Removal of suspended oxides and conversion of gas-borne compounds to elemental substances

Abstract

Apparatuses, systems, and methods are described that can remove particulates and / or oxide compounds from a fluid medium, convert at least a portion of the oxide compounds to elemental and / or allotropic substances, and collect them for further use in other applications.

Description

[Technical field]

[0001] (CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS) This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 337,255, filed May 2, 2022, which is incorporated by reference in its entirety.

[0002] The present invention relates to the treatment of industrial emissions, combustion gases, atmospheric gases, and other gaseous or liquid fluids (e.g., water) for the removal of pollutants and / or nanoparticles, dissociation of pollutants present in the form of oxides, and for the simultaneous production of allotropes and other elemental materials and treatment of the emissions. [Background technology]

[0003] The atmospheric and ambient environment has become increasingly polluted due to a variety of different natural phenomena and due to the emission of man-made pollutants into the air and water by industrialized countries around the world. Common examples of man-made pollutants emitted into the air include airborne compounds (e.g., gases and / or particulates) produced by combustion in industrial processes such as hydrocarbon-burning power plants, incinerators, various smelting operations, nitric and sulfuric acid plants, internal combustion engines, etc. Most of such pollutants include oxidation products of carbon, sulfur, nitrogen, lead, zinc, and other elements. For example, coal contains various trace impurities including lead, zinc, silver, etc., and when coal is burned, these impurities as well as the carbon in the coal are oxidized. Sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides are produced by the combustion of fuels containing sulfur compounds and the combustion of fuels containing nitrogen compounds, forming acids that cause acid rain, which is an increasingly significant environmental problem.

[0004] Many approaches have been developed to treat combustion products from hydrocarbon-burning power plants, incinerators, industrial processes, internal combustion engines, and the like, to control airborne particulate emissions from these sources. For example, coal-fired power plants often use scrubbing processes that use calcium compounds that react with sulfur oxides to produce gypsum. Unfortunately, the significant amounts of waste products generated by such scrubbing processes pose serious disposal problems. When possible, low-sulfur coals are used in coal-fired power plants to reduce the need for scrubbing, but this increases the cost of generating electricity. Alternatively, sulfur oxide emissions are reduced by operating the plants at lower temperatures, but this leaves some of the heating value of the coal unused.

[0005] Another approach to treating such emissions is to use electrostatic precipitators to enhance particulate removal, where various types of ionizers are used to generate ions that attach to the particulates. The resulting charged particles are then collected in the electrostatic precipitator. However, such processes cannot capture nano-sized particulate matter (e.g., particles less than 1 micrometer in size).

[0006] Unfortunately, previous approaches to controlling the introduction of airborne particulates produced by combustion have one or more serious problems: For example, previous approaches have not been able to reduce emissions to acceptable levels, they are very expensive to build or operate, they are energy inefficient, and they store molecules rather than converting them into useful elemental components. Summary of the Invention

[0007] In an exemplary embodiment, an apparatus is provided for removing compounds from a fluid medium and converting at least a portion of the compounds to elemental substances. The apparatus includes an electrode bed including a plurality of conductive electrode needles protruding from a surface of the electrode bed, the electrode needles being connected to a voltage source. The apparatus further includes a water overflow panel spaced apart from the electrode needles of the electrode bed and including a surface through which water flows during operation, the electrode needles extending toward the surface of the water overflow panel, and a reaction zone is defined as a space separating the surface of the water overflow panel from the electrode needles protruding from the electrode bed as a space between the electrode needles protruding from the electrode bed. A water source provides a flow of water to the reaction zone along the surface of the water overflow panel, the water source including an inlet for providing a source fluid to the reaction zone, the source including an impurity entrained in the fluid, and an outlet for facilitating transport of a purified fluid, the purified fluid having less impurities entrained in the purified fluid compared to the source fluid, and a power source applies electrical energy of 30 kilovolts (kV) to 100 kV at a pulse frequency of greater than 24,000 Hertz (Hz). In operation, electrical energy is applied from a power source to the electrode needles, causing water from a water supply to flow along the surface of the water overflow panel, causing the source fluid to flow into the reaction zone, where impurities mixed in the source fluid are removed and converted into elemental components that are mixed into the water.

[0008] In another exemplary embodiment, a system including one or more devices is described herein. These devices may be provided in series and / or parallel with respect to other devices in the system and with respect to the flow of water and / or source fluid through the devices in those systems.

[0009] In further exemplary embodiments, methods are provided for removing particulates and oxides, dissociating oxides from a fluid medium, and converting oxides to elemental and / or anisotropic materials, as shown and described herein.

[0010] For example, a method for removing compounds from a fluid medium and converting at least a portion of the compounds to elemental substances includes the steps of: directing water to flow along a surface of a water overflow panel in an apparatus and applying electrical energy to a plurality of conductive electrode needles protruding from a surface of an electrode bed, the electrode bed being aligned with the water overflow panel such that the electrode bed extends toward the surface of the water overflow panel, and a reaction zone being defined as a space separating the surface of the water overflow panel and the electrode needles protruding from the electrode bed; and directing the source fluid into the reaction zone defined between the surface of the water overflow panel and the electrode needles protruding from the electrode bed while applying electrical energy to the electrode needles at a negative voltage of 30 kilovolts (kV) to 100 kV at a pulse frequency of greater than 24,000 Hertz (Hz) to remove impurities entrained in the source fluid and convert the removed impurities to elemental components entrained in the water flowing along the surface of the water overflow panel.

[0011] The above, as well as further features and advantages of the present invention, will become apparent from a consideration of the following detailed description of specific embodiments. [Brief description of the drawings]

[0012] [Figure 1] FIG. 2 is a partial perspective view as described herein.

[0013] [Diagram 2] FIG. 2 is a side view of the device of FIG. 1.

[0014] [Diagram 3] FIG. 2 is an exploded side view of the device of FIG. 1.

[0015] [Figure 4] FIG. 1 is a view of a sidewall portion of the device including the electrode bed and corresponding water flow overflow panel.

[0016] [Diagram 5]FIG. 2 is a diagram of the planar reaction surface of an electrode bed having multiple electrodes for the device of FIG. 1.

[0017] [Figure 6] FIG. 2 is a first side view in partial cross-section of a system including multiple devices as shown in FIG. 1.

[0018] [Figure 7] FIG. 7 is an enlarged, partially cut-away perspective view of a first side of the system of FIG. 6.

[0019] [Figure 8] FIG. 7 is an enlarged, partially cut-away perspective view of a second side (opposite the first side) of the system of FIG. 6.

[0020] Like reference numbers are used throughout this disclosure to identify like elements. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

[0021] In the following detailed description, reference is made to the accompanying drawings which form a part of this specification, in which like numerals refer to like parts throughout and which show, by way of example, embodiments which may be implemented. It is to be understood that other embodiments may be utilized and structural or logical changes may be made without departing from the scope of the present disclosure. Therefore, the following detailed description should not be taken in a limiting sense, and the scope of the embodiments is defined by the appended claims and their equivalents.

[0022] Aspects of the present disclosure are disclosed in the accompanying description. Alternative embodiments of the present disclosure and their equivalents may be devised without departing from the spirit or scope of the present disclosure. It should be noted that the description of "one embodiment", "embodiment", "exemplary embodiment", etc. in this specification indicates that the described embodiment may include a particular feature, structure, or characteristic, and that such a particular feature, structure, or characteristic may not necessarily be included in all embodiments. In addition, reference to a previous description does not necessarily include reference to the same embodiment. Finally, whether or not explicitly described, those skilled in the art will recognize that a particular feature, structure, or characteristic of a particular embodiment can be utilized in conjunction with or in combination with any other embodiment described herein.

[0023] Various operations may be described in sequence as multiple discrete actions or operations in a manner that is most helpful for understanding the claimed subject matter. However, the order of description should not be construed as implying that these operations are necessarily order dependent. In particular, these operations need not be performed in the order described. The described operations may be performed in a different order than in the described embodiment. In additional embodiments, various additional operations may be performed and / or described operations may be omitted.

[0024] In this disclosure, the phrase "A and / or B" means (A), (B), or (A and B). In this disclosure, the phrase "A, B, and / or C" means (A), (B), (C), (A and B), (A and C), (B and C), or (A, B and C).

[0025] As used in this disclosure with respect to the embodiments, the terms "comprising," "including," "having," and the like are synonymous.

[0026] Described herein are devices, systems, and methods for producing elemental materials (including, but not limited to, fullerenes and other nano-sized materials or materials having particle sizes of 1 micrometer or less) from partially functionalized elemental materials, liquids (e.g., water), exhaust gases, atmospheric or environmental gases such as feedstocks, and any combination of gas and liquid fluids (e.g., polluted water mixed with polluted air). For example, the feedstock may include a fluid medium such as a gas, liquid, or a combination of gas and liquid. Specifically described herein are devices, systems, and methods for treating an air stream containing pollutants generated by combustion of fossil fuels, waste, and the like, with electrochemical and / or electrophysical processes to reduce oxidation to solid elemental materials (e.g., nano-sized particulate matter having particle sizes of 1 micrometer or less) and water, and to remove elemental materials from the air stream. The devices, systems, and methods described herein facilitate the recovery of useful solids and / or other elemental materials (e.g., nano-sized specific materials) from air streams, including, but not limited to, elemental carbon (including fullerenes), elemental sulfur, elemental iron, elemental gold, elemental magnesium, elemental isotopes, etc., and in various forms also enable the production of novel products and fuels.

[0027] Additionally, the removal of elemental materials from the oxide gases and / or particulate combustion products results in filtered, cleaned, and significantly improved quality air being released to the surrounding environment with high energy efficiency. The elemental materials formed by the embodiments described herein may be nano-sized, for example, including particulate matter having dimensions of 1 micrometer or less. In specific applications utilizing the devices, systems, and methods described herein, particulates present in the exhaust gases, even those less than 5 micrometers in size, or even those less than 1 micrometer in size, can be captured, concentrated in elemental form, and separated from the exhaust gases, allowing for purification of these compounds. Additionally, allotropes of elemental materials resulting from the devices, systems, and methods described herein (e.g., elemental carbon can be selectively formed as graphene, graphite, fullerenes, and / or carbon nanotubes of various sizes / carbon numbers, e.g., C60+, C70+, etc.) can be selectively formed.

[0028] Gases scrubbed by the devices, systems, and methods described herein can be deployed for use in various sectors of the economy, including, but not limited to, microbiological, industrial, commercial, and medical applications.

[0029] The method for cleaning and sterilizing atmospheric air using the device and system can be for domestic facilities, medical institutions, schools and preschool organizations. For example, the system and device can be installed for cleaning process gases of the ferrous and non-ferrous metals, chemical and petrochemical, construction, energy and fuel industries, for the treatment of waste by incineration and in industries that burn hydrocarbon fuels for technical purposes, for cleaning inorganic emissions of harmful substances in manufacturing plants and other facilities of companies, for eliminating pollutant emissions into the atmosphere of boilers running on liquid fuels. The installation can be configured for operation in production sites, with utilities and electricity supply, with a prepared concrete base. The use of modular units makes it possible to exclude the construction of chimneys for gas cleaning. The system is further expandable for different emissions.

[0030] According to embodiments described herein, dissociation of oxide compounds (e.g., in gaseous or particulate / solid form) is accomplished by cleaning and sterilizing gas and / or liquid media with pulsed high voltage discharges, e.g., greater than 24,000,000 Hertz (Hz). The high voltage discharges can be generated via electrodes disposed in a reaction zone, which may also include a water surface or water interface in contact or communication with air or other gas and / or liquid media. The reaction zone can be formed between a deposition electrode supplied with a continuous flow of water and an electrode made of electrically interconnected needles, the electrode being supplied with, e.g., 30-100 kilovolts (kV) (e.g., 30-80 kV) by a suitable negative power supply, to effect the desired dissociation and separation of oxide compounds in the gaseous medium into solids and / or other elemental materials, and separating the elemental materials from the gaseous medium into a continuous water stream.

[0031] The reaction zone can be provided in a device that includes a housing with pipes for the medium to be washed in and out, and an electrode for supplying a high voltage. One of the electrodes can be formed by two planes with a water pocket for overflowing water, and the second electrode can be formed by electrically interconnected needles and can be connected to a high voltage power supply (where the needles are integrated to collectively define the electrode). The needle of the second electrode can be fixed on an injector, the surface of which includes, but is not limited to, one or more flat surfaces, one or more curved (convex, concave, etc.) surfaces, and surfaces that include flat and curved portions. In the non-limiting exemplary embodiment described herein, the electrode needle extends approximately vertically in the housing of the device, but is joined to two planes (or curved surfaces) that extend at a selected angle from the vertical (i.e., shown as vertical with respect to the height dimension of the housing). The needles can further be placed in a staggered order along a planar reaction surface (also described herein as an electrode bed), and the injector can be made of a dielectric material. Additionally, as described herein, the needles may be coated with a material suitable for enhancing the ionization and oxide dissociation process.

[0032] Utilizing the devices, systems and methods described herein for the extraction and conversion of components from gaseous media to elemental components is based on the discovery of the activator of electrical discharges in the needle tip region, thereby determining the course of all physicochemical processes in a gas purification plant and the electrochemical and / or electrophysical conversion of components to chemical elements. The process occurring in near-electrode fouling is believed to be novel and is referred to herein as the plaron reaction. The plaron is a single cycle of interphase transition states with the release and absorption of thermal energy. The process associated with the systems and devices described herein can be characterized as a fast interphase endothermic and exothermic transition reaction caused by electrical energy applied to the electrode needle, for example, at frequencies of 0.1-10 MHz, negative voltages of 30-100 kilovolts (kV), and pulses of 0.1-150 mA at frequencies of 24,000 Hz or greater.

[0033] DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Exemplary embodiments of devices and systems used to filter, clean, and purify a gaseous medium while converting components extracted from the medium into elemental components are described below with reference to the figures.

[0034] 1-5, the apparatus includes a housing and structure configured to receive a gaseous medium (e.g., effluent from an industrial plant), convert oxidized compounds to elemental materials, and collect such elemental materials in a water stream. The apparatus 100 includes a frame 102 and a cross beam 106 that supports the components of the apparatus, including an electrode bed 112 and an air inlet panel and louver walls 113. A high voltage isolator support device includes an insulator 107 that extends from, and is therefore also supported by, the cross beam 106. The cross beam 106 and the voltage isolator support device support a top panel 109, the electrode bed 112, and the louver walls 113. A pair of exterior walls 114 are provided on each side that includes the louver walls 113, where each exterior wall 114 is spaced apart from the corresponding louver wall 113 by a small distance to allow air flow between the two walls (so that air can enter the slits in the louver walls 113 during operation). Each electrode bed 112 includes a plurality of electrodes 180 arranged as shown in Figure 5 and described further herein. An air vent 108 is provided in communication with the top panel 109 to facilitate the flow of gas and / or air from the device.

[0035] A conduit or pipe 120 supplies cleaning medium through valves 122 to the needle electrodes of the electrode beds through nozzles 124 directed along each electrode bed 112 at various locations for cleaning the electrodes at selected times. The device 100 includes a pair of electrode beds 112, each having a generally rectangular planar shape, aligned within the device on opposite sides of the housing 102 and angled relative to one another in a manner as described herein. Each electrode bed 112 includes a number of electrodes 180 extending laterally outwardly from a planar reactive surface of the bed 112 and toward a corresponding water overflow panel 132. In this configuration, the electrode beds 112 are aligned relative to one another such that the planar reactive surface of each bed 112 (from which the electrodes 180 protrude) faces and is spaced apart from the planar reactive surface of the other bed 112. The electrodes 180 of each electrode bed 112 extend toward the corresponding water overflow panel 132 aligned with the bed 112, but are spaced apart an appropriate distance. It should be noted that while the reaction surfaces of the electrode beds shown are generally flat or planar in configuration, the device can be modified to include any suitable reaction surface for one or more electrode beds that are planar, curved, or a combination of planar and curved. In other exemplary embodiments, the electrode beds can have rounded, funnel-shaped features with electrodes extending from the reaction surface of one or more rounded electrode beds.

[0036] A water supply conduit or water supply pipe 126 provides inlet water (e.g., water from the floatation tank 212 when the apparatus is implemented in a system described herein) to a reaction zone within the apparatus 100 during operation. Specifically, located on each side of the housing 102 corresponding to the location of the electrode bed 112 are a pair of water supply structures 128. Each water supply structure 128 includes an upper water pocket 130 (e.g., a reservoir or trough), a water overflow panel 132, and a lower water collection pocket 136 (e.g., a reservoir or trough). Each upper water pocket 130 is connected to the outlet end of a corresponding water supply pipe 126 located at or near the top of the housing 102. As water from the pipe 126 fills the upper water pocket 130, the upper water pocket 130 eventually overflows, channeling water downward through the reaction face of the corresponding water overflow panel 132. Each water overflow panel 132 is generally parallel to the corresponding electrode bed 112 and is therefore angled inwardly as it extends from the top or upper side to the bottom or lower side of the housing 102 for the device 100. Like the reaction surfaces of the electrode beds, each water overflow panel is shown in the drawings as having a reaction surface (i.e., the surface through which water flows) that is generally flat or planar. However, the device can be readily modified to include one or more water overflow panels, and the reaction surface can have a curved configuration or a combination of flat and curved configurations.

[0037] During operation, water flows from the pipes 126 at the top of the device to the upper water pockets 130, filling the pockets 130, and then overflows from the pockets 130 and flows down along the overflow panels 132. A corresponding lower water pocket 136 is positioned at the bottom edge of each electrode bed 112 and the corresponding bottom edge of the corresponding water overflow panel 132 to capture and hold the water as it drains out of the overflow panel 132. This allows water to flow evenly through the water overflow panels 132 and the proximal needle electrodes 180 connected to each electrode bed 112 and extending towards (but separated from) the corresponding planar surface 13 during operation.

[0038] For example, as shown in Figures 2-4, the reactive surface of each electrode bed 112 (including electrodes 180) faces the reactive surface (the surface through which water flows) of the corresponding water overflow panel 132, and the two reactive surfaces are spaced apart from each other by a distance suitable to allow gaseous fluid (e.g., air with oxidizing compounds such as carbon dioxide, sulfur oxides, etc.) to flow within the housing 102 and spread between the layer of water flowing along the reactive surface of the water overflow panel 132 and the reactive surface including the electrodes 180 of the corresponding electrode bed 112. Water flows from the top to the bottom of each water overflow panel 132 and thus from the top to the bottom of the apparatus. A water return conduit or pipe 138 is connected with the lower water pocket 136 to collect the water exiting the lower water pocket and deliver it to a suitable collection tank or collection site (e.g., the floating tank 212 of the system 200 described in more detail herein).

[0039] The flow of gaseous fluid to be processed by the apparatus 100 enters the housing 102 through an inlet at the lower or bottom of the housing. The gaseous fluid inlet to the housing 102, which may be through, for example, a lower hood or register (e.g., register 204 as shown in system 200 of FIGS. 6-8), is located at the bottom of the apparatus 100. The gaseous fluid flows through the housing 102, including the electrode beds 112 and the water overflow panel 132 (containing water flowing along such plane 132), and exits at or near the top of each apparatus (e.g., through panel 109 via air vent 108). In this manner, the gaseous fluid flows counter to the water flow within the apparatus during operation.

[0040] 3-5, each electrode bed 112 includes a plurality of electrodes 180 arranged in one or more suitable arrays along the reaction surface of the bed 112. As shown in the exemplary embodiment, the device 100 includes two electrode beds 112 formed as non-parallel aligned planes spaced apart from one another and angled toward one another, with each bed inclined relative to the other (i.e., each bed is slanted and not perpendicular to the top and bottom surfaces of the device), and the spacing between the beds decreasing from the top to the bottom of the device. In alternative embodiments, the fluid flow and device can be configured such that the spacing between the beds can increase from the top to the bottom of the device.

[0041] The electrodes 180 of each bed 112 include electrically interconnected needles connected to a high voltage power supply via an injector (not shown) to provide electrical energy from the power supply to the electrode needles during operation. The injector is connected to a high voltage insulator support arrangement including insulators 107. The electrode needles are spaced apart from one another and placed on each electrode bed 12 in a suitable arrangement (e.g., in a staggered order as shown in FIG. 5), the injectors being made of a dielectric material and being three-dimensional hollow bodies. The needles may be formed of stainless steel or any other suitable conductive metal or other material. The needles forming the electrodes 180 may be of any suitable dimensions. In an exemplary embodiment, the needles may be about 30 mm to about 50 mm long (e.g., about 40 mm long) and may have a diameter (or cross section) ranging from about 0.5 mm to about 2 mm (e.g., about 0.8 mm diameter). In addition, rows of needles can be defined within the array of electrodes (e.g., where a row is defined by any set of electrodes extending along an imaginary line within the array), with the spacing between the electrode needles set to improve the performance of the electrode bed during operation of the device. In preferred embodiments, the spacing between any two consecutive electrode needles in a row can range from about 15 mm to about 30 mm, more preferably from about 18 mm to about 25 mm (e.g., about 22 mm). In addition, the electrode needles in one row of the array are staggered (i.e., not aligned) with respect to the electrode needles in another consecutive row.

[0042] The array of needle electrodes 180 may be provided and / or formed in each electrode bed 112 in any suitable manner. In an exemplary embodiment, each needle forming the electrode 180 may be inserted through an insulated #16 gauge stranded conductor wire, where the needle breaks the outer insulation of the wire and is in intimate contact with the conductive strands within the wire. Each wire may be connected to a high voltage power source to pass a current through each needle during operation. The planar structure of each electrode bed 112 may be constructed of a suitable rigid insulating material, such as ABS (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene), plastic, or other suitable insulating polymeric material. The planar structure of each electrode bed may be manufactured with holes drilled in any suitable pattern or array to directly receive the needles protruding from the opposite ends of the wires. By intimate contact with the wires, each needle becomes part of a larger array that is directly coupled to a high voltage power source via the wires, thereby forming a geometrically spaced interdigitated needle electrode. The electrodes create an electric field within a reaction zone 190 between the electrode bed 112 and the corresponding reaction surface of the water overflow panel 132 .

[0043] The needles can be bonded to the planar structure of the electrode bed manually (e.g., by hand) or preferably via any suitable automated process (e.g., using conventional factory assembly methods). In alternative embodiments, techniques similar to those for forming wiring or printed circuit boards can also be used to form the electrode bed. For example, a copper clad fiberglass substrate material can be used that has a very high rated fire resistance. Furthermore, fiberglass has a high electrical resistivity and therefore a high dielectric constant such that it will hold an electric field in the presence of high voltage without breaking down and becoming a current conductor. A copper clad fiberglass substrate can be fabricated by bonding a thin continuous layer of copper onto a large sheet of fiberglass. The wiring pattern is formed by using chemical etching to remove the copper that is not part of the wiring pattern. Drilled holes through the planar structure can receive the needles, and the holes allow the needles to contact the wiring in the planar structure and complete the electrical connection with the high voltage power supply (based on the electrical coupling of the wiring with the power supply).

[0044] In another exemplary embodiment, the electrode needles are mounted in rows and connected in series along a continuous solid conductor, with each needle crimped to the series conductor, requiring only one crimp for each electrode where it connects with the solid conductor, significantly improving the performance of the electrode bed and preventing electrical arcing during operation of the device.

[0045] The needles of each electrode bed 112 may also include a coating that can reduce electrical resistivity, provide excellent adhesion to the substrate, exhibit good wear properties, and can withstand temperatures from -30°C to 1400°C. In certain applications, some metals used in the coating can further enhance the ionization and / or plaron reaction to dissociate oxidized compounds into elemental (and / or anisotropic) materials by acting as a catalyst to the reaction. The coating can be formed on the needles as follows: A solution is planned with a polymetallic alloy produced by electroless nickel technology. The solution can contain a nickel cation source and can be reduced utilizing boron or phosphorus. Complexing and reducing agents can be added to control the plating rate. Additional metal cation sources can be added to produce a co-deposited alloy.

[0046] The material deposited on the needles forming the electrode 180 can include any one or more of nickel, tungsten, boron, copper, and carbon (e.g., carbon nanoparticles and / or coarse carbon particles). In an exemplary embodiment, the deposited material can include two or more of nickel, tungsten, boron, copper, and carbon (e.g., carbon nanoparticles and / or coarse carbon particles). In certain exemplary embodiments, the deposited material can include primarily or substantially (i.e., greater than 50% by weight of the deposited material) nickel, tungsten in an amount of 3% to 6% by weight of the deposited material, boron in an amount of 1% to 3% by weight of the deposited material, copper in an amount of 0.5% to 1% by weight of the deposited material, and carbon in an amount of 1% to 3.5% by weight of the deposited material. For example, carbon can be present in 0.05% to 0.20% by weight of the deposited material as carbon nanoparticles (e.g., particles less than 1 micron in size), and 1% to 3% by weight as coarse carbon particles (e.g., particles less than 1 micron in size). Electroless nickel plating solutions can be used to form deposits that include one or more of the material components described herein. Adjustments to the plating bath can be made depending on the coating requirements for the final product use. The conditions for operating the electroless nickel bath depend on the final thickness of the plating, the morphology of the coating, and the incorporation of alloying materials.

[0047] The high voltage source that provides electrical energy to the electrodes 180 of the electrode bed 112 may include a high voltage (HV) surge arrester that suppresses arcing and flashovers from corona discharges associated with the high voltage source that generate electromotive forces (EMFs) that result in light plasma conditions near the reaction zone of the oxidizing compound dissociation and elemental material capture process. The HV surge arrester may be comprised of a number of 33,000 ohm, 5 watt resistors with ceramic bodies, immersed in automotive power transmission oil and placed in a plastic container that provides high isolation to prevent external arcing. The oil performs a similar function to transformer oil, which provides insulation by increasing the dielectric constant, increasing insulation performance, suppressing arcing and corona discharges, and providing good cooling performance. In general, a resistor is a component that impedes the flow of electrical current in a circuit, thereby dissipating heat generated by the current flowing through it. For example, to produce an overall one million ohms (1 megaohm) HV surge arrester, a series of 31 resistors, each with a resistance of 33,000 ohms and a power handling capacity of 155 watts of continuous power consumption, may be used. This configuration is particularly useful for utilizing an electrode array for the electrode bed, where only one crimp is required for each electrode (i.e., crimp each needle into the series conductor), as this effectively eliminates the possibility of electrical arcing during operation. Other configurations are possible to increase the overall resistance of the array. By using multiple resistors arranged in a series configuration, the HV surge arrester increases the total resistance in proportion to the number of resistors, with each resistor connected end to end physically and therefore electrically. Another role of the resistors in this surge arrester is power handling. Every resistor is ranked according to the degree of safe power dissipation at which it can operate. The 5 watt rating on each resistor is a measure of how much power the resistor can handle without stressing the ceramic body or the joints between the ceramic body and the connecting wires. Power dissipation in electronic components manifests itself as radiated heat, so each 5 watt resistor connected in series increases the surface area available to allow for heat dissipation, thus increasing the power handling capability by 5 watts.The transmission oil also provides a means of cooling the resistor array during operation.

[0048] A reaction zone 190 is defined between the reaction surface of each water overflow panel 132 and an electrode needle (i.e., electrode 180) protruding from a corresponding electrode bed 112 that is spaced apart and aligned generally parallel to the plane 132 along the opposing side of the device 100 (but slightly offset from the parallel alignment as shown in FIG. 4 and described in further detail herein). During operation, the flow of water through the pipe 126 is controlled to ensure that a continuous thin film of water is formed along the reaction surface of each water overflow panel 132 as the water flows down each plane 132 into the lower collection pocket 136. This continuous thin film of water along the reaction surface of each water overflow panel 132 functions as a liquid electrode in the reaction zone 190. The electrode 180 of each electrode bed 112 in each reaction zone 190 faces toward and is spaced from the reaction surface and water film of the corresponding water overflow panel 132, and also serves as an integral electrode for the high voltage injection of the device.

[0049] The distance or spacing between the tip of the needle electrode 180 and the corresponding reaction surface of the water overflow panel 132 can be set and / or adjusted via any suitable suspension mechanism associated with the water supply structure 128 and / or a suspension mechanism mounted to the support beam 106 and / or a high voltage isolator support device supported by the support beam. In a non-limiting exemplary embodiment, this spacing (i.e., reaction zone width) can be from about 140 mm to about 150 mm.

[0050] Each water overflow panel 132 and corresponding electrode bed 112 are aligned generally, but not exactly, parallel to one another, and the width of the reaction zone varies along the direction of fluid flow through the reaction zone or along the length of the reaction zone. In particular, each water overflow panel 132 can extend from the top panel 109 (or a plane parallel to the top panel 109) at a first included angle of about 69° to about 73° (e.g., about 71°) away from the central longitudinal axis of the housing 102. Each electrode bed 112 can extend from the top panel 109 (or a plane parallel to the top panel 109) at a second angle of about 65° to about 70° (e.g., about 67°) away from the central longitudinal axis of the housing 102. The first included angle for each water overflow panel 132 is different (e.g., greater than) the second included angle for each electrode bed 112. This results in the gap or distance between the tip of the electrode 180 and the reaction surface of each corresponding flat surface 132, defined as the reaction zone width, varying and decreasing in a direction from the lower end or bottom of the housing 102 (width W1 as shown in FIG. 4) to the upper end or top panel 109 of the housing 109 (width W2 as shown in FIG. 4). To put it another way, the reaction zone width decreases in the direction of flow of the fluid in which the oxidizing compound is entrained through the reaction zone 190 (i.e., the reaction zone width decreases from the reaction zone inlet or bottom of the housing 102 to the reaction zone outlet or top of the housing 102 at or near the top panel 109). In other embodiments, this gap or distance (reaction zone width) can increase in the direction of fluid flow of the fluid in which the oxidizing compound is entrained through the reaction zone. It is believed that by varying the gap or distance (or reaction zone width) along the reaction zone 190 in the methods described herein, ionization and / or plaron reaction within the reaction zone is enhanced as the gas (or other fluid) being treated traverses the reaction zone from the inlet to the outlet of the apparatus 100 and oxidized compounds / particulates are removed from the gas and converted to elemental materials.

[0051] By applying a suitable high voltage (via a high voltage power supply) at a suitable frequency and passing a current through the electrode 180, ionization and / or prion reactions of the compounds entrained within the gaseous fluid supplied to the apparatus 100 (via a hood or resistor) are promoted in the reaction zone 190 (defined between the end of the electrode needle and the liquid electrode defined on the reaction surface of the water overflow panel). This results in dissociation of the entrained compounds and generation of elemental materials or components (e.g., elemental carbon, elemental sulfur, etc.) that are removed from the gaseous fluid and further entrapped and entrained in the flowing water that defines a continuous water film along the reaction surface of each water overflow panel 132. The water exiting the undercatch pocket 136 can be collected (e.g., in the system 200 described herein) and the elemental components can then be separated from the collected water for further processing and / or further used in other applications.

[0052] Operation of the apparatus is accomplished by providing a gaseous fluid containing entrained compounds to be removed from the gaseous fluid. For example, the gaseous fluid may include an exhaust air stream from a combustion process, where the exhaust air stream is entrained with oxide compounds, such as carbon oxides, sulfur oxides, lead oxides, zinc oxides, iron oxides, magnesium oxides, and silver oxides. As described herein, the apparatus is also operable to treat fluids such as liquids (e.g., water) or combinations of water and gas. A high voltage source (e.g., a transformer high voltage generator) is electrically connected to the electrodes 180 of the electrode bed 112 to apply a voltage in the range of 30 kV to 100 kV (e.g., 30 kV to 80 kV) at a high frequency (e.g., greater than 24,000 Hz, preferably 0.1 to 10 MHz) and a current of 1 to 150 mA to the reaction zone 190 of the apparatus 100.

[0053] A continuous thin film of water is fed to the upper water pocket 130 along the surface of each overflow panel 132 (e.g., via a water circulation pump delivering water to pipe 126) and then flows downward along each overflow panel 132. The exhaust (or other fluid) stream containing the oxidized particulates is directed to the apparatus 100 at the bottom of the housing 102 to flow through the reaction zone 190 (e.g., via a register). The apparatus 100 can process gaseous fluids at any desired temperature. In an exemplary embodiment, the apparatus 100 can be used to directly process fluids at temperatures ranging from about 10° C. to about 200° C. or higher (e.g., from about 30° C. to about 90° C.). Temperature management of the fluid can be achieved via a heat exchanger and / or via direct supplemental air from the ambient environment. For example, the louver wall 113 opposite the electrode bed 112 includes openings or slits to allow air to flow from the surrounding surroundings into the housing 102 and then out the air vents 108 in the top panel 109; this make-up air can be used to control the temperature in the reaction zone 190. The slits in the louver wall 113 can be selectively adjusted to control the amount of air that can flow into the housing at any given time during operation.

[0054] The exhaust air flow entering the housing 102 from below (e.g., through a register) fills the reaction zone 190 of the apparatus 100. Specifically, the exhaust air flow enters the lower or bottom portion of the housing 102, flows upward into the reaction zone 190 within the housing 102, and then through the reaction zone 190 and exits the apparatus 100 at the air vent 108 in the top panel 109. The air curtain can be formed by providing an air curtain structure that forces air (via a fan or blower, not shown) downward into the space between the outer wall 114 and the louver wall 113, which further flows through slits in the louver wall 113, continuously flowing air to a central location near the bottom of the housing 102 where the exhaust air flow enters. This causes the exhaust air to flow toward opposite sides of the housing of the apparatus and then through the reaction zone 190 (as indicated by the arrows in the system 200 shown in Figures 2 and 6).

[0055] In the reaction zone 190, as a result of the high voltage applied between the electrode 180 and the thin film of water (water film layer electrode) present along each water overflow panel 132, entrained oxidized compounds in the exhaust dissociate by ionization and / or Pralon reaction to form elemental compounds (e.g., allotropes of such elemental compounds). The velocity of the exhaust air entering the reaction zone can be controlled (e.g., accelerated or decelerated) to enhance the interaction between the point source electrode 180 (needle tip) and the oxidized compounds, and the conversion of the oxidized compounds to elemental components (e.g., elemental carbon, elemental sulfur, elemental lead, elemental zinc, elemental magnesium, elemental silver, etc.). The elemental components formed by the dissociation of the oxidized compounds in the exhaust stream are further separated from the air stream and absorbed in the thin film of water defined by the water flowing along each water overflow panel 132. Elemental materials can also be separated, disposed of, processed, etc., as needed. Certain elemental components (e.g., elemental carbon in the form of graphite, graphene, fullerenes, and / or nanotubes) can be utilized in other processes. Fluid free of oxidized compounds exits the device through one or more outlets in the top panel 109 of the housing 102 .

[0056] Thus, the apparatus 100 facilitates the treatment of gases or other fluids within the reaction zone 190 of the apparatus in a flow from the bottom to the top of the apparatus, with the water forming the electrodes and collecting the elemental materials formed in the reaction zone 190 flowing from the top to the bottom of the apparatus or as a countercurrent flow (e.g., via gravity) to the process gas or fluid containing the oxidizing compounds. Alternatively, the fluid being treated and the water flow can be in the opposite direction to that described in the embodiment shown in the drawings while still maintaining a countercurrent flow between the treated fluid and the water flow.

[0057] The device can have any dimensions suitable for a particular application, and can be based on the volume of fluid to be processed in a given period of time.

[0058] In other embodiments, multiple devices can be coupled in parallel or in series with respect to the flow of fluid through the devices. For example, the devices can be connected in series such that the fluid with the oxidizing compound flows from the outlet of one device to the inlet of the device aligned in series, with any number of devices connected in series. Alternatively, each device can be arranged to flow in parallel with respect to the flow of the fluid with which the oxidizing compound is entrained, such that each device processes a portion of the fluid separately and independently. Similarly, the devices can be arranged to flow in series or in parallel with respect to the water flow (with the elemental material formed in the device).

[0059] The system may contain or be configured to contain a single device or multiple devices (arranged in series and / or in parallel with respect to the flow of fluid with oxidizing compounds and / or water flow). In certain applications, greater efficiency in terms of removal of oxidizing compounds and conversion to elemental materials may be achieved by providing the devices in series with respect to the fluid being treated. In certain other applications, and depending thereon, the volumetric flow rate required to be treated over a period of time, the devices may be provided in parallel with respect to the flow of the fluid to be treated to ensure sufficient treatment of a large volume of fluid at a given time.

[0060] 6-8, an exemplary embodiment of a system 200 including a plurality of apparatuses 100 is shown. The system 200 includes a roof assembly structure 201 and a housing having a plurality of vertically stacked units, containers, or compartments 202. The size of the compartments 202 can vary based on the size requirements of the apparatuses 100 and / or other system components. In an exemplary embodiment, one or more (e.g., all) of the compartments 202 can be approximately 12 meters tall (e.g., 40 feet tall). The system 200 is described with respect to the treatment of a gas stream obtained from a combustion site 209. However, the system can be used with a wide variety of different types of gas streams (or liquid streams, or mixed gas and liquid streams) for atmospheric or direct air capture (DAC) purification (wherein atmospheric air is treated and purified for oxidation, including but not limited to carbon oxides, sulfur oxides, and other oxidation compounds).

[0061] The gas stream or combustion gas products obtained from the combustion site 209 are fed via a process flow path 217 (e.g., via suitable conduits or supply piping) to a heat exchanger 203 located in one of the compartments 202. The heat exchanger 203 can be used to cool the gas products exiting the combustion site 209, and the energy captured from the heat transfer between the gas products and the coolant fluid of the heat exchanger 203 can be utilized in another process. The gas stream exiting the heat exchanger 203 is then directed to another compartment 202 located above the compartment 202 housing the heat exchanger 203. The compartment 202 above the heat exchanger compartment 202 houses multiple devices 100. It should be noted that while four devices 100 are shown in the system 200 of Figure 2, the system may be scaled in any manner to include any suitable number (e.g., one, two, three or more) of devices 100 used for cleaning / purifying the gas stream and removing and converting / capturing elemental components of materials in the water stream flowing through the devices. The devices may also be arranged in any suitable manner within the vessel of the system, with any number of rows and / or columns of devices within a container. As previously discussed, the devices 100 are arranged in parallel with respect to the flow of both the combustion gases and water within the device.

[0062] The gas stream flows from the outlet of the heat exchanger 203 through a conduit 219 into a manifold 220. The manifold 220 feeds the gas into each device 100 at an inlet 204 (also called a register) located at the lower or bottom of each device. As shown in the partial cutaway view of one of the devices 100 in FIG. 6 and also as shown in FIG. 2, the gas flows upward (as indicated by the arrows in the reaction zone 190) through each device in a reaction zone 190 provided within the device, the gas being adjacent to and / or in contact with the electrodes 180 located on the electrode bed 112 that extends outwardly and into each reaction zone 190. The treated and cleaned / purified air is discharged at an upper location of each device 100 (e.g., from an air vent 108 in the top panel 109 of the housing 102 for each device). The purified air is discharged from the system 200 to the surroundings or environment via a suitable purified fluid discharge structure (e.g., one or more conduits in the roof assembly structure 201).

[0063] One or more air curtain blowers 208 are appropriately aligned with each apparatus 100 to blow air between each louver wall 113 and a corresponding exterior wall 114 of the apparatus, where the air is blown downward within the housing 102 of each apparatus 100 to create an air curtain (as indicated by the arrows in the partial cross-sectional view of apparatus 100 in FIG. 6 ) that forces the combustion gas flow to split at the inlet 204 and direct through each reaction zone 190.

[0064] The water recirculation system for system 200 includes a water pump 225, piping 126 that supplies water to apparatus 100 (via upper water pocket 130), and an outlet or return piping 226 that returns water exiting the apparatus (from lower collection pocket 136) to collection tank 212. The operation of each apparatus is as previously described herein. Water with elemental materials flows from each apparatus 100 (via return piping 226) to collection tank 212, which may be configured to filter and / or separate and collect solid elemental materials from the water for further processing. The filtered water, which is substantially free of elemental materials and other solids, may then be recirculated via the water pump back to piping 126 and returned to the water inlet of apparatus 100.

[0065] The filtered and / or separated elemental components or materials (e.g., elemental carbon materials such as fullerenes and / or carbon nanotubes, elemental sulfur materials, etc.) from the collection tank 212 can be delivered, for example, via a chute 230 to a processing system 235. The processing system 235 can process the elemental materials in any suitable manner, including, but not limited to, modifying the materials in any manner depending on the particular application. The collection tank 212 can include an air bubbler pump 207 and a pressurizer 206 connected to the tank 212 to create air bubbles in the water in the tank to enhance separation of elements and / or other solid materials (e.g., compounds containing carbon, sulfur, iron, etc.) from the water.

[0066] The system 200 further includes a cleaning solution for selectively cleaning the electrodes in each device 100, and an electrode cleaning solution pump is provided to direct the cleaning solution from a cleaning fluid reservoir 205, through a cleaning solution pipe 120 and a valve 124 (e.g., as shown in Figures 1 and 6), to each device 100, through a return pipe 213 and the pump into the reservoir 205, and back to the reservoir 205.

[0067] System 200 provides powerful gas purification by removing harmful impurities and particulates, including the oxidizing compounds described herein.

[0068] The operation of the system 200 is described as follows: A polluted gas stream (e.g., flue gas) flows into a chimney below or adjacent to a gas cleaning plant or other combustion site 209 that contains the system 200. Under the action of auxiliary thrust, the gas stream passes at low or almost no pressure between the tips of the electrodes 180 of the electrode bed 180 of each device 100. An air curtain delivered via an air curtain blower 208 is used to create an air wall through the slots in the louver wall 113 to force the gaseous effluent into the reaction zone 190 of the device 100, after which the treated effluent is discharged from the device and the system 200 into the atmosphere. The water electrode for each device 100 is formed by the water flowing down each water overflow panel 132 from the upper pocket 130 and becomes the acceptor of the extracted impurities. Water with precipitated impurities (elemental materials and / or other solid materials) collects in the lower water pocket 136 and then drains by gravity via piping 226 to the DAF tank 212. This water is treated and filtered to remove solid materials. Once filtered, the water is returned (via pipe 126) to the upper water pocket 130 for reuse by each apparatus 100. A voltage of 30 kV to 100 kV (e.g., 30 kV to 80 kV) is applied from a high voltage source (e.g., of the type previously described herein) to the injector electrode 180, and a current in the range of 0.1 to 150 mA is applied at a pulse frequency of greater than 24,000 Hz, preferably 0.1 to 10 MHz.

[0069] Thus, the devices, systems, and methods described herein provide enhanced removal of oxidized compounds from contaminant-containing gas streams and their conversion to elemental materials. The gas streams can be purified, and the elemental materials formed by processes utilizing the devices and / or systems (including multiple devices) can provide significant value for different applications.

[0070] The use of two separate reaction zones in each device (each reaction zone provided between a water overflow panel and a corresponding electrode bed) enhances the processing of the fluid (purification and formation of elemental materials). Additionally, the change in width of the reaction zone along the flow path defined between each electrode bed and the corresponding water overflow panel (where the width of the reaction zone decreases in the direction from the reaction zone inlet or bottom of the reaction zone to the reaction zone outlet or top of the housing) can enhance the ionization and / or plaron reaction of oxidizing compounds in the fluid as the fluid flows along each reaction zone.

[0071] In an alternative embodiment, a liquid stream (e.g., a water stream) can be purified by passing the liquid stream through a reaction zone of an apparatus as described herein, or a system including a plurality of such apparatus, to remove components including particulates and oxides and convert oxides in the liquid stream to elemental and / or anisotropic materials prior to removing particulates and oxides from the liquid stream in a manner similar to that described herein for gas streams. Additionally, mixed gas and liquid streams can also be processed by apparatus and systems utilizing the same techniques as described herein.

[0072] The systems, devices, and methods described herein also facilitate highly efficient scrubbing of all oxides, particulates, dust, mold, fungal spores, and bacteria from the input stream of air or other gases and / or liquids. The air stream or output stream enters the bottom region of the device. In an exemplary embodiment of the system (e.g., as shown in Figures 6-8), the reaction zone is provided with four open channels (e.g., four devices in parallel) and further divided into eight upward flowing subchannels (two reaction zones per device) where oxides are treated with ionization and / or prions reactions that recombine oxides into solid elemental materials including allotropes of elemental materials such as (e.g., carbon allotropes such as graphene, graphite, fullerenes, and carbon nanotubes, and sulfur allotropes). Oxygen and nitrogen can be released in the form of inert gases by dissociation reactions in the reaction zone, and these inert gases exit the device and system with the treated air and are released into the atmosphere.

[0073] During the reaction process occurring near the electrodes, fouling, high voltage discharges occur, releasing electrons that collide with the molecules of the polluting components, exciting them and destroying their structure. The result is a method for electrochemical and / or electrophysical conversion of oxides into solid chemical elements. Interphase exothermic and endothermic reactions take place in the respective zones above the needle tip, which significantly enhances the conversion process.

[0074] As mentioned above, high voltage treatment conditions (e.g., currents in the range of 0.1-150 mA at frequencies in excess of 24,000 Hz, preferably in the range of 0.1-10 MHz) can be applied to the electrodes of the electrode bed, resulting in conversion efficiencies of carbon oxides, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, etc. up to 99.95%.

[0075] By utilizing high voltage discharges in the reaction zone of the device and / or system, high quality air purification can be achieved in connection with disinfecting and / or purifying various viruses and bacteria in the air by resonant exposure, where periodic external exposure causes a sudden increase in the amplitude of the stationary oscillation of the microorganisms. When the frequency of the external impact matches the frequency characteristics of the microorganisms, the destruction of the microorganisms occurs. At the same time, in the voltage and current ranges described herein, conditions are created for the occurrence of resonance, which has a harmful effect on the viruses and microorganisms. Oxides, dust, aerosols, bacteria and viruses are dissociated from the air by more than 90%. In addition, VOCs, furans and dioxins are also dissociated in this process. Due to the resonance, further effects are exerted on the chemical bonds of the polluting components, which results in the breaking of chemical bonds and the neutralization of toxic substances.

[0076] Fullerenes are one of the valuable elemental materials that can be recovered using the devices, systems, and methods described herein. Fullerenes are high-value chains and industrially important forms of carbon that contain large closed cage molecules composed of 60 or more SP2 hybridized carbon atoms arranged in hexagons and pentagons. Currently, fullerenes are known in the form of spheroids (Buckminsterfullerenes) and cylindrical or toroidal shapes (nanotubes). Various complex and expensive processes are known for producing fullerenes. These steps are complex and have low yields, making the resulting products very expensive. The systems, devices, and methods described herein offer a much more efficient and inexpensive way to produce these materials.

[0077] Because the device of the present invention requires only a small amount of energy to operate, when the device is used to treat emissions from, for example, a coal-fired power plant, carbon can be captured from the plant's chimney and reused for repeated fuel combustion, greatly improving the efficiency of the power plant.

[0078] The systems, devices, and methods described herein are also useful in reducing the need for burial. For example, the systems and devices are effective in cleaning the air, thereby allowing the use of incinerators that were previously prohibited due to the difficulty in effectively controlling the air pollution they generate. Thus, many materials that would otherwise be incinerated are buried, unnecessarily wasting substantial land area. If such materials could be burned in an incinerator and processed with the present device, this would greatly reduce the volume of residual material (mainly collected elemental materials) that could be sold as high-value material. Additionally, materials already buried can be mined, incinerated, and processed according to the present invention, and then sold again as high-value material.

[0079] In certain embodiments, the airflow containing the oxidized molecules and particulates depending on the source material flows through multiple (e.g., three) levels of reaction zones: a first zone immediately above the tip of the needle of the electrode of the electrode bed, a second zone located just beyond the first zone, and a third zone located just beyond the second zone and adjacent to the water film flowing within each reaction zone. The first zone closest to the needle can have the highest reactivity, which gradually decreases away from the tip of the needle.

[0080] In embodiments where a single device is provided, the air or other fluid carrying the oxidizing compounds and / or other contaminants may be recirculated within the single device (e.g., instead of directing the flow from an outlet of the device to the surrounding environment of the device), or, as previously described, multiple devices may be provided in series with respect to the flow of fluid to be treated to remove such oxidizing compounds and / or other contaminants.

[0081] The devices, systems, and methods described herein can be operated indoors or in a container since the exhausting air (or other fluid) is essentially free of undesirable particulates, or the devices, systems, and methods can be operated in outdoor environments, preferably with appropriate rain shields (not shown) to protect the electrode node bodies, receptors, and other potentially vulnerable components of the device.

[0082] Elemental carbon materials such as fullerenes can be produced using the apparatus, systems, and methods described herein. Preferably, when it is desired to produce fullerenes, a very clean hydrocarbon source (such as jet fuel or paraffin) is combusted and processed by the apparatus 100 and / or system 200 to minimize the presence of impurities in the final fullerene product. Fullerenes including nanotubes, C60, C70, C84, and C120 are produced, and newer unknown fullerenes can be separated using conventional techniques (e.g., in the processing system 230 of the system 200).

[0083] Additionally, another material formed as a result of the devices, systems and methods described herein is the hydroxyl radical (OH). The hydroxyl radicals formed can be used in applications (e.g., removing methane from the atmosphere).

[0084] It is believed that the dissociation of oxidized compounds into elemental materials utilizing the devices, systems, and methods described herein may be the result of the generation of elemental hydrogen, which is generated at the tip of a point source electrode in the reaction zone of the device, by unipolar ionization and / or plaron reaction, which very actively reduces oxidized gases in the fluid being treated. However, the devices, systems, and methods described herein are not limited to the operating principle of producing such elemental materials and purifying the fluid to be treated. With this in mind, the following mechanisms are suggested by utilizing the devices, systems, and methods described herein, including the reduction of carbon and sulfur oxides and the formation of hydroxyl radicals, and the conversion of other materials, such as iron, silver, copper, magnesium, etc., to their elemental forms by similar mechanisms.

[0085] a) Complete or partial dissociation of carbon oxides:

[0086] O2 → O+O2

[0087] CO2 → CO+1 / 2O2

[0088] CO → CO+1 / 2CO2

[0089] СО*+СО*←→С+СО2СО 2* (г)+С(т)→С(о)+СO(г)

[0090] b) Recovery process using atomic hydrogen

[0091] CO2+NH→CO+NH2O

[0092] СО+2Н → С+Н2О

[0093] c) Interaction of carbon oxides with atomic oxygen

[0094] CO 2* +O→O+O2

[0095] HO=OH-+H+

[0096] H++e-=H

[0097] 4OH--4e-=O2=2H2O

[0098] 6H+SO2=H2S+2H2O

[0099] SO2+2H2S=3S↓+2H2O

[0100] or

[0101] SO2+4H=S↓+2H2O

[0102] Similarly, carbon dioxide can also be reduced by this mechanism.

[0103] 4H+CO2=C↓+2H2O

[0104] CO2+8H=CH4+2H2O

[0105] CH4+CO2=2C↓+2H2O

[0106] The devices, systems, and methods described herein provide several advantages, some non-limiting examples of which are set forth below.

[0107] A system, device or method for producing carbon allotropes, fullerenes or any of their derivatives, which, due to their high electron affinity and ability to transfer electrons, can act as acceptors in solar cell systems based on electron transport from a photoexcited material (donor) to an electrode. This process is mediated by an acceptor molecule. An example of a commonly used acceptor is phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester (PCMB) used with polythiophene (P3HT) as the donor.

[0108] A system, device or method for producing any carbon allotrope of fullerenes and / or their derivatives that can be easily hydrogenated and dehydrogenated due to their unique molecular structure (consisting only of carbon atoms).

[0109] A system, device or method for producing any carbon allotrope of fullerenes and / or their derivatives that allows for the production of commodity-scale agricultural amendments to increase soil carbon.

[0110] A system, apparatus or method for producing any carbon allotrope of fullerenes and / or their derivatives represents the promise of developing relatively light weight metals with greater tensile strength without significant alteration of the ductility of the metal, possibly due to their small size and high reactivity due to the sp, sp2 and / or sp3 hybridization of carbon.

[0111] A system, apparatus or method for producing any carbon allotrope of fullerenes and / or their derivatives may have the potential to convert to diamond by applying pressure, causing slight rearrangements of the carbon atoms.

[0112] Systems, apparatus or methods for producing any carbon allotrope of fullerenes and / or their derivatives produce superconductivity in the range of 19-40 K, and of particular interest are crystalline compounds of C60 with alkali and alkaline earth metals. These compounds are the only molecular systems that are superconducting at temperatures above 19 K. Superconductivity has been observed in the range of 19-40 K (-254 to -233 °C / -425 to -387 °F).

[0113] The system, device or method for producing any carbon allotrope of fullerenes and / or their derivatives is used as a reducing agent for steelmaking instead of coal or biochar, "reduction" being the chemical reaction that turns iron ore (Fe2O3) into pig iron (2Fe). Carbon monoxide (CO) is a key component (Fe2O3+3CO→2Fe+3CO2) and is produced in a blast furnace by burning coal. This also produces carbon dioxide as a waste product, which can be used to produce more carbon allotropes in this way.

[0114] The systems, devices or methods for producing any carbon allotrope of fullerenes and / or their derivatives can be used in batteries to reduce the electron charging resistance in the cathode layer by increasing the surface area for electrons to bind to the high surface area surfaces which significantly reduces the electrical resistance in these materials.

[0115] The systems, devices or methods for producing any carbon allotrope of fullerenes and / or their derivatives can be used to make materials conductive, to produce conductive plastics, as a replacement for metals, or to hybridize with metals in electrical wires.

[0116] The system, device or method for producing any carbon allotrope of fullerenes and / or their derivatives can be used in water purification and sewage treatment.

[0117] The system, apparatus or method of producing any carbon allotrope of fullerenes and / or their derivatives allows lubricants to have increased heat transfer properties and thus the ability to accept and transfer thermal energy more quickly at both high and low temperatures. Such fullerenes or their derivatives can exhibit outstanding properties as additives for engine wear and cutting fluid lubrication, improving the wear resistance of wear parts.

[0118] In systems, devices or methods for producing any carbon allotrope of fullerenes and / or their derivatives, the materials are used as antioxidants based on their chemical properties such as very high electron affinity and a large number of conjugated double bonds. They are called radical sponges due to their ability to interact with a large number of free radicals before being consumed.

[0119] A system, device or method for producing any carbon allotrope of fullerenes and / or their derivatives allows these compounds to act as antiviral agents, also called antivirals. One of the most interesting properties is the ability to suppress human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) replication, which leads to the inhibition of acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) manifestations. More specifically, it has been observed that fullerene derivatives can inhibit HIV protease, thereby preventing the replication of HIV1 and the subsequent development of disorders. Fullerenes have great potential for the research and development of novel anti-HIV drugs. Antiviral activity is strongly influenced by the relative position of the side chain on C60. This can occur through the synthesis and subsequent characterization of tandem fullerene derivatives that have indeed been found to have antiviral activity, as exemplified below. Fullerene pyrrolidine (containing two ammonium groups) has been described as an HIV-1 and HIV-2 antagonist. Cationic, anionic and amino acid derivatives have been seen to inhibit hepatitis C virus replication. Amino acid derivatives of C60 have been found to be able to inhibit human cytomegalovirus replication. The water-insoluble derivative exhibited antiviral activity against enveloped viruses.

[0120] A system, device or method for producing any carbon allotrope of fullerenes and / or their derivatives is believed to be effective for electrochemical oxygen reduction reaction (CORR) for hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) synthesis. Carbon nanotubes (CNT) hybrids can be synthesized with C60 covalently bonded onto the outer surface of the CNT. The structure of the C60-CNT hybrid can be confirmed by physical and chemical characterization, and the structure is proposed to be characterized as a covalent bond between CNT and C60 derivatives. The C60-CNT hybrid shows high efficiency in electro-generating H2O2 due to the huge surface area and intermolecular electron transfer in the hybrid structure. It showed high H2O2 generation efficiency of 4834.57 mgL-1h-1 (426.58 mmolL-1) at -0.2 V vs. saturated calomel electrode (SCE).

[0121] A system, apparatus or method for producing any carbon allotrope of fullerenes and / or their derivatives to replace existing scarce dolomite, dolomitized limestone, or to substitute carbon black in the process of asphalt concrete mixing as a binder to enhance thermal performance and road stiffness.

[0122] A system, device or method for producing any carbon allotrope of fullerenes and / or their derivatives, which carbon allotropes are already functionalized or partially functionalized.

[0123] A system, device or method for producing any carbon allotrope of fullerenes and / or their derivatives, which carbon allotropes provide fuel for the production of hydrogen.

[0124] A system, device or method for generating carbon allotropes of fullerenes and / or any of their derivatives, which act as vehicles for transporting chemical compounds to produce a given effect. These materials act as carriers, since they show good biocompatibility, selectivity, and they are small enough to diffuse correctly in tissues, which is required for final localization. In the case of gene delivery, foreign DNA is introduced into cells to achieve a given effect. For this purpose, DNA sequences are connected with amino acid derivatives of C60. At the appropriate sites, these sequences are cleaved by loss or modification of amino groups. Biochemical experiments have clarified their better capabilities compared to the vectors commonly used in this application.

[0125] A system, apparatus or method for producing rare earths from coal, metal tailings ponds, e-waste, and oil sands waste ponds, which are simultaneously separated as an alternative to rare earth mining and scarcity.

[0126] A system, apparatus or method for producing any carbon allotrope of fullerenes and / or their derivatives, the carbon allotrope treating waste materials.

[0127] A system, apparatus, or method for recovering elemental metals from oxides in a metal refinery for metal recovery from melting losses in refining. Typical losses in gold refining are 1%-2.5% due to melting losses or mass losses, and 1.5%-2.5% due to other valuation or grade losses. Typical losses in silver refining are 2%-4.5% due to melting losses or mass losses, and 2.5%-7.5% due to other valuation or grade losses.

[0128] A system, apparatus or method for producing any carbon allotrope of fullerenes and / or their derivatives, which produces carbon fuels or synthetic fuels for combustion (e.g., fuels with heating value >29 MJ / kg that can replace coal plants).

[0129] A system, device or method for producing any carbon allotrope of fullerenes and / or their derivatives, which produces carbon fuels by pyrolysis of the carbon allotropes and further processing into renewable fuels and chemicals.

[0130] A system, device or method for producing any carbon allotrope of fullerenes and / or their derivatives, which carbon allotropes are used as carbon fuels for use as agricultural soil amendments or coated onto biochar to increase their availability in soil.

[0131] A system, apparatus or method for producing any carbon allotrope of fullerenes and / or their derivatives for use in water treatment and deoxidation.

[0132] A system, apparatus or method for producing any carbon allotrope of fullerenes and / or their derivatives, which is blended with biomass as fuel for a biomass plant.

[0133] A system, apparatus or method for producing any carbon allotrope of fullerenes and / or their derivatives, the carbon allotrope being produced from marine vessel discharge.

[0134] A system, apparatus or method for producing any carbon allotrope of fullerenes and / or their derivatives, which is used for the production of commercial wood replacement products for fireplaces and wood stoves by mixing with a binder and forming the same into either pellets or logs.

[0135] A system, apparatus or method for producing any carbon allotrope of fullerenes and / or their derivatives, which carbon allotropes are used as sorbents in nitrogen fertilizers to improve the value of ammonia.

[0136] A system, apparatus or method for producing carbon allotropes for use in water treatment and deoxidation of fullerenes and / or any of their derivatives, which carbon allotropes are used for oxygen and other gas storage.

[0137] A system, apparatus or method for producing any carbon allotrope of fullerenes and / or their derivatives, which carbon allotropes are used as oxygen-enhanced carbon fuels as a replacement for coal and biomass for oxygen storage.

[0138] A system, apparatus or method for producing any carbon allotrope of fullerenes and / or their derivatives, which converts vegetable oils into fullerenes.

[0139] A system, apparatus or method for producing any carbon allotrope of fullerenes and / or their derivatives, which carbon allotrope is used for the urea coating.

[0140] A system, apparatus or method for producing any carbon allotrope of fullerenes and / or their derivatives, which carbon allotropes are used as fertilizer additives for soil improvement.

[0141] A system, apparatus or method for producing any carbon allotrope of fullerenes and / or their derivatives, and also producing sulfur allotropes when SO2 is present in the feed gas, allowing for an improvement of the Claus process.

[0142] A system, apparatus or method for producing any carbon allotrope of fullerenes and / or their derivatives and managing CO2 gas separated from biogas.

[0143] A system, apparatus or method for producing any carbon allotrope of fullerenes and / or their derivatives, and managing the gases separated from the pyrolysis unit.

[0144] A system, device or method for producing any carbon allotrope of fullerenes and / or their derivatives, which carbon allotropes add grip to the sole of a shoe.

[0145] A system, device, or method for producing any carbon allotrope of fullerenes and / or their derivatives, which carbon allotrope synthesizes a photocatalyst (e.g., C3N4).

[0146] A system, device or method for producing any carbon allotrope of fullerenes and / or their derivatives, which carbon allotropes provide additives for producing fuels, synthetic fuels and / or biofuels.

[0147] A system, device or method for producing any carbon allotrope of fullerenes and / or their derivatives, which carbon allotrope is used in an electrode of a fuel cell.

[0148] A system, device or method for producing carbon allotropes of fullerenes and / or any of their derivatives, which carbon allotropes produce compact EMF / RF shielding packaging.

[0149] A system, device or method for producing any carbon allotrope of fullerenes and / or their derivatives, which carbon allotrope is used as carbon nanotubes (CNTs). CNTs are materials with excellent electrical, thermal, mechanical and optical properties. They have been demonstrated to have interesting thermoelectric properties and are therefore considered a promising solution for thermal energy harvesting as dopants.

[0150] A system, apparatus or method that significantly reduces oxygenated air in the atmosphere, resulting in up to 30% increase in plant growth and up to 30% increase in yield.

[0151] A system, apparatus or method for creating an earth forming atmosphere by dissociating oxides into elemental forms, which significantly reduces mold, fungi, pot rot, bacteria and viruses in the atmosphere, and provides energy for plant growth and increases productivity.

[0152] A system, device or method for producing improved cannabinoid / terpenoid CoA. Bud size / weight and CoA compared to the same or similar strains.

[0153] A system, device or method for improving air quality and eliminating surface contamination of human and animal dwellings from airborne and contact transmitted viruses and bacteria.

[0154] A system, apparatus or method for enhancing the vitamin and nutritional value of vegetables and fruits during their cultivation in a greenhouse.

[0155] A system, apparatus or method for producing carbon allotropes or fullerenes, particularly nanotubes, for the fabrication of IC transistors.

[0156] A system, device or method for producing carbon allotropes, either fullerenes or nanotubes, containing nitrogen, boron and other elements for the synthesis of novel new materials.

[0157] A system, apparatus or method capable of isolating and separating radioisotope oxides from contaminated water.

[0158] A system, apparatus, or method capable of isolating and separating MgO, Cu2S, CuO, H2S, Mg(OH)2, and ZnS into their elemental forms.

[0159] A system, apparatus or method is capable of forming a carbon material that acts as a lubricant when mixed with sand, which when acting as a lubricant with the sand increases penetration into cracks in the rock.

[0160] A system, apparatus or method capable of forming an allotrope of carbon that can be mixed with a putty to produce a conformal thermally conductive material for matting irregular high temperature surfaces to act as a thermal or electrical pathway for a thermoelectric generating device.

[0161] A system, apparatus or method capable of forming an allotrope of carbon that can be mixed with asphalt to heat road and bridge surfaces to reduce the need for de-icing and salting, and to provide increased strength and potential electrical connectivity to roads and bridges, particularly for bridges and walkways.

[0162] A system, device or method for producing any carbon allotrope of fullerenes and / or their derivatives, which carbon allotropes are used to produce imaging agents combined with barium or iodine for radiological purposes.

[0163] A system, device, or method for producing carbon allotropes of any of fullerenes and / or their derivatives, which produce carbon materials for intercalation with elements to make electrodes, cathodes, anodes, batteries, and other electronic components.

[0164] A system, apparatus or method for producing carbon allotropes of either fullerenes and / or their derivatives from power plant emissions that can be combined with existing scrubbing processes that use calcium compounds that react with sulfur oxides to form gypsum, producing a bound gypsum carbon product that is superior to gypsum.

[0165] Thus, the present invention can be described by the following non-limiting embodiments.

[0166] An apparatus for removing compounds from a fluid medium and converting at least a portion of the compounds to elemental substances includes an electrode bed including a plurality of conductive electrode needles protruding from a surface of the electrode bed, the electrode needles being coupled to a voltage source; and a water overflow panel spaced apart from the electrode needles of the electrode bed and having a surface through which water flows during operation, the electrode needles extending toward the surface of the water overflow panel, and a reaction zone defined as the space between the surface of the water overflow panel and the electrode needles protruding from the electrode bed and separating the surface of the water overflow panel from the electrode needles. The apparatus further includes a water supply source that provides water to flow along the surface of the water overflow panel into the reaction zone, a fluid supply source including an inlet for supplying a source fluid having impurities entrained therein to the reaction zone and an outlet for facilitating flow of a purified fluid from the reaction zone, the purified fluid having fewer impurities entrained therein compared to the source fluid, and a power source for applying electrical energy to the electrode needle at a negative voltage of 30 kilovolts (kV) to 100 kV at a pulse frequency of greater than 24,000 Hertz (Hz). In operation, the power source applies electrical energy to the electrode needle, causing water from the water supply source to flow along the surface of the water overflow panel and the source fluid to flow into the reaction zone, removing impurities entrained in the source fluid and converting them into elemental components that are entrained in the water.

[0167] The device may further include a housing that contains the electrode bed and the water overflow panel, where the water overflow panel and the electrode bed are generally vertically oriented and angled at a height extent of the housing.

[0168] The device may further include a pair of electrode beds and corresponding water overflow panels, where a first electrode bed and corresponding first water overflow panel are disposed on a first side of the housing and a second electrode bed and corresponding second water overflow panel are disposed on a second side of the housing opposite the first side.

[0169] The reaction zone can have a reaction zone width defined as the distance between the electrode needle of the electrode bed and the reaction surface of the water overflow panel facing the electrode needle, the reaction zone width varying along the length of the reaction zone, and in addition, the reaction zone width can decrease in the direction of source fluid flow through the reaction zone.

[0170] The fluid supply may supply source fluid to the reaction zone in a direction opposite to the direction in which the water supply supplies water to the reaction zone.

[0171] The electrode needle of the electrode bed can be coated with a deposition material including one or more of nickel, tungsten, boron, copper, and carbon. For example, the electrode needle of the electrode bed can be coated with nickel in an amount of more than 50% by weight of the deposition material, tungsten in an amount of 3% to 6% by weight of the deposition material, boron in an amount of 1% to 3% by weight of the deposition material, copper in an amount of 0.5% to 1% by weight of the deposition material, and carbon in an amount of 1% to 3.5% by weight of the deposition material.

[0172] The elemental component can include one or more elements selected from the group consisting of carbon, sulfur, nitrogen, lead, iron, and zinc. For example, the elemental component can include allotropes of carbon and / or sulfur.

[0173] The surface of the electrode bed may be planar and / or the surface of the water overflow surface is planar.

[0174] A system may further be provided that includes an apparatus as described herein.

[0175] In an exemplary embodiment, the system includes a housing, a plurality of devices disposed within the housing, each device having an electrode bed arranged to include a plurality of conductive electrode needles protruding from a surface thereof, the electrode needles being coupled to a voltage source, and a water overflow panel spaced from the electrode bed and including a surface along which water flows in operation, the electrode needles extending toward the surface of the water overflow panel, and a reaction zone is defined as a space between the surface of the water overflow panel and the electrode needles protruding from the electrode bed and separating the water overflow panel from the electrode needles. The system includes a water supply source for recirculating a flow of water along the surface of the water overflow panel for each device within the housing, the water supply source further including a reservoir for separating compounds and / or elemental materials from the water before the water is recirculated to the surface of the water overflow panel for each device within the housing, and a fluid supply for providing a source fluid, including impurities entrained in the fluid, to an inlet of each device within the housing for delivery to the reaction zone and treatment by each device within the housing. The system further includes a purified fluid delivery structure for receiving treated and purified fluid from the reaction zone of each device within the housing and facilitating transport of the treated and purified fluid from the housing. In operation, when a voltage source is applied to the electrode needles, water from a water supply source is caused to flow along a surface of the water overflow panel, and the source fluid is caused to flow through the reaction zone, where impurities entrained in the source fluid are removed and converted to elemental components entrained in the water, and the elemental components are separated from the water in the reservoir.

[0176] In this system, the devices can be arranged in parallel with respect to the flow of source fluid to the devices within the housing. The devices can also be arranged in series with respect to the flow of source fluid to the devices within the housing.

[0177] Each device within the housing may further include a pair of electrode beds and corresponding water overflow panels, with a first electrode bed and corresponding first water overflow panel of each device disposed on a first side of the device and a second electrode bed and corresponding second water overflow panel of each device disposed on a second side of the device opposite the first side.

[0178] The system may further include an air curtain structure that blows air toward an inlet of each device that supplies source fluid from a fluid source to direct the source fluid to the first and second sides of each device and to flow to each reaction zone located between a first electrode bed and a corresponding first water overflow panel of each device and each reaction zone located between a second electrode bed and a corresponding second water overflow panel of each device.

[0179] In a further exemplary embodiment, a method for removing compounds from a fluid medium and converting at least some of the compounds into elemental substances comprises: The method includes the steps of: directing water to flow along a surface of a water overflow panel in an apparatus; applying electrical energy to a plurality of conductive electrode needles protruding from a plane of an electrode bed, the electrode bed being aligned with the water overflow panel such that the electrode needles extend toward a surface of the water overflow panel, and a reaction zone being disposed between the surface of the water overflow panel and the electrode needles protruding from the electrode bed, separating the surface of the water overflow panel from the electrode bed; and directing the source fluid into the reaction zone defined between the surface of the water overflow panel and the electrode needles protruding from the electrode bed while applying electrical energy of a negative voltage of 30 kilovolts (kV) to 100 kV at a pulse frequency of greater than 24,000 Hertz (Hz) to the electrode needles to remove impurities entrained in the source fluid and convert the removed impurities into elemental components that are entrained in the water flowing along the surface of the water overflow panel.

[0180] In this method, the elemental component can include one or more elements selected from the group consisting of carbon, sulfur, nitrogen, lead, iron, and zinc. For example, the elemental component can include allotropes of carbon and / or sulfur.

[0181] The method may further include forming hydroxyl radicals with the elemental components while directing the source fluid to the reaction zone while electrical energy is applied to the electrode needle.

[0182] In this method, the electrical energy may further be applied at a pulse frequency in the range of 0.1 MHz to 10 MHz.

[0183] In this method, the surface of the electrode bed may be planar and / or the surface of the water overflow surface is planar.

[0184] All references cited in this specification, including publications, patent applications, and patents, are herein incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each reference was individually and specifically indicated to be incorporated by reference and was set forth in its entirety herein.

[0185] In the context of describing the present invention (particularly in the context of the claims that follow), the use of the terms "a" and "an" and "the" shall be construed to encompass both the singular and the plural, unless expressly stated otherwise herein or clearly contradicted by context. The terms "comprising," "having," "including," and "containing" shall be construed as open-ended terms (i.e., including, but not limited to), unless otherwise noted. The recitation of ranges of values ​​herein is merely intended to serve as a shorthand method of individually referring to each separate value falling within the range, unless expressly stated otherwise herein, and each separate value is incorporated herein as if it were individually set forth herein. All methods described herein can be performed in any suitable order, unless expressly stated otherwise herein or clearly contradicted by context. All examples, or the use of exemplary language (e.g., "such as"), are merely intended to more clearly illustrate the invention and do not limit the scope of the invention. No language in the specification should be construed as indicating any element essential to the practice of the invention that is not claimed.

[0186] Preferred embodiments of the invention are described herein, including the best mode known to the inventors for carrying out the invention. Variations of these preferred embodiments will become apparent to those skilled in the art upon reading the foregoing description. The inventors expect that skilled artisans will adopt such variations as appropriate, and the inventors intend that the invention be practiced otherwise than as specifically described herein. Accordingly, this invention includes all modifications and equivalents of the subject matter recited in the claims appended hereto as permitted by applicable law. Moreover, any combination of the above-described elements in all possible variations thereof is encompassed by the invention unless otherwise indicated herein or clearly contradicted by context.

[0187] It is also intended that the present invention encompass all such modifications and variations of the present invention provided they come within the scope of the appended claims and their equivalents. It should be understood that terms such as top, bottom, front, rear, side, height, length, width, above, below, inside, outside, etc., used herein are merely illustrative of the points of reference and are not intended to limit the present invention to any particular orientation or configuration.

Claims

1. 1. An apparatus for removing a compound from a fluid medium and converting at least a portion of the compound into an elemental substance, the apparatus comprising: an electrode bed including a plurality of conductive electrode needles protruding from a surface of the electrode bed, the electrode needles being coupled to a voltage source; a water overflow panel spaced from the electrode needles of the electrode bed and having a surface through which water flows in operation, the electrode needles extending toward the surface of the water overflow panel, a reaction zone being defined as the space between the surface of the water overflow panel and the electrode needles protruding from the electrode bed and separating the surface of the water overflow panel from the electrode needles; a water source that provides water to flow along a surface of the water overflow panel and into the reaction zone; a fluid supply including an inlet for supplying a source fluid having entrained impurities to the reaction zone and an outlet for facilitating flow of a purified fluid from the reaction zone, the purified fluid having reduced entrained impurities compared to the source fluid; a power source for applying electrical energy to the electrode needle at a negative voltage of 30 kilovolts (kV) to 100 kV at a pulse frequency of greater than 24,000 Hertz (Hz); Including, In an operation in which electrical energy is applied to the electrode needle by the power source, water from the water supply is caused to flow along the surface of the water overflow panel, the source fluid is caused to flow into the reaction zone, and impurities mixed into the source fluid are removed and converted into elemental components which are mixed into the water.

2. 10. The apparatus of claim 1, further comprising a housing containing said electrode bed and said water overflow panel, said water overflow panel and said electrode bed being generally vertically oriented and angled at a height extent of the housing.

3. 3. The device of claim 1 or 2, further comprising a pair of electrode beds and corresponding water overflow panels, a first electrode bed and corresponding first water overflow panel disposed on a first side of the housing and a second electrode bed and corresponding second water overflow panel disposed on a second side of the housing opposite the first side.

4. 4. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the reaction zone can have a reaction zone width defined as the distance between the electrode needle of the electrode bed and the reaction surface of the water overflow panel facing the electrode needle, the width of the reaction zone varying along the length of the reaction zone.

5. 5. The apparatus of claim 4, wherein the width of the reaction zone decreases in the direction of flow of the source fluid through the reaction zone.

6. 6. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the fluid supply supplies the source fluid to the reaction zone in a direction opposite to the direction in which the water supply supplies water to the reaction zone.

7. 7. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the electrode needles of the electrode bed are coated with a deposition material including one or more of nickel, tungsten, boron, copper and carbon.

8. The apparatus according to any one of claims 1 to 7, characterized in that the electrode needles of the electrode bed are coated with a deposition material comprising nickel in an amount of more than 50% by weight of the deposition material, tungsten in an amount of 3% to 6% by weight of the deposition material, boron in an amount of 1% to 3% by weight of the deposition material, copper in an amount of 0.5% to 1% by weight of the deposition material, and carbon in an amount of 1% to 3.5% by weight of the deposition material.

9. 9. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the elemental constituents include one or more elements selected from the group consisting of carbon, sulfur, nitrogen, lead, iron, and zinc.

10. 10. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the elemental components include allotropes of carbon and / or sulfur.

11. 11. An apparatus according to any one of claims 1 to 10, characterized in that the surface of the electrode bed is planar and / or the surface of the water overflow surface is planar.

12. A system including an apparatus according to any one of claims 1 to 11.

13. 1. A system comprising: Housing and a plurality of devices disposed within the housing, each device comprising: an electrode bed arranged to include a plurality of conductive electrode needles protruding from a surface thereof, the electrode needles being coupled to a voltage source; a water overflow panel spaced from the electrode bed and including a surface along which water flows in operation, the electrode needles extending toward the surface of the water overflow panel, a reaction zone being defined as a space between the surface of the water overflow panel and the electrode needles projecting from the electrode bed and separating the water overflow panel from the electrode needles; An apparatus comprising: a water supply source for recirculating a flow of water along a surface of the water overflow panel for each device in the housing, the water supply source further including a reservoir for separating chemical compounds and / or elemental materials from the water before recirculating the water to the surface of the water overflow panel for each device in the housing; a fluid supply source for supplying a source fluid, including impurities entrained in the fluid, to an inlet of each device in the housing, so that the source fluid is fed into the reaction zone and processed by each device in the housing; a purified fluid delivery structure for receiving treated and purified fluid from the reaction zone of each device within the housing and facilitating transport of the treated and purified fluid out of the housing; Including, A system characterized in that, in operation when a voltage source is applied to the electrode needle, water from the water supply is caused to flow along the surface of the water overflow panel, the source fluid is caused to flow through the reaction zone, impurities entrained in the source fluid are removed and converted into elemental components which are mixed into the water, and the elemental components are separated from the water in the reservoir.

14. The system of claim 13 , wherein the devices are arranged in parallel with respect to the flow of the source fluid to the devices within the housing.

15. 15. The system of claim 13 or 14, wherein the devices are arranged in series with respect to the flow of the source fluid to the devices within the housing.

16. 16. The system of any one of claims 13 to 15, wherein each device within the housing further includes a pair of electrode beds and a corresponding water overflow panel, a first electrode bed and a corresponding first water overflow panel of each device being disposed on a first side of the device, and a second electrode bed and a corresponding second water overflow panel of each device being disposed on a second side of the device opposite the first side.

17. 17. The system of claim 16, further comprising an air curtain structure for blowing air toward the inlet of each device that supplies source fluid from the fluid source to direct the source fluid to the first and second sides of each device and to flow to each reaction zone located between the first electrode bed and the corresponding first water overflow panel of each device and each reaction zone located between the second electrode bed and the corresponding second water overflow panel of each device.

18. 1. A method for removing compounds from a fluid medium and converting at least some of the compounds into elemental substances, the method comprising: directing water to flow along a surface of a water overflow panel within the apparatus; applying electrical energy to a plurality of conductive electrode needles protruding from a plane of an electrode bed, the electrode bed being aligned with the water overflow panel such that the electrode needles extend toward a surface of the water overflow panel, and a reaction zone being disposed between the surface of the water overflow panel and the electrode needles protruding from the electrode bed, separating the surface of the water overflow panel from the electrode bed; and directing the source fluid into the reaction zone defined between a surface of the water overflow panel and the electrode needle protruding from the electrode bed while applying electrical energy to the electrode needle at a negative voltage of 30 kilovolts (kV) to 100 kV at a pulse frequency of greater than 24,000 Hertz (Hz) to remove impurities entrained in the source fluid and convert the removed impurities into elemental components that become entrained in the water flowing along the surface of the water overflow panel.

19. 20. The method of claim 18, wherein the elemental constituents include one or more elements selected from the group consisting of carbon, sulfur, nitrogen, lead, iron, and zinc.

20. 20. The method of claim 18 or 19, wherein the elemental components include allotropes of carbon and / or sulfur.

21. 21. The method of any one of claims 18 to 20, further comprising forming hydroxyl radicals with elemental components while directing the source fluid into the reaction zone while electrical energy is applied to the electrode needle.

22. 22. The method of any one of claims 18 to 21, wherein the electrical energy is further applied at a pulse frequency in the range of 0.1 MHz to 10 MHz.

23. 23. A method according to any one of claims 18 to 22, wherein the surface of the electrode bed is planar and / or the surface of the water overflow surface is planar.

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