Encapsulated perovskite modules and solar cells containing same

Abstract

Silicon solar modules, perovskite solar modules, and tandem silicon-perovskite solar modules are provided, each including one or more transparent layers that are UV-curable. In one aspect, a solar module is described. The solar module includes a material including a UV-curable compound and several layers including a first layer of material, a first substrate layer including glass, and perovskite solar cells having a first bandgap, the perovskite solar cells being between the first layer of material and the first substrate layer. In some examples, the compound can be a resin or an acrylate-based composition.

Description

[Technical Field]

[0001] The present invention is featured in the field of solar cells, for example, perovskite solar cells (PVSCs) and tandem solar cells. [Background technology]

[0002] Solar cells, also known as photovoltaic cells, are optoelectronic devices that convert light into electricity using the photovoltaic effect. Silicon solar cells are capable of converting light in the wavelength range of approximately 300 nanometers ("nm") to 1100 nm into electricity. However, as the wavelength of light decreases from 1100 nm, the conversion efficiency of silicon solar cells decreases significantly. Furthermore, silicon solar cells cannot convert light with wavelengths greater than approximately 1100 nm into electricity because such photons do not have the energy required to overcome the band gap of silicon.

[0003] In a tandem solar cell, two individual solar cells are stacked on top of each other, with the top cell absorbing incident light and the bottom cell absorbing residual light that is transmitted through the top cell. The bottom cell can be a silicon solar cell, and the top cell can be composed of a different material. The top cell can have a higher bandgap than the silicon solar cell. Therefore, the top cell can be able to efficiently convert shorter wavelengths of light into electricity. The top cell can transmit longer wavelengths of light, allowing the underlying silicon solar cell to absorb and convert such longer wavelengths into electricity. In this way, the tandem solar cell can generate electricity over a wider range of wavelengths of light with a higher conversion efficiency than either individual cell. [Prior art documents] [Patent documents]

[0004] [Patent Document 1] International application number PCT / US2021 / 051465 [Patent Document 2] International Publication No. 2022 / 066707 Summary of the Invention [Problem to be solved by the invention]

[0005] Generally, solar cells are susceptible to environmental influences, including ambient ultraviolet (UV) light, water exposure, high temperatures, and other environmental effects that can degrade the performance of solar cells if not mitigated. However, the service life of encapsulants intended to protect solar cells is often compromised by similar phenomena, such as the interaction between moisture absorption, oxygen, and UV radiation from sunlight. In high-grade solar cells, poor quality encapsulants can be a bottleneck to long product life and conversion efficiency. Therefore, there is a need for improved systems, materials, and methods for protecting and encapsulating solar cells. [Means for solving the problem]

[0006] The present disclosure describes silicon solar modules, perovskite solar modules, and tandem silicon-perovskite solar modules, each including one or more transparent layers that are ultraviolet (UV) curable. Methods for manufacturing such solar modules are also described.

[0007] As used herein, a UV-curable compound refers to a material that can be cured (e.g., solidified) when exposed to UV light of a suitable intensity. Photopolymers, such as light-activatable resins and acrylate-based compositions, are types of UV-curable compounds that can be particularly useful in solar cell applications. Photopolymers typically contain multifunctional monomers, oligomers, or both, which polymerize in the presence of UV light, resulting in an increase in the viscosity of the photopolymer. Photopolymers may also be doped with one or more photoinitiators (e.g., free-radical or ionic photoinitiators) that create reactive species when exposed to UV light and activate the polymerization process during curing.

[0008] Upon curing, UV-curable compounds can act as adhesives, coatings, and encapsulants for various solar module configurations, such as silicon solar modules, perovskite solar modules, tandem silicon-perovskite solar modules, and the like. UV-curable compounds generally provide, among other features, surface passivation and enhanced throughput of solar modules. UV-curable compounds can be laminated or combined in blends with other transparent encapsulants, such as silicones, thermoplastic polyolefins (TPOs), poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), and the like, to improve multiple solar module performance metrics without significantly modifying the manufacturing process.

[0009] The tandem silicon-perovskite solar module described herein is a solar module composed of two solar modules stacked together. The solar module includes a silicon solar cell and a perovskite solar cell, and the perovskite solar cell is usually stacked on top of the silicon solar cell. That is, when installed, sunlight first enters the perovskite solar cell. Perovskite solar cells generally have a higher bandgap than silicon solar cells. For example, perovskite solar cells may have a bandgap of about 1.7 electron volts ("eV"), while silicon solar cells have a bandgap of about 1.1 eV. Therefore, perovskite solar cells can efficiently convert shorter wavelength light into electricity. Perovskite solar cells can transmit longer wavelength light, allowing the underlying silicon solar cells to absorb such longer wavelength light and convert it into electricity. Taken together, perovskite solar cells and silicon solar cells can convert a broader spectrum of light into electricity more efficiently than a single solar cell, and for example, a tandem solar module may have lower thermalization losses than a single solar module, resulting in higher overall spectral efficiency. The addition of perovskite solar cells can improve the resulting solar module by reducing cost, improving performance per module mass, improving overall module performance, and the like.

[0010] The silicon solar cells can be monocrystalline or polycrystalline silicon solar cells. The silicon solar cells can be components of conventional solar panels. The solar panel can have a backsheet on which the silicon solar cells are disposed. An encapsulant can cover the top of the silicon solar cells to protect the silicon solar cells from exposure to dust and moisture.

[0011] The perovskite solar cells can be disposed on the bottom surface of the top glass sheet. This differs from the configuration of conventional tandem solar modules, in which perovskite cells are disposed directly on top of a silicon wafer. Disposing the perovskite solar cells on the bottom surface of the top glass sheet allows manufacturers to incorporate perovskite solar cells into conventional silicon solar panels without re-machining or process modifications. Instead, manufacturers simply replace the conventional glass sheets with perovskite glass sheets. In this disclosure, the perovskite glass sheets or perovskite-on-glass may be referred to as the "active glass."

[0012] The UV-curable compound can be deposited on the top surface of the top glass sheet, the bottom surface of the perovskite solar cell, or both. The UV-curable compound can be applied to the perovskite glass sheet before or after the perovskite solar cell is assembled into a tandem solar module and subsequently cured using UV light. The UV-curable layer can provide UV protection, encapsulation, passivation, and improved throughput for the tandem module. The UV-curable compound can also be deposited on the top surface of the perovskite solar cell, between the mating surface of the perovskite solar cell and the top glass sheet. This can passivate the top surface of the perovskite cell, which is exposed to sunlight, further improving the performance of the tandem module. In some cases, the encapsulant covering the top of the silicon solar cell can be replaced with the UV-curable compound or combined in a mixture with the UV-curable compound.

[0013] A perovskite solar cell includes a first transparent conducting oxide ("TCO") layer that can be deposited on a top glass sheet, a hole transport layer ("HTL") deposited on the first TCO layer, a perovskite layer deposited on the HTL, an electron transport layer ("ETL") deposited on the perovskite layer, and a second TCO layer deposited on the ETL. The first and second TCO layers can serve as terminals of the perovskite solar cell. The ETL and HTL facilitate electron and hole transport, respectively, while inhibiting hole and electron transport, respectively. The perovskite layer can absorb light and generate charge carriers, resulting in a voltage and current across the terminals of the perovskite solar cell.

[0014] The perovskite solar cells and silicon solar cells may be electrically isolated from each other, with each cell having its own terminal. That is, the tandem solar module may be a four-terminal module. The perovskite solar cells and silicon solar cells may be connected directly or in parallel by connecting the terminals in an appropriate manner. When connected in series, the perovskite solar cells and silicon solar cells may be current-matched. When connected in parallel, the perovskite solar cells and silicon solar cells may be voltage-matched.

[0015] These features, as well as other features related to silicon solar modules, perovskite solar modules, tandem silicon-perovskite solar modules, and the encapsulation of such modules described herein, are summarized below.

[0016] In general, in a first aspect, the disclosure features a solar module that includes a material that includes a UV-curable compound and several layers that include a first layer of material, a first substrate layer that includes glass, and a perovskite solar cell having a first bandgap, the perovskite solar cell being between the first layer of material and the first substrate layer.

[0017] In some examples, the compound can be a resin or an acrylate-based composition. In some examples, the substance can be comprised of the compound. In other examples, the substance can further include an encapsulant.

[0018] Implementations of the solar module may include one or more of the following features and / or features of other aspects. For example, the solar module may include an edge seal surrounding one or more of the layers. The edge seal may include a material. In some examples, the edge seal is comprised of a material.

[0019] The layer may further include a second layer of material, with the first substrate layer between the second layer of material and the perovskite solar cell. The layer may further include a second substrate layer comprising glass or a backsheet, with the second substrate layer being the outermost layer of the layers. The layer may further include an encapsulant layer between the first layer of material and the second substrate layer.

[0020] The perovskite solar cell may include a photoactive perovskite layer. The perovskite solar cell may further include a first transparent conductive oxide (TCO) layer and a second TCO layer, with the photoactive perovskite layer between the first and second TCO layers. The first and second TCO layers may be terminals of the perovskite solar cell. The perovskite solar cell may include several segments separated by several sets of scribe lines. Each set of scribe lines may include P1, P2, and P3 scribe lines. A first layer of material may fill each set of scribe lines. The perovskite solar cell may further include a hole transport layer (HTL), with the HTL between the first TCO layer and the photoactive perovskite layer. The perovskite solar cell may further include an electron transport layer (ETL), with the ETL between the second TCO layer and the photoactive perovskite layer.

[0021] The first band gap can be in the range of 1.5 electron volts (eV) to 1.9 eV.

[0022] The layer may further include a silicon solar cell having a second bandgap different from the first bandgap, the first layer of material being between the perovskite solar cell and the silicon solar cell.

[0023] The material may have a refractive index of 1.5 or greater. The material may transmit visible light. The material may absorb ultraviolet light.

[0024] Solar modules may have a transmission efficiency of less than 100% for light having wavelengths of 350 nanometers (nm) or less.

[0025] Another aspect of the present disclosure provides methods of fabricating and manufacturing the devices and components described above and elsewhere in this disclosure.

[0026] Among other benefits, the ultraviolet (UV) curable encapsulation of the examples of the present disclosure can improve the reliability of solar cells, for example, extending the product life of the solar cells, maintaining the conversion efficiency of the solar cells above a threshold amount, or both. Examples of UV-curable compounds that can be used in the UV-curable encapsulation include photopolymers, such as photoactivatable resins and acrylate-based compositions that are curable (e.g., polymerizable) by UV light.

[0027] Resins (e.g., epoxy resins) are reactive polymers that can be useful in device fabrication and surface finishing. For example, resins can act as adhesives to bond two surfaces, passivate surfaces, and provide protective coatings to surfaces. Uncured resins typically exist in liquid form, which can facilitate simplified application of the resin during various manufacturing processes. Resin curing (e.g., UV curing) refers to a solidification process in which the viscosity of the resin increases. Resins can be cured into a solid form or an intermediate form between liquid and solid, such as a highly viscous liquid form or a gel form.

[0028] Acrylates are monomers and / or oligomers that can be rapidly polymerized into polyacrylate polymers. For example, an acrylate-based composition containing an acrylate monomer and a photoinitiator can be cured to form polyacrylate by exposure to UV light, which initiates polymerization.

[0029] UV-curable compounds may have several advantages over compounds cured using other techniques, particularly for solar cell applications (e.g., tandem solar cells). For example, UV-curable compounds are curable by UV light, whereas traditional epoxy resins, for example, generally involve exothermic or endothermic curing processes. Exothermic and endothermic curing can involve (or result in) sufficient heat to thermally degrade the solar cell and other components of the solar module. Furthermore, traditional epoxies often contain one or more co-reactants (e.g., hardeners or curatives) to accelerate curing. Therefore, careful consideration of the co-reactant mixture may be essential for optimal epoxy cure. In contrast, UV-curable compounds can be single-component adhesives that can be applied to solar cells (e.g., at low viscosity) and then cured (e.g., solidified) once applied. UV-curable compounds can also be combined into mixtures with one or more additives (e.g., other encapsulants) that accelerate UV curing, which may improve the performance of the mixture. Furthermore, UV-curable compounds can have significantly shorter cure times compared to conventional epoxy resins (e.g., seconds or minutes versus hours or days), while also providing UV protection by reflecting and / or absorbing UV light. Because the product life of solar cells is severely compromised by environmental and UV degradation, UV-curable compounds with these aforementioned characteristics are advantageous for industrial-scale solar cell manufacturing, particularly with respect to surface bonding, surface passivation, encapsulation, and sealing.

[0030] UV-curable compounds can be particularly effective in tandem solar cells, which involve the hybridization of two separate solar cells. In tandem silicon-perovskite solar cells, optical losses at the interface between the perovskite and silicon solar cells and recombination losses in any of the layers of the two cells can result in reduced conversion efficiency. A UV-curable layer sandwiched between the perovskite and silicon cells can significantly reduce optical losses and increase conversion efficiency. In particular, the UV-curable layer can increase light transmission in useful portions of the spectrum (e.g., visible and infrared) that can be effectively converted to electricity by the solar cell. The UV-curable layer can also improve surface passivation on both sides of the perovskite solar cell, reducing the likelihood of the perovskite solar cell reacting with its surroundings.

[0031] In some examples, the UV-cured layer can have a relatively high refractive index (e.g., about 1.5 or greater). When the UV-cured layer is stacked between a perovskite solar cell and a silicon solar cell in a tandem cell, the UV-cured layer can minimize the abrupt change in refractive index between the two cells. This increases light transmission from the perovskite solar cell to the silicon solar cell by reducing light reflection at the interface. The increased light throughput can lead to more efficient conversion of photons to electrical energy. Furthermore, the UV-cured layer improves the reliability of one or both of the cells by mitigating damage from UV exposure, improving structural stability, and passivating their surfaces.

[0032] Multiple UV-curable layers can be deposited in multiple locations within a perovskite solar module, a silicon solar module, or a tandem silicon-perovskite solar module. For example, a UV-curable layer can be deposited on the substrate side of a solar cell, on the electrode side, between two cells in a tandem module, stacked with a conventional encapsulant, or a combination thereof. The UV-curable compound can also completely encapsulate multiple layers of a solar module, such as the solar cells of the module and the substrate on which the solar cells are disposed.

[0033] The UV curable compounds can be integrated into standard encapsulants in solar panel encapsulation and manufacturing level solutions where packaging functions as a protective layer and the UV curable compounds provide bonding, surface passivation, and UV protection.

[0034] The UV curable compound can be in liquid form, solid form, or a combination of both if multiple layers of UV curable compound are utilized.

[0035] Although examples of UV-curable encapsulants are described with respect to perovskite solar modules, silicon solar modules, and tandem perovskite-silicon solar modules, the UV-curable encapsulant is not limited to such. The UV-curable encapsulants described herein can be used in any solar cell application to improve solar cell performance and mitigate environmental, UV light, and other forms of degradation.

[0036]

[0013] Further aspects and advantages of the present disclosure will become readily apparent to those skilled in the art from the following detailed description, wherein only illustrative embodiments of the present disclosure are shown and described. As will be realized, the present disclosure is capable of other and different embodiments, and its several details are capable of modifications in various obvious respects, all without departing from the present disclosure. Accordingly, the drawings and description are to be regarded as illustrative in nature, and not as restrictive.

[0037] Incorporation by Reference All publications, patents, and patent applications mentioned in this specification are herein incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each individual publication, patent, or patent application was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference. To the extent that additional publications and patents or patent applications incorporated by reference conflict with the present disclosure contained herein, it is intended that the present specification shall take precedence and / or control over any such conflicting matter. [Brief explanation of the drawings]

[0038] [Figure 1A]FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of a tandem four-terminal silicon-perovskite solar cell module including multiple ultraviolet (UV) cured layers, according to an embodiment. [Figure 1B] FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of a perovskite solar cell according to an embodiment. [Figure 2] FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of a perovskite solar module having a UV-cured layer to protect scribe lines, according to an embodiment. [Figure 3] 1 is a flowchart of a fabrication method for forming a perovskite photovoltaic cell, according to an embodiment. [Figure 4] 4 is a flowchart of operation 310 of FIG. 3 according to an embodiment. [Figure 5] 4 is a flowchart of operation 340 of FIG. 3 according to an embodiment. [Figure 6] 4 is a flowchart of operation 350 of FIG. 3 according to an embodiment. [Figure 7] 4 is a flowchart of operation 360 of FIG. 3 according to an embodiment. [Figure 8A] 1A-1D are schematic diagrams of various perovskite solar modules with different UV-curable encapsulations according to some embodiments. [Figure 8B] 1A-1D are schematic diagrams of various perovskite solar modules with different UV-curable encapsulations according to some embodiments. [Figure 8C] 1A-1D are schematic diagrams of various perovskite solar modules with different UV-curable encapsulations according to some embodiments. [Figure 8D] 1A-1D are schematic diagrams of various perovskite solar modules with different UV-curable encapsulations according to some embodiments. [Figure 9A] 1 is a schematic diagram of a UV cured layer deposited on a glass substrate onto which UV light is incident, according to an embodiment. [Figure 9B] 1 is a graph showing the transmission efficiency of a perovskite solar cell as a function of wavelength, according to an embodiment. [Figure 10A] 1A-1C are photographs of perovskite solar modules without and with a UV curing layer, respectively, after stress testing, according to some embodiments; [Figure 10B] 1A-1C are photographs of perovskite solar modules without and with a UV curing layer, respectively, after stress testing, according to some embodiments; [Figure 11A] 1 is a graph showing the performance of perovskite solar modules without and with a UV curing layer, respectively, during stress testing at 75° C., according to some embodiments; [Figure 11B] 1 is a graph showing the performance of perovskite solar modules without and with a UV curing layer, respectively, during stress testing at 75° C., according to some embodiments; [Figure 12A] 1 is a graph showing the performance of various perovskite solar modules during long-term reliability testing at 85° C. and 85% relative humidity (85° C. / 85%), according to some embodiments. [Figure 12B] 1 is a graph showing the performance of various perovskite solar modules during long-term reliability testing at 85° C. and 85% relative humidity (85° C. / 85%), according to some embodiments. [Figure 12C] 1 is a graph showing the performance of various perovskite solar modules during long-term reliability testing at 85° C. and 85% relative humidity (85° C. / 85%), according to some embodiments. [Figure 13] 1 is a flowchart of a fabrication method for forming a perovskite layer according to an embodiment. [Figure 14] 1 is a flowchart of a method for manufacturing a tandem solar module, according to an embodiment. [Figure 15] FIG. 1 illustrates a computer system programmed or otherwise configured to implement the methods provided herein, according to an embodiment. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

[0039] While various embodiments of the present invention have been shown and described herein, it will be obvious to those skilled in the art that such embodiments are provided by way of example only. Numerous variations, changes, and substitutions may occur to those skilled in the art without departing from the invention. It should be understood that various alternatives to the embodiments of the invention described herein may be used.

[0040] When the terms "at least," "greater than," or "greater than or equal to" precede the first number in a series of two or more numbers, the terms "at least," "greater than," or "greater than or equal to" always apply to each and every number in the series. For example, 1, 2, or 3 or more is equivalent to 1 or more, 2 or more, or 3 or more.

[0041] When the terms "no more than," "less than," or "less than or equal to" precede the first number in a series of two or more numbers, the terms "no more than," "less than," or "less than or equal to" always apply to each number in the series. For example, 3, 2, or 1 or less is equivalent to 3 or less, 2 or less, or 1 or less.

[0042] The term "solar cell," as used herein, generally refers to a device that uses the photovoltaic effect to generate electricity from light.

[0043] The term "tandem" as used herein refers to a solar module in which two solar cells are stacked on top of each other.

[0044] The term "four terminal" as used herein refers to a tandem solar module in which the top and bottom solar cells each have two connectable terminals.

[0045] The term "perovskite," as used herein, generally refers to materials having a crystal structure similar to calcium titanate and suitable for use in perovskite solar cells. The general chemical formula for perovskite materials is ABX3. Examples of perovskite materials include methylammonium lead trihalide (i.e., CEENHaPbX3, where X is a halide ion such as iodide, bromide, or chloride) and formamidinium lead trihalide (i.e., EENCElNEhPbX3, where X is a halide ion such as iodide, bromide, or chloride).

[0046] The term "single crystal silicon," as used herein, generally refers to silicon that has a homogeneous crystalline structure throughout the material. The orientation, lattice parameters, and electronic properties of single crystal silicon may be constant throughout the material. Single crystal silicon may be doped, for example, with phosphorus or boron to make it n-type or p-type silicon, respectively.

[0047] The term "polycrystalline silicon," as used herein, generally refers to silicon having an irregular grain structure.

[0048] The term "passivated emitter rear contact (PERC) solar cell," as used herein, generally refers to a solar cell that has an additional dielectric layer on the back side of the solar cell. This dielectric layer may act to reflect unabsorbed light back to the back side of the solar cell for a second absorption, further passivating the back side of the solar cell and increasing the efficiency of the solar cell.

[0049] The term "heterojunction solar cell with thin intrinsic layer (HIT) solar cell," as used herein, generally refers to a solar cell constructed of a single crystalline silicon wafer surrounded by an ultrathin layer of amorphous silicon. One amorphous silicon layer may be n-type doped and the other may be p-type doped.

[0050] The term "interdigitated back-contact cell (IBC)," as used herein, generally refers to a solar cell in which two or more electrical contacts are disposed on the back side of the solar cell (e.g., opposite the incident light). The two or more electrical contacts may be disposed adjacent alternating n-type and p-type doped regions of the solar cell. The IBC may include a high-quality absorbing material configured to allow carrier transport over long distances.

[0051] The terms "bandgap" and "band gap," as used herein, generally refer to the energy difference between the top of the valence band and the bottom of the conduction band in a material.

[0052] The term "electron transport layer" ("ETL"), as used herein, generally refers to a layer of material that promotes electron transport and inhibits hole transport in a solar cell. In the ETL, electrons are the majority carriers and holes are the minority carriers. The ETL can be made of one or more n-type layers. The one or more n-type layers can include an n-type exciton blocking layer. The n-type exciton blocking layer can have a wider bandgap than the photoactive layer (e.g., perovskite layer) of the solar cell, as well as a conduction band that closely matches the conduction band of the photoactive layer. This allows electrons to easily pass from the photoactive layer to the ETL.

[0053] The n-type layer can be a metal oxide, metal sulfide, metal selenide, metal telluride, amorphous silicon, n-type Group IV semiconductor (e.g., germanium), n-type Group III-V semiconductor (e.g., gallium arsenide), n-type Group II-VI semiconductor (e.g., cadmium selenide), n-type Group I-VII semiconductor (e.g., cuprous chloride), n-type Group IV-VI semiconductor (e.g., lead selenide), n-type Group V-VI semiconductor (e.g., bismuth telluride), or n-type Group II-V semiconductor (e.g., cadmium arsenide), any of which may be doped (e.g., with phosphorus, arsenic, or antimony) or undoped. The metal oxide can be an oxide of titanium, tin, zinc, niobium, tantalum, tungsten, indium, gallium, neodymium, palladium, cadmium, or a mixture of two or more of such metals. The metal sulfide can be a sulfide of cadmium, tin, copper, zinc, or a mixture of two or more of such metals. The metal selenide can be a selenide of cadmium, zinc, indium, gallium, or a mixture of two or more of such metals. The metal telluride can be a telluride of cadmium, zinc, cadmium, or tin, or a mixture of two or more of such metals. Alternatively, other n-type materials can be used, including organic and polymeric electron-transporting materials and electrolytes. Suitable examples include, but are not limited to, organic electron-transporting materials, including fullerenes or fullerene derivatives (e.g., phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester, C60, etc.), or perylene or its derivatives.

[0054] The term "hole transport layer" ("HTL"), as used herein, generally refers to a layer of material that promotes hole transport and inhibits electron transport in a solar cell. In the HTL, holes are the majority carriers and electrons are the minority carriers. The HTL can be made of one or more p-type layers. The one or more p-type layers can include a p-type exciton blocking layer. A p-type exciton blocking layer generally has a valence band that closely matches the valence band of the photoactive layer (e.g., perovskite layer) of the solar cell. This allows holes to easily pass from the photoactive layer to the HTL.

[0055] The p-type layer can be made of a molecular hole transporter, a polymeric hole transporter, or a copolymer hole transporter. For example, the p-type layer can be one or more of nickel oxide, thiophenyl, phenelenyl, dithiazolyl, benzothiazolyl, diketopyrrolopyrrolyl, ethoxydithiophenyl, amino, triphenylamino, carbozolyl, ethylenedioxythiophenyl, dioxythiophenyl, or fluorenyl. Additionally or alternatively, the p-type layer may be formed from spiro-OMeTAD (2,2',7,7'-tetrakis-(N,N-di-p-methoxyphenylamine)-9,9'-spirobifluorene)), P3HT (poly(3-hexylthiophene)), PCPDTBT (poly[2,1,3-benzothiadiazole-4,7-diyl[4,4-bis(2-ethylhexyl)-4H-cyclopenta[2,1-b:3,4-b']dithiophene-2,6-diyl]]), PVK (poly(N-vinylcarbazole)), poly(3-hexylthiophene), poly[N,N-diphenyl-4-methoxyphenylamine] phenylethynyl], sexithiophene, 9,10-bis(phenylethynyl)anthracene, 5,12-bis(phenylethynyl)naphthacene, diindenoperylene, 9,10-diphenylanthracene, PEDOT-TMA, PEDOT:PSS, perfluoropentacene, perylene, poly(p-phenylene oxide), poly(p-phenylene sulfide), quinacridone, rubrene, 4-(dimethylamino)benzaldehyde diphenylhydrazone, 4-(dibenzylamino)benzaldehyde-N,N-diphenylhydrazone, or phthalocyanine.

[0056] The term "ultraviolet (UV) curable compound," as used herein, generally refers to a material that can be cured under exposure to UV light of suitable intensity. Examples of UV curable compounds include photopolymers that are curable (e.g., polymerizable) by UV light, such as resins, acrylate-based compositions, and the like. UV curable compounds may include one or more photoinitiators (e.g., free radical or ionic photoinitiators) that activate curing when exposed to UV light. Implementations may also include mixtures of such UV curable compounds. Substances or mixtures suitable for UV curable encapsulation may include various concentrations of one or more UV curable compounds and one or more additives (e.g., other encapsulants). Examples of additives include resins (e.g., epoxy resins, photocured epoxy resins, and optically clear resins (OCR)), optically clear adhesives (OCA), silicones, cyclized perfluoropolymers, ethylene-vinyl-acetate (EVA), ethylene methyl acrylate (EMA), thermoplastic polyolefins (TPO), thermoplastic polyurethanes (TPU), thermoplastic elastomers (TPE), polyvinyl butyral (PVB), polyisobutylene (PIB), polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), acrylic compounds (e.g., poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), paraffin, and thermoset epoxy resins), organic-inorganic hybrid materials (ORMOCER (ORM)), and other organic materials.

[0057] Although UV-curable encapsulation is described herein with respect to silicon solar modules, perovskite solar modules, and silicon-perovskite tandem solar modules, the methods and devices of the present disclosure can be used with other solar cells (e.g., gallium arsenide (GaAs) solar cells) and tandem combinations of such solar cells. For example, the tandem solar module can be a tandem cadmium telluride (CdTe)-perovskite solar cell. In another example, the tandem solar module can be a dye-sensitized solar cell-perovskite solar cell.

[0058] 1A schematically illustrates a tandem four-terminal silicon-perovskite solar module 100. The solar module 100 includes a first UV-curable layer 205-1, a top glass sheet 105, perovskite solar cells 240, a second UV-curable layer 205-2, silicon solar cells 140, and a backsheet 145. Generally, the UV-curable layer 205 is formed by curing a layer of material that includes a UV-curable compound, which may occur in one or more steps of a manufacturing process. Examples of such processes are described in more detail elsewhere herein.

[0059] The first UV-cured layer 205-1 may be deposited on the top surface of the top glass sheet 105 and may inhibit the transmission of UV light through the solar module 100 by absorbing and / or reflecting UV light. As a result, less UV light reaches the lower layers of the solar module 100 compared to a solar module without the UV-cured layer 205-1. The UV-cured layer 205-1 may therefore protect the lower layers of the solar module 100, including the perovskite solar cells 240, the silicon solar cells 140, or both, from UV light degradation. In some embodiments, the first UV-cured layer 205-1 (or an additional UV-cured layer) may be deposited on the bottom surface of the top glass sheet 105, which may passivate the upper surface of the perovskite solar cells 240.

[0060] The top glass sheet 105, in combination with the first UV-curable layer 205-1, can protect the underlying layers of the solar module 100 from dust and moisture. The top glass sheet 105, and the entire solar module 100, can have a form factor corresponding to a conventional silicon solar panel. For example, the top glass sheet 105 can have a form factor corresponding to a 32-cell, 36-cell, 48-cell, 60-cell, 72-cell, 96-cell, or 144-cell silicon solar panel. The top glass sheet 105 can have a thickness of at least about 2.0 millimeters (mm), 2.5 mm, 3.0 mm, 3.5 mm, 4.0 mm, 4.5 mm, 5.0 mm, or more. The top glass sheet 105 can have a thickness of up to about 5.0 mm, 4.5 mm, 4.0 mm, 3.5 mm, 3.0 mm, 2.5 mm, 2.0 mm, or less. The top glass sheet 105 can be transparent to allow light to reach the underlying solar cells. In some cases, the top surface of the top glass sheet 105 may be coated with magnesium fluoride (MgF2) and / or polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) (e.g., 1:10 alumina PDMS, textured 1:50 alumina PDMS, or textured PDMS), which generally improves light trapping and refractive index matching. In some embodiments, the top surface of the top glass sheet 105 is coated with an anti-reflective coating to reduce reflection of light within a particular spectral range. Alternatively, or in addition, the bottom surface of the top glass sheet 105 may be textured to allow more light to be scattered toward the back surface of the perovskite solar cell 240.

[0061] FIG. 1B schematically illustrates a perovskite solar cell 240 of the solar module 100 shown in FIG. 1A. The perovskite solar cell 240 includes a first transparent conducting oxide (TCO) layer 110, a hole transport layer (HTL) 115, a perovskite layer 120, an electron transport layer (ETL) 125, and a second TCO layer 130. The perovskite solar cell 240 can be disposed on the bottom surface of the top glass sheet 105 by the fabrication method described in FIGS. 3-7. Further details regarding such fabrication methods are described in International Application No. PCT / US2021 / 051465, entitled "Methods and Devices for Integrated Tandem Solar Module Fabrication," filed September 22, 2021, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for all purposes.

[0062] Perovskite solar cells 240 generally have a higher bandgap than silicon solar cells 140. For example, perovskite solar cells 240 may have a bandgap of approximately 1.30 electron volts ("eV") to 2.10 eV or greater. In contrast, silicon solar cells 140 may have a bandgap of approximately 1.1 eV. Thus, perovskite solar cells 240 can efficiently convert shorter wavelengths of light into electricity compared to silicon solar cells 140. Perovskite solar cells 240 can transmit longer wavelengths of light, thereby enabling the underlying silicon solar cells 140 to absorb and convert such longer wavelengths of light into electricity. Taken together, perovskite solar cells 240 and silicon solar cells 140 may be able to efficiently convert a wider spectrum of light into electricity than a single solar cell.

[0063] The first TCO layer 110 may be deposited directly on the top glass sheet 105. Depositing the first TCO layer 110 directly on the top glass sheet 105 may prevent damage to the HTL 115 and the perovskite layer 120. The first TCO layer 110 may serve as the positive terminal or cathode of the perovskite solar cell 240. The first TCO layer 110 may have a thickness of at least about 100 nanometers (nm), 200 nm, 300 nm, 400 nm, 500 nm, 600 nm, 700 nm, 800 nm, 900 nm, 1 micrometer, or more. The first TCO layer 110 may have a thickness of up to about 1 micrometer, 900 nm, 800 nm, 700 nm, 600 nm, 500 nm, 400 nm, 300 nm, 200 nm, 100 nm, or less. The first TCO layer 110 can be made of indium tin oxide (ITO). The first TCO layer 110 can be made of doped ITO. The TCO layer 110 can have a resistance of at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25 ohms per square meter or more. The TCO layer 110 can have a resistance of up to about 25, 24, 23, 22, 21, 20, 19, 18, 17, 16, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 ohm per square meter or less.

[0064] The HTL 115 is deposited on the first TCO layer 110. The HTL 115 facilitates hole transport from the perovskite layer 120 to the first TCO layer 110 without compromising transparency and conductivity. In contrast, the HTL 115 inhibits electron transport. In some embodiments, the HTL 115 is made of one or more nickel oxide layers. In other embodiments, the HTL 115 is made of another suitable p-type material described in this disclosure. The HTL 115 can have a thickness of at least about 5 nm, 10 nm, 20 nm, 50 nm, 100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, 400 nm, 500 nm, 600 nm, 700 nm, 800 nm, 900 nm, 1 micrometer, or more. The HTL 115 may have a thickness of up to about 1 micrometer, 900 nm, 800 nm, 700 nm, 600 nm, 500 nm, 400 nm, 300 nm, 200 nm, 100 nm, 50 nm, 20 nm, 10 nm, 5 nm, or less.

[0065] The perovskite layer 120 is deposited on the HTL 115. The perovskite layer 120 is the photoactive layer of the perovskite solar cell 240. That is, the perovskite layer 120 absorbs light and generates holes and electrons, which subsequently diffuse into the HTL 115 and ETL 125, respectively. In some embodiments, the perovskite layer 120 is made of methylammonium lead triiodide, methylammonium lead tribromide, methylammonium lead trichloride, or any combination thereof. In other embodiments, the perovskite layer 120 is made of formamidinium lead triiodide, formamidinium lead tribromide, formamidinium lead trichloride, or any combination thereof. In other embodiments, the perovskite layer 120 is made of cesium lead triiodide, cesium lead tribromide, cesium lead trichloride, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the perovskite layer 120 can be a triple cation perovskite material containing various ratios of formamidinium, methylammonium, and cesium cations. The incorporation of cesium into the perovskite lattice can enhance thermodynamic stability. The bandgap of the perovskite layer 120 can be tuned by adjusting the halide content of methylammonium lead trihalide or formamidinium lead trihalide. The perovskite layer 120 can have a thickness of at least about 250 nm, 300 nm, 400 nm, 500 nm, 600 nm, 700 nm, 800 nm, 900 nm, 1 micrometer, 1.25 micrometers, 1.5 micrometers, 1.75 micrometers, 2 micrometers, or more. The perovskite layer 120 may have a thickness of up to about 2 micrometers, 1.75 micrometers, 1.5 micrometers, 1.25 micrometers, 1 micrometer, 900 nm, 800 nm, 700 nm, 600 nm, 500 nm, 400 nm, 300 nm, 250 nm, or less.

[0066] The ETL 125 is deposited on the perovskite layer 120. The ETL 125 facilitates electron transport from the perovskite layer 120 to the second TCO layer 130 without compromising transparency and conductivity. In contrast, the ETL 125 inhibits electron transport. In some embodiments, the ETL 125 is made of phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester ("PCBM"). In other embodiments, the ETL 125 is made of another suitable n-type material described in this disclosure (e.g., C60). The ETL 125 can have a thickness of at least about 10 nm, 20 nm, 30 nm, 40 nm, 50 nm, 60 nm, 70 nm, 80 nm, 90 nm, 100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, 400 nm, 500 nm, or more. The ETL 125 may have a thickness of up to about 500 nm, 400 nm, 300 nm, 200 nm, 100 nm, 90 nm, 80 nm, 70 nm, 60 nm, 50 nm, 40 nm, 30 nm, 20 nm, 10 nm, or less. The interface between the ETL 125 and the perovskite layer 120 may be important for the performance of the perovskite layer 120. The surface of the perovskite layer 120 may be hydrophilic to allow good coverage of the hydrophilic ETL (e.g., PCBM). The combination of environment (e.g., low humidity below 15%, low temperature between 18 and 24 degrees Celsius) and solvent compatibility may affect the quality of the perovskite layer-ETL connection.

[0067] The second TCO layer 130 is deposited on the ETL 125. The second TCO layer 130 can serve as the negative terminal or anode of the perovskite solar cell 240. The second TCO layer 130 can have a thickness of at least about 100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, 400 nm, 500 nm, 600 nm, 700 nm, 800 nm, 900 nm, 1 micrometer, or more. The second TCO layer 130 can have a thickness of up to about 1 micrometer, 900 nm, 800 nm, 700 nm, 600 nm, 500 nm, 400 nm, 300 nm, 200 nm, 100 nm, or less. The second TCO layer 130 can be made of indium tin oxide (ITO). The second TCO layer 130 can also be made of doped ITO.

[0068] A second UV-cured layer 205-2 is deposited on the second TCO layer 130. When cured, the second UV-cured layer 205-2 can act as an adhesive bonding the perovskite solar cells 240 to the silicon solar cells 140, resulting in a relatively strong bond between the solar cells 140 and 240. Alternatively, the second UV-cured layer 205-2 can be cured before applying additional layers. The second UV-cured layer 205-2 can increase light transmission through the solar module 100, thereby increasing light absorption by the silicon solar cells 140. Additionally, the second UV-cured layer 205-2 can electrically insulate the perovskite solar cells 240 from the silicon solar cells 140. The refractive index and thickness of the second UV-cured layer 205-2 can be selected to transmit more light within a desired spectral range (e.g., visible and infrared) to the silicon solar cells 140 than a solar module without the UV-cured layer 205-2. This may be the result of a reduced abrupt change in refractive index between the perovskite solar cell 240 and the silicon solar cell 140. For example, the UV-cured layer 205-2 may be a relatively high refractive index material that matches the refractive index of the second TCO layer 130. In some embodiments, the refractive index of the UV-cured layer 205-2 is approximately 1.5 or greater. The second UV-cured layer 205-2 may also passivate the bottom surface of the perovskite solar cell 240 while providing additional UV protection to the underlying silicon solar cell 140.

[0069] Generally, UV-curable layers 205-1 and 205-2 are transparent to visible light but can have different compositions. That is, second UV-curable layer 205-2 can include the same or different materials compared to first UV-curable layer 205-1. For example, UV-curable layers 205-1 and 205-2 can include different mixtures containing different UV-curable compounds, different concentrations of UV-curable compounds, different transparent additives, different concentrations of transparent additives, or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, UV-curable layers 205-1 and 205-2 are in solid form, liquid form, or both solid and liquid form, such as a highly viscous liquid or gel form. UV-curable layers 205-1 and 205-2 can be cured at the same, different, and / or multiple points throughout the manufacturing process.

[0070] The encapsulant 135 is deposited on the second UV-curable layer 205-2. In combination with the second UV-curable layer 205-2, the encapsulant 135 can protect the perovskite solar cells 240 and the silicon solar cells 140 from exposure to dust, moisture, and UV light. For example, the encapsulant 135 can serve as a protective layer at the interface between the perovskite cells 240 and the silicon cells 140, while the second UV-curable layer 205-2 can effectively bond to the surface of the cells in addition to providing UV protection. As another example, the UV-curable layer 205-2 can be cured first to encapsulate the perovskite solar cells 240, and the encapsulant 135 can be deposited on the silicon solar cells 140 to encapsulate the tandem module 100. Similar to the second UV-curable layer 205-2, the encapsulant 135 can electrically insulate the perovskite solar cells 240 from the silicon solar cells 140. Additionally, the encapsulant 135 may have a relatively high refractive index (e.g., approximately 1.4 or greater) that matches the refractive index of the top silicon nitride or TCO layer of the silicon solar cells 140. Thus, using a high refractive index material can reduce transmission losses between the second TCO layer 130, the second UV-cured layer 205-2, the encapsulant layer 135, and the silicon solar cells 140, improving the current density of the solar module 100. The use of a high refractive index material may also improve light trapping. For example, the encapsulant 135 may include ethylene-vinyl-acetate ("EVA"), thermoplastic polyolefin ("TPO"), PDMS, silicone, paraffin, or the like.

[0071] Layers 205-2 and / or 135 may isolate both the perovskite solar cell 240 and the silicon solar cell 140 from the ambient environment. Layers 205-2 and / or 135 may be configured to prevent volatilization of one or more components of the perovskite layer 120. For example, layers 205-2 and / or 135 may minimize the loss of organic cations (e.g., methylammonium, formamidinium, etc.) due to heating of the perovskite layer 120. In another example, layers 205-2 and / or 135 may reduce the desorption of species such as lead iodide or other lead halides from the perovskite layer 120, which may reduce the reliability of the integrated tandem module 100. The encapsulant 135 may be processed to have sufficient cross-linking to protect the perovskite layer 120 from water, oxygen, volatilization of organic compounds in the perovskite layer 120, or the like, or any combination thereof. The encapsulant 135 may have a cross-linking percentage of at least about 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 95 percent, or more. The encapsulant 135 may have a cross-linking percentage of up to about 95, 90, 80, 70, 60, 50 percent, or less. In some embodiments, the second UV-curable layer 205-2 comprises the encapsulant 135. For example, a substance or mixture including a UV-curable compound and the encapsulant 135 may be cured to form the second UV-curable layer 205-2, which may include properties of both materials.

[0072] In general, silicon solar cell 140 can be a p-type silicon solar cell comprising a p-type substrate coated with a thin n-type layer ("emitter"), or silicon solar cell 140 can be an n-type silicon solar cell comprising an n-type substrate coated with a thin p-type emitter. Silicon solar cell 140 can be a monocrystalline silicon solar cell, a polycrystalline silicon solar cell, a PERC silicon solar cell, a HIT silicon solar cell, an interdigitated back contact cell (IBC), or the like.

[0073] The silicon solar cells 140 may have a backsheet 145. The backsheet 145 seals the solar module 100 to prevent moisture ingress. In some cases, the backsheet 145 may be a glass sheet having a top surface and a bottom surface. The top surface of the glass sheet may have a highly reflective coating or textured surface to further increase light trapping or light scattering to the back surface of the silicon solar cells 140 and the perovskite solar cells 240. The glass sheet may be transparent. The glass sheet may be substantially transparent. The transparency of the glass sheet can facilitate double-sided operation of the solar module 100. For example, the solar module 100 may be configured to absorb light from both sides of the module 100.

[0074] The perovskite solar cells 240 and silicon solar cells 140 may be electrically isolated from each other, and each cell may have its own terminal. That is, the tandem solar module 100 may be a four-terminal module in which each solar cell has two terminals. The perovskite solar cells 240 and silicon solar cells 140 may be connected in series or in parallel by connecting the terminals in an appropriate manner. When connected in series, the perovskite solar cells 240 and silicon solar cells 140 may be current-matched. When connected in parallel, the perovskite solar cells 240 and silicon solar cells 140 may be voltage-matched. Current matching or voltage matching can be achieved by connecting individually scribed perovskite solar cells in series or parallel using laser scribing to achieve the desired voltage or current. Parallel or series connections between the perovskite solar cells 240 and silicon solar cells 140 may be made via bus bars / electrodes before module stacking. This allows for quick and easy integration into any existing silicon manufacturing process.

[0075] The solar module 100 may have a power conversion efficiency of at least about 25%, 26%, 27%, 28%, 29%, 30%, or more.

[0076] It should be noted that FIG. 1A shows one example of a tandem silicon-perovskite solar module 100 configuration having two UV-curable layers 205. However, numerous other tandem solar module and single-cell solar module configurations are possible with UV-curable layers deposited at multiple different locations in the multi-layer structure. For example, the UV-curable layer may be provided on the substrate side of the solar cell, the electrode side, or both. The UV-curable layer may also surround the solar cell. Various perovskite solar module configurations with different UV-curable encapsulations are described with reference to FIGS. 8A-8D.

[0077] Figure 2 is a schematic diagram of a perovskite solar module 200 having a UV-cured layer 205 that protects the P1, P2, and P3 scribe lines. The perovskite solar module 200 is an example of a perovskite solar module that may be used alone or integrated with a silicon solar panel to form a tandem silicon-perovskite solar module, such as the tandem silicon-perovskite solar module 100 of Figure 1A.

[0078] 2 shows a cross-sectional view of a perovskite solar module 200. The perovskite solar module 200 includes a first TCO layer 110, an HTL 115, a perovskite (PVSK) layer 120, an ETL 125, and a second TCO layer 130, which form a perovskite solar cell 240. The solar module 200 further includes an anode terminal 201 and a cathode terminal 202 coupled to the perovskite solar cell 240, e.g., for outputting electrical power. For clarity, the HTL 115 and the ETL 125 are shown as solid lines indicating various interconnections between the TCO layers 110 and 130, the perovskite layer 120, and the terminals 201 and 202. The perovskite solar cell 240 is disposed on the bottom surface of a glass substrate 105, e.g., a top glass sheet. A UV-cured layer 205 is deposited on the perovskite solar cell 240 encapsulating the underlying layers of the solar cell 240. In particular, the UV-cured layer 205 fills the scribe lines P1-P3 and bonds the terminals 201 and 202. In general, the UV-cured layer 205 protects the scribe lines P1-P3, provides structural stability, improves electrical insulation, and passivates the surface of the solar cell 240.

[0079] The anode region 211 and the cathode region 212 represent opposite sides of the solar module 200 where the two terminals 201 and 202 of the photovoltaic cell 200 are located. The anode region 211 includes the anode terminal 201 electrically connected to the first TCO layer 110. The anode 201 is electrically isolated from the perovskite layer 120 and the second TCO layer 130 due to the gaps (G1) in these layers being filled with a UV-cured layer 205. The cathode region 212 includes the cathode terminal 202 electrically connected to the first TCO layer 110 and the second TCO layer 130. The cathode region 212 also includes several scribe lines P1-P3 that perform various functions, such as forming interconnections. The bulk of the solar module 200 lies in the space between the two regions 211 and 212, which may include multiple individually scribed perovskite segments. In particular, each individually scribed perovskite segment may be separated by a corresponding set of scribe lines P1-P3 to form serial interconnects (eg, monolith interconnects) between the perovskite segments.

[0080] Scribe lines P1-P3 correspond to respective gaps in one or more layers of solar module 200 that allow overlapping layers to be deposited in the gaps to form contacts. For example, P1 scribe corresponds to the gap in the first TCO layer 110 filled with the PVSK layer 120, the second TCO layer 130, and the UV-cured layer 205. The P1 scribe separates the first TCO layer 110 between adjacent perovskite segments. P2 scribe corresponds to the gap in the PVSK layer 120 filled with the second TCO layer 130 and the UV-cured layer 205. The P2 scribe provides a channel connecting the first TCO layer 110 of one perovskite segment to the second TCO layer 130 of the next perovskite segment to form an interconnect. P3 scribe corresponds to the gap in the PVSK layer 120 and the second TCO layer 130 filled with the UV-cured layer 205. The P3 scribe separates the second TCO layer 115 between adjacent perovskite segments, forming segments that can be integrated into a solar module 200.

[0081] The scribe line features P1-P3 may be scribed by multiple lithography operations (e.g., laser scribing) at various stages in the manufacturing process of the perovskite solar module 200. Such stages are described with respect to FIGS. 3-7. Note that if the perovskite solar module 200 is utilized in a tandem silicon-perovskite solar module, the UV-curable layer 205 may be cured before or after the perovskite solar module 200 is attached to a silicon solar panel. For example, the UV-curable layer 205 may be first cured on the perovskite solar cells 240 to form a perovskite-on-glass ("active glass") with improved UV protection and light throughput. An encapsulant may then be laminated between the active glass and the silicon solar cells to form a tandem silicon-perovskite module, such as the tandem module 100 of FIG. 1A.

[0082] 8A-8D schematically illustrate various perovskite solar modules 800a-800d having different UV-curable encapsulations. Each of the example perovskite solar modules 800a-800b includes a perovskite solar cell 240, which may be configured according to Figures 1B, 2, or otherwise as suitable.

[0083] FIG. 8A shows an example perovskite solar module 800a including a first UV-cured layer 205-1, a top glass sheet 105, perovskite solar cells 240, a second UV-cured layer 205-2, an encapsulant layer 135, a backsheet 145, and an edge seal 210.

[0084] The perovskite solar cells 240 are disposed on the bottom surface of the top glass sheet 105 to form the active glass, and a first UV-cured layer 205-1 is deposited on the top surface of the top glass sheet 105 to block UV light from penetrating into the module 800a. A second UV-cured layer 205-2 is laminated with the encapsulant 135 between the perovskite solar cells 240 and the backsheet 145. The second UV-cured layer 205-2 can passivate the bottom surface of the perovskite solar cells 240 and provide adhesion to the backsheet 145. Edge seals 210, together with the UV layer 205-2 and the encapsulant 135 laminate, surround the sides of the perovskite solar cells 240, effectively sealing the perovskite solar cells 240 between the top glass sheet 105 and the backsheet 145. The edge seals 210 can prevent the ingress of contaminants (e.g., oxygen and moisture) and the shedding of the encapsulant material. Examples of sealant materials that may be used for the edge seals 210 include silicones, polymers (eg, polyurethane, rubber), butyl, acrylic, caulks, encapsulants, and tapes, among others.

[0085] FIG. 8B shows another example of a perovskite solar module 800b, including a top glass sheet 105, perovskite solar cells 240, a UV curable layer 205, a backsheet 145, and edge seals 210.

[0086] Perovskite solar cells 240 are disposed on the bottom side of the top glass sheet 105 to form the active glass. A UV-curable layer 205 is laminated between the perovskite solar cells 240 and the backsheet 205. In this example, no additional encapsulant layer is utilized; however, the UV-curable layer 205 may include an encapsulant additive in addition to the UV-curable compound. Edge seals 210, along with the UV layer 205 laminate, surround the sides of the perovskite solar cells 240, effectively sealing the perovskite cells 240 between the top glass sheet 105 and the backsheet 145.

[0087] FIG. 8C shows another example of a perovskite solar module 800c, including a first UV-cured layer 205-1, a top glass sheet 105, a perovskite solar cell 240, a second UV-cured layer 205-2, a backsheet 145, and an edge seal 210.

[0088] Perovskite solar cells 240 are disposed on the bottom surface of the top glass sheet 105 to form the active glass, and a first UV-curable layer 205-1 is deposited on the top surface of the top glass sheet 105. A second UV-curable layer 205-2 is laminated between the perovskite solar cells 240 and the backsheet 145. In this example, edge seals 210 surround the sides of the top glass sheet 105 and the perovskite solar cells 240. Furthermore, the edge seals 210 are composed of the same material as the UV-curable layer 205, forming a UV-curable complete encapsulation. This solar module 800c configuration has the advantage of not involving additional encapsulation layers or other sealant materials.

[0089] FIG. 8D shows another example of a perovskite solar module 800d, including a first UV-cured layer 205-1, a top glass sheet 105, a perovskite solar cell 240, a second UV-cured layer 205-2, a backsheet 145, and an edge seal 210.

[0090] Example perovskite solar module 800d is constructed similarly to solar module 800c of Figure 8C, except that it has an inverted structure: in this case, the "back" sheet 145 is disposed on a first UV-curable layer 205-1, which is laminated between the top glass sheet 105 and the back sheet 145.

[0091] FIG. 9A is a schematic diagram of a UV curable layer 205 deposited on a glass substrate 105 onto which UV light 400 is incident. The UV curable layer 205 has a refractive index n1=1.56 and a thickness t1. The glass substrate 105 has a refractive index n2=1.46 and a thickness t2. Incident UV light 400-1 (at normal incidence) is reflected and / or absorbed at the interface between layers 105 and 205, and a portion of the transmitted UV light 400-2 passes through. In theory, the transmission coefficient of the multilayer optical structure as a function of the refractive index and thickness of layers 105 and 205 can be determined from Fresnel's equation, taking into account the angle of incidence. The refractive index (and extinction coefficient) of the glass substrate 105 and the UV curable layer 205 generally depends on wavelength. The thickness of each layer 105 and 205 also affects the wavelength dependence, for example, due to resonance. Therefore, the transmission coefficient generally depends on the wavelength of light and can be optimized (e.g., using various multilayer optimization methods) to suppress UV light 400 of specific wavelengths. Theoretical calculations can be compared with experimental results to confirm the desired performance.

[0092] FIG. 9B is a graph showing the transmission efficiency (T%) of a perovskite solar cell as a function of wavelength. A perovskite solar cell is configured with a UV-curing layer according to FIG. 1B. The wavelength range in the graph of FIG. 9B is 250 nm to 350 nm, which corresponds to the portion of the UV electromagnetic spectrum in the mid-UV and near-UV range. As shown in the graph, the transmission efficiency is less than 100% for wavelengths between 250 nm and 350 nm. Specifically, the transmission efficiency is less than 90% for wavelengths between 250 nm and 310 nm, less than 80% for wavelengths between 250 nm and 290 nm, less than 60% for wavelengths between 250 nm and 280 nm, and less than 55% for wavelengths between 250 nm and 270 nm. The UV-curing layer is responsible for this reduced transmission efficiency, blocking a portion of the UV radiation from the perovskite solar cell. That is, the UV-curing layer reflects and / or absorbs a portion of the UV radiation, thereby protecting the perovskite solar cell from UV photodamage.

[0093] FIG. 10A features a photograph of a perovskite solar module 240a without a UV-curing layer after a stress test. The solar module 240a was subjected to a stress test at 75°C for 5 hours. FIG. 10B features a photograph of a perovskite solar module 240b with a UV-curing layer after a stress test. The solar module 240b was subjected to a stress test at 75°C for 100 hours. Compared to the solar module 240b with a UV-curing layer, the solar module 240a without a UV-curing layer shows signs of degradation, as seen in the circled dashed area. The solar module 240a without a UV-curing layer shows discoloration, indicating decomposition of the perovskite into PbI, while the solar module 240b with a UV-curing layer shows no signs of decomposition, even though the solar module 240b was subjected to a significantly longer (20 times longer) stress test.

[0094] 11A and 11B are graphs showing the performance of perovskite solar modules 240a and 240b during stress testing at 75°C. The graphs in Fig. 11A and 11B measure the power generated by solar modules 240a and 240b, respectively, over time with a constant illumination source. Fig. 11B shows the maximum power P max , current at maximum power I mp , and the maximum power voltage V mp The residual rate of P max and I mp are approximately overlapping and gradually decreasing, while V mp remained stable for approximately 600 hours, after which it began to gradually decrease. Referring to Figure 10A, after 5 hours at 75°C, solar module 240a without a UV-cured layer retained approximately 60% of its initial power conversion efficiency (PCE). In contrast, solar module 240b with a UV-cured layer retained more than 90% of its initial PCE after 200 hours at 75°C.

[0095] As shown in Figures 10B and 11B, solar module 240b with a UV-cured layer exhibits little degradation even over extended testing. The slow degradation is due to a combination of factors, such as the UV-cured layer and the composition of the perovskite layer and the quality of the encapsulation of the perovskite layer. Solar module 240b and other examples of solar modules using the UV-curable encapsulation described herein may achieve performance metrics that pass standardized testing requirements. For example, such modules may pass reliability tests such as those of IEC 61215 and / or IEC 61646 standards and may even exceed the performance of these standards (e.g., still pass the standards after 4000 hours of testing).

[0096] 12A-12C are graphs showing the performance of various perovskite solar modules during long-term reliability testing at 85°C and 85% relative humidity (85°C / 85%).

[0097] Figure 12A shows the performance over time of a perovskite solar module with encapsulant and edge seals, but without a UV-cured layer. The corresponding graph shows the normalized maximum power P as a function of time. max , is plotted. Figure 12B shows the performance of a perovskite solar module 800a having an encapsulant, two UV-cured layers, and edge seals configured as in Figure 8A. Figure 12C shows the performance of a perovskite solar module 800b having a UV-cured layer and edge seals configured as in Figure 8B. Both Figures 12B and 12C plot the normalized variable: maximum power P as a function of time. max (solid line), filling factor FF (short dashed line), open circuit voltage V oc (short dashed line), and the short-circuit current density J sc(long dashed lines). Normalized variables correspond to variables divided by their respective initial values. Comparing FIG. 12A with FIG. 12B and FIG. 12C, the solar modules with UV curing layers (800a and 800b) show little degradation even over relatively long test times. The normalized maximum power of the solar modules without UV curing layers decreases continuously in FIG. 12A, causing the solar modules to fail the reliability test, while the measurements in FIG. 12B and FIG. 12C are roughly the same or even higher after 1000 hours.

[0098] Figure 3 is a flowchart of a fabrication method 300 for forming a perovskite photovoltaic cell, such as the perovskite solar module 200 of Figure 2. The method 300 includes providing a substrate (310) that supports a first transparent conductive layer and a hole transport layer. In some cases, a pre-formed substrate may instead be provided.

[0099] FIG. 4 is a flowchart of operation 310 in FIG. 3 . Operation 310 includes providing a substrate (311). The substrate may be a transparent substrate. The substrate may include silicon-based glass (e.g., amorphous silicon dioxide, doped silicon dioxide, etc.), transparent conductive oxide, ceramic, chalcogenide glass, polymer (e.g., transparent plastic, poly(methyl methacrylate, etc.)), or the like, or any combination thereof. The substrate may include the top surface of a solar module. For example, the substrate may be the top glass sheet of a silicon solar panel assembly. The substrate may be textured and / or patterned. For example, the substrate may include an anti-reflective coating and nanoscale texturing configured as an adhesive surface. In another example, the substrate may include a pattern configured to generate a photonic channel. In another example, the substrate may include a pre-patterned portion (e.g., a top contact grid layout) with electrodes for extracting energy from the solar cell. The substrate may have an area of ​​at least about 0.1, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, 25 square meters or more. The substrate may have an area of ​​up to about 25, 20, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0.5, 0.1 square meters or less. The substrate may be a large format substrate. For example, the substrate may be a 10th generation substrate.

[0100] Operation 310 includes applying one or more first transparent conductive materials to the substrate to form a first transparent conductive layer (312). The first transparent conductive layer can include a transparent conductive oxide (e.g., indium tin oxide (ITO), indium zinc oxide, aluminum zinc oxide, indium cadmium oxide, etc.), a transparent conductive polymer (e.g., poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT), poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrenesulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS), poly(4,4-dioctylcyclopentadithiophene), etc.), carbon nanotubes, graphene, nanowires (e.g., silver nanowires), metal grids (e.g., grid contacts comprising a metal), thin films (e.g., thin metal films), conductive grain boundaries, or the like, or any combination thereof. The first transparent conductive layer may have a full spectral transparency of at least about 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.9%, or more. The first transparent conductive layer may have a full spectral transparency of up to about 99.9%, 99%, 98%, 97%, 96%, 95%, 90%, 85%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 60%, 50%, 40%, 30%, 20%, or less. The first transparent conductive layer may have a full spectral transparency in a range defined by any two of the aforementioned values. For example, the first transparent conductive layer may have a full spectral transparency of 75% to 85%. The first transparent conductive layer may have a transparency across a spectral band of at least about 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.9%, or more. The first transparent conductive layer may have a transparency across a spectral band of up to about 99.9%, 99%, 98%, 97%, 96%, 95%, 90%, 85%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 60%, 50%, 40%, 30%, 20%, or less. For example, the first transparent conductive layer may have a transmittance of 85% across the wavelength range of 400 nm to 1200 nm. The first transparent conductive layer may function as a barrier for the perovskite layer against moisture, gas, dust, and the like.The first transparent conductive layer may also prevent the diffusion of ions (e.g., metal ions) that may affect the performance of the perovskite layer.

[0101] Operation 310 includes applying (313) a hole transport layer to the first transparent conductive layer. The hole transport layer is configured to transport holes from the absorber layer to the first transparent conductive layer and out of the solar module. The hole transport layer may be comprised of an organic molecule (e.g., 2,2',7,7'-tetrakis[N,N-di(4-methoxyphenyl)amino]-9,9'-spirobifluorene (spiro-OMeTAD)), an inorganic oxide (e.g., nickel oxide (NiOx), copper oxide (CuOx), cobalt oxide (CoOx), chromium oxide (CrOx), vanadium oxide (VOx), tungsten oxide (WOx), molybdenum oxide (MoOx), copper aluminum oxide), or a tungsten oxide (WOx). The conductive layer may comprise an inorganic material such as copper chromium oxide (CuAlO), copper chromium oxide (CuCrO), copper gallium oxide (CuGaO), inorganic chalcogenides (e.g., copper iodide (CuI), copper indium sulfide (CuInS), copper zinc tin sulfide (CuZnSnS), copper barium tin sulfide (CuBaSnS), other inorganic materials (e.g., copper thiocyanate (CuSCN), organic polymers, or the like, or any combination thereof. For example, a glass substrate coated with indium tin oxide may be coated with nickel oxide to form a transparent conductive layer and hole transport layer.

[0102] Operation 310 optionally includes performing one or more lithography operations (314) on the hole transport layer. The one or more lithography operations may include optical lithography (e.g., (extreme) ultraviolet lithography, x-ray lithography, laser scribing, etc.), electron beam lithography, ion beam lithography, nanoimprint lithography, other direct write processes (e.g., dip pen lithography, inkjet printing), or the like, or any combination thereof. For example, some features (e.g., P1 scribe features) may be scribed on the hole transport layer and the underlying first transparent conductive layer using laser scribing. The one or more lithography operations may include adding and / or removing features. For example, the features may be hardened and made permanent. In another example, the features may be formed by removing material from a target.

[0103] Returning to FIG. 3 , method 300 includes applying 320 one or more perovskite precursors to the hole transport layer. The applying step may include chemical vapor deposition (CVD), plasma-enhanced CVD, atomic layer deposition, spin coating, dip coating, doctor blading, drop casting, centrifugal casting, chemical solution deposition, sol-gel deposition, plating, physical vapor deposition, thermal evaporation, molecular beam epitaxy, sputtering, pulsed laser deposition, cathodic arc deposition, ultrasonic spraying, inkjet printing, or the like, or any combination thereof. The applying step may include applying a single perovskite precursor at a time. For example, a first perovskite precursor can be evaporated onto the hole transport layer, followed by spraying a second perovskite precursor onto the first precursor. The applying step may include applying several precursors at a time. For example, an inkjet printer can apply a solution containing several precursors. Method 300 optionally includes applying one or more additional perovskite precursors to the hole transport layer (330). The additional perovskite layers may be applied in the same manner as in operation 320. For example, a first precursor may be deposited by physical vapor deposition, followed by a second precursor by physical vapor deposition. Alternatively, the additional perovskite layers may be applied in a manner different from operation 320. For example, a first perovskite precursor may be deposited by physical vapor deposition, while a second perovskite precursor may be deposited by ultrasonic spraying. Operation 330 may be repeated several times. For example, several additional perovskite precursors may be applied to the hole transport layer in several operations.

[0104] Ultrasonic spray application may involve the use of several spray nozzles. The ultrasonic spray process may involve a single spray nozzle. For example, a single spray nozzle may be configured to raster the application area to cover the area. Several different types of spray nozzles may be tested to form a predetermined uniformity and / or thickness of the film deposited by the spray nozzle, and an optimal spray nozzle may be selected from the different types of spray nozzles. Once the optimal spray nozzle is selected, several nozzles of that type may be used in the ultrasonic spray application. The nozzles may form a bank of nozzles configured to spray over a large area to improve throughput and efficiency. The bank of nozzles may be a series of nozzles (e.g., a row of nozzles along a single direction), a two-dimensional arrangement of nozzles (e.g., nozzles distributed in a rectangular shape), or a three-dimensional arrangement of nozzles (e.g., several nozzles distributed in three dimensions). The spray nozzles may be adjusted to dispense at an angle. The angle can be at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90 degrees or more from parallel to the substrate. The angle can be up to about 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 degree or less from parallel to the substrate. The angle can be configured to reduce or eliminate precursors that miss the substrate and contaminate other components of the manufacturing process. The use of ultrasonic spray application can enable a roll-to-roll in-line fabrication process. In a roll-to-roll in-line fabrication process, a series of nozzle banks can each sequentially add different layers to a substrate, the substrate can be processed (e.g., annealed, laser scribed, etc.), and finished photovoltaic cells can be produced in a single line. Using a roll-to-roll process can significantly improve the cost and speed of production compared to a step-by-step manufacturing process.

[0105] The one or more perovskite precursors may include one or more lead halides (e.g., lead fluoride, lead chloride, lead bromide, lead iodide, etc.), lead salts (e.g., lead acetate, lead oxide, etc.), other metal salts (e.g., manganese halides, tin halides, metal oxides, metal halides, etc.), organohalides (e.g., formamidinium chloride, formamidinium bromide, formamidinium iodide, methylammonium chloride, methylammonium bromide, methylammonium iodide, butylammonium halides, etc.), alkali metal salts (e.g., alkali metal halides, etc.), alkaline earth metal salts (e.g., alkaline earth metal halides, etc.), perovskite nanoparticles, or the like, or any combination thereof. Several perovskite precursors may be used as the one or more perovskite precursors. For example, both methylammonium iodide and butylammonium iodide may be used as perovskite precursors. In this example, methylammonium iodide can be mixed with butylammonium iodide in a ratio of approximately 1:99, 10:90, 20:80, 30:70, 40:60, 50:50, 60:40, 70:30, 80:20, 10:90, or 99:1. In another example, a mixture of lead halides can be used as part of the perovskite precursor. Using different mixtures of lead halides can allow for tuning of the band gap of the perovskite layer. For example, using different mixtures of lead(II) bromide and lead(II) iodide can result in different band gaps. Using different amounts of lead(II) chloride can affect the crystalline stability of the perovskite layer and prevent phase separation within the layer. The amount of lead(II) chloride added can be greater than the amount of lead(II) bromide added by mass. The amount of lead(II) chloride added can be less than the amount of lead(II) bromide added by mass. The amount of lead(II) chloride added may be the same by mass as the amount of lead(II) bromide added. The amount of lead(II) iodide soluble in solution may be related to the amount of lead(II) bromide and lead(II) chloride in the solution. For example, adding more lead(II) bromide and lead(II) chloride to a solution of lead(II) iodide can improve the solubility of lead(II) iodide and reduce particulates in the perovskite layer.

[0106] The one or more perovskite precursors may be one or more perovskite precursor solutions. For example, a lead (II) iodide solution in dimethyl sulfoxide solution may be the perovskite precursor. The perovskite precursor may be at least about 0.1, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 99, or more percent by weight of the perovskite precursor in solution. The perovskite precursor may be present in solution at up to about 99, 95, 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0.5, 0.1, or less by weight. The solution may include one or more solvents. Examples of solvents include, but are not limited to, polar solvents (e.g., water, dimethyl sulfoxide, dimethylformamide, ethers, esters, acetates, acetone, etc.), nonpolar solvents (e.g., hexane, toluene, etc.), or the like, or any combination thereof. The proper blend of solvents and solvent composition can help control the rate of solvent removal and therefore affect particle generation and bulk defect formation. Tuning the interplay between the coordinating strength of the solvent and the evaporation rate of the precursor solution can allow for better control of the perovskite film formed and the reaction kinetics of its formation. For example, a weakly coordinating solvent that evaporates quickly can form a more irregular film, but also leave less residual solvent in the film. Mixtures of solvents can improve solute solubility, reduce evaporation rates, and improve application method performance. For example, a combination of NMP and DMSO can increase solute solubility and decrease solvent evaporation rates. In this example, the properties of the NMP / DMSO mixture can reduce premature crystallization of the perovskite and improve film quality. In another example, adding NMP to DMF can increase the spray width of the solution using ultrasonic atomization in an instrument, which can provide greater flexibility in the parameters used in atomization.

[0107] The one or more perovskite precursors may include one or more additives. The addition of the one or more additives may be configured to reduce and / or eliminate defects in the perovskite layer prepared elsewhere herein. The one or more additives may include one or more recrystallization solvents. The one or more recrystallization solvents may be added to a solution containing the one or more perovskite precursors. The one or more recrystallization solvents may be applied after deposition of the one or more perovskite precursors and / or after annealing the one or more perovskite precursors. For example, a lead halide precursor may be applied, followed by a recrystallization solvent, and the perovskite precursor may be further annealed to orient the lead halide precursor to better incorporate methylammonium iodide. Examples of recrystallization solvents include, but are not limited to, halobenzenes (e.g., chlorobenzene, bromobenzene, etc.), holoforms (e.g., chloroform, iodoform, etc.), ethers (e.g., diethyl ether), or the like, or any combination thereof.

[0108] Various parameters can be adjusted to produce a desired perovskite layer. Example parameters include, but are not limited to, the application temperature of the perovskite precursor solution, the volumetric application rate, the ultrasonic power of the ultrasonic spray device, the lateral velocity of precursor application (e.g., the speed at which the substrate is moved by the applicator), the applicator height (e.g., the distance between the applicator and the substrate), environmental factors (e.g., humidity, reactive gas content, temperature, etc.), wet surface energy, or the like, or any combination thereof. Any portion of process 300, including application of the perovskite precursor, can be performed in a controlled environment. The controlled environment may have a relative humidity of at least about 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 99%, or more. The controlled environment may have a relative humidity of up to about 99%, 90%, 80%, 70%, 60%, 50%, 40%, 30%, 20%, 10%, or less. The controlled environment can include a controlled atmosphere. The controlled atmosphere can include an inert gas (e.g., nitrogen, noble gases, etc.). The controlled atmosphere may have an oxygen content of at least about 1 parts per million (ppm), 10 ppm, 50 ppm, 100 ppm, 500 ppm, 1,000 ppm, 5,000 ppm, 1%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, or more. The controlled atmosphere may have an oxygen content of up to about 20%, 15%, 10%, 5%, 1%, 5,000 ppm, 1,000 ppm, 500 ppm, 100 ppm, 50 ppm, 10 ppm, 1 ppm, or less. The controlled atmosphere may be at a temperature of at least about 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 100, 105, 110, 115, 120, 125, 130, 135, 140, 145, 150, 160, 170, 180, 190, 200 degrees Celsius or more. The controlled atmosphere may be at a temperature of up to about 200, 190, 180, 170, 160, 150, 145, 140, 135, 130, 125, 120, 115, 110, 105, 100, 95, 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15 degrees Celsius or less.

[0109] Method 300 includes performing one or more processing operations on the perovskite precursor to produce a perovskite layer (340). If the perovskite precursor is instead deposited as a complete perovskite layer, operation 340 can be omitted. Figure 5 is a flowchart of operation 340 from Figure 3. Operation 340 includes providing a substrate (341) to support the first transparent conductive layer, the hole transport layer, and one or more applied perovskite precursors. The substrate can be the result of operations 310-330 of method 300.

[0110] Operation 340 includes performing one or more processing operations on the perovskite precursor to produce a perovskite layer (342). The one or more processing operations may include annealing, light exposure (e.g., ultraviolet light exposure), agitation (e.g., vibration), functionalization (e.g., surface functionalization), electroplating, template inversion, or the like, or any combination thereof. For example, a substrate containing the perovskite precursor may be annealed to form a perovskite layer from the precursor. In another example, the perovskite precursor may be annealed and subsequently functionalized. Annealing may be performed under an inert atmosphere (e.g., an argon atmosphere, a nitrogen atmosphere). Annealing may also be performed under a reactive atmosphere (e.g., an atmosphere containing a reagent (e.g., methylammonium)). Annealing may be at a temperature of at least about 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 100, 105, 110, 115, 120, 125, 130, 135, 140, 145, 150, 160, 170, 180, 190, 200 degrees Celsius or more. Annealing may be at a temperature of up to about 200, 190, 180, 170, 160, 150, 145, 140, 135, 130, 125, 120, 115, 110, 105, 100, 95, 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15 degrees Celsius or less. Annealing may also be at a temperature range defined by any two of the foregoing values. For example, annealing may be at a temperature of 90 to 120 degrees Celsius. Annealing may be for at least about 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 75, 90, 105, 120 minutes or more. Annealing may be for up to about 120, 105, 75, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0.5 minutes or less. Annealing may be within a time range defined by any two of the foregoing values.For example, annealing can be for a time period of about 5 to about 15 minutes. The substrate may be subjected to several annealing processes. For example, the substrate may be annealed for a first time and temperature, followed by annealing again for a second time and temperature. Such further annealing processes can reduce the number of defects present in the perovskite layer and improve performance.

[0111] Operation 340 optionally includes applying one or more additional layers to the perovskite layer (343). The one or more additional layers may include one or more additional perovskite layers. For example, a second perovskite layer having a different bandgap may be applied to the first perovskite layer. The one or more additional layers may include one or more additional perovskite precursors. For example, iodine gas may be applied to form an iodine layer on the perovskite and / or perovskite precursor layer. The one or more additional layers may include one or more washing operations. The washing operation may include applying a solvent to the perovskite layer. Examples of solvents include, but are not limited to, water, non-polar organic solvents (e.g., hexane, toluene, etc.), polar organic solvents (e.g., methanol, ethanol, isopropanol, acetone, etc.), ionic solvents, or the like. The one or more further layers may include one or more passivation layers. The passivation layer may include a reagent configured to passivate and / or stabilize the perovskite layer. For example, application of a solution including phenethylammonium iodide may passivate and stabilize the particles of the perovskite layer.

[0112] Operation 340 optionally includes performing one or more lithography operations on the one or more further layers and / or the perovskite layer (344). The one or more lithography operations may be one or more lithography operations described elsewhere herein. For example, laser scribing may be used to generate features (e.g., P2 scribe features) in one or more of the perovskite layer and the underlayer.

[0113] Returning to Figure 3, method 300 includes providing an electron transport layer on the perovskite layer (350). Figure 6 is a flowchart of operation 350 of Figure 3. Operation 350 includes providing a substrate (351) that supports the first transparent conductive layer, the hole transport layer, and the perovskite layer. The substrate may be the substrate produced by operations 310-340 of Figure 3.

[0114] Operation 350 includes providing an electron transport layer (352) on the perovskite layer. The electron transport layer may be provided by methods and systems described elsewhere herein (e.g., physical vapor deposition, ultrasonic spraying, etc.). The electron transport layer may include a material having a conduction band minimum less than the conduction band minimum of the perovskite layer. For example, if the perovskite layer has a conduction band minimum of −3.9 eV, the electron transport layer may have a conduction band minimum of −4 eV. Examples of electron transport layer materials include, but are not limited to, titanium oxide (e.g., TiO), zinc oxide, tin oxide, tungsten oxide, indium oxide, niobium oxide, iron oxide, cerium oxide, strontium titanium oxide, zinc tin oxide, barium tin oxide, cadmium selenide, indium sulfide, lead iodide, organic molecules (e.g., phenyl-C61-butyric acid methyl ester (PCBM), poly(3-hexylthiophene-2,5-diyl) (P3HT), etc.), lithium fluoride, Buckminsterfullerene (C60), or the like, or any combination thereof.

[0115] Operation 350 optionally includes performing one or more lithography operations on the electron transport layer (353). The one or more lithography operations can be one or more lithography operations described elsewhere herein. For example, laser scribing can be used to create features in one or more of the electron transport layer and the underlying layer.

[0116] Returning to Figure 3, method 300 includes applying (360) a second transparent conductive layer to the electron transport layer. Figure 7 is a flowchart of operation 360 of Figure 3. Operation 360 includes providing (371) a substrate supporting the first transparent conductive layer, the hole transport layer, the perovskite layer, and the electron transport layer. The substrate can be the substrate produced by operations 310-350 of Figure 3.

[0117] Operation 360 includes applying (362) a second transparent conductive layer to the electron transport layer. The second transparent conductive layer may be of the same type as the first transparent conductive layer. For example, both the first and second transparent conductive layers may be indium tin oxide. The second transparent conductive layer may be of a different type than the first transparent conductive layer. The second transparent conductive layer may be deposited as described elsewhere herein (e.g., physical vapor deposition, etc.).

[0118] Operation 360 optionally includes providing one or more bus bars on the second transparent conductive layer (363). The one or more bus bars can be applied as bus bars (e.g., pre-formed bus bars are applied to the second transparent conductive layer). For example, a mask can be used to form the bus bars from an evaporation process. The one or more bus bars can also be provided as a solid film and subsequently formed into the bus bars. For example, a silver film can be deposited on the second transparent conductive layer and etched to form the bus bars. In another example, laser scribing can be used to form the bus bars from the silver film.

[0119] Operation 360 optionally includes performing one or more lithography operations (364) on the electron transport layer. The one or more lithography operations can be one or more lithography operations described elsewhere herein. For example, laser scribing can be used to create features (e.g., P3 scribe features) in one or more of the second transparent conductive layer and the underlayer.

[0120] The bus bar may be attached to at least about two, three, four, or more terminals. The bus bar may be attached to up to about four, three, two, or fewer terminals. The terminals may be configured to form a parallel connection with one or more additional photovoltaic modules. The terminals may be configured to form a series connection with one or more additional photovoltaic modules. The terminals may be scribed (e.g., laser scribed). The terminals may be configured to allow connection of the perovskite photovoltaic device to another photovoltaic device prior to stacking the two photovoltaic devices. For example, a perovskite photovoltaic device may be connected via two terminals to a silicon photovoltaic device.

[0121] Returning to FIG. 3 , method 300 includes applying (370) a UV-curable compound to the second transparent conductive layer. Examples of UV-curable compounds include various photopolymers, such as resins (e.g., epoxy resins), and acrylate-based compositions curable by UV light, as well as others described elsewhere herein. The UV-curable compound may include one or more photoinitiators (e.g., free-radical or ionic photoinitiators) that activate cure when exposed to UV light. In some embodiments, the UV-curable compound may be applied in the form of a mixture containing one or more additives (e.g., other encapsulants), such as those described elsewhere herein. The UV-curable compound may be applied to scribe features, e.g., P1-P3 scribe features, for protection and structural stability. The UV-curable compound may be applied to the first transparent conductive layer and the second transparent conductive layer. For example, the UV-curable compound may be supported between the substrate and the first transparent conductive layer. The UV-curable compound can be applied over the second transparent conductive layer (e.g., applied to the entire layer), to a portion of the second transparent conductive layer (e.g., a portion of the layer), to the edges of the second transparent conductive layer (e.g., as a seal for the entire stack of layers), or the like, or any combination thereof. For example, the UV-curable compound can be applied to the edges of the entire stack of layers (e.g., as an edge seal) to prevent moisture and oxygen from diffusing into the stack.

[0122] The method 300 optionally includes applying an encapsulant to the UV-curable compound (370). The UV-curable compound and encapsulant may be configured to reduce or substantially eliminate exposure of the perovskite layer to one or more reactive species. The UV-curable compound and encapsulant may be substantially transparent. For example, the UV-curable compound and encapsulant may be transparent in the same region of light as the second transparent conductive layer. The UV-curable compound and encapsulant may have a similar refractive index to the second transparent conductive layer. The UV-curable compound and encapsulant may be configured to reduce or substantially eliminate exposure of the perovskite layer to one or more reactive species. Examples of reactive species include, but are not limited to, oxygen, water, and polar molecules (e.g., polar volatile organic compounds, acids, etc.). Examples of encapsulants include, but are not limited to, PDMS, HelioSeal™, silicone glue, butyl-based sealants, or the like. When used for edge encapsulation, the encapsulant may include tape. The tape may be an adhesive-backed barrier. The encapsulant may be positioned such that the end of the encapsulant is at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, or more millimeters from the edge. The encapsulant may be positioned such that the end of the encapsulant is at most about 25, 24, 23, 22, 21, 20, 19, 18, 17, 16, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, or less millimeters from the edge.

[0123] The operation 300 includes curing (380) the UV-curable compound with UV light. For example, the UV-curable compound can be exposed to UV radiation from sunlight, a UV lamp, one or more UV lasers or other light sources, or a combination thereof. The UV-curable compound can be cured before and / or after application of the encapsulant. When the perovskite photovoltaic is integrated into a silicon-perovskite tandem solar cell, the UV-curable compound can also be cured after bonding with the silicon panel.

[0124] Figure 13 is a flowchart of a fabrication method 1300 for forming a perovskite layer. Method 1300 may be one embodiment of operations 320-340 of Figure 3. Method 1300 includes providing 1310 a substrate including a hole transport layer. The substrate may also include a transparent conductive layer as described elsewhere herein. The hole transport layer may be a hole transport layer as described elsewhere herein. The substrate may be a substrate as described elsewhere herein.

[0125] The method 1300 includes providing (1320) a lead layer on the hole transport layer. The lead layer may include lead metal (e.g., lead(0)), a lead salt (e.g., lead(II) acetate, lead(II) halide, lead(I) salt, etc.), or any combination thereof. For example, a metallic lead layer may be deposited on the hole transport layer, or a layer of lead(II) acetate may be applied to the lead layer. The lead layer may be deposited as described elsewhere herein. For example, lead may be deposited by physical vapor deposition. The lead layer may be deposited by the same deposition method and / or deposition equipment as the hole transport layer. For example, the same physical vapor deposition equipment may be used to deposit both the hole transport layer and the lead layer.

[0126] The method 1300 includes applying (1330) an organic halide salt layer to the lead layer. The organic halide can be an organic halide described elsewhere herein. For example, a mixture of methylammonium iodide, methylammonium chloride, and formamidinium iodide can be applied to the lead layer. The organic halide layer can be applied by a deposition process described elsewhere herein. For example, the organic halide can be applied by a spin coating process, an ultrasonic spray process, or the like.

[0127] The method 1300 includes applying (1340) a halide layer to the organic halide layer. The halide layer can include a halide (e.g., fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, etc.), an oxyhalide (e.g., chlorate, etc.), other halide-containing compounds, or the like, or any combination thereof. For example, the halide layer can include iodide. In another example, the halide layer can be iodine. The halide layer can be applied to the organic halide salt layer by a deposition process described elsewhere herein. The halide can be applied as a gas. For example, iodine can be sublimated as a gas and applied to the organic halide salt layer. The halide can be applied uniformly across the surface of the organic halide salt layer. A variety of different application devices can be used to apply the halide uniformly. An example of an application device can be a "showerhead" (e.g., an application head including multiple holes). Another example of an application device can be a bar containing one or more nozzles that can be translated across the surface of the substrate, for example, a bar the same width as the substrate can be moved across the substrate to deposit a uniform coating of the halide.

[0128] Method 1300 includes performing one or more processing operations (1350) to form a perovskite layer. The perovskite layer can be a perovskite layer described elsewhere herein (e.g., a perovskite layer from method 300 of FIG. 3). The one or more processing operations can be one or more processing operations described elsewhere herein. For example, a lead layer having a lead acetate layer deposited thereon, a methylammonium iodide / formamidinium iodide layer, and an iodide layer can be annealed together at a temperature between 90 and 120 degrees Celsius to form a methylammonium / formamidinium lead iodide perovskite layer. The one or more processing operations can include washing. The washing can include the use of one or more solvents described elsewhere herein. The washing can be configured to remove unprocessed precursors from the perovskite layer. For example, an isopropanol wash can be performed to remove residual organohalide salts. The one or more treatment operations can include one or more treatments. Examples of treatments include, but are not limited to, the application of phenethylammonium iodide, a thiocyanate wash, other deactivation and / or stabilization processes, or the like, or any combination thereof.

[0129] In another aspect, the present disclosure provides a method for producing a perovskite layer, the method comprising spraying a solution containing precursors onto the perovskite layer. A quench solution can be applied to the precursors that form the perovskite layer. The solution can include all of the precursors for the perovskite layer. For example, the solution can include a lead halide, an organohalide, and a halide. The solution can include the perovskite precursors described elsewhere herein. The solution can be applied by a process described elsewhere herein. For example, the solution can be applied by ultrasonic spraying techniques. The solution can be processed after application. For example, the solution can be heated to remove the solvent from the solution. The solution does not have to be processed after application. The quench solution can be applied to a solution (e.g., a precursor solution). The quench solution can be applied to a dried precursor. The quench solution can include an anti-solvent (e.g., a solvent in which the perovskite precursor is less soluble than the solvent of the precursor solution). Examples of anti-solvents include, but are not limited to, polar solvents (e.g., alcohols, acetone, etc.), long-chain non-polar solvents (e.g., octadecene, squalene, etc.), or the like, or any combination thereof. The quench solution may be applied as described elsewhere herein. For example, the quench solution may be applied by ultrasonic spraying techniques. The solution may be subjected to one or more atmospheric conditions to aid in solvent removal. The one or more atmospheric conditions may include reduced pressure (e.g., application of a vacuum), elevated pressure (e.g., blowing a gas against the substrate), or the like, or a combination thereof. Reduced pressure may include application of a partial vacuum around the substrate. Such a vacuum may draw the solvent from the film, resulting in rapid solvent removal and producing a high-quality film. High pressure may include the use of an air knife or similar blowing scheme to aid in solvent removal. Such a high-quality film may appear specular upon visual inspection. After application of the precursor solution, the solution may require time to self-level before solidifying. For example, the precursor solution may be allowed to stand on the substrate for a sufficient time to allow for solvent removal and leveling before preparation of the perovskite layer.

[0130] 14 is a flowchart of a method 2000 for manufacturing a tandem solar module. The method 2000 includes the step (2010) of providing a silicon solar panel. The silicon solar panel can be a silicon solar panel described elsewhere herein. For example, the silicon solar panel can be a full-contact solar panel, an integrated back-contact solar panel, a shingled solar panel, or the like. The silicon solar panel can have at least about 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 72, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 96, or more solar cells. A silicon solar panel can have up to about 96, 95, 90, 85, 80, 75, 72, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 10, or fewer solar cells. In some embodiments, a silicon solar panel has 60 6-inch solar cells arranged in a 6x10 grid. The cells can be connected in series. The cells can each have an open circuit voltage of 0.7V, for a total open circuit voltage of approximately 42V.

[0131] Method 2000 includes fabricating (2020) a perovskite-on-glass as described elsewhere herein. For example, the perovskite-on-glass can be fabricated using method 300 of Figure 3. The perovskite-on-glass can have at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more layers. The perovskite-on-glass can have up to about 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or fewer layers.

[0132] The method 2000 includes the step of laser scribing the perovskite-on-glass to form perovskite cells or strips (2030). The fabricating step may include using fabrication techniques described elsewhere herein. For example, the fabricating step may include using laser scribing to define one or more perovskite solar cells. The one or more perovskite solar cells may be a multiplicity of perovskite solar cells. The one or more perovskite solar cells may be at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 99, or more perovskite solar cells. The one or more perovskite solar cells may be up to about 99, 95, 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or less perovskite solar cells. The perovskite solar cells may be connected in series. The perovskite solar cells may be connected in parallel. Laser scribing may separate the perovskite layer into several segments. The segments may be formed into several perovskite solar cells. For example, contacts may be applied to the segments to extract charge from the segments.

[0133] Laser scribing can be configured to produce several perovskite cells that, when connected together, can have the same or substantially the same voltage output as a silicon module. The voltage output of the perovskite layer per unit area can be known, and the perovskite layer can be scribed to form perovskite cells of a size that results in a predetermined voltage. For example, to match a silicon solar module with the same voltage output as 40 perovskite solar cells, the perovskite layer can be scribed to form five perovskite sub-modules, each containing 40 perovskite solar cells. In this example, the five perovskite sub-modules can be connected in parallel so that the current generated by the perovskite layer increases while the voltage remains consistent with the silicon module.

[0134] Method 2000 includes connecting cells of a silicon solar panel to perovskite solar cells to form a tandem module (2040). The silicon solar panel and the perovskite solar cells may be voltage-matched. The voltage-matching configuration may be as described elsewhere herein. For example, the silicon solar cells may have the same voltage as the perovskite solar cells. The perovskite solar cells may be connected in parallel with each other. The perovskite solar cells may be connected in series with each other. The perovskite solar cells may be connected so that there are several modules in the perovskite layer. For example, several strings of perovskite solar cells can be connected in series, and the connected strings can be connected in parallel. The silicon solar panel and the perovskite solar panel may be connected as described elsewhere herein. For example, the perovskite solar cells may be connected to the same junction box as the silicon solar cells via copper (or another metal, charge collection tape, etc.) terminals.

[0135] The method 2000 includes encapsulating the module with a UV-curable compound (2050). The encapsulating step may further include an encapsulant. For example, the encapsulating step may include applying a UV-curable compound to the perovskite layer and applying the encapsulant to the UV-curable compound and / or the silicon solar panel. Additionally or alternatively, the UV-curable compound may be applied to the perovskite layer or the silicon solar panel in the form of a mixture including the UV-curable compound and the encapsulant.

[0136] Method 2000 includes the step of curing (2060) the UV-curable compound with UV light. For example, the UV-curable compound can be exposed to UV radiation from sunlight, a UV lamp, one or more UV lasers or other light sources, or a combination thereof. Upon curing, the UV-curable compound can bond with the interface of the tandem solar module and provide protection from environmental effects and undesirable UV light. Operation 2060 can be performed at a variety of different intervals depending on the order in which the UV-curable compound and / or encapsulant are applied during encapsulation of the tandem module. For example, if operation 2050 includes applying the UV-curable compound followed by the encapsulant, operation 2060 can be performed before and / or after the encapsulant is applied.

[0137] The method 2000 may include applying contacts to one or more perovskite solar cells to electrically couple the one or more perovskite solar cells. The contacts may be applied using one or more processes described elsewhere herein. For example, the contacts may be vapor-deposited on the perovskite solar cells. In another example, the contacts may be applied to the perovskite solar cells by lithography. The method may include applying an encapsulant to the one or more perovskite solar cells. The applying may be as described elsewhere herein. For example, the encapsulant may be applied via vapor deposition. In another example, the encapsulant may be spread onto the perovskite solar cells as a viscous solution. The encapsulant may be as described elsewhere herein. For example, the encapsulant may be a thermoplastic polyolefin. The method may include applying edge seals to the one or more perovskite solar cells. The edge seals may be as described elsewhere herein. For example, the edge seals can be HelioSeal™.

[0138] The silicon solar panel and the perovskite solar panel can be electrically connected to the same junction box. Such connection to the same junction box can allow for simple integration of the perovskite layer into an existing silicon solar module. Such connection can also provide for a simple implementation of a tandem solar module, as there can be a single output rather than multiple outputs from the tandem module. Examples of various electrical network connections for different types of silicon-perovskite hybrid solar modules are described in International Application No. 2022 / 066707.

[0139] Perovskite compositions and additives The perovskite layers described herein are n1 FA n2 Cs n3 PbX3 (where MA is methylammonium and FA is formamidinium. n1, n2, and n3 may independently be greater than 0 and / or less than 1. n l+n2+n3 may be equal to 1. A perovskite solar cell including the perovskite layer may retain a solar conversion efficiency of at least about 80% after 300 hours of illumination under 1 sun in air at 45°C. The perovskite layer may be used as described elsewhere herein (e.g., as an absorber layer in a perovskite photovoltaic cell).

[0140] In the above formula, X can be selected from the group consisting of fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine. For example, X can be iodine. X can also be a combination of two or more of fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine. For example, X can be a mixture of chlorine and iodine. The combination can include individual components having a concentration of at least about 0.1, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99 percent, or more. The combination may include individual components having concentrations up to about 99, 98, 97, 96, 95, 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0.5, 0.1 percent, or less. For example, the combination may be a mixture of about 1% chlorine and 99% iodine. The combination may include individual components having concentrations within a range defined by any two of the preceding values. For example, the combination may be a mixture of about 1%-5% bromine and about 95%-99% iodine.

[0141] In the above formula, n l , n2, and n3 can individually be at least about 0.0001, 0.0005, 0.001, 0.005, 0.01, 0.05, 0.1, 0.11, 0.12, 0.13, 0.14, 0.15, 0.2, 0.25, 0.3, 0.35, 0.4, 0.45, 0.5, 0.55, 0.6, 0.65, 0.7, 0.75, 0.8, 0.85, 0.9, 0.95, 0.96, 0.97, 0.98, 0.99, or more. l, n2, and n3 can individually be up to about 0.99, 0.98, 0.97, 0.96, 0.95, 0.9, 0.85, 0.8, 0.75, 0.7, 0.65, 0.6, 0.55, 0.5, 0.45, 0.4, 0.35, 0.3, 0.25, 0.2, 0.15, 0.14, 0.13, 0.12, 0.11, 0.1, 0.9, 0.8, 0.7, 0.6, 0.5, 0.4, 0.3, 0.2, 0.1, 0.05, 0.01, 0.005, 0.001, 0.0005, 0.0001, or less. l , n2, and n3 may each have a range defined by any two of the aforementioned values. For example, n l can be from about 0.001 to about 0.05, n2 can be from about 0.8 to about 0.989, and n3 can be from about 0.01 to about 0.15.

[0142] The cations in the formula can be as described above (e.g., methylammonium, formamidinium, cesium, butylammonium). Examples of other cations that can be used include, but are not limited to, imidazolium, dimethylammonium, guanidinium, ammonium, methylformamidinium, tetramethylammonium, trimethylammonium, rubidium, copper, palladium, platinum, silver, gold, rhodium, ruthenium, sodium, potassium, iron, other inorganic cations, other organic cations, or the like, or any combination thereof. The perovskite layer can be free of additional additives. For example, the perovskite layer can be free of thiocyanate. In another example, the perovskite layer can be free of carbamide. The perovskite layer can be configured to provide high performance and long life without additional additives. The lack of additional additives can reduce costs and make manufacturing the perovskite layer easier. The inclusion of cesium cations (or equivalent alternating cations) can improve the thermal stability of the perovskite layer. For example, the presence of cesium can increase the strength of the molecular bonds in the lead halide structure of the perovskite layer. Cesium ions may also have a lower vapor pressure than organic ions, which can contribute to the thermal stability of the perovskite layer. The inclusion of formamidinium can be more resistant to high temperatures due to its increased molecular weight compared to other organic cations (e.g., methylammonium). Because pure formamidinium perovskite can have inherent instability, the inclusion of cesium and / or methylammonium cations can improve crystalline stability while maintaining thermal stability. Adding too much light organic cation (e.g., methylammonium) can decrease thermal stability. Adding a small percentage of butylammonium iodide can improve the quality of the perovskite layer due to the larger molecular structure of butylammonium being better able to fill gaps in the perovskite crystal structure and better passivate defects or imperfections within the crystal, which in turn can result in higher quality or higher performance perovskite layers.

[0143] The perovskite solar cell may be a perovskite solar cell described elsewhere herein. For example, the perovskite solar cell may be a solar cell formed on the top glass of a silicon solar cell. The perovskite layer may retain an initial conversion efficiency value of at least about 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 99 percent or more after 300 hours of illumination under atmospheric conditions of greater than 25°C and less than 100°C for 1 sun. The perovskite layer may retain an initial conversion efficiency value of up to about 99, 95, 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10 percent or less after 300 hours of illumination under 1 sun in air at greater than 25° C. and less than 100° C. The perovskite layer may retain an initial conversion efficiency value of a percent defined by any two of the foregoing values ​​after 300 hours of illumination under 1 sun in air at greater than 25° C. and less than 100° C.

[0144] In another aspect, the present disclosure provides a method. The method may include providing a substrate. A perovskite precursor may be applied to the substrate. The perovskite precursor may be annealed to form a perovskite layer. The perovskite layer may be formed by MA. n1 FA n2 Cs n3 PbX3. MA may be methylammonium. FA may be formamidinium. l , n2, and n3 may independently be greater than 0 and / or less than 1. l +n2+n3 may be equal to 1. A perovskite solar cell comprising the perovskite layer may retain at least about 80% solar conversion efficiency after 300 hours of illumination under 1 sun conditions in air at above 25°C and below 100°C. The perovskite layer may be subjected to an encapsulation lamination process at a temperature of at least about 90°C.

[0145] The temperature of the encapsulation lamination process may be at least about 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 100, 105, 110, 115, 120, 125, 130, 135, 140, 145, 150, 160, 170, 180, 190, 200 degrees Celsius or more. The temperature of the encapsulation lamination process may be up to about 200, 190, 180, 170, 160, 150, 145, 140, 135, 130, 125, 120, 115, 110, 105, 100, 95, 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15 degrees Celsius, or less. The temperature of the encapsulation lamination process may be a temperature range defined by any two of the foregoing values. The encapsulation may be as described elsewhere herein (e.g., with respect to UV-curable layers 205-1 / 205-2 and encapsulant 135 of FIG. 1A).

[0146] The perovskite solar cell may be a perovskite solar cell described elsewhere herein. For example, the perovskite solar cell may be a solar cell formed on the top glass of a silicon solar cell. The perovskite layer may retain an initial conversion efficiency value of at least about 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 99 percent or more after 300 hours of illumination under atmospheric conditions of greater than 25°C and less than 100°C for 1 sun. The perovskite layer may retain an initial conversion efficiency value of up to about 99, 95, 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10 percent or less after 300 hours of illumination under 1 sun in air at greater than 25° C. and less than 100° C. The perovskite layer may retain an initial conversion efficiency value of a percent defined by two of the foregoing values ​​after 300 hours of illumination under 1 sun in air at greater than 25° C. and less than 100° C. The perovskite layer may retain an initial conversion efficiency value of at least about 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99 percent or more after the encapsulation lamination process. The perovskite layer may retain an initial conversion efficiency value of up to about 99, 98, 97, 96, 95, 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10 percent or less after the encapsulation lamination process. The perovskite layer may retain the efficiency of the initial conversion efficiency value defined by any two of the aforementioned values ​​after the encapsulation lamination process.

[0147] The perovskite precursors may be applied as described elsewhere herein. For example, the perovskite precursors may be applied using an ultrasonic spraying process. In this example, the precursors may be applied in various spraying operations (e.g., lead(II) iodide may be applied to the substrate, and methylammonium iodide may be applied to the lead iodide). In another example, the perovskite precursors may be applied in a single operation. In this example, a solution containing all of the precursors for the perovskite layer may be applied and annealed to form the perovskite layer. The annealing process may involve heating the perovskite layer to at least about 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 100, 105, 110, 115, 120, 125, 130, 135, 140, 145, 150, 160, 170, 180, 190, 200 degrees Celsius or more. The annealing process may involve heating the perovskite layer to a temperature up to about 200, 190, 180, 170, 160, 150, 145, 140, 135, 130, 125, 120, 115, 110, 105, 100, 95, 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15 degrees Celsius or less. The annealing process may involve heating the perovskite layer to a temperature in a range defined by any two of the foregoing values.

[0148] UV-curable layers can be implemented in various examples, such as solar cells using PDMS as an encapsulant or on the top glass, with or without an ultrathin silver layer, solar cells fabricated with an in-line PVD process, solar cells with electrical connections in tandem solar modules, solar cells including mixed-composition perovskite solar cells, solar cells with scalable manufacturing methods, and solar cells that have undergone reliability testing and packaging. International Application No. 2022 / 066707, particularly paragraphs 153-184, discusses such examples. The addition of a UV-curable layer can improve the performance, reliability, manufacturability, or a combination thereof, of any such solar cells.

[0149] Computer System The present disclosure provides computer systems programmed to implement the methods of the present disclosure. Figure 15 shows a computer system 1201 programmed or otherwise configured to direct the fabrication and manufacturing processes described herein (e.g., physical vapor deposition, ultrasonic spraying, slot die, etc.) or to control power electronics connected to the solar modules described herein.

[0150] The computer system 1201 includes a central processing unit (CPU, also referred to herein as a "processor" and a "computer processor") 1205, which may be a single-core or multi-core processor, or multiple processors for parallel processing. The computer system 1201 also includes a memory 1210 or memory locations (e.g., random access memory, read-only memory, flash memory), an electronic storage unit 1215 (e.g., a hard disk), a communication interface 1220 (e.g., a network adapter) for communicating with one or more other systems, and peripheral devices 1225, such as cache, other memory, data storage, and / or an electronic display adapter. The memory 1210, the storage unit 1215, the communication interface 1220, and the peripheral devices 1225 are in communication with the CPU 1205, e.g., a motherboard, via a communication bus (solid lines). The storage unit 1215 may be a data storage unit (or data repository) for storing data. Computer system 1201 may be operably coupled to a computer network ("network") 1230 with the aid of communication interface 1220. Network 1230 may be the Internet, an Internet and / or extranet, or an intranet and / or extranet in communication with the Internet. Network 1230, in some cases, is a communications network and / or a data network. Network 1230 may include one or more computer servers that may be capable of distributed computing, e.g., cloud computing. Network 1230, in some cases with the aid of computer system 1201, may implement a peer-to-peer network, which may enable devices coupled to computer system 1201 to act as clients or servers.

[0151] CPU 1205 can execute sequences of machine-readable instructions, which may be embodied in a program or software. The instructions may be stored in a memory location, such as memory 1210. The instructions may be sent to CPU 1205, which may then be programmed or otherwise configured to implement the methods of the present disclosure. Examples of operations performed by CPU 1205 may include fetch, decode, execute, and writeback.

[0152] The CPU 1205 may be part of a circuit, such as an integrated circuit. One or more other components of the computer system 1201 may be included in the circuit. In some cases, the circuit is an application specific integrated circuit (ASIC).

[0153] The storage unit 1215 may store files such as drivers, libraries, and saved programs. The storage unit 1215 may store user data, such as user preferences and user programs. The computer system 1201 may, in some cases, include one or more additional data storage units external to the computer system 1201, for example, data storage units located on remote servers in communication with the computer system 1201 through an intranet or the Internet.

[0154] Computer system 1201 may communicate with one or more remote computer systems through network 1230. For example, computer system 1201 may communicate with a user's remote computer system. Examples of remote computer systems include a personal computer (e.g., a portable PC), a slate or tablet PC (e.g., an Apple® iPad®, a Samsung® Galaxy Tab), a telephone, a smartphone (e.g., an Apple® iPhone®, an Android-enabled device, a Blackberry®), or a personal digital assistant. A user can access computer system 1201 via network 1230.

[0155] The methods described herein may be implemented by machine (e.g., computer processor) executable code stored in an electronic storage location of computer system 1201, such as memory 1210 or electronic storage unit 1215. The machine-executable or machine-readable code may be provided in the form of software. During use, the code may be executed by processor 1205. In some cases, the code may be read from storage unit 1215 and stored in memory 1210 so that it can be accessed by processor 1205. In some situations, electronic storage unit 1215 may not be included, and machine-executable instructions are stored in memory 1210.

[0156] The code may be pre-compiled and configured for use on a machine having a processor adapted to execute the code, or may be compiled during run-time. The code may be supplied in a programming language that may be selected to allow the code to be executed in a pre-compiled or as-compiled manner.

[0157] Aspects of the systems and methods provided herein, e.g., computer system 1201, may be implemented in programming. Various aspects of the present technology may be considered "products" or "articles of manufacture," typically in the form of machine (or processor) executable code and / or associated data carried or embodied on some type of machine-readable medium. The machine-executable code may be stored on an electronic storage unit, e.g., memory (e.g., read-only memory, random-access memory, flash memory) or a hard disk. "Storage" type media may include any or all tangible memory of a computer, processor, or the like, or its associated modules, e.g., various semiconductor memories, tape drives, disk drives, and the like, which may provide non-primary storage for software programming at any time. All or portions of the software may at times be communicated over the Internet or various other communications networks. Such communication may, for example, enable loading of the software from one computer or processor to another, e.g., from a management server or host computer to an application server's computer platform. Thus, another type of medium that may bear software elements includes optical, electrical, and electromagnetic waves, such as those used across physical interfaces between local devices by wired and optical landline networks and in various air links. The physical elements that carry such waves, e.g., wired or wireless links, optical links, or the like, may also be considered media bearing software. As used herein, unless limited to non-transitory tangible "storage" media, terms such as computer or machine "readable medium" refer to any medium that participates in providing instructions to a processor for execution.

[0158] Thus, a machine-readable medium such as a computer-executable code may take many forms, including, but not limited to, a tangible storage medium, a carrier wave medium, or a physical transmission medium. Non-volatile storage media include, for example, optical or magnetic disks, such as any of the storage devices of any computer or the like, such as those that may be used to implement the databases shown in the figures. Volatile storage media include dynamic memory, such as the main memory of such a computer platform. Tangible transmission media include coaxial cables, copper wire, and fiber optics, including the wires that comprise a bus within a computer system. Carrier-wave transmission media may take the form of electric or electromagnetic signals, or acoustic or light waves such as those generated during radio frequency (RF) and infrared (IR) data communications. Thus, common forms of computer readable media include, for example, floppy disks, flexible disks, hard disks, magnetic tape, any other magnetic media, CD-ROMs, DVDs or DVD-ROMs, any other optical media, punched cards paper tape, any other physical storage media with a pattern of holes, RAM, ROM, PROMs and EPROMs, FLASH-EPROMs, any other memory chips or cartridges, carrier waves transmitting data or instructions, cables or links transmitting such carrier waves, or any other medium from which a computer can read programming code and / or data. Many of these forms of computer readable media may be involved in carrying one or more sequences of one or more instructions to a processor for execution.

[0159] The computer system 1201 may include or be in communication with an electronic display 1235 that includes, for example, a user interface (UI) 1240 for controlling fabrication process parameters. Examples of UIs include, without limitation, graphical user interfaces (GUIs) and web-based user interfaces.

[0160] The methods and systems of the present disclosure may be implemented by one or more algorithms, which may be implemented by software when executed by the central processing unit 1205.

[0161] While preferred embodiments of the present invention have been shown and described herein, it will be obvious to those skilled in the art that such embodiments are provided by way of example only. It is not intended that the present invention be limited to the specific examples provided herein. While the present invention has been described with reference to the foregoing specification, the descriptions and illustrations of the embodiments herein are not meant to be construed in a limiting sense. Numerous modifications, changes, and substitutions will now occur to those skilled in the art without departing from the invention. Furthermore, it should be understood that all aspects of the present invention are not limited to the specific illustrations, configurations, or relative characteristics set forth herein, which depend upon a variety of conditions and variables. It should be understood that various alternatives to the embodiments of the invention described herein may be employed in practicing the present invention. Accordingly, it is contemplated that the present invention also encompasses any such alternatives, modifications, variations, or equivalents. The following claims define the scope of the invention, and methods and structures within the scope of these claims and their equivalents are intended to be covered thereby.

[0162] Several embodiments are described. Other embodiments are within the scope of the following claims. [Explanation of symbols]

[0163] 100 solar modules 105 Top Glass Sheet 110, 130 Transparent conductive oxide layer 115 Hole transport layer 120 perovskite layers 125 Electron transport layer 135 Encapsulating material, encapsulating material layer 140 Silicon solar cells 145 Back Seat Terminals 201 and 202 205 UV hardening layer 210 End sealing 211 Anode region 212 Cathode region 240 Perovskite solar cells 300, 1300, 2000 ways 310 Providing a substrate supporting the first transparent conductive layer and the hole transport layer 311, 341, 351, 361, 1310 Substrate preparation process 312 applying one or more first transparent conductive materials to the substrate to form a first transparent conductive layer 313 Step of providing a hole transport layer on the first transparent conductive layer 314, 344, 353, 364 performing one or more lithography operations 320 applying one or more perovskite precursors to the hole transport layer 330 applying one or more further perovskite precursors to the hole transport layer 340, 342 performing one or more treatment operations on the perovskite precursor to produce a perovskite layer 343 Applying one or more further layers to the perovskite layer 350, 352 Steps for providing an electron transport layer on the perovskite layer 360, 362 Steps for applying a second transparent conductive layer to the electron transport layer 363. Providing one or more bus bars on the second transparent conductive layer 370 applying an ultraviolet curable compound to the second transparent conductive layer 380 Applying the encapsulant to the ultraviolet curable compound 390, 2060 A process for curing ultraviolet-curable compounds with ultraviolet light 400 UV light 1201 Computer Systems 1205 CPU 1210 memory 1215 Memory Unit 1220 communication interface 1225 Peripheral Devices 1230 Computer Network 1235 Electronic Display 1240 User Interface 1320 Step of providing a lead layer on the hole transport layer 1330 A process for applying an organic halide salt layer to a lead layer 1340 Step of providing a halide layer on an organic halide layer 1350 performing one or more treatment operations to form a perovskite layer 2010 Silicon solar panel preparation process 2020 Perovskite-on-glass fabrication process 2030 Laser scribing perovskite-on-glass to form perovskite cells or strips 2040 The process of connecting silicon solar panel cells to perovskite solar cells to form a tandem module 2050 Process of encapsulating the module with UV-curable compound

Claims

1. a substance containing an ultraviolet curable compound; a first layer of said material; a first substrate layer comprising glass; and a plurality of layers, including a perovskite solar cell having a first bandgap, the perovskite solar cell being between the first layer of material and the first substrate layer; 2. A solar module, comprising:

2. The solar module of claim 1 , further comprising an edge seal surrounding one or more of the layers.

3. The solar module of claim 2 , wherein the edge seal is formed from the material.

4. The plurality of layers are a second layer of material, the first substrate layer being between the second layer of material and the perovskite solar cell. The solar module according to claim 1 .

5. The plurality of layers are further comprising a second substrate layer comprising glass or a backsheet, the second substrate layer being the outermost layer of the plurality of layers; The solar module according to claim 1 .

6. The plurality of layers are an encapsulant layer between the first layer of material and the second substrate layer; The solar module of claim 5 , further comprising:

7. 10. The solar module of claim 1, wherein the perovskite solar cell comprises a photoactive perovskite layer.

8. The perovskite solar cell comprises: further comprising a first transparent conducting oxide (TCO) layer and a second TCO layer, the photoactive perovskite layer being between the first TCO layer and the second TCO layer; The solar module according to claim 7.

9. 9. The solar module of claim 8, wherein the first TCO layer and the second TCO layer are terminals of the perovskite solar cell.

10. 9. The solar module of claim 8, wherein the perovskite solar cell comprises a plurality of segments separated by sets of scribe lines.

11. The solar module of claim 10 , wherein each set of scribe lines includes P1, P2, and P3 scribe lines.

12. The solar module of claim 10 , wherein the first layer of material fills each set of scribe lines.

13. The perovskite solar cell comprises: further comprising a hole transport layer (HTL), said HTL being between said first TCO layer and said photoactive perovskite layer; The solar module according to claim 8.

14. The perovskite solar cell comprises: further comprising an electron transport layer (ETL), said ETL being between said second TCO layer and said photoactive perovskite layer; The solar module according to claim 8.

15. 15. The solar module according to any one of claims 1 to 14, wherein the first band gap is in the range of 1.5 electron volts (eV) to 1.9 eV.

16. The plurality of layers are and further comprising a silicon solar cell having a second bandgap different from the first bandgap, wherein the first layer of material is between the perovskite solar cell and the silicon solar cell. The solar module according to any one of claims 1 to 14.

17. 15. The solar module according to claim 1, wherein the material has a refractive index of 1.5 or greater.

18. 15. The solar module according to claim 1, wherein the material is transparent to visible light.

19. 15. The solar module according to claim 1, wherein the material absorbs ultraviolet light.

20. 15. The solar module according to claim 1, having a transmission efficiency of less than 100% for light having a wavelength of 350 nanometers (nm) or less.

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