other and are not interconnected with any of the planar surrounding coils.

[0183] In some embodiments, each of the one or more magnetic field shaping units comprises about 5 to about 100 shaping coils. In some embodiments, each of the one or more magnetic field shaping units comprises about 5 to about 50 shaping coils. In some embodiments, a surface of the one or more structural mounting elements faces the air gap.

[0184] In some embodiments, each planar shaped coil of the one or more planar shaped coils is generally rectangular, generally rectangular with rounded corners, or generally circular in shape.

[0185] In some embodiments, the second volume is configured to hold one or more target materials. In some embodiments, the first angular orientation is the same as the direction of the plasma flow. In some embodiments, the second angular orientation is opposite to the first angular orientation.

[0186] In some embodiments, the system further comprises a material transport system.

[0187] In some embodiments, the at least first and optionally at least second negative ion based neutral beam injector includes an ion source, an accelerator, and a neutralizer.

[0188] In some embodiments, the electron heater is an electron cyclotron resonance heating system. In some embodiments, the electron heater is communicatively coupled to a controller. In some embodiments, the controller is adapted to instruct the electron heater to heat electrons in the plasma.

[0189] In some embodiments, the first and second energetic neutral atoms are deuterium atoms, hi some embodiments, the plasma comprises a deuterium plasma.

[0190] In some embodiments, the system comprises at least two first negative ion based neutral beam injectors for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a first angular orientation. In some embodiments, the system comprises at least four first negative ion based neutral beam injectors for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a first angular orientation. In some embodiments, the system comprises at least six first negative ion based neutral beam injectors for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a first angular orientation.

[0191] In some embodiments, the system includes at least one second negative ion based neutral beam injector for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a second angular orientation, hi some embodiments, the first and second angular orientations are opposite angular orientations.

[0192] In some embodiments, the system includes at least two second negative ion based neutral beam injectors for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a second angular orientation, hi some embodiments, the first and second angular orientations are opposite angular orientations.

[0193] A seventh additional embodiment is a system for generating neutrons comprising: (i) a casing defining a first volume; (ii) a blanket defining a second volume, the blanket encasing the casing; (iii) a stellarator optimized for high velocity particle confinement, the stellarator adapted to confine a plasma within the first volume, the blanket encasing; (iv) at least a first negative ion based neutral beam injector for introducing first energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a first angular orientation; and (v) at least a second negative ion based neutral beam injector for introducing second energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a second angular orientation. and (vi) an electron heater adapted to heat electrons in the plasma, the stellarator comprising: (a) a magnetic field shaping coil system including one or more magnetic field shaping units, each magnetic field shaping unit comprising: (i) one or more structural mounting elements; and (ii) one or more shaping coils disposed on a surface of the one or more structural mounting elements; and (b) a plurality of surrounding coils surrounding the plasma and the magnetic field shaping coil system, the one or more shaping coils and the plurality of surrounding coils comprising one or more superconducting materials. In some embodiments, each of the one or more shaping coils disposed on a surface of the one or more structural mounting elements does not surround the plasma. In some embodiments, the one or more shaping coils are planar. In some embodiments, each surrounding coil of the plurality of surrounding coils is planar.

[0194] In some embodiments, the shape of each of the one or more shaped coils is generally rectangular, generally rectangular with rounded corners, or generally circular. In some embodiments, each of the one or more magnetic field shaping units comprises about 5 to about 100 shaped coils. In some embodiments, each of the one or more magnetic field shaping units comprises about 5 to about 50 shaped coils. In some embodiments, the one or more planar shaped coils are not interconnected with each other.

[0195] In some embodiments, each of the one or more magnetic field shaping units comprises one structural mounting element. In some embodiments, the one structural mounting element is wedge-shaped. In some embodiments, each of the one or more magnetic field shaping units comprises two or more structural mounting elements.

[0196] In some embodiments, a plurality of surrounding coils surround the plasma confined within the gap. In some embodiments, the stellarator includes about 3 to about 100 surrounding coils. In some embodiments, the stellarator includes at least 4 surrounding coils.

[0197] In some embodiments, the plurality of surrounding coils comprises one or more superconducting materials. In some embodiments, the plurality of planar surrounding coils are not interconnected with one another.

[0198] In some embodiments, the stellarator further comprises one or more control coils and / or one or more saddle coils, hi some embodiments, the one or more control coils and / or the one or more saddle coils are communicatively coupled to the controller.

[0199] In some embodiments, the system comprises at least two first negative ion based neutral beam injectors for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a first angular orientation. In some embodiments, the system comprises at least four first negative ion based neutral beam injectors for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a first angular orientation. In some embodiments, the system comprises at least six first negative ion based neutral beam injectors for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a first angular orientation.

[0200] In some embodiments, the system includes at least one second negative ion based neutral beam injector for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a second angular orientation, hi some embodiments, the first and second angular orientations are opposite angular orientations.

[0201] In some embodiments, the system includes at least two second negative ion based neutral beam injectors for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a second angular orientation, hi some embodiments, the first and second angular orientations are opposite angular orientations.

[0202] An eighth additional embodiment is a system for generating neutrons comprising: (i) a casing defining a first volume; (ii) a blanket defining a second volume, the blanket encasing the casing; (iii) a stellarator optimized for high velocity particle confinement, the stellarator adapted to confine a plasma within the first volume, the blanket encasing the casing; (iv) at least a first negative ion based neutral beam injector for introducing first energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a first angular orientation; and (v) at least a second negative ion based neutral beam injector for introducing second energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a second angular orientation. and (vi) an electron heater adapted to heat electrons in the plasma, wherein the stellarator comprises a plurality of planar shaping coils, where an array including the plurality of planar shaping coils surrounds the plasma axis, but any individual planar shaping coil of the plurality of planar shaping coils does not surround the plasma axis, and a plurality of planar surrounding coils, where each individual planar surrounding coil of the plurality of surrounding coils surrounds the plasma axis. In some embodiments, each of the plurality of planar shaping coils is a superconducting coil. In some embodiments, each of the plurality of planar surrounding coils is a superconducting coil. In some embodiments, the plurality of planar shaping coils and the plurality of planar surrounding coils are both superconducting coils. In some embodiments, the plasma is a deuterium plasma.

[0203] In some embodiments, the plurality of planar shaped coils are not interconnected with each other. In some embodiments, the plurality of planar shaped coils are not interconnected with each other and are not interconnected with any one of the plurality of surrounding coils.

[0204] In some embodiments, the plurality of planar surrounding coils are not interconnected with each other. In some embodiments, the plurality of planar surrounding coils are not interconnected with each other and with none of the plurality of planar shaped coils.

[0205] In some embodiments, the stellarator further comprises one or more control coils and / or one or more saddle coils. In some embodiments, the one or more control coils and / or the one or more saddle coils are not superconducting coils.

[0206] In some embodiments, each planar shaped coil of the one or more planar shaped coils is generally rectangular, generally rectangular with rounded corners, or generally circular in shape.

[0207] In some embodiments, the stellarator comprises about 10 to about 10,000 formed coils. In some embodiments, the stellarator comprises about 100 to about 2,000 formed coils. In some embodiments, the stellarator includes about 3 to about 100 planar surrounding coils. In some embodiments, the stellarator comprises at least 4 planar surrounding coils.

[0208] In some embodiments, the second volume is configured to hold one or more target materials. In some embodiments, the first angular orientation is the same as the direction of the plasma flow. In some embodiments, the second angular orientation is opposite to the first angular orientation.

[0209] In some embodiments, the system further comprises a material transport system.

[0210] In some embodiments, the at least first and optionally at least second negative ion based neutral beam injector includes an ion source, an accelerator, and a neutralizer.

[0211] In some embodiments, the electron heater is an electron cyclotron resonance heating system. In some embodiments, the electron heater is communicatively coupled to a controller. In some embodiments, the controller is adapted to instruct the electron heater to heat electrons in the plasma.

[0212] In some embodiments, the first and second energetic neutral atoms are deuterium atoms, hi some embodiments, the plasma comprises a deuterium plasma.

[0213] In some embodiments, the system comprises at least two first negative ion based neutral beam injectors for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a first angular orientation. In some embodiments, the system comprises at least four first negative ion based neutral beam injectors for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a first angular orientation. In some embodiments, the system comprises at least six first negative ion based neutral beam injectors for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a first angular orientation.

[0214] In some embodiments, the system includes at least one second negative ion based neutral beam injector for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a second angular orientation, hi some embodiments, the first and second angular orientations are opposite angular orientations.

[0215] In some embodiments, the system includes at least two second negative ion based neutral beam injectors for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a second angular orientation, hi some embodiments, the first and second angular orientations are opposite angular orientations.

[0216] A ninth additional embodiment is a system for generating neutrons comprising: (i) a casing defining a first volume; (ii) a blanket defining a second volume, the blanket encasing the casing; (iii) a stellarator optimized for fast particle confinement, the stellarator adapted to confine a plasma within the first volume, the stellarator encasing the blanket; (iv) at least a first negative ion based neutral beam injector for introducing first energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a first angular orientation; and (v) optionally at least a second negative ion based neutral beam injector for introducing second energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a second angular orientation. and (vi) an electron heater adapted to heat electrons in the plasma, wherein the stellarator comprises at least two planar shaping coils, a first of the at least two planes positioned near a first of the at least two planes but not surrounding an air gap, and a second of the at least two planes positioned near a second of the at least two planes but not surrounding an air gap; and (c) a plurality of planar surrounding coils, each individual planar surrounding coil of the plurality of surrounding coils surrounding a plasma axis.

[0217] In some embodiments, the at least two faces are on opposite sides of the confined plasma.

[0218] In some embodiments, the at least two planar shaped coils are not interconnected with each other. In some embodiments, the at least two planar shaped coils are not interconnected with each other and with none of the plurality of surrounding coils.

[0219] In some embodiments, the plurality of planar surrounding coils are not interconnected with each other. In some embodiments, the plurality of planar surrounding coils are not interconnected with each other and with none of the at least two planar forming coils.

[0220] In some embodiments, the at least two planar shaped coils include one or more superconducting materials. In some embodiments, the plurality of surrounding coils include one or more superconducting materials. In some embodiments, the plurality of surrounding coils and the at least two planar shaped coils both include one or more superconducting materials.

[0221] In some embodiments, the stellarator further comprises one or more control coils and / or one or more saddle coils. In some embodiments, the one or more control coils and / or the one or more saddle coils are not superconducting coils.

[0222] In some embodiments, each of the at least two planar shaped coils is generally rectangular, generally rectangular with rounded corners, or generally circular in shape. In some embodiments, the stellarator includes about 3 to about 100 planar surrounding coils. In some embodiments, the stellarator includes at least 4 planar surrounding coils.

[0223] In some embodiments, the second volume is configured to hold one or more target materials. In some embodiments, the first angular orientation is the same as the direction of the plasma flow. In some embodiments, the second angular orientation is opposite to the first angular orientation.

[0224] In some embodiments, the system further comprises a material transport system.

[0225] In some embodiments, the at least first and optionally at least second negative ion based neutral beam injector includes an ion source, an accelerator, and a neutralizer.

[0226] In some embodiments, the electron heater is an electron cyclotron resonance heating system. In some embodiments, the electron heater is communicatively coupled to a controller. In some embodiments, the controller is adapted to instruct the electron heater to heat electrons in the plasma.

[0227] In some embodiments, the first and second energetic neutral atoms are deuterium atoms, hi some embodiments, the plasma comprises a deuterium plasma.

[0228] In some embodiments, the system comprises at least two first negative ion based neutral beam injectors for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a first angular orientation. In some embodiments, the system comprises at least four first negative ion based neutral beam injectors for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a first angular orientation. In some embodiments, the system comprises at least six first negative ion based neutral beam injectors for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a first angular orientation.

[0229] In some embodiments, the system includes at least one second negative ion based neutral beam injector for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a second angular orientation, hi some embodiments, the first and second angular orientations are opposite angular orientations.

[0230] In some embodiments, the system includes at least two second negative ion based neutral beam injectors for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a second angular orientation, hi some embodiments, the first and second angular orientations are opposite angular orientations.

[0231] A tenth additional embodiment is a system for generating neutrons comprising: (i) a casing defining a first volume; (ii) a blanket defining a second volume, the blanket encasing the casing; (iii) a stellarator optimized for fast particle confinement, the stellarator adapted to confine a plasma within the first volume, the stellarator encasing the blanket; (iv) at least a first negative ion based neutral beam injector for introducing first energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a first angular orientation; and (v) an injector for introducing second energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a second angular orientation. and (vi) an electron heater adapted to heat electrons in the plasma, wherein the stellarator comprises: (a) a plurality of structural supports; (b) one or more magnetic field shaping units operably connected to the plurality of structural supports, each magnetic field shaping unit comprising one or more planar surface mounted shaping coils; and (c) a plurality of planar surrounding coils, wherein the plurality of structural supports, the one or more magnetic field shaping units, and the plurality of surrounding coils collectively define a gap adapted to confine the plasma therein.

[0232] In some embodiments, the stellarator includes about 3 to about 100 planar surrounding coils. In some embodiments, the stellarator includes at least 4 planar surrounding coils. In some embodiments, the plurality of planar surrounding coils includes one or more superconducting materials. In some embodiments, the plurality of planar surrounding coils are not interconnected with one another.

[0233] In some embodiments, the stellarator comprises at least four magnetic field shaping units. In some embodiments, each of the one or more planar surface mounted formed coils are not interconnected with one another. In some embodiments, each planar formed coil of the one or more planar surface mounted formed coils is generally rectangular, generally rectangular with rounded corners, or generally circular in shape.

[0234] In some embodiments, each of the one or more magnetic field shaping units comprises about 5 to about 100 planar surface mounted formed coils. In some embodiments, each of the one or more magnetic field shaping units comprises about 5 to about 50 planar surface mounted formed coils. In some embodiments, the one or more planar surface mounted formed coils comprise a superconducting material.

[0235] In some embodiments, the stellarator further comprises one or more controllers.

[0236] In some embodiments, the stellarator further comprises one or more control coils and / or one or more saddle coils. In some embodiments, the one or more control coils and / or the one or more saddle coils are communicatively coupled to the controller. In some embodiments, each of the one or more shaping coils does not individually surround the plasma.

[0237] In some embodiments, the second volume is configured to hold one or more target materials. In some embodiments, the first angular orientation is the same as the direction of the plasma flow. In some embodiments, the second angular orientation is opposite to the first angular orientation.

[0238] In some embodiments, the system further comprises a material transport system.

[0239] In some embodiments, the at least first and optionally at least second negative ion based neutral beam injector includes an ion source, an accelerator, and a neutralizer.

[0240] In some embodiments, the electron heater is an electron cyclotron resonance heating system. In some embodiments, the electron heater is communicatively coupled to a controller. In some embodiments, the controller is adapted to instruct the electron heater to heat electrons in the plasma.

[0241] In some embodiments, the first and second energetic neutral atoms are deuterium atoms, hi some embodiments, the plasma comprises a deuterium plasma.

[0242] In some embodiments, the system comprises at least two first negative ion based neutral beam injectors for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a first angular orientation. In some embodiments, the system comprises at least four first negative ion based neutral beam injectors for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a first angular orientation. In some embodiments, the system comprises at least six first negative ion based neutral beam injectors for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a first angular orientation.

[0243] In some embodiments, the system includes at least one second negative ion based neutral beam injector for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a second angular orientation, hi some embodiments, the first and second angular orientations are opposite angular orientations.

[0244] In some embodiments, the system includes at least two second negative ion based neutral beam injectors for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a second angular orientation, hi some embodiments, the first and second angular orientations are opposite angular orientations.

[0245] An eleventh additional embodiment of the present disclosure is a system for generating neutrons comprising: (i) a casing defining a first volume; (ii) a blanket defining a second volume, the blanket encasing the casing; (iii) a stellarator optimized for fast particle confinement, the stellarator adapted to confine a plasma in the first volume, encasing the blanket; (iv) at least a first negative ion based neutral beam injector for introducing a first beam of energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a first angular orientation; (v) optionally at least a second negative ion based neutral beam injector for introducing a second beam of energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a second angular orientation; and (vi) an electron heater adapted to heat electrons in the plasma.

[0246] In some embodiments, the stellarator optimized for fast particle confinement is a quasi-axisymmetric stellarator. In some embodiments, the stellarator optimized for fast particle confinement is a quasi-symmetric stellarator. In some embodiments, the stellarator optimized for fast particle confinement is a quasi-isomagnetic stellarator. In some embodiments, the stellarator optimized for fast particle confinement is a quasi-omnidirectional stellarator.

[0247] In some embodiments, a stellarator optimized for fast particle containment comprises: (a) a plurality of planar shaping coils, where an array including the plurality of planar shaping coils surrounds the plasma axis, but where any individual planar shaping coil of the plurality of planar shaping coils does not surround the plasma axis; and (b) a plurality of planar surrounding coils, where each individual planar surrounding coil of the plurality of surrounding coils surrounds the plasma axis.

[0248] In some embodiments, a stellarator optimized for high velocity particle confinement comprises: (a) a magnetic field shaping coil system including one or more magnetic field shaping units defining a gap adapted to confine a plasma, each magnetic field shaping unit comprising (i) one or more structural mounting elements and (ii) one or more shaping coils disposed on a surface of the one or more structural mounting elements; and (b) a plurality of surrounding coils surrounding the plasma and the magnetic field shaping coil system, wherein the one or more shaping coils and the plurality of surrounding coils comprise one or more superconducting materials.

[0249] In some embodiments, a stellarator optimized for fast particle confinement comprises: (a) an air gap adapted to confine a plasma having a plasma axis; (b) a plurality of planar shaping coils, where an array including the plurality of planar shaping coils surrounds the plasma axis, but where any individual planar shaping coil of the plurality of planar shaping coils does not surround the plasma axis; and (c) a plurality of planar surrounding coils, where each individual planar surrounding coil of the plurality of surrounding coils surrounds the plasma axis.

[0250] In some embodiments, a stellarator optimized for fast particle confinement comprises: (a) a gap adapted to confine a plasma, the gap including at least two sides; (b) at least two planar shaping coils, a first of the at least two sides being proximate to the first of the at least two sides but not surrounding the gap, and a second of the at least two sides being proximate to the second of the at least two sides but not surrounding the gap; and (c) a plurality of planar surrounding coils, each individual planar surrounding coil of the plurality of surrounding coils surrounding a plasma axis.

[0251] In some embodiments, a stellarator optimized for high velocity particle confinement comprises: (a) a plurality of structural supports; (b) one or more magnetic field shaping units operably connected to the plurality of structural supports, each magnetic field shaping unit comprising one or more planar surface mounted shaping coils; and (c) a plurality of planar surrounding coils, wherein the plurality of structural supports, the one or more magnetic field shaping units, and the plurality of surrounding coils collectively define a gap adapted to confine a plasma therein.

[0252] In some embodiments, the second volume is configured to hold one or more target materials. In some embodiments, the first angular orientation is the same as the direction of the plasma flow. In some embodiments, the second angular orientation is opposite to the first angular orientation.

[0253] In some embodiments, the system further comprises a material transport system.

[0254] In some embodiments, the at least first and optionally at least second negative ion based neutral beam injector includes an ion source, an accelerator, and a neutralizer.

[0255] In some embodiments, the electron heater is an electron cyclotron resonance heating system. In some embodiments, the electron heater is communicatively coupled to a controller. In some embodiments, the controller is adapted to instruct the electron heater to heat electrons in the plasma.

[0256] In some embodiments, the first and second energetic neutral atoms are deuterium atoms, hi some embodiments, the plasma comprises a deuterium plasma.

[0257] In some embodiments, the system comprises at least two first negative ion based neutral beam injectors for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a first angular orientation. In some embodiments, the system comprises at least four first negative ion based neutral beam injectors for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a first angular orientation. In some embodiments, the system comprises at least six first negative ion based neutral beam injectors for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a first angular orientation.

[0258] In some embodiments, the system includes at least one second negative ion based neutral beam injector for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a second angular orientation, hi some embodiments, the first and second angular orientations are opposite angular orientations.

[0259] In some embodiments, the system includes at least two second negative ion based neutral beam injectors for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a second angular orientation, hi some embodiments, the first and second angular orientations are opposite angular orientations.

[0260] A twelfth aspect of the present disclosure is a system comprising: (i) a casing defining a first volume; (ii) a blanket defining a second volume, the blanket encasing the casing; (iii) a stellarator optimized for high velocity particle confinement, the stellarator adapted to confine a plasma within the first volume, the stellarator encasing the blanket; (iv) at least a first negative ion based neutral beam injector for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a first angular orientation; (v) at least a second negative ion based neutral beam injector for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a second angular orientation; and (vi) an electron heater adapted to heat electrons in the plasma.

[0261] In some embodiments, the system comprises at least two first negative ion based neutral beam injectors for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a first angular orientation. In some embodiments, the system comprises at least four first negative ion based neutral beam injectors for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a first angular orientation. In some embodiments, the system comprises at least six first negative ion based neutral beam injectors for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a first angular orientation.

[0262] In some embodiments, the system includes at least two second negative ion based neutral beam injectors for introducing energetic neutral atoms into the plasma at a second angular orientation, hi some embodiments, the first and second angular orientations are opposite angular orientations.

[0263] All U.S. patents, U.S. patent application publications, U.S. patent applications, foreign patents, foreign patent applications, and / or non-patent publications referred to in this application and / or listed in this application Data Sheet are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. Aspects of the embodiments can be modified, if desired, to employ concepts from the various patents, applications, and publications to provide yet further embodiments.

[0264] Although the present disclosure has been described with reference to certain exemplary embodiments, it should be understood that many other modifications and embodiments may be devised by those skilled in the art that fall within the spirit and scope of the principles of the present disclosure. More specifically, reasonable variations and modifications may be made in the components and / or configurations of the combined configuration of the subject matter within the scope of the foregoing disclosure, the drawings, and the appended claims without departing from the spirit of the present disclosure. In addition to variations and modifications of the components and / or configurations, alternative uses will also be apparent to those skilled in the art.

Claims

1. A system comprising: (i) a casing defining a first volume; (ii) a blanket defining a second volume, enclosing the casing; (iii) a stellarator optimized for high-speed particle confinement, adapted to confine a plasma within the first volume, and encompassing the blanket; (iv) at least a first negative-ion neutral beam injector for introducing high-energy neutral atoms into the plasma in a first angular direction; (v) optionally at least a second negative-ion neutral beam injector for introducing high-energy neutral atoms into the plasma in a second angular direction; and (vi) an electron heater adapted to heat electrons in the plasma.

2. The system according to claim 1, wherein the system comprises at least two first negative ion-based neutral beam injectors for introducing the high-energy neutral atoms into the plasma in the first angular direction.

3. The system according to claim 1, wherein the system comprises at least four first negative ion-based neutral beam injectors for introducing the high-energy neutral atoms into the plasma in the first angular direction.

4. The system according to claim 1, wherein the system comprises at least one second negative ion-based neutral beam injector for introducing the high-energy neutral atoms into the plasma in the second angular direction.

5. The system according to claim 4, wherein the first and second angular directions are opposite angular directions.

6. The system according to claim 1, wherein the system comprises at least two second negative ion-based neutral beam injectors for introducing the high-energy neutral atoms into the plasma in the second angular direction.

7. The system according to claim 6, wherein the first and second angular directions are opposite angular directions.

8. The system according to claim 1, wherein the plasma is a deuterium plasma.

9. The system according to claim 1, wherein the system further comprises at least one material transfer system.

10. The system according to claim 9, wherein a first of the at least one material transfer system is in communication with the first volume.

11. The system according to claim 10, wherein the first of the at least one material transfer system is communicatively coupled to the material separation system.

12. The system according to claim 9, wherein a second of the at least one material transfer system is in communication with the second volume.

13. The system according to claim 12, wherein the second of the at least one material transfer system is communicatively coupled to the material separation system.

14. The system according to claim 12, wherein the second of the at least one material transfer system is adapted to introduce a fluid target into the second volume.

15. The system according to claim 12, wherein the second of the at least one material transfer system is adapted for introducing a solid target into the second volume.

16. The system according to claim 1, wherein the electronic heater is communicatively coupled to a controller.

17. The system according to claim 1, wherein the stellarator optimized for high-speed particle confinement is a quasi-axially symmetric stellarator, a quasi-isomagnetic stellarator, or a quasi-omniginous stellarator.

18. The system according to claim 1, wherein the stellarator optimized for high-speed particle confinement comprises (a) a plurality of planar shaped coils, wherein an array comprising the plurality of planar shaped coils surrounds the plasma axis, but any individual planar shaped coil of the plurality of planar shaped coils does not surround the plasma axis; and (b) a plurality of planar encircling coils, wherein each individual planar encircling coil of the plurality of encircling coils surrounds the plasma axis.

19. The system according to claim 1, wherein the stellarator optimized for high-speed particle confinement comprises (a) one or more magnetic shaping units defining a void adapted to confine a plasma, each magnetic shaping unit comprising (i) one or more structural mounting elements and (ii) one or more shaping coils disposed on the surface of the one or more structural mounting elements, and (b) a plurality of surrounding coils surrounding the plasma and the magnetic shaping coil system, the one or more shaping coils and the plurality of surrounding coils comprising one or more superconducting materials.

20. The system according to claim 1, wherein the stellarator optimized for high-speed particle confinement comprises (a) a void adapted to confine a plasma having a plasma axis; (b) a plurality of planar shaped coils, wherein an array comprising the plurality of planar shaped coils surrounds the plasma axis, but any individual planar shaped coil of the plurality of planar shaped coils does not surround the plasma axis; and (c) a plurality of planar encircling coils, wherein each individual planar encircling coil of the plurality of encircling coils surrounds the plasma axis.

21. The system according to claim 1, wherein the stellarator optimized for high-speed particle confinement comprises: (a) a void adapted to confine a plasma, comprising at least two faces; (b) at least two planar-formed coils, wherein a first of the at least two planar-formed coils is adjacent to the first of the at least two faces but does not surround the void, and a second of the at least two planar-formed coils is adjacent to the second of the at least two faces but does not surround the void; and (c) a plurality of planar-enveloping coils, wherein each individual planar-enveloping coil of the plurality of enveloping coils envelops the plasma axis.

22. The system according to claim 1, wherein the stellarator optimized for high-speed particle confinement comprises (a) a plurality of structural supports, (b) one or more magnetic field shaping units operably connected to the plurality of structural supports, each magnetic field shaping unit comprising one or more planar surface-mount shaping coils, and (c) a plurality of planar encircling coils, wherein the plurality of structural supports, the one or more magnetic field shaping units, and the plurality of encircling coils collectively define a void adapted for confining a plasma therein.

23. A system for generating neutrons, comprising: (i) a casing defining a first volume; (ii) a blanket defining a second volume; (iii) a stellarator optimized for fast particle confinement, wherein the stellarator is adapted to confine a plasma within the first volume, and the blanket is positioned between the stellarator and the casing; (iv) at least a first negative-ion neutral beam injector for introducing a first beam of high-energy neutral atoms into the plasma in a first angular direction; (v) optionally at least a second negative-ion neutral beam injector for introducing a second beam of high-energy neutral atoms into the plasma in a second angular direction; and (vi) an electron heater adapted to heat electrons in the plasma.

24. The system according to claim 23, wherein the system comprises at least two first negative ion-based neutral beam injectors for introducing the high-energy neutral atoms into the plasma in the first angular direction.

25. The system according to claim 23, wherein the system comprises at least four first negative ion-based neutral beam injectors for introducing the high-energy neutral atoms into the plasma in the first angular direction.

26. The system according to claim 23, wherein the system comprises at least one second negative ion neutral beam injector for introducing the high-energy neutral atoms into the plasma in the second angular direction.

27. The system according to claim 26, wherein the first and second angular directions are opposite angular directions.

28. The system according to claim 23, wherein the system comprises at least two second negative ion neutral beam injectors for introducing the high-energy neutral atoms into the plasma in the second angular direction, and the first and second angular directions are opposite angular directions.

29. The system according to claim 23, wherein the plasma is a deuterium plasma.

30. The system according to claim 23, wherein the system further comprises at least one material transfer system.

31. The system according to claim 30, wherein a first of the at least one material transfer system is in communication with the first volume.

32. The system according to claim 31, wherein the first of the at least one material transfer system is communicatively coupled to the material separation system.

33. The system according to claim 31, wherein a second of the at least one material transfer system is in communication with the second volume.

34. The system according to claim 33, wherein the second of the at least one material transfer system is communicatively coupled to the material separation system.

35. The system according to claim 33, wherein the second of the at least one material transfer system is adapted to introduce a fluid target into the second volume.

36. The system according to claim 33, wherein the second of the at least one material transfer system is adapted for introducing a solid target into the second volume.

37. The system according to claim 23, wherein the electronic heater is communicably coupled to a controller.

38. The system according to claim 23, wherein the stellarator optimized for high-speed particle confinement is a quasi-axially symmetric stellarator, a quasi-isomagnetic stellarator, or a quasi-omniginous stellarator.

39. The system according to claim 23, wherein the stellarator optimized for high-speed particle confinement comprises (a) a plurality of planar shaped coils, wherein an array comprising the plurality of planar shaped coils surrounds a plasma axis, but any individual planar shaped coil of the plurality of planar shaped coils does not surround the plasma axis; and (b) a plurality of planar encircling coils, wherein each individual planar encircling coil of the plurality of encircling coils surrounds the plasma axis.

40. The system according to claim 23, wherein the stellarator optimized for high-speed particle confinement comprises (a) one or more magnetic shaping units defining a void adapted to confine a plasma, each magnetic shaping unit comprising (i) one or more structural mounting elements and (ii) one or more shaping coils disposed on the surface of the one or more structural mounting elements, and (b) a plurality of surrounding coils surrounding the plasma and the magnetic shaping coil system, the one or more shaping coils and the plurality of surrounding coils comprising one or more superconducting materials.

41. The system according to claim 23, wherein the stellarator optimized for high-speed particle confinement comprises (a) a void adapted to confine a plasma having a plasma axis; (b) a plurality of planar shaped coils, wherein an array comprising the plurality of planar shaped coils surrounds the plasma axis, but any individual planar shaped coil of the plurality of planar shaped coils does not surround the plasma axis; and (c) a plurality of planar encircling coils, wherein each individual planar encircling coil of the plurality of encircling coils surrounds the plasma axis.

42. The system according to claim 23, wherein the stellarator optimized for high-speed particle confinement comprises: (a) a void adapted to confine a plasma, comprising at least two planes; (b) at least two planar-formed coils, wherein a first of the at least two planar-formed coils is adjacent to the first of the at least two planes but does not surround the void, and a second of the at least two planar-formed coils is adjacent to the second of the at least two planes but does not surround the void; and (c) a plurality of planar-enveloping coils, wherein each individual planar-enveloping coil of the plurality of enveloping coils envelops the plasma axis.

43. The system according to claim 23, wherein the stellarator optimized for high-speed particle confinement comprises (a) a plurality of structural supports, (b) one or more magnetic field shaping units operably connected to the plurality of structural supports, each magnetic field shaping unit comprising one or more planar surface-mount shaping coils, and (c) a plurality of planar encircling coils, wherein the plurality of structural supports, the one or more magnetic field shaping units, and the plurality of encircling coils collectively define a void adapted for confining a plasma therein.

44. A method for generating neutrons, comprising: generating a negative ion neutral beam and accelerating neutral atoms to an energy in which the D-D cross-section is significant; injecting the negative ion neutral beam into a stellarator optimized for fast particle confinement; and controlling the electron temperature such that the beam deceleration time is long enough for fast ions to generate neutrons at a desired flux.

45. The method according to claim 44, further comprising irradiating deuterium with the generated neutrons to form tritium.

46. The method according to claim 44, further comprising capturing and filtering the plasma from the stellarizer to separate any formed tritium.

47. The method according to claim 44, wherein the stellarator optimized for fast particle confinement is a quasi-axially symmetric stellarator, a quasi-isomagnetic stellarator, or a quasi-omniginous stellarator.

48. The method according to claim 44, wherein the stellarator optimized for high-speed particle confinement comprises (a) a plurality of planar shaped coils, wherein an array comprising the plurality of planar shaped coils surrounds a plasma axis, but any individual planar shaped coil of the plurality of planar shaped coils does not surround the plasma axis; and (b) a plurality of planar encircling coils, wherein each individual planar encircling coil of the plurality of encircling coils surrounds the plasma axis.

49. The method according to claim 44, wherein the stellarator optimized for high-speed particle confinement comprises (a) one or more magnetic shaping units defining a void adapted to confine a plasma, the magnetic shaping coil system comprising (i) one or more structural mounting elements and (ii) one or more shaping coils disposed on the surface of the one or more structural mounting elements, and (b) a plurality of surrounding coils surrounding the plasma and the magnetic shaping coil system, the one or more shaping coils and the plurality of surrounding coils comprising one or more superconducting materials.

50. The method according to claim 44, wherein the stellarator optimized for high-speed particle confinement comprises (a) a void adapted to confine a plasma having a plasma axis; (b) a plurality of planar shaped coils, wherein an array comprising the plurality of planar shaped coils surrounds the plasma axis, but any individual planar shaped coil of the plurality of planar shaped coils does not surround the plasma axis; and (c) a plurality of planar encircling coils, wherein each individual planar encircling coil of the plurality of encircling coils surrounds the plasma axis.

51. The method according to claim 44, wherein the stellarator optimized for high-speed particle confinement comprises (a) a void adapted to confine a plasma, comprising at least two faces; (b) at least two planar-formed coils, wherein a first of the at least two planar-formed coils is adjacent to the first of the at least two faces but does not surround the void, and a second of the at least two planar-formed coils is adjacent to the second of the at least two faces but does not surround the void; and (c) a plurality of planar-enveloping coils, wherein each individual planar-enveloping coil of the plurality of enveloping coils envelops the plasma axis.

52. The method according to claim 44, wherein the stellarator optimized for high-speed particle confinement comprises (a) a plurality of structural supports, (b) one or more magnetic shaping units operably connected to the plurality of structural supports, each magnetic shaping unit comprising one or more planar surface-mount shaping coils, and (c) a plurality of planar encircling coils, wherein the plurality of structural supports, the one or more magnetic shaping units, and the plurality of encircling coils collectively define a void adapted for confining a plasma therein.

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