Electromagnetic fluid hydrogen generator

Abstract

A generator for providing at least one of electrical power and thermal power is described.SOLUTION: A molten metal injection system including at least one pump, such as an electromagnetic pump, providing a molten metal stream to the reactor cell and at least one reservoir receiving the molten metal stream, an addition system including a power supply providing low-voltage, high-current electrical energy to at least one vapor of the molten metal and igniting a plasma to cause rapid kinetics of the reactions and energy gain, a source of H2 and O2 supplied to the plasma, a molten metal recovery system, and a power converter capable of converting high power light output from a blackbody radiator of the cell into electricity using a concentrator thermophotovoltaic cell or converting high energy plasma into electricity using a magnetohydrodynamic converter.SELECTED DRAWING: Figure 31G

Description

[Technical Field]

[0001] US Provisional Patent Application for Magnetohydrodynamic Hydrogen Generator by Randell L. Mills

[0002] REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 62 / 971,938 filed February 8, 2020, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 62 / 980,959 filed February 24, 2020, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 62 / 992,783 filed March 20, 2020, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 63 / 001,761 filed March 30, 2020, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 63 / 012,243 filed April 19, 2020, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 63 / 024,487 filed May 13, 2020, U.S. patent application Ser. No. 63 / 031,557 filed May 28, 2020, and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 63 / 031,557 filed June 24, 2020. Priority is claimed to U.S. Patent Application No. 63 / 043,763, U.S. Patent Application No. 63 / 056,270, filed July 24, 2020, U.S. Patent Application No. 63 / 072,076, filed August 28, 2020, U.S. Patent Application No. 63 / 086,520, filed October 1, 2020, U.S. Patent Application No. 63 / 111,556, filed November 9, 2020, U.S. Patent Application No. 63 / 127,985, filed December 18, 2020, and U.S. Patent Application No. 63 / 134,537, filed January 6, 2021, all of which are incorporated herein by reference.

[0003] Field of Disclosure The present disclosure relates to the field of power generation, particularly to power generation systems, devices, and methods. More specifically, embodiments of the present disclosure relate to power generation devices and systems that generate photovoltaic, plasma, and thermoelectric power and generate electrical power via magnetohydrodynamic power converters, as well as related methods, photovoltaic, plasmavoltaic, photonvoltaic, or thermovoltaic converters. Additionally, embodiments of the present disclosure describe systems, devices, and methods that use photovoltaic converters to generate photovoltaic, kinetic, electrical, and / or thermovoltaic power through ignition of water or a water-based fuel source. These and other related embodiments are described in detail in the present disclosure. [Background technology]

[0004] Background technology Electricity generation can take many forms and can utilize power generation from plasma. Successful commercialization of plasma can depend on power generation systems that can efficiently generate plasma and capture the energy output from the generated plasma.

[0005] Plasma may be formed during ignition of certain fuels. These fuels may include water or water-based fuel sources. During ignition, a plasma cloud of atoms with electrons stripped from them may form, releasing a high photovoltage. The high photovoltage of the plasma may be harnessed by the power converter of the present disclosure. Ions and excited-state atoms may recombine and undergo electron relaxation, releasing high-intensity light. The high-intensity light may be converted to electricity using photovoltaic technology.

[0006] Disclosure Overview The present disclosure relates to a power generation system that generates at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy, the power generation system comprising: at least one reservoir capable of maintaining a pressure below atmospheric pressure; a reactant capable of undergoing a reaction in the reservoir that generates sufficient energy to form a plasma; (a) a mixture of hydrogen gas and oxygen gas, and / or Water vapor, and / or a mixture of hydrogen gas and water vapor; and (b) a reactant comprising molten metal; a mass flow controller for controlling the flow rate of at least one reactant to the reservoir; a vacuum pump for maintaining a subatmospheric pressure within the reservoir while one or more reactants are flowing into the reservoir; at least one reservoir containing a portion of the molten metal, a molten metal pumping system (e.g., one or more electromagnetic pumps) configured to deliver molten metal into the reservoir and through an injector tube to provide a molten metal stream, and at least a non-injector molten metal reservoir for receiving the molten metal stream; at least one ignition system including a source of electrical power or ignition current for powering at least one stream of molten metal while hydrogen gas and / or oxygen gas and / or water vapor are flowing into the reservoir; a reactant supply system for replenishing reactants consumed in the reaction; and a power converter or power output system that converts a portion of the energy generated by the reaction (e.g., light and / or heat output from the plasma) into electrical power and / or heat output.

[0007] The power generation system of the present disclosure (also referred to herein as "SunCell®"): (a) at least one reservoir capable of maintaining a subatmospheric pressure, including a reaction chamber; (b) two electrodes configured to allow molten metal to flow between the two electrodes to complete a circuit; (c) a power source connected to the two electrodes to apply a current between the two electrodes when the circuit is closed; (d) a plasma generation cell (e.g., a glow discharge cell) for inducing the formation of a first plasma from the gas, the effluent of the plasma generation cell being directed to a circuit (e.g., the molten metal, the anode, the cathode, electrodes submerged in a molten metal reservoir); a plasma generating cell, wherein an effluent of the plasma generating cell reacts to generate a second plasma and reaction products when a current is applied to the circuit; (e) a power adapter configured to convert and / or transfer energy from the second plasma into mechanical energy, thermal energy, and / or electrical energy. In some embodiments, the gas in the plasma-generating cell is a mixture of hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2). For example, the relative molar ratio of oxygen to hydrogen is 0.01% to 50% (e.g., 0.1% to 20%, 0.1% to 15%, etc.). In some implementations, the molten metal is gallium. In some embodiments, the reaction product has at least one spectroscopic signature as described herein (e.g., as described in Example 10). In various aspects, the second plasma is formed in a reaction cell, the walls of which include a liner having increased resistance to alloying with molten metals (e.g., alloying with molten metals such as gallium), and the liner and reaction cell walls are highly permeable to reaction products (e.g., stainless steel such as 347 stainless steel, such as 4130 alloy stainless steel or Cr-Mo stainless steel, nickel, Ti, niobium, vanadium, iron, W, Re, Ta, Mo, niobium, and Nb(94.33 wt%)-Mo(4.86 wt%)-Zr(0.81 wt%)). The liner may be made of a crystalline material (e.g., SiC, BN, quartz) and / or a refractory metal such as at least one of Nb, Ta, Mo, or W. In certain embodiments, the second plasma is formed in the reaction cell, the walls of which include a reaction cell chamber including a first section and a second section, a first section composed of a stainless steel such as 347 stainless steel, such as 4130 alloy stainless steel or a Cr-Mo stainless steel, nickel, Ti, niobium, vanadium, iron, W, Re, Ta, Mo, niobium, and Nb(94.33 wt%)-Mo(4.86 wt%)-Zr(0.81 wt%); the second section includes a high melting point metal different from the metal of the first section; Here, the bond between the different metals is formed by a laminate material (for example, a ceramic such as BN).

[0008] The power generation system of the present disclosure comprises: (a) a vessel capable of maintaining a subatmospheric pressure containing a reaction chamber; (b) a plurality of electrode pairs, each pair including electrodes configured to allow molten metal flow therebetween to complete a circuit; (c) a power source connected to the two electrodes to apply a current therebetween when the circuit is closed; (d) a plasma generation cell (e.g., a glow discharge cell) for inducing the formation of a first plasma from the gas, the effluent of the plasma generation cell being directed to a circuit (e.g., the molten metal, the anode, the cathode, electrodes submerged in a molten metal reservoir); a plasma generating cell, wherein an effluent of the plasma generating cell reacts to generate a second plasma and reaction products when a current is applied to the circuit; (e) a power adapter configured to convert and / or transfer energy from the second plasma into mechanical energy, thermal energy, and / or electrical energy; At least one of the reaction products (eg, intermediate, final product) has at least one spectroscopic characteristic as described herein (eg, as shown in Example 10).

[0009] The power generation system may include a gas mixer for mixing hydrogen gas and oxygen gas and / or water molecules, and a hydrogen and oxygen recombiner and / or hydrogen dissociator. In some embodiments, the hydrogen and oxygen recombiner includes a plasma cell. The plasma cell may include a central positive electrode and a grounded tubular counter electrode, and a voltage (e.g., a voltage in the range of 50 V to 1000 V) is applied between the electrodes to induce plasma formation from the water (H) and oxygen (O) gas mixture. In some embodiments, the hydrogen and oxygen recombiner includes a recombiner catalytic metal supported by an inert support material. In some implementations, the gas mixture supplied to the plasma generating cell to generate the first plasma includes a non-stoichiometric H / O mixture (e.g., an H / O mixture having 1 / 3 mole % O or an H / O mixture having 0.01%-30%, or 0.1%-20%, or less than 10%, or less than 5%, or less than 3% O) that flows through the plasma cell (e.g., a glow discharge cell) to generate a reaction mixture that can undergo a sufficiently exothermic reaction to generate a second plasma. The non-stoichiometric H / O mixture can pass through a glow discharge to generate an effluent of atomic hydrogen and nascent H2O (e.g., a mixture containing water with a concentration sufficient to prevent hydrogen bond formation) and The glow discharge effluent is directed into a reaction chamber where an ignition current is supplied between two electrodes (e.g., by molten metal passing between them) and when the effluent interacts with the biased molten metal (e.g., gallium), a reaction between nascent water and atomic hydrogen is induced, e.g., upon formation of an arc current.

[0010] The power generation system may include at least one of a reaction chamber (e.g., where nascent water and atomic hydrogen undergo a plasma-forming reaction) and / or a reservoir including at least one refractory material liner resistant to alloy formation with molten metal. The inner wall of the reaction chamber may include a carbon liner lined with a ceramic coating, a W, Nb, or Mo liner, and a W plate. In some embodiments, the reservoir includes a carbon liner, and the carbon is coated with the molten metal contained therein. In various implementations, the reaction chamber wall includes a material that is highly permeable to reaction product gases. In various embodiments, the reaction chamber wall includes at least one of stainless steel (e.g., Mo-Cr stainless steel), niobium, molybdenum, or tungsten.

[0011] The power generation system may include a condenser for condensing the molten metal vapor and metal oxide particles and vapor and returning them to the reaction cell chamber. In some embodiments, the power generation system may further include a vacuum line, wherein the condenser includes a section of the vacuum line from the reaction cell chamber to a vacuum pump that is perpendicular to the reaction cell chamber and includes an inert, high surface area filler material that condenses the molten metal vapor and metal oxide particles and vapor and returns them to the reaction cell chamber while allowing the vacuum pump to maintain vacuum pressure within the reaction cell chamber.

[0012] The power generation system may include a blackbody radiator and a window for outputting light from the blackbody radiator. Such embodiments may be used to generate light (e.g., for illumination).

[0013] In some embodiments, the power generation system may further include a gas mixer for mixing hydrogen gas and oxygen gas, and a hydrogen and oxygen recombiner and / or hydrogen dissociator. For example, the power generation system may include a hydrogen and oxygen recombiner including a recombiner catalytic metal supported by an inner support material.

[0014] The power generation system may be operated using parameters that maximize the reaction, specifically the reaction capable of outputting enough energy to sustain plasma generation and net energy output. For example, in some embodiments, the reservoir pressure during operation ranges from 0.1 Torr to 50 Torr. In some implementations, the mass flow rate of hydrogen exceeds the mass flow rate of oxygen by a factor of 1.5 to 1000. In some embodiments, the pressure may exceed 50 Torr and a gas recirculation system may further be included.

[0015] In some embodiments, an inert gas (e.g., argon) is injected into the reservoir. In some embodiments, an inert gas (e.g., argon) is injected into the reservoir. The inert gas may be used to extend the lifetime of certain in situ formed reactants (such as nascent water).

[0016] The power generation system may include a water micro-injector configured to inject water into the reservoir such that the plasma generated from the energy output from the reaction includes water vapor. In some embodiments, the micro-injector injects water into the reservoir. In some embodiments, the H mole percentage is in the range of 1.5 to 1000 times the mole percentage of water vapor (e.g., water vapor injected by the micro-injector).

[0017] The power generation system may further include a heater for melting a metal (e.g., gallium or silver or copper or a combination thereof) to form a molten metal. The power generation system may further include a molten metal recovery system configured to recover the molten metal after the reaction, the molten metal recovery system including a molten metal overflow channel that collects overflow from the non-injector molten metal reservoir.

[0018] The molten metal injection system may further comprise electrodes in the molten metal reservoir and the non-molten metal reservoir, and the ignition system includes a source of power or ignition current supplying opposite voltages to the injector and non-injector reservoir electrodes, where the power supply supplies current and power flow to the molten metal stream to cause reaction of the reactants and form a plasma in the reservoir.

[0019] The power supply typically provides sufficient high-current electrical energy to cause the reactants to react and form a plasma. In certain embodiments, the power supply includes at least one supercapacitor. In various implementations, the current from the molten metal ignition system powers in the range of 10 A to 50,000 A.

[0020] Typically, the molten metal pumping system is configured to pump molten metal from a molten metal reservoir to a non-injected reservoir while creating a molten metal stream. In some embodiments, the molten metal pumping system is one or more electromagnetic pumps, each of which: (a) DC or AC conduction type, including a DC or AC current source supplied to the molten metal through an electrode and a constant or in-phase AC vector cross magnetic field source; or (b) One of the induction types includes an AC magnetic field source and a common-phase vector cross AC magnetic field passing through a short-circuited loop of molten metal to induce an AC current in the metal. In some embodiments, the current from the molten metal ignition system power supply may be in the range of 10 A to 50,000 A. The molten metal ignition system circuit may be closed by the molten metal flow to generate further ignition upon ignition (e.g., ignition frequency less than 10,000 Hz). The injector reservoir may include an electrode in contact with the molten metal therein, and the non-injector reservoir may include an electrode in contact with the molten metal provided by the injector system.

[0021] In various implementations, the non-injector reservoir is positioned above the injector (e.g., vertically) and configured to generate a molten stream directed toward the non-injector reservoir such that molten metal from the molten metal stream can be collected in the reservoir and the molten metal stream is in electrical contact with the non-injector reservoir electrode, and further, the molten metal accumulates on the non-injector reservoir electrode. In some embodiments, the ignition current to the non-injector reservoir is (a) A sealed high temperature cable feedthrough through the reservoir; (b) an electrode busbar; and (c) Electrode may include:

[0022] The ignition current density can be related to the shape of the reservoir, at least because the shape of the reservoir is related to the shape of the final plasma. In various implementations, the reservoir can have an hourglass shape (e.g., a shape in which the cross-sectional area of ​​the central portion of the reservoir's interior surface is within 20%, 10%, or 5% of the cross-sectional area of ​​each distal end along the major axis) and be vertically oriented (e.g., the major axis of the reservoir is approximately parallel to gravity). Here, the injector reservoir is configured to be below the waist and the level of molten metal in the reservoir is approximately proximal to the waist of the hourglass, thereby increasing the ignition current density. In some embodiments, the reservoir is symmetrical about the major vertical axis. In some embodiments, the reservoir is hourglass-shaped and can include a refractory metal liner. In some embodiments, the injector reservoir of an hourglass-shaped reservoir can include a positive electrode for the ignition current.

[0023] The molten metal may include at least one of silver, gallium, a silver-copper alloy, copper, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the molten metal has a melting point less than 700°C. For example, the molten metal may include at least one of bismuth, lead, tin, indium, cadmium, preferably gallium, antimony, or alloys such as rose metal, CerroSafe, Wood's metal, Field metal, Cerro-136, Cerro-117, Bi-Pb-Sn-Cd-In-Tl, and Galinstan. In certain aspects, at least one component of the power generation system in contact with the molten metal (e.g., reservoir, electrode) contains, is clad with, or is coated with one or more alloy-resistant materials that resist forming an alloy with the molten metal. Exemplary alloy-resistant materials are W, Ta, Mo, Nb, Nb(94.33 wt%)-Mo(4.86 wt%)-Zr(0.81 wt%), Os, Ru, Hf, Re, 347 stainless steel, Cr-Mo stainless steel, silicide coating, carbon, and ceramics such as Si3N4, Shapal®, AlN, Sialon, Al2O3, ZrO2, or HfO2. In some embodiments, at least a portion of the container is comprised of a ceramic and / or a metal. The ceramic may include at least one of a metal oxide, quartz, alumina, zirconia, magnesia, hafnia, silicon carbide, zirconium carbide, zirconium diboride, silicon nitride, and glass ceramic. In some embodiments, the metal of the container includes at least one of a stainless steel and a refractory metal.

[0024] The molten metal can react with water to form atomic hydrogen in situ. In various implementations, the molten metal is gallium, and the power generation system further includes a gallium regeneration system for regenerating gallium from gallium oxide (e.g., gallium oxide produced in the reaction). The gallium regeneration system can include a source of at least one of hydrogen gas and atomic hydrogen to reduce gallium oxide to gallium metal. In some embodiments, hydrogen gas is supplied to the gallium regeneration system from a source external to the power generation system. In some embodiments, hydrogen gas and / or atomic hydrogen are generated in situ. The gallium regeneration system can include an ignition system that provides electrical power to the gallium (or gallium / gallium oxide combination) produced in the reaction. In some implementations, such electrical power can electrolyze gallium oxide on the surface of the gallium to gallium metal. In some embodiments, the gallium regeneration system can include an electrolyte (e.g., an electrolyte including an alkali or alkaline earth halide). In some embodiments, the gallium regeneration system may include a basic pH aqueous electrolysis system, a means for transporting gallium oxide to the system, and a means for returning the gallium to a reservoir (e.g., a molten metal reservoir). In some embodiments, the gallium regeneration system includes a skimmer and bucket elevator for removing gallium oxide from the surface of the gallium. In various implementations, the power generation system may include an exhaust line to a vacuum pump for maintaining an exhaust flow, and may further include an electrostatic precipitation system in the exhaust line for collecting gallium oxide particles in the exhaust stream.

[0025] In some embodiments, the power generation system generates a water / hydrogen mixture that is directed to a molten metal cell via a plasma generating cell. In these embodiments, the plasma generating cell, such as a glow discharge cell, induces the formation of a first plasma from a gas (e.g., a gas containing a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen), and the effluent of the plasma generating cell is directed to any part of the molten metal circuit (e.g., the molten metal, an anode, a cathode, or an electrode submerged in the molten metal reservoir). When the biased molten metal interacts with this effluent, a second plasma (higher in energy than that generated by the plasma generating cell) can form. In these embodiments, the plasma generating cell can be supplied with a hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) mixture with a molar excess of hydrogen such that the effluent contains atomic hydrogen (H) and water (H2O). The water in the effluent can be in the form of nascent water, or water that is sufficiently energized and at a concentration such that it does not hydrogen bond to other components in the effluent. This effluent may proceed to a second, more energetic reaction involving H and HOH forming a plasma that is intensified by interaction of the molten metal with the applied external current through at least one of the molten metal and the plasma, which may further generate atomic hydrogen (from H in the effluent) to further drive the second energetic reaction.

[0026] In some embodiments, the power generation system may further include at least one heat exchanger (e.g., a heat exchanger coupled to a wall of the reservoir wall, a heat exchanger capable of transferring heat to or from the molten metal reservoir). In some embodiments, the heat exchanger comprises one of (i) plates, (ii) shell-in-shell blocks, (iii) SiC annular grooves, (iv) SiC poly blocks, and (v) a shell-and-tube heat exchanger. In some implementations, the shell-and-tube heat exchanger comprises conduits, a manifold, a distributor, a heat exchanger inlet line, a heat exchanger outlet line, a shell, an external coolant inlet, an external coolant outlet, a baffle, at least one pump for recirculating hot molten metal from the reservoir to the heat exchanger and returning cold molten metal to the reservoir, and one or more water pumps and water coolant or one or more blowers and air coolant for flowing cold coolant through the external coolant and shell, where the coolant is heated by heat transfer from the conduits and the external coolant In some embodiments, the shell and tube heat exchanger includes conduits, a manifold, a distributor, a heat exchanger inlet line, and a heat exchanger outlet line, the lines including carbon lining and expansion independently of the conduits, manifold, distributor, heat exchanger inlet line, heat exchanger outlet line, shell, external coolant inlet, external coolant outlet, and baffle including stainless steel. The external coolant of the heat exchanger includes air, and air from a microturbine compressor or microturbine recuperator blows cold air into the external coolant inlet and shell, where the coolant is heated by heat transfer from the conduits and exits the external coolant outlet. The hot coolant output from the external coolant outlet flows into the microturbine, which converts the heat power into electricity.

[0027] In some embodiments, the power generation system includes at least one power converter or reaction output system, and may include at least one of the group consisting of a thermophotovoltaic converter, a photovoltaic converter, a photoelectric converter, a magnetohydrodynamic converter, a plasma kinetic converter, a thermionic converter, a thermoelectric converter, a Stirling engine, a supercritical CO2 cycle converter, a Brayton cycle converter, an external combustion Brayton cycle engine or converter, a Rankine cycle engine or converter, an organic Rankine cycle converter, an internal combustion engine, a heat engine, a heater, and a boiler. The reservoir may include an optically transparent photovoltaic (PV) window for transmitting light from the interior of the reservoir to the photovoltaic converter, at least one reservoir shape, and at least one baffle with a rotating window that creates a pressure gradient to at least partially prevent molten metal from coating the PV window. The rotating window includes a system for reducing gallium oxide, including at least one of a hydrogen reduction system and an electrolysis system. In some embodiments, the rotating window comprises or consists of quartz, sapphire, magnesium fluoride, or a combination thereof. In some implementations, the rotating window is coated with a coating that inhibits adhesion of at least one of gallium and gallium oxide. The rotating window coating may include at least one of diamond-like carbon, carbon, boron nitride, and alkali hydroxide. In some embodiments, a positive ignition electrode (e.g., an upper ignition electrode, an electrode positioned higher than the other electrodes) is closer to the window (e.g., compared to the negative ignition electrode), and the positive electrode emits blackbody radiation to the photovoltaic converter via photovoltaics.

[0028] The power converter or output system may include an MHD converter, including a nozzle connected to a reservoir, an MHD channel, electrodes, magnets, a metal collection system, a metal recirculation system, a heat exchanger, and an optional gas recirculation system. In some embodiments, the molten metal may include silver. In embodiments with an MHD converter, the MHD converter may deliver oxygen gas to form silver nanoparticles (e.g., with a particle size in the molecular range of less than about 10 nm or less than about 1 nm) upon interaction with the silver in the molten metal stream. The silver nanoparticles are accelerated through the MHD nozzle, providing kinetic energy storage for the electrical power generated from the reaction. A reactant supply system may supply oxygen gas to the converter and control the delivery of the oxygen gas. In various implementations, at least a portion of the kinetic energy storage of the silver nanoparticles is converted to electrical energy in the MHD channel. The converted electrical energy may result in the coalescence of the nanoparticles. The nanoparticles may coalesce in the condenser section of the magnetohydrodynamic converter (also referred to herein as the MHD condenser section) as molten metal that at least partially absorbs oxygen, and the molten metal with the absorbed oxygen is returned to the injector reservoir by a metal recirculation system. In some embodiments, the oxygen may be released from the metal by a plasma in the reservoir. In some embodiments, this plasma is maintained in the magnetohydrodynamic channel and the metal collection system to enhance absorption of oxygen by the molten metal. In some embodiments, a plasma is maintained in the magnetohydrodynamic channel and the metal collection system to enhance absorption of oxygen by the molten metal.

[0029] The molten metal pumping system may include a first stage electromagnetic pump and a second stage electromagnetic pump, the first stage including a pump for the metal recirculation system and the second stage including a pump for the metal injector system.

[0030] The reactions induced by the reaction generate enough energy to initiate the formation of plasma within the reservoir. (a) molecular hydrogen products H2 (e.g., H2(1 / p) where p is an integer greater than 1 and less than or equal to 137) that contain unpaired electrons that produce electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectra; (b) has an EPR spectrum containing a dominant peak with a g-factor of 2.0046386, arbitrarily split into a series of peak pairs with spectral lines split by the spin-orbit coupling energy, which is a function of the corresponding electron spin-orbit coupling quantum number; (i) The magnetic moment of the unpaired electron induces a diamagnetic moment in the paired electron of the H2(1 / 4) molecular orbital based on the diamagnetic susceptibility of H2(1 / 4), (ii) The magnetic moments corresponding to the intrinsic paired and unpaired current interactions and the magnetic moments resulting from the relative rotational motion around the internuclear axis give rise to spin-orbit coupling energy, (iii) each spin-orbit splitting peak is further split into a series of equally spaced peaks corresponding to integer fluxon energies that are a function of the electron fluxon quantum number corresponding to the number of angular momentum components involved in the transition; and (iv) Furthermore, the spin-spin-orbit splitting increases with the spin-orbit interaction quantum number on the low-field side of a series of pairs of peaks due to the buildup of magnetic flux coupling by molecular orbitals, H2 (e.g., H2(1 / 4)), and (c) For an EPR frequency of 9.820295 GHz, (i) The peak position at the low magnetic field side due to the combined shift caused by the magnetic energy of H2(1 / 4) and the spin-orbit interaction energy B S / Ocombined downfield but, B S / Ocombined downfield = [0.35001-m3.99427×10 -4 -(0.5)((2πm3.99427×10 -4 ) 2 / 0.1750)]T and (ii) quantized spin-orbit splitting energy E s / oand the peak position on the high magnetic field side with electron spin-orbit interaction quantum number m=0.5, 1, 2, 3, 5... B S / O upfield but, B S / O upfield = 0.35001[1+m[(7.426×10 -27 J) / h9.820295GHz]T = (0.35001+m3.99427×10 -4 )T and / or (iii) The separation of the integer series peaks at each spin-orbit peak position ΔB Φ is the electron fluxon quantum number m φ =1, 2, 3 ΔB φ downfield = [0.35001-m3.99427×10 -4 -(0.5)((2πm3.99427×10 -4 ) 2 / 0.1750)] [(m φ 5.7830×10 -28 J) / h9.820295GHz]×10 4 G and ΔB φ upfield = (0.35001-m3.99427×10 -4 )[(m φ 5.7830×10 -28 J) / h9.820295GHz]×10 4 G That is, (d) High-resolution visible spectroscopy in the 400–410 nm range reveals H - The hydride ion H contains paired and unpaired electrons in common atomic orbitals that exhibit flux coupling with a quantization unit of h / 2e observed at (1 / 2). - (For example, H - (1 / p)) and (e) Flux coupling in quantized units of h / 2e observed when the rotational energy levels of H2(1 / 4) are excited by laser irradiation during Raman spectroscopy and by collisions of H2(1 / 4) with high-energy electrons from an electron beam. (f) a molecular hydrino (e.g., H2(1 / p)) having a Raman spectral transition due to spin-orbit coupling between the spin magnetic moment of the unpaired electron and the orbital magnetic moment due to molecular rotation; (i) the energies of rotational transitions are shifted by these spin-orbit coupling energies as a function of the corresponding electron spin-orbit coupling quantum numbers; (ii) the molecular rotational peaks, shifted by the spin-orbit energy, are further shifted by fluxon coupling energies, each of which corresponds to an electronic fluxon quantum number that depends on the number of angular momentum components involved in the rotational transition; (iii) The observed fine splitting or shift of the Raman spectral peaks is due to the flux coupling, on the order of a flux quantum h / 2e, during the spin-orbit interaction between the spin and the rotational magnetic moment of the molecule during the rotational transition, with the molecular hydrino. (g) (i) J=9 to J=0 rotational transition in pure H2(1 / 4) due to spin-orbit interaction and fluxon coupling: E Raman = ΔE J=0→J’ +E S / O,rot +E φ,rot = 11701cm -1 +m528cm -1 +m φ 31cm -1 , (ii) Cooperative transitions involving rotational transitions from J=0 to J'=2, 3 accompanied by spin-rotational transitions from J=0 to J=1: E Raman = ΔE J=0→J’ +E S / O,rot +E φ,rot = 7801cm -1(13,652cm -1 )+m528cm -1 +m φ3 / 2 46cm -1 (iii) Double transition to final rotational quantum numbers J'p=2 and J'c=1:

number

number

[0031] In various implementations, the hydrogen product may be characterized similarly to the products formed from various hydrino reactors, such as those formed by wire detonation in an atmosphere that compresses water vapor. (a) At least one of a metal hydride and a metal oxide further comprising hydrogen, wherein the metal comprises at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, and W; (b) Inorganic compound M x X y and H2, wherein M is a cation, X is an anion, and M(M x X y H(1 / 4)2)n (n is an integer) in electrospray ionization time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ESI-ToF) and time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS), (c) is magnetic and comprises at least one of a metal hydride and a metal oxide further comprising hydrogen, wherein the metal comprises at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, W, and a diamagnetic metal, and the hydrogen is H(1 / 4); and (d) The product may comprise at least one of a metal hydride and a metal oxide further comprising hydrogen, wherein the metal comprises at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, W, and a diamagnetic metal, and H is H(1 / 4), and the product exhibits magnetism by magnetic susceptibility measurement.

[0032] In some embodiments, the hydrogen product formed by the reaction is (i) an element other than hydrogen; (ii) H + , normal H2, normal H - , and regular H + The hydrogen product comprises at least one of (i) conventional hydrogen species, (ii) organic species, and (iii) inorganic species complexed with at least one of the hydrogen species. In some embodiments, the hydrogen product comprises an oxyanion compound. In various implementations, the hydrogen product (or the recovered hydrogen product from embodiments including a getter) comprises: (a) MH, MH2, or M2H2, where M is an alkali cation and H or H2 is the hydrogen product; (b)MH n where n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth cation, and H is a hydrogen product. (c) MHX, where M is an alkali cation, X is either a neutral atom such as a halogen atom, a molecule, or a single negatively charged anion such as a halogen anion, and H is the hydrogen product; (d) MHX, where M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a single negatively charged anion, and H is a hydrogen product; (e) MHX, where M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a doubly negatively charged anion, and H is a hydrogen product; (f) M2HX, where M is an alkali cation, X is a single negatively charged anion, and H is a hydrogen product; (g)MH n where n is an integer, M is an alkali cation, and H is the hydrogen content of the compound. ncontains at least one hydrogen product), (h)M2H n where n is an integer, M is an alkaline earth cation, and H is the hydrogen content of the compound. n contains at least one hydrogen product), (i)M2XH n where n is an integer, M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a single negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content of the compound, H n contains at least one hydrogen product), (j)M2X2H n where n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a single negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content of the compound, H n contains at least one hydrogen product), (k) M2X3H, where M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a single negatively charged anion, and H is a hydrogen product; (l)M2XH n where n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a doubly negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content of the compound, H n is at least one hydrogen product), (m) MXX'H, where M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a single negatively charged anion, X' is a doubly negatively charged anion, and H is a hydrogen product; (n)MM'H n (wherein n is an integer from 1 to 3, M is an alkaline earth cation, M' is an alkali metal cation, and the hydrogen-containing H n contains at least one hydrogen product), (o)MM'XH n where n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth cation, M' is an alkali metal cation, X is a single negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content of the compound, H n contains at least one hydrogen product), (p) MM'XH, where M is an alkaline earth cation, M' is an alkali metal cation, X is a doubly negatively charged anion, and H is a hydrogen product; (q) MM'XX'H, where M is an alkaline earth cation, M' is an alkali metal cation, X and X' are single negatively charged anions, and H is the hydrogen product; (r)MXX'H n where n is an integer from 1 to 5, M is an alkali or alkaline earth cation, X is a singly or doubly negatively charged anion, X' is a metal or metalloid, transition element, inner transition element, or rare earth element, and the hydrogen content H of the compound. n contains at least one hydrogen product), (s)MH n (where n is an integer, M is a cation such as a transition element, inner transition element, or rare earth element, and H is the hydrogen content of the compound. n contains at least one hydrogen product), (t)MXH n wherein n is an integer, M is a cation such as an alkali cation or an alkaline earth cation, and X is another cation such as a transition element, inner transition element, or rare earth element cation, and the compound includes at least one hydrogen product; (u)(MH m MCO3) n where M is an alkali cation or other +1 cation, m and n are each an integer, and the hydrogen content H m contains at least one hydrogen product), (v)(MH m MNO3) + n nX - ) where M is an alkali cation or other +1 cation, m and n are each integers, X is a single negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content of the compound, H m contains at least one hydrogen product), (w)(MHMNO3) n where M is an alkali cation or other +1 cation, n is an integer, and the hydrogen content H of the compound includes at least one hydrogen product; (x)(MHMOH) n where M is an alkali cation or other +1 cation, n is an integer, and the hydrogen content H of the compound includes at least one hydrogen product. (y)(MH m M'X) nwhere m and n are each an integer, M and M' are each an alkali or alkaline earth cation, X is a singly or doubly negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content H m contains at least one hydrogen product), and (z)(MH m M'X') + n nX - (where m and n are each an integer, M and M' are each an alkali or alkaline earth cation, X and X' are each a singly or doubly negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content H of the compound. m contains at least one hydrogen product), The compound may comprise at least one compound having a formula selected from the group:

[0033] The anions of the hydrogen product formed by the reaction can be one or more monovalent negatively charged anions, including halide ions, hydroxide ions, bicarbonate ions, nitrate ions, divalent negatively charged anions, carbonate ions, oxides, and sulfate ions. In some embodiments, the hydrogen product is embedded in a crystal lattice (e.g., by using a getter such as K2CO3 placed in the reservoir or exhaust line). For example, the hydrogen product may be embedded in a salt lattice. In various implementations, the salt lattice can include an alkali salt, an alkali halide, an alkali hydroxide, an alkaline earth salt, an alkaline earth halide, an alkaline earth hydroxide, or a combination thereof.

[0034] An electrode system is also provided, the electrode system comprising: (a) a first electrode and a second electrode; (b) a flow of molten metal (e.g., molten silver, molten gallium, etc.) in electrical contact with the first electrode and the second electrode; (c) a circulation system including a pump that draws molten metal from the reservoir and transports it through a conduit (e.g., a tube) to produce a molten metal stream that exits the conduit; (d) a power source configured to provide a potential difference between the first electrode and the second electrode; A stream of molten metal simultaneously contacts the first and second electrodes, generating an electric current between the electrodes. In some embodiments, the power is sufficient to generate a current of over 100A.

[0035] An electrical circuit is also provided, the electrical circuit comprising: (a) a heating means for producing molten metal; (b) pumping means for transporting molten metal from the reservoir through the conduit and generating a stream of molten metal exiting the conduit; (c) a first electrode and a second electrode in electrical communication with a power supply means for generating a potential difference between the first electrode and the second electrode; The molten metal stream simultaneously contacts the first and second electrodes to complete an electrical circuit between the first and second electrodes. For example, in an electrical circuit including the first and second electrodes, improvements may include passing the molten metal stream through the electrodes to allow an electrical current to flow therebetween.

[0036] Additionally provided are systems for generating plasma, which may be used in the power generation systems described herein, comprising: (a) a molten metal injector system configured to produce molten metal from a metal reservoir; (b) an electrode system for inducing an electric current through said molten metal stream; (c) at least one of: (i) a water injection system configured to contact a metered amount of water with the molten metal, wherein a portion of the water and a portion of the molten metal react to form an oxide of the metal and hydrogen gas; (ii) a mixture of excess hydrogen gas and oxygen gas; and (iii) a mixture of excess hydrogen gas and oxygen gas; and (d) a power source configured to provide said current; wherein the plasma is generated when an electric current is applied through the metal stream. In some embodiments, the system further comprises: The system may further include a pumping system configured to transfer collected metal to the metal reservoir after the plasma is generated. The system may include a metal regeneration system configured to collect the metal oxides and convert the metal oxides to the metal, the metal regeneration system including an anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte, wherein an electrical bias is applied between the anode and the cathode to convert the metal oxides to the metal. (a) a pumping system configured to transfer collected metal after the plasma is produced to the metal reservoir; and (b) a metal regeneration system configured to collect the metal oxides and convert the metal oxides to the metal, the metal regeneration system including the anode, the cathode, and an electrolyte, wherein an electrical bias is applied between the anode and the cathode to convert the metal oxides to the metal; The metal recovered in the metal recovery system is transported to the pumping system. In certain implementations, the metal is gallium, silver, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the electrolyte is an alkali hydroxide (e.g., sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide).

[0037] The system for generating plasma of the present disclosure comprises: (a) a molten metal injector system configured to produce molten metal from a metal reservoir; (b) an electrode system for inducing an electric current through said molten metal stream; (c) at least one of: (i) a water injection system configured to contact a metered amount of water with the molten metal, wherein a portion of the water and a portion of the molten metal react to produce an oxide of the metal and hydrogen gas; (ii) a mixture of excess hydrogen gas and oxygen gas; and (iii) a mixture of excess hydrogen gas and oxygen gas; and (d) a power source configured to provide the current; The plasma is generated when a current is applied through the metal stream. In some embodiments, the system further comprises: (a) a pumping system configured to transfer collected metal after the plasma is produced to the metal reservoir; and (b) a metal regeneration system configured to collect the metal oxides and convert the metal oxides to the metal, the metal regeneration system including an anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte, wherein an electrical bias is applied between the anode and the cathode to convert the metal oxides to the metal; The metals recovered in the metal recovery system are transported to the pumping system.

[0038] The system for generating plasma comprises: (a) two electrodes configured to allow molten metal to flow between the electrodes to complete a circuit; (b) a power source connected to the two electrodes to apply a current between the two electrodes when the circuit is closed; (c) a recombiner cell (e.g., a glow discharge cell) for inducing the formation of nascent water and atomic hydrogen from the gas, wherein the recombiner effluent is directed to a circuit (e.g., molten metal, anode, cathode, electrodes submerged in a molten reservoir); When current flows through the circuit, the effluent of the recombiner cell reacts to generate a plasma. In some embodiments, the system is used to generate heat from the plasma. In various implementations, the system is used to emit light from the plasma.

[0039] The systems of the present disclosure may include (or be part of) a mesh network including a plurality of power generation system transmitter-receiver nodes transmitting and receiving electromagnetic signals in at least one frequency band, which may be high frequency due to the ability to locally locate the nodes with short separation distances, and which may be in at least one of the following ranges: approximately 0.1 GHz to 500 GHz, 1 GHz to 250 GHz, 1 GHz to 100 GHz, 1 GHz to 50 GHz, and 1 GHz to 25 GHz.

[0040] The unique spectroscopic identifying signatures measured in the reaction products produce hydrogen products with unique properties that can be used in the various devices that are part of this disclosure.

[0041] The present disclosure also provides a method for producing at least one hydrino species H - The present invention also encompasses a superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID) or SQUID-type electronic device that includes hydrino hydride ions (1 / p) and H(1 / p) (or chemical species having spectroscopic identifying characteristics consistent with these species) and at least one input current and input voltage circuit and output current and voltage circuit, and that can detect and / or modify the flux coupling state of at least one of the hydrino hydride ions and molecular hydrinos. In some embodiments, the circuit includes an alternating current resonant circuit including a radio frequency RLC circuit. In various implementations, the SQUID or SQUID-type electronic device further includes at least one electromagnetic radiation source (e.g., at least one source of microwave, infrared, visible, or ultraviolet radiation), for example, to induce a magnetic field within the sample. In some embodiments, the radiation source includes a laser or microwave generator. The laser radiation can be focused (e.g., applied to the sample of interest) by a lens or optical fiber. In some embodiments, the SQUID or SQUID-type electronic device further includes a magnetic field source applied to at least one of the hydrino ions and the molecular hydrinos. The magnetic field may be adjustable. Such tunability of at least one of the radiation source and the magnetic field may enable selective and controllable achievement of resonance between the electromagnetic radiation source and the magnetic field. The SQUID or SQUID-type electronic device may include computer logic gates, memory elements, and other electronic measurement or actuator devices operating at high temperatures, such as magnetometers, sensors, and switches.

[0042] The SQUID of the present disclosure may include at least two Josephson junctions electrically connected to a superconducting loop, where the Josephson junctions contain the EPR-effective hydrogen species H. In certain embodiments, the hydrogen species is MOOH:H, where M is a metal (e.g., Ag, Ga).

[0043] The reaction products, for example, those produced from operation of the power generation systems of the present disclosure, can be used as or in cryogens, gaseous heat transfer agents, and buoyancy agents, including molecular hydrinos (e.g., chemical species having spectroscopic identifying characteristics consistent with molecular hydrinos).

[0044] MRI gas contrast agents comprising molecular hydrinos (eg, chemical species having spectroscopic identifying characteristics consistent with molecular hydrinos) are also provided.

[0045] The reaction products can also be used as the excitation medium for a laser. The present disclosure encompasses a hydrino molecular gas laser, which may include molecular hydrino gas (H2(1 / p), p=2, 3, 4, 5, . . . , 137) (e.g., a chemical species having spectroscopic identifying characteristics consistent with molecular hydrino), a laser cavity containing the molecular hydrino gas, an excitation source for rotational energy levels of the molecular hydrino gas, and laser optics. In some embodiments, the laser optics include mirrors at the ends of the cavity containing the molecular hydrino gas in the excited rotational state, one of the mirrors being semitransparent to allow laser light to be emitted from the cavity. In various implementations, the excitation source includes at least one of a laser, a flash lamp, a gas discharge system (e.g., a glow, microwave, radio frequency (RF), inductively coupled RF, capacitively coupled RF, or other plasma discharge system). In certain aspects, the laser may further include an external or internal electromagnetic field source (e.g., an electric or magnetic field source) to fill at least one desired molecular hydrino rotational energy level, which level includes at least one of the desired spin-orbit and fluxon coupling energy shifts. The laser transition may occur between a population inversion of a selected rotational state and a population inversion of a less energetic state. In some embodiments, the laser cavity, optics, excitation source, and external electromagnetic field source are selected to achieve the desired population inversion and stimulated emission into the desired less populated lower energy state. The laser may include a solid-state laser medium. For example, the solid-state laser emission medium may include molecular hydrinos trapped in a solid matrix, where the hydrino molecules may be free rotors and the solid medium replaces the gas cavity of a molecular hydrino gas laser. In some implementations, the solid-state laser emitting medium includes at least one of GaOOH:H2(1 / 4), KCl:H2(1 / 4), and silicon (e.g., Si(crystalline):H2(1 / 4)) trapping molecular hydrinos (or a chemical species having the spectroscopic signature thereof).

[0046] Methods are also provided. The methods may, for example, generate electricity, light, or generate plasma. In some embodiments, the methods include: (a) applying an electrical bias to the molten metal; and (b) interacting an effluent of a plasma generating cell (e.g., a glow discharge cell) with a biased molten metal to induce the formation of a plasma. In some implementations, the effluent of the plasma generating cell is generated from a hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) gas mixture that passes through the plasma generating cell during operation. [Brief explanation of the drawings]

[0047] BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated in and constitute a part of this specification, illustrate several embodiments of the present disclosure and, together with the description, serve to explain the principles of the disclosure. [Figure 1] FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram of a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) converter component of a cathode, anode, insulator, and busbar feedthrough flange according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 2] 2-3 are schematic diagrams of a SunCell® generator with a dual EM pump injector as a liquid electrode showing a graded reservoir and an electromagnetothermal (MHD) converter including a pair of MHD return pumps according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 3] 2-3 are schematic diagrams of a SunCell® generator with a dual EM pump injector as a liquid electrode showing a graded reservoir and an electromagnetothermal (MHD) converter including a pair of MHD return pumps according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 4] FIG. 4 is a schematic diagram of a single-stage induction infusion EM pump according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 5] FIG. 5 is a schematic diagram of a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) SunCell® generator comprising a dual EM pump injector as a liquid electrode exhibiting a graded reservoir, a spherical reaction cell chamber, a linear magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) channel, a gas addition housing, a single-stage induction EM pump for injection, and a single-stage induction or DC conduction magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) return EM pump according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 6] FIG. 6 is a schematic diagram of a two-stage induction EM pump, where the first stage functions as an MHD return pump and the second stage functions as an injection EM pump, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 7] FIG. 7 is a schematic diagram of a two-stage induction EM pump in which the first stage acts as an MHD return EM pump and the second stage acts as an injection EM pump with more optimized Lorentz pumping forces, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 8] FIG. 8 is a schematic diagram of an inductive ignition system according to one embodiment of the disclosure. [Figure 9] 9-10 are schematic diagrams of a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) SunCell® generator comprising a dual EM pump injector as a liquid electrode exhibiting a graded reservoir, a spherical reaction cell chamber, a linear magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) channel, a gas addition housing, two-stage induction EM pumps for both induction EM pump inlet and MHD return, each with a forced air cooling system, and an induction ignition system, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 10] 9-10 are schematic diagrams of a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) SunCell® generator comprising a dual EM pump injector as a liquid electrode exhibiting a graded reservoir, a spherical reaction cell chamber, a linear magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) channel, a gas addition housing, two-stage induction EM pumps for both induction EM pump inlet and MHD return, each with a forced air cooling system, and an induction ignition system, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 11] FIG. 11 is a schematic diagram of a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) SunCell® generator comprising a dual EM pump injector as a liquid electrode showing a graded reservoir, a spherical reaction cell chamber, a linear magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) channel, a gas addition housing, two-stage induction EM pumps for both injection and MHD return, each with a forced liquid cooling system, an inductive ignition system, and an inductively coupled heating antenna on the EM pump tube, the reservoir, the reaction cell chamber, and the MHD return conduit, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 12]12-19 are schematic diagrams of a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) SunCell® generator comprising a dual EM pump injector as a liquid electrode exhibiting a graded reservoir, a spherical reaction cell chamber, a linear magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) channel, a gas addition housing, two-stage induction EM pumps for both injection and MHD return, each with an air cooling system, and an induction ignition system, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 13] 12-19 are schematic diagrams of a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) SunCell® generator comprising a dual EM pump injector as a liquid electrode exhibiting a graded reservoir, a spherical reaction cell chamber, a linear magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) channel, a gas addition housing, two-stage induction EM pumps for both injection and MHD return, each with an air cooling system, and an induction ignition system, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 14] 12-19 are schematic diagrams of a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) SunCell® generator comprising a dual EM pump injector as a liquid electrode exhibiting a graded reservoir, a spherical reaction cell chamber, a linear magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) channel, a gas addition housing, two-stage induction EM pumps for both injection and MHD return, each with an air cooling system, and an induction ignition system, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 15] 12-19 are schematic diagrams of a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) SunCell® generator comprising a dual EM pump injector as a liquid electrode exhibiting a graded reservoir, a spherical reaction cell chamber, a linear magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) channel, a gas addition housing, two-stage induction EM pumps for both injection and MHD return, each with an air cooling system, and an induction ignition system, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 16] 12-19 are schematic diagrams of a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) SunCell® generator comprising a dual EM pump injector as a liquid electrode exhibiting a graded reservoir, a spherical reaction cell chamber, a linear magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) channel, a gas addition housing, two-stage induction EM pumps for both injection and MHD return, each with an air cooling system, and an induction ignition system, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 17]12-19 are schematic diagrams of a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) SunCell® generator comprising a dual EM pump injector as a liquid electrode exhibiting a graded reservoir, a spherical reaction cell chamber, a linear magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) channel, a gas addition housing, two-stage induction EM pumps for both injection and MHD return, each with an air cooling system, and an induction ignition system, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 18] 12-19 are schematic diagrams of a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) SunCell® generator comprising a dual EM pump injector as a liquid electrode exhibiting a graded reservoir, a spherical reaction cell chamber, a linear magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) channel, a gas addition housing, two-stage induction EM pumps for both injection and MHD return, each with an air cooling system, and an induction ignition system, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 19] 12-19 are schematic diagrams of a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) SunCell® generator comprising a dual EM pump injector as a liquid electrode exhibiting a graded reservoir, a spherical reaction cell chamber, a linear magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) channel, a gas addition housing, two-stage induction EM pumps for both injection and MHD return, each with an air cooling system, and an induction ignition system, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 20] FIG. 20 is a schematic diagram illustrating an exemplary SunCell® spiral flame heater and a flame heater including a series of annular rings, according to one embodiment of the disclosure. [Figure 21] FIG. 21 is a schematic diagram illustrating an electrolytic cell according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 22] FIG. 22 is a schematic diagram of a SunCell® generator with a dual EM pump injector as a liquid electrode showing a graded reservoir and a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) converter including a pair of MHD return pumps and a pair of MHD return gas pumps or compressors according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 23] FIG. 23 (formerly FIG. 25) is a schematic diagram showing details of a SunCell® thermal generator with a single EM pump injector in an injector reservoir and a liquid electrode as an inverted base, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 24] 24 (formerly FIG. 26)-26 (formerly FIG. 28) are detailed schematic diagrams of a SunCell® thermoelectric generator with a single EM pump injector in an injector reservoir, a partially inverted liquid electrode, and a tapered reaction cell chamber to reduce metallization of the PV window, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 25] 24 (formerly FIG. 26)-26 (formerly FIG. 28) are detailed schematic diagrams of a SunCell® thermoelectric generator with a single EM pump injector in an injector reservoir, a partially inverted liquid electrode, and a tapered reaction cell chamber to reduce metallization of the PV window, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 26] 24 (formerly FIG. 26)-26 (formerly FIG. 28) are detailed schematic diagrams of a SunCell® thermoelectric generator with a single EM pump injector in an injector reservoir, a partially inverted liquid electrode, and a tapered reaction cell chamber to reduce metallization of the PV window, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 27] FIG. 27 (formerly FIG. 29) is a detailed schematic diagram of a SunCell® thermoelectric generator with a single EM pump injector in an injector reservoir, a partial inverted base as a liquid electrode, an inductive ignition system, and a PV window, according to one disclosed embodiment. [Figure 28] Figure 28 (formerly Figure 30) is a detailed schematic diagram of a SunCell® thermoelectric generator with a cubic shaped reaction cell chamber with a liner and a single EM pump injector in the injector reservoir and an inverted base as a liquid electrode. [Figure 29] Figure 29 (formerly Figure 31A) is a detailed schematic diagram of a SunCell® thermoelectric generator with an hourglass-shaped reaction cell chamber with a liner in the injector reservoir and a single EM pump injector, and an inverted base as the liquid electrode. [Figure 30]FIG. 30 (formerly FIG. 31B) is a detailed schematic diagram of a SunCell® thermal generator with a single EM pump injector in an injector reservoir, a partial inverted pedestal as a liquid electrode, an inductive ignition system, and a bucket elevator gallium oxide skimmer, in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. [Figure 31] FIG. 31 (formerly FIG. 31C) is a detailed schematic diagram of a SunCell® thermal generator including a single EM pump injector in an injector reservoir and an inverted pedestal as an electrode, where the EM pump tube includes a collection of multiple components that are resistant to at least one of gallium alloy formation and oxidation, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 32] 32 (formerly FIG. 31D) through 36 (formerly FIG. 31H) are schematic diagrams showing details of a SunCell® pumped molten metal-to-air heat exchanger, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 33] 32 (formerly FIG. 31D) through 36 (formerly FIG. 31H) are schematic diagrams showing details of a SunCell® pumped molten metal-to-air heat exchanger, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 34] 32 (formerly FIG. 31D) through 36 (formerly FIG. 31H) are schematic diagrams showing details of a SunCell® pumped molten metal-to-air heat exchanger, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 35] 32 (formerly FIG. 31D) through 36 (formerly FIG. 31H) are schematic diagrams showing details of a SunCell® pumped molten metal-to-air heat exchanger, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 36] 32 (formerly FIG. 31D) through 36 (formerly FIG. 31H) are schematic diagrams showing details of a SunCell® pumped molten metal-to-air heat exchanger, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 37] 37 (formerly FIG. 66A)-38 (formerly FIG. 66B) are schematic diagrams of a ceramic SunCell® generator including dual reservoirs and a DC EM pump injector as a liquid electrode with the reservoirs combined to form a reaction cell chamber, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 38] 37 (formerly FIG. 66A)-38 (formerly FIG. 66B) are schematic diagrams of a ceramic SunCell® generator including dual reservoirs and a DC EM pump injector as a liquid electrode with the reservoirs combined to form a reaction cell chamber, according to one embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 39] Figures 39 (formerly Figure 16.19A) through 41 (formerly Figure 16.19C) are schematic diagrams of a SunCell® generator including at least one electromagnetic pump injector and electrode in the injector reservoir electrode, at least one vertically aligned counter electrode, and a glow discharge cell connected to the top flange for forming HOH catalyst and atomic H. A. External view of one electrode pair embodiment. B. Cross-section of one electrode pair embodiment. C. Cross-section of two electrode pair embodiment. [Figure 40] Figures 39 (formerly Figure 16.19A) through 41 (formerly Figure 16.19C) are schematic diagrams of a SunCell® generator including at least one electromagnetic pump injector and electrode in the injector reservoir electrode, at least one vertically aligned counter electrode, and a glow discharge cell connected to the top flange for forming HOH catalyst and atomic H. A. External view of one electrode pair embodiment. B. Cross-section of one electrode pair embodiment. C. Cross-section of two electrode pair embodiment. [Figure 41] Figures 39 (formerly Figure 16.19A) through 41 (formerly Figure 16.19C) are schematic diagrams of a SunCell® generator including at least one electromagnetic pump injector and electrode in the injector reservoir electrode, at least one vertically aligned counter electrode, and a glow discharge cell connected to the top flange for forming HOH catalyst and atomic H. A. External view of one electrode pair embodiment. B. Cross-section of one electrode pair embodiment. C. Cross-section of two electrode pair embodiment. [Figure 42] FIG. 42 (formerly FIG. 33) is a schematic diagram of a hydrino reaction cell chamber including means for igniting a wire to serve as at least one source of reactants and means for propagating the hydrino reaction to form low-energy hydrogen species, such as molecular hydrinos, according to one embodiment of the present invention. [Figure 43]Figures 43 (formerly Figure 34A) through 45 (formerly Figure 34C) show the measured EPR spectra of GaOOH:H2(1 / 4) collected with the power generation system running. The EPR spectra were replicated by Bruker using two instruments for two samples. (A) EMXnano data. (B) EMXplus data. (C) Extended EMXplus data, 3503G–3508G region. [Figure 44] Figures 43 (formerly Figure 34A) through 45 (formerly Figure 34C) show the measured EPR spectra of GaOOH:H2(1 / 4) collected with the power generation system running. The EPR spectra were replicated by Bruker using two instruments for two samples. (A) EMXnano data. (B) EMXplus data. (C) Extended EMXplus data, 3503G–3508G region. [Figure 45] Figures 43 (formerly Figure 34A) through 45 (formerly Figure 34C) show the measured EPR spectra of GaOOH:H2(1 / 4) collected with the power generation system running. The EPR spectra were replicated by Bruker using two instruments for two samples. (A) EMXnano data. (B) EMXplus data. (C) Extended EMXplus data, 3503G–3508G region. [Figure 46] FIG. 46 (formerly FIG. 35) shows the EPR spectrum of GaOOH:HD(1 / 4) (3464.65 G to 3564.65 G) region. [Figure 47]Figures 47 (formerly Figure 36A) through 49 (formerly Figure 36C) show Raman spectra obtained using a Horiba Jobin Yvon LabRamARAMIS spectrometer equipped with a 785 nm laser on a Ni foil prepared by immersing a SunCell® in molten gallium, where the hydrino plasma reaction was maintained for 10 minutes. (A) Region from 2500 cm-1 to 11,000 cm-1. (B) Region from 8500 cm-1 to 11,000 cm-1. (C) Region from 6000 cm-1 to 11,000 cm-1. All new lines correspond to either (i) pure H2(1 / 4) rotational transitions from J = 0 to J' = 2, 3, (ii) cooperative transitions involving rotational transitions from J = 0 to J' = 1, 2 and spin-rotational transitions from J = 0 to J = 1, or (iii) double transitions to final rotational quantum numbers J'p and J'c. Corresponding spin-orbit and fluxon couplings were also observed for the pure, cooperative, and double transitions. [Figure 48] Figures 47 (formerly Figure 36A) through 49 (formerly Figure 36C) show Raman spectra obtained using a Horiba Jobin Yvon LabRamARAMIS spectrometer equipped with a 785 nm laser on a Ni foil prepared by immersing a SunCell® in molten gallium, where the hydrino plasma reaction was maintained for 10 minutes. (A) Region from 2500 cm-1 to 11,000 cm-1. (B) Region from 8500 cm-1 to 11,000 cm-1. (C) Region from 6000 cm-1 to 11,000 cm-1. All new lines correspond to either (i) pure H2(1 / 4) rotational transitions from J = 0 to J' = 2, 3, (ii) cooperative transitions involving rotational transitions from J = 0 to J' = 1, 2 and spin-rotational transitions from J = 0 to J = 1, or (iii) double transitions to final rotational quantum numbers J'p and J'c. Corresponding spin-orbit and fluxon couplings were also observed for the pure, cooperative, and double transitions. [Figure 49]Figures 47 (formerly Figure 36A) through 49 (formerly Figure 36C) show Raman spectra obtained using a Horiba Jobin Yvon LabRamARAMIS spectrometer equipped with a 785 nm laser on a Ni foil prepared by immersing a SunCell® in molten gallium, where the hydrino plasma reaction was maintained for 10 minutes. (A) Region from 2500 cm-1 to 11,000 cm-1. (B) Region from 8500 cm-1 to 11,000 cm-1. (C) Region from 6000 cm-1 to 11,000 cm-1. All new lines correspond to either (i) pure H2(1 / 4) rotational transitions from J = 0 to J' = 2, 3, (ii) cooperative transitions involving rotational transitions from J = 0 to J' = 1, 2 and spin-rotational transitions from J = 0 to J = 1, or (iii) double transitions to final rotational quantum numbers J'p and J'c. Corresponding spin-orbit and fluxon couplings were also observed for the pure, cooperative, and double transitions. [Figure 50] Figure 50 (formerly Figure 37A) shows the Raman spectrum (2200 cm-1 to 11,000 cm-1) obtained on GaOOH:H2(1 / 4) using a HoribaJobin Yvon LabRam ARAMIS spectrometer with a 785 nm laser, showing the H2(1 / 4) rotational transition accompanied by spin-orbit coupling and fluxon linkage shifts. [Figure 51] Figure 51 (formerly Figure 37B) shows the Raman spectrum (2500 cm-1 to 11,000 cm-1) obtained using a HoribaJobin Yvon LabRam ARAMIS spectrometer with a 785 nm laser on a silver shot electrode after detonation, showing the H2(1 / 4) rotational transition accompanied by spin-orbit coupling and fluxon linkage shifts. [Figure 52]Figures 52 (formerly Figure 38A) through 54 (formerly Figure 38C) show Raman spectra obtained using a HoribaJobin Yvon LabRamARAMIS spectrometer with a 785 nm laser for GaOOH:HD(1 / 4). A. Region 2500 cm-1 to 11,000 cm-1. B. Region 6000 cm-1 to 11,000 cm-1. C. Region 8000 cm-1 to 11,000 cm-1. All new lines correspond to either (i) pure HD(1 / 4) J=0 to J'=3, 4 rotational transitions, (ii) cooperative transitions involving a J=0 to J'=3 rotational transition and a J=0 to J=1 spin-rotation transition, or (iii) double transitions with final rotational quantum numbers J'p=3; J'c=1. The corresponding spin-orbit and fluxon couplings were also observed for both pure and cooperative transitions. [Figure 53] Figures 52 (formerly Figure 38A) through 54 (formerly Figure 38C) show Raman spectra obtained using a HoribaJobin Yvon LabRamARAMIS spectrometer with a 785 nm laser for GaOOH:HD(1 / 4). A. Region 2500 cm-1 to 11,000 cm-1. B. Region 6000 cm-1 to 11,000 cm-1. C. Region 8000 cm-1 to 11,000 cm-1. All new lines correspond to either (i) pure HD(1 / 4) J=0 to J'=3, 4 rotational transitions, (ii) cooperative transitions involving a J=0 to J'=3 rotational transition and a J=0 to J=1 spin-rotation transition, or (iii) double transitions with final rotational quantum numbers J'p=3; J'c=1. The corresponding spin-orbit and fluxon couplings were also observed for both pure and cooperative transitions. [Figure 54]Figures 52 (formerly Figure 38A) through 54 (formerly Figure 38C) show Raman spectra obtained using a HoribaJobin Yvon LabRamARAMIS spectrometer with a 785 nm laser for GaOOH:HD(1 / 4). A. Region 2500 cm-1 to 11,000 cm-1. B. Region 6000 cm-1 to 11,000 cm-1. C. Region 8000 cm-1 to 11,000 cm-1. All new lines correspond to either (i) pure HD(1 / 4) J=0 to J'=3, 4 rotational transitions, (ii) cooperative transitions involving a J=0 to J'=3 rotational transition and a J=0 to J=1 spin-rotation transition, or (iii) double transitions with final rotational quantum numbers J'p=3; J'c=1. The corresponding spin-orbit and fluxon couplings were also observed for both pure and cooperative transitions. [Figure 55] Figure 55 (formerly Figure 39A) shows the effect of applying a magnetic field on the FTIR spectrum (200 cm-1 to 8200 cm-1) recorded for GaOOH:H2(1 / 4). Application of a magnetic field results in an FTIR peak at 4164 cm-1, which corresponds perfectly to a cooperative rotational and spin-orbital transition, J = 0 to J' = 1, m = 0.5. An increase in the intensity of the peak at 1801 cm-1 was observed, which corresponds to a cooperative rotational and spin-orbital transition, J = 0 to J' = 0, m = -0.5, mφ3 / 2 = 2.5. [Figure 56] Figure 56 (formerly Figure 39B) shows the FTIR spectrum (4000 cm-1 to 8500 cm-1) recorded for GaOOH:H2(1 / 4), which shows additional peaks with very high energies at 4899 cm-1, 5318 cm-1, and 6690 cm-1, corresponding to rotational and spin-orbit transitions of H2(1 / 4). [Figure 57]Figure 57 (formerly Figure 40A) shows the Raman spectrum (3420 cm-1 to 4850 cm-1) obtained using a HoribaJobin Yvon LabRam ARAMIS spectrometer equipped with a 785 nm laser on a solid web-like fiber (Fe web) created by wire detonation of ultra-high purity Fe wire in air maintained at 20 Torr water vapor. The spectrum shows a series of periodic peaks assigned to fluxon coupling between H2(1 / 4) cooperative rotation and spin-orbit transitions J = 0 to J' = 2, m = 0.5, and mφ3 / 2. [Figure 58] Figure 58 (formerly Figure 40B) shows the Raman spectrum (3420 cm-1 to 4850 cm-1) obtained using a HoribaJobin Yvon LabRam ARAMIS spectrometer with a 785 nm laser. It shows that all of the Raman peaks in Figure 15 were eliminated by acid treatment of the Fe-web:H2(1 / 4) sample with HCl. [Figure 59] FIG. 59 (formerly FIG. 41) is a schematic diagram of a water bath calorimetry system used to measure the operation of the power generation system of the present disclosure. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

[0048] Detailed Description Disclosed herein are power generation systems and methods that convert the energy output from reactions involving atomic hydrogen into electrical and / or thermal energy. These reactions can involve catalytic systems that release energy from atomic hydrogen to form lower-energy states in which the electron shells are closer to the nucleus. The released energy is utilized to generate electricity, and new hydrogen species and compounds are the desired products. These energy states are predicted by classical physical laws and require a catalyst to accept energy from the hydrogen to cause the corresponding energy-releasing transitions.

[0049] Theories that may explain the exothermic reactions generated by the disclosed power generation system involve the non-radiative transfer of energy from atomic hydrogen to a specific catalyst (e.g., nascent water). Classical physics provides closed-form solutions for hydrogen atoms, hydride ions, hydrogen molecular ions, and hydrogen molecules, predicting corresponding species with fractional principal quantum numbers. Classical physics provides closed-form solutions for hydrogen atoms, hydride ions, hydrogen molecular ions, and hydrogen molecules, predicting corresponding species with fractional principal quantum numbers. Atomic hydrogen is capable of accepting catalytic reactions with specific chemical species (including itself) that can accept energy up to an integer multiple of the potential energy of atomic hydrogen, m 27.2 eV (where m is an integer). The predicted reactions involve resonance, otherwise non-radiative, energy transfer from stable atomic hydrogen to a catalyst that can accept energy. The products are fractional Rydberg states of atomic hydrogen, called "hydrino atoms," H(1 / p), where n = 1 / 2, 1 / 3, 1 / 4, . . . , 1 / p (p ≤ 137 for integers) replace the known parameter n = an integer in the Rydberg equation for excited hydrogen states. Each hydrino state also contains an electron, a proton, and a photon, but the electric field contribution from the photon increases rather than decreases the binding energy, corresponding to energy detachment rather than absorption. Because the potential energy of atomic hydrogen is 27.2 eV, mH atoms act as catalysts for the generation of m 27.2 eV of another (m+1)H atom [R. Mills, "The Grand Unified Theory of Classical Physics," September 2016 edition, posted at https: / / brilliantlightpower.com / book-download-and-strea,ing / ("Mills GUTCP")]. For example, a H atom can act as a catalyst for another H by accepting 27.2 eV via spatial energy transfer, such as magnetic or induced electric dipole-dipole coupling, resulting in a short wavelength cutoff and m 2 / 13.6eV(91.2 / m 2The catalyst forms an intermediate that decays with a continuum radiation with an energy of 10.1 nm (122.4 eV). In addition to atomic H, molecules that accept m 27.2 eV from atomic H, reducing the magnitude of the molecular potential energy by the same energy, also function as catalysts. The potential energy of H2O is 81.6 eV. Next, by the same mechanism, nascent H2O molecules (not hydrogen-bonded in the solid, liquid, or gaseous state) formed by the thermodynamically favorable reduction of metal oxides are predicted to function as catalysts to form H(1 / 4) with an energy release of 204 eV, including the transfer of 81.6 eV to HOH and the emission of a continuum radiation with a cutoff at 10.1 nm (122.4 eV).

[0050] State H[a H / (p=m+1)], the H atom acts as a catalyst for m·27.2 eV from another (m+1)th H atom. Then, the reaction between m+1 hydrogen atoms, where m atoms resonantly and non-radiatively accept m·27.2 eV from the (m+1)th hydrogen atom so that mH acts as a catalyst, is m 27.2 eV + mH + H → mH + fast +me - +H * [a H / (m+1)]+m 27.2 eV (1) H * [a H / (m+1)] → H[a H / (m+1)] +[(m+1) 2 -1 2 ] 13.6 eV -m 27.2 eV (2) mH fast + +me - → mH+m 27.2 eV (3) is given by.

[0051] Furthermore, the overall response is H → H[a H / (p=m+1)]+[(m+1) 2 -1 2 ] 13.6 eV (4) is.

[0052] The potential energy of the nascent H2O catalytic reaction (m=3) [R. Mills, "The Grand Unified Theory of Classical Physics"; September 2016 Edition, posted at https: / / brilliantlightpower.com / book-download-and-strea,ing / ] is: 81.6 eV + H2O + H[a H ] → 2H fast + +O - +e - +H * [a H / 4]+81.6eV (5) H * [a H / 4] → H[a H / 4]+122.4eV (6) 2H fast + +O - +e - → H2O+81.6eV (7) is.

[0053] Furthermore, the overall response is H[a H ] → H[a H / 4]+81.6eV+122.4eV (8) is.

[0054] After energy transfer to the catalyst (Eqs. (1) and (5)), an intermediate H with a radius of the H atom and a central magnetic field m+1 times larger than the central magnetic field of the proton is formed. * [aH / (m+1)] is formed. The radius is then stabilized by the electron being accelerated radially to a radius of 1 / (m+1) that of a non-catalytic hydrogen atom, and m 2 It is predicted that the energy released will be 13.6 eV, which will reduce the H * [a H / (m+1)] intermediates, extreme ultraviolet continuum emission bands (e.g., Eqs. (2) and (6)

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[0055] Catalysts and reactions that form hydrinos can be added. Specific chemical species can be identified based on known electronic energy levels (e.g., He + , Ar + , Sr+ , K, Li, HCl, and NaH, OH, SH, SeH, nascent HO, nH (n = integer) must be present with atomic hydrogen to catalyze the process. This reaction involves a non-radiative energy transfer followed by a q 13.6 eV continuum emission or a q 13.6 eV transfer to H, forming an excited state of H at very high temperatures and a hydrogen atom that is lower in energy than the unreacted atomic hydrogen, corresponding to a fractional principal quantum number. That is, in the equation for the principal energy levels of the hydrogen atom, E n = -(e 2 / (n 2 8πε0a H )) = -(13.598eV / n 2 ) (10) n = 1,2,3, ... (11) (In the formula, α H is the Bohr radius of the hydrogen atom (52.947 pm), e is the magnitude of the electron charge, and ε o is the vacuum permittivity), and the fractional quantum number, i.e. n = 1,1 / 2,1 / 3,1 / 4, ,1 / p (12) (wherein p≦137 is an integer) is the well-known parameter n = an integer in the Rydberg equation for excited states of hydrogen, describing a low-energy state of hydrogen atom called a "hydrino." The n = 1 state of hydrogen and the n = 1 / integer state of hydrogen are non-radiative, but transitions between the two non-radiative states, e.g., n = 1 to n = 1 / 2, are possible by non-radiative energy transfer. Hydrogen is a special case of the stable states given by equations (10) and (12), where the corresponding radii of the hydrogen or hydrino atoms are r=a H / p (13) (where p = 1, 2, 3,...). To maintain the energy, energy is transferred from the hydrogen atom to the catalyst in integer units of the potential energy of the hydrogen atom in the normal n = 1 state, and the radius is a H / (m+p). Hydrinos are normal hydrogen atoms that m 27.2 eV (14) It is formed by reacting with an appropriate catalyst that has a net enthalpy of reaction of m 27.2 eV, where m is an integer. It is believed that the rate of the catalyst increases when the net enthalpy of reaction more closely matches m 27.2 eV. It has been found that catalysts with net enthalpies of reaction within ±10%, preferably ±5%, of m 27.2 eV are suitable for most applications.

[0056] Catalytic reactions involve two steps of energy release: a non-radiative energy transfer to the catalyst as the radius decreases to the corresponding stable final state, followed by an additional energy release. Thus, the general reaction is: m 27.2 eV + Cat q- +H[a H / p] → Cat (q+r)+ +re - +H * [a H / (m+p)] +m 27.2 eV (15) H * [a H / (m+p)] → H[a H / (m+p)]+[(p+m) 2 -p 2 ] 13.6 eV -m 27.2 eV (16) Cat (q+r)+ +re - → Cat q+ +m 27.2 eV (17) and the overall reaction is given by H[a H / p] → H[a H / (m+p)]+[(p+m) 2 -p 2 ] 13.6 eV (18) where q, r, m, and p are integers. H * [a H / (m+p)] has a central magnetic field equal to the radius of the hydrogen atom (corresponding to the denominator 1) and (m+p) times the proton, and H[a H / (m+p)] is the corresponding stable state with radius 1 / (m+p) of hydrogen H.

[0057] The catalytic product H(1 / p) reacts with electrons to form hydrino hydride ions H ― Alternatively, two H(1 / p) can react to form the corresponding molecular hydrino H(1 / p). Specifically, the catalytic product H(1 / p) can also react with an electron to form the bond energy E B A new hydride ion H ― (1 / p) can be formed.

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[0058] The upfield shift of the NMR peak is direct evidence for the existence of a low-energy hydrogen state with a smaller radius and increased diamagnetic shielding of the proton compared to the normal hydride ion. This shift is obtained by adding the diamagnetic contributions of the two electrons and the photon field contribution of magnitude p (Mills GUTCP equation (7.87)).

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[0059] H(1 / p) can react with a proton. Also, two H(1 / p) can react to form H2(1 / p) + and H2(1 / p). The hydrogen molecular ion and molecular charge and current density functions, bond distances, and energies are determined from the Laplacian in ellipsoidal coordinates with the nonradiative constraint.

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[0060] The total energy E of the hydrogen molecule ion with a central magnetic field of +pe at each focus of the prolate spheroidal molecular orbital T is given by the following equation:

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[0061] Bond dissociation energy E of hydrogen molecule H2(1 / p) Dis the total energy of the corresponding hydrogen atom and E T It is the difference between E D = E(2H(1 / p))-E T (twenty four) During the ceremony, E(2H(1 / p)) = -p 2 27.20eV (25) and E D is given by equations (23-25). E D = -p 2 27.20 eV-E T = -p 2 27.20 eV -(-p 2 31.351eV-p 3 0.326469eV) = p 2 4.151eV+p 3 0.326469eV (26)

[0062] H2(1 / p) can be identified by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, where the ionization products in addition to the ionized electron are two protons and one electron, one H atom, one hydrino atom, molecular ion, hydrogen molecular ion, and H2(1 / p) + where the energy can be shifted by a matrix.

[0063] NMR of catalytic reaction-product gases provides the most definitive test of the theoretically predicted chemical shifts of H2(1 / p). 1 The H NMR resonance is predicted to be upfield from that of H2 by a fraction of the radius in ellipsoidal coordinates, where the electron is very close to the nucleus. The predicted shift ΔB for H2(1 / p) T / B is given by the sum of the photon field of intensity p and the diamagnetic contributions of the two electrons (Mills GUTCP equations (11.415-11.416)).

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[0064] Vibrational energy E for the transition from ν=0 to ν=1 of the hydrogen-type molecule H2(1 / p) vib becomes: E vib = p 2 0.515902eV (29) where p is an integer.

[0065] Rotational energy E for the J to J+1 transition of the hydrogen-like molecule H2(1 / p) rot is expressed as follows:

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[0066] Rotational energy p 2 The dependence arises from the inverse p dependence of the internuclear distance and the corresponding effect on the moment of inertia I. The predicted internuclear distance 2c' for H2(1 / p) is:

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[0067] At least one of the rotational and vibrational energies of H2(1 / p) can be measured by at least one of electron beam excited emission spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. H2(1 / p) can be trapped in a matrix for measurement, such as at least one of MOH, MX, and M2CO3 (M = alkali, X = halide) matrices.

[0068] In one embodiment, the molecular hydrino product is at about 1950 cm -1This is observed as an inverse Raman effect (IRE) peak at 1000 kJ / cm. Enhancement of the peak can be achieved by using a conductive material that contains rough features or particle sizes comparable to the Raman laser wavelength, which supports surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) to display the IRE peak.

[0069] I. Catalyst In this disclosure, terms such as hydrino reaction, H catalyst, H-catalyzed reaction, and catalyst, when referring to hydrogen, the reaction of hydrogen to form hydrinos, and the hydrino-forming reaction, refer to a reaction, e.g., the reaction of atomic H according to equations (15-18) with a catalyst defined in equation (14), to form states of hydrogen having the energy levels given in equations (10) and (12). Corresponding terms such as hydrino reactant, hydrino reaction mixture, catalyst mixture, hydrino-forming reactant, and reactant that produces or forms lower energy states of hydrogen or hydrinos are also used interchangeably.

[0070] The low-energy hydrogen transition using the catalysts of the present disclosure requires a catalyst capable of forming an endothermic chemical reaction with an integer multiple m of the potential energy of uncatalyzed atomic hydrogen (27.2 eV) to accept energy from atomic H to drive the transition. The endothermic catalytic reaction can be the ionization of one or more electrons from a species such as an atom or ion (e.g., Li → Li2 + where m=3), and may further include bond cleavage, concerted reactions with ionization of one or more electrons from one or more partners of the initial bond (e.g., NaH→Na 2+ +H, m=2). He + ionizes at 54.417 eV, which is 2·27.2 eV, and therefore meets the catalysis criterion of a chemical or physical process in which the enthalpy change is equal to an integer multiple of 27.2 eV. An integer number of hydrogen atoms also act as a catalyst for integer multiples of 27.2 eV enthalpy. The catalyst can accept energy from atomic hydrogen in integer units of approximately 27.2 eV ± 0.5 eV or (27.2 / 2) eV ± 0.5 eV.

[0071] In one embodiment, the catalyst comprises an atom or ion M, where t electrons are ionized from atom or ion M to respective contiguous energy levels such that the sum of the ionization energies of the t electrons is about either m·27.2 eV or m·(27.2 / 2) eV, where m is an integer.

[0072] In one embodiment, the catalyst comprises a diatomic molecule MH, where scission of the M-H bond and ionization of t electrons from atom M to continuum energies are such that the sum of the bond energy and the ionization energies of the t electrons is m 27.2 eV and m (27.2 / 2) eV, where m is an integer.

[0073] In one embodiment, the catalyst is selected from the group consisting of AlH, AsH, BaH, BiH, CdH, ClH, CoH, GeH, InH, NaH, NbH, OH, RhH, RuH, SH, SbH, SeH, SiH, SnH, SrH, TlH, C2, N2, O2, CO2, NO2, and NO3 molecules, atoms or ions of Li, Be, K, Ca, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Se, Kr, Rb, Sr, Nb, Mo, Pd, Sn, Te, Cs, Ce, Pr, Sm, Gd, Dy, Pb, Pt, Kr, 2K + , He + , Ti 2+ , Na + , Rb + , Sr + , Fe 3+ , Mo2 + , Mo 4+ , In 3+ , He + , Ar + , Xe + , Ar 2+ and H + , and Ne + and H + The present invention includes atoms, ions, and / or molecules selected from the group consisting of:

[0074] In another embodiment, the MH generating hydrinos -A hydrogen catalyst is provided by the transfer of an electron to an acceptor A, the cleavage of the M-H bond, and the ionization of t electrons from atom M up to successive energy levels, such that the difference between the total electron transfer energy is the electron affinity (EA) between M-H and A, the M-H bond energy, and the ionization energy of t electrons from M is approximately m 27.2 eV (m is an integer). A M-H catalyst can provide a net reaction enthalpy of approximately m 27.2 eV. - The hydrogen catalyst is OH - , SiH - , CoH - , NiH - , and SeH - is.

[0075] In another embodiment, the MH generating hydrinos + A hydrogen catalyst is provided by the transfer of an electron from a potentially negatively charged donor, A, cleavage of the M-H bond, and ionization of t electrons from atom M to successive energy levels, such that the total electron transfer energy, including the difference between the ionization energies of M-H and A, the bond M-H energy, and the ionization energies of the t electrons from M, is approximately m 27.2 eV (where m is an integer).

[0076] In one embodiment, at least one of the molecule or the positively or negatively charged molecular ion functions as a catalyst by accepting about m·27.2 eV from atomic H, with a concomitant decrease in the magnitude of the potential energy of the molecule or the positively or negatively charged molecular ion of about m·27.2 eV. Exemplary catalysts are HO, OH, the amide group NH, and HS.

[0077] O2 can function as a catalyst or a source of catalyst. The binding energy of the oxygen molecule is 5.165 eV, and the first, second, and third ionization energies of the oxygen atom are 13.61806 eV, 35.11730 eV, and 54.9355 eV, respectively. The reaction O2 → O + O2 + , O2 → O+O 3+ , and 2O → 2O + are approximately 2, 4, and 1 times the net enthalpy E, respectively. hand accepts these energies from H to form hydrinos, thereby catalyzing the reaction that forms hydrinos.

[0078] II. Hydrino E B =13.6eV / (1 / p) 2 A hydrogen atom having a binding energy given by (p is an integer greater than 1, preferably an integer between 2 and 137) is the product of the H-catalyzed reaction of the present disclosure. The binding energy of an atom, ion, or molecule is also known as the ionization energy, and is the energy required to remove one electron from the atom, ion, or molecule. A hydrogen atom having a binding energy given by Equation (10) and Equation (12) is hereafter referred to as a "hydrino atom" or "hydrino." Radius a H / p (a H is the radius of a normal hydrogen atom, p is an integer) the name of the hydrino is H[a H / p]. Radius a H The hydrogen atom is hereafter referred to as the "ordinary hydrogen atom" or "standard hydrogen atom." Ordinary atomic hydrogen is characterized by a binding energy of 13.6 eV.

[0079] According to the present disclosure, the binding energy according to Equation (19) is greater than that of a normal hydride ion (approximately 0.75 eV) from p=2 to 23, and is greater than that of a normal hydride ion (approximately 0.75 eV) from p=24 (H - ) and small hydrino hydride ions (H - ) is provided. For p=2 through p=24 in Equation (19), the hydride ion binding energies are 3, 6.6, 11.2, 16.7, 22.8, 29.3, 36.1, 42.8, 49.4, 55.5, 61.0, 65.6, 69.2, 71.6, 72.4, 71.6, 68.8, 64.0, 56.8, 47.1, 34.7, 19.3, and 0.69 eV, respectively. Exemplary compositions containing the novel hydride ions are also provided herein.

[0080] Exemplary compounds that include one or more hydrino hydride ions and one or more other elements are also provided. Such compounds are referred to as "hydrino hydride compounds."

[0081] The usual hydrogen species are (a) hydride ion, 0.754 eV ("ordinary hydride ion"), (b) hydrogen atom ("ordinary hydrogen atom"), 13.6 eV, (c) diatomic hydrogen molecule, 15.3 eV ("ordinary hydrogen molecule"), (d) hydrogen molecular ion, 16.3 eV ("ordinary hydrogen molecular ion"), and (e) H3 + , 22.6 eV ("normal trihydrogen molecular ion"). As used herein, with respect to forms of hydrogen, "standard" and "normal" are synonyms.

[0082] According to further embodiments of the present disclosure, for example, (a) approximately 13.6 eV / (1 / p) 2 The bond energy is, for example, 13.6 eV / (1 / p) 2 (b) a hydrogen atom whose number is within the range of approximately 0.9 to 1.1 times (p is an integer from 2 to 137);

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[0083] According to a further embodiment of the present disclosure, (a) approximately

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[0084] According to one embodiment of the present disclosure, where the compound comprises a negatively charged increased binding energy hydrogen species, the compound contains a proton, a normal H +, or regular H3 + The compound further comprises one or more cations such as:

[0085] Provided herein are methods for preparing compounds containing at least one hydrino hydride ion. Such compounds are hereinafter referred to as "hydrino hydride compounds." The method comprises reacting atomic hydrogen with a catalyst having a net reaction enthalpy of approximately (m / 2) 27 eV (where m is an integer greater than 1 and preferably less than about 400) to produce a hydrino hydride compound having a binding energy of approximately 13.6 eV / (1 / p). 2 (p is an integer, preferably an integer between 2 and 137). A further product of catalysis is energy. The increased binding energy hydrogen atoms react with an electron source to produce increased binding energy hydride ions. The increased binding energy hydride ions can be reacted with one or more cations to produce compounds comprising at least one increased binding energy hydride ion.

[0086] In one embodiment, very high power and / or energy can be achieved by hydrogen transitioning to hydrinos with high p values ​​in Equation (18) in a process called disproportionation, which is described in Chapter 5 of Mills GUTCP, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. Hydrogen atoms H(1 / p)p=1, 2, 3, ... 137 can further transition to lower energy states given by Equations (10) and (12), where the transition of one atom is catalyzed by a second atom resonantly and non-radiatively accepting m 27.2 eV with a concomitant opposite change in its potential energy. The general formula for the transition from H(1 / p) to H(1 / (p+m)) induced by resonant transfer of m 27.2 eV to H(1 / p') is given by Equation (32): H(1 / p')+H(1 / p) → H+H(1 / (p+m))+[2pm+m 2 -p' 2 +1]·13.6 eV) (32) It is expressed as:

[0087] EUV light from the hydrino process can dissociate dihydrino molecules, and the resulting hydrino atoms can act as catalysts for transitions to lower energy states. An example reaction involves the catalysis of H(1 / 4) to H(H / 1 / 17), where H(1 / 4) can be a reaction product of the catalysis of another H by HOH. Hydrino disproportionation reactions are predicted to produce features in the X-ray region. As shown in equations (5-8), the reaction product of HOH catalysis is H[a H / 4]. We consider the possibility of transition reactions in a hydrogen cloud containing H2O gas. Here, the first hydrogen-type atom H[a H / 4] is a H atom, and the second acceptor hydrogen atom H[a H / p'] is H[a H / 4]. H[a H / 4] has a potential energy of 4 2 27.2eV=16 27.2eV=435.2eV, so the transition reaction is 16·27.2eV+H[a H / 4]+H[a H / 1] → H fast + +e - +H * [a H / 17]+16·27.2 eV(33) H * [a H / 17] → H[a H / 17]+3481.6eV (34) H fast + +e - → H[a H / 1]+231.2eV (35) It is expressed as:

[0088] Furthermore, the overall response is H[a H / 4]+H[aH / 1] → H[a H / 1]+H[a H / 17]+3712.8eV (36) is.

[0089] H * [a H / (p+m)] intermediates (e.g., Eqs. (16) and (34)) have a short wavelength cutoff and

number

number

[0090] The novel hydrogen composition of the material is (a)(i) greater than the binding energy of the corresponding normal hydrogen species, or (ii) the binding energy of ordinary hydrogen species is less than or more negative than the thermal energy at ambient conditions (standard temperature and pressure, STP), and therefore has a binding energy greater than the binding energy of the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species, which is unstable or not observed; at least one neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species (hereinafter "increased binding energy hydrogen species"); and (b) at least one other element; The compounds of the present disclosure are hereinafter referred to as "increased binding energy hydrogen compounds."

[0091] "Other element" in this context means an element other than the increased binding energy hydrogen species. Thus, the other element can be a regular hydrogen species or an element other than hydrogen. In one group of compounds, the other element and the increased binding energy hydrogen species are neutral. In another group of compounds, the other element and the increased binding energy hydrogen species are charged, with the other element providing a balancing charge to form a neutral compound. The former group of compounds is characterized by molecular and coordinate bonding. The latter group of compounds is characterized by ionic bonding.

[0092] Also, novel compounds and molecules comprising: (a) at least one neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species (hereinafter "increased binding energy hydrogen species") that has a binding energy (i) greater than the binding energy of the corresponding normal hydrogen species, or (ii) greater than the binding energy of a hydrogen species for which the normal hydrogen species is unstable or not observed because the binding energy of the normal hydrogen species is less than the thermal energy or more negative at ambient conditions (standard temperature and pressure, STP); and (b) at least one other element.

[0093] The total energy of a hydrogen species is the sum of the energies required to remove all electrons from the hydrogen species. Hydrogen species according to the present disclosure have a total energy greater than the total energy of a corresponding normal hydrogen species. Increased total energy hydrogen species according to the present disclosure are also referred to as "increased binding energy hydrogen species," although some embodiments of increased total energy hydrogen species may have a first electron binding energy less than the first electron binding energy of the corresponding normal hydrogen species. For example, the first binding energy of the hydride ion of Equation (19) for p=24 is less than the first binding energy of a normal hydride ion, while the total energy of the hydride ion of Equation (19) for p=24 is much greater than the total energy of the corresponding normal hydride ion.

[0094] In this specification, (a)(i) greater than the binding energy of the corresponding normal hydrogen species, or (ii) a plurality of neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species having binding energies greater than the binding energies of hydrogen species whose corresponding ordinary hydrogen species are unstable or not observed because the binding energies of ordinary hydrogen species are less than or more negative than thermal energy at ambient conditions (hereinafter "increased binding energy hydrogen species"); and (b) optionally at least one other element; Also provided are novel compounds and molecular ions comprising: The compounds of the present disclosure are hereinafter referred to as "increased binding energy hydrogen compounds."

[0095] The increased binding energy hydrogen species are formed by reacting one or more hydrino atoms with at least one of electrons, hydrino atoms, a compound containing at least one of the increased binding energy hydrogen species, and at least one other atom, molecule, or ion other than the increased binding energy hydrogen species.

[0096] (a)(i) greater than the total energy of ordinary molecular hydrogen, or (ii) a plurality of neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species having binding energies greater than the binding energies of hydrogen species whose corresponding ordinary hydrogen species are unstable or not observed because the binding energies of ordinary hydrogen species are less than or more negative than thermal energy at ambient conditions (hereinafter "increased binding energy hydrogen species"); and (b) optionally one other element; Also provided are novel compounds and molecular ions comprising: The compounds of the present disclosure are hereinafter referred to as "increased binding energy hydrogen compounds."

[0097] In one embodiment, compounds are provided that include at least one of: (a) a hydride ion having a binding energy according to Equation (19) greater than that of a normal hydride ion (approximately 0.8 eV) for p=2 to 23 and less for p=24 ("increased binding energy hydride ion" or "hydrino hydride ion"); (b) a hydrogen atom ("increased binding energy hydrogen atom" or "hydrino") having a binding energy greater than that of a normal hydrogen atom (approximately 13.6 eV); (c) a hydrogen molecule ("increased binding energy hydrogen molecule" or "dihydrino") having a first binding energy greater than approximately 15.3 eV; and (d) a hydrogen molecular ion ("increased binding energy molecular hydrogen ion" or "dihydrino molecular ion") having a binding energy greater than approximately 16.3 eV. In this disclosure, increased binding energy hydrogen compounds and compounds are also referred to as lower energy hydrogen species and compounds. Hydrinos include increased binding energy hydrogen compounds or, equivalently, lower energy hydrogen species.

[0098] III. Chemical Reactors The present disclosure also relates to other reactors for producing the disclosed increased binding energy hydrogen species and compounds, such as dihydrino molecules and hydrino hydride compounds. Further products of catalysis are electromotive force and, optionally, plasma and light, depending on the type of cell. Such reactors are hereinafter referred to as "hydrogen reactors" or "hydrogen cells." The hydrogen reactor includes a cell for producing hydrinos. The cell for producing hydrinos can take the form of a chemical reactor or a gas-fuel cell, such as a gas discharge cell, a plasma torch cell, or a microwave power cell, as well as an electrochemical cell. In one embodiment, the catalyst is HOH, and the source of at least one of HOH and H is ice. The ice may have a large surface area to increase the rate of formation of the HOH catalyst and H from the ice and / or the hydrino reaction rate. The ice may be in the form of fine chips to increase the surface area. In one embodiment, the cell includes an arc discharge cell and includes ice on at least one electrode such that the discharge accompanies at least a portion of the ice.

[0099] In one embodiment, the arc discharge cell includes a container, two electrodes, a high-voltage power supply capable of a voltage in the range of approximately 100 V to 1 MV and a current in the range of approximately 1 A to 100 kA, and a water source, such as the container and a means for forming and supplying HO droplets. The droplets are transferable between the electrodes. In one embodiment, the droplets initiate ignition of an arc plasma. In one embodiment, the water arc plasma includes H and HOH, which can react to form hydrinos. The ignition rate and corresponding energy output rate can be controlled by controlling the size of the droplets and the rate at which they are supplied to the electrodes. The high-voltage source can include at least one high-voltage capacitor that can be charged by the high-voltage power supply. In one embodiment, the arc discharge cell further includes a power converter, such as one of the present invention, such as at least one PV converter, and a heat engine for converting electromotive force from the hydrino process, such as light and heat, into electricity.

[0100] Exemplary embodiments of cells for producing hydrinos can take the form of liquid fuel cells, solid fuel cells, heterogeneous fuel cells, CIHT cells, and SF-CIHT or SunCell® cells. Each of these cells comprises (i) reactants including a source of atomic hydrogen, (ii) at least one catalyst selected from a solid catalyst, a molten catalyst, a liquid catalyst, a gaseous catalyst, or mixtures thereof, for producing hydrinos, and (iii) a vessel for reacting the hydrogen and a catalyst for producing hydrinos. As used herein and contemplated by this disclosure, the term "hydrogen" refers to protium ( 1 H) as well as deuterium ( 2 H), and tritium ( 3H). Exemplary chemical reaction mixtures and reactors may include SF-CIHT, CIHT, or thermal battery embodiments of the present disclosure. Additional exemplary embodiments are shown in this chemical reactor section. An example of a reaction mixture with HO as a catalyst formed during the reaction of the mixture is provided in this disclosure. Other catalysts may serve to form increased binding energy hydrogen species and compounds. Reactions and conditions can be adjusted from these exemplary cases to parameters such as reactants, reactant wt%, H pressure, and reaction temperature. Suitable reactants, conditions, and parameter ranges are those of the present disclosure. Hydrinos and molecular hydrinos are indicated as products of the reactors of the present disclosure by the predicted continuum radiation bands at integer multiples of 13.6 eV, otherwise resulting in Doppler line broadening of the H line, H line reversal, unexplained anomalously large H kinetic energies measured by the formation of plasma without a breakdown magnetic field, and anomalous plasma afterglow times reported in Mills Prior Publications. Data such as that relating to CIHT cells and solid fuels have been independently verified elsewhere by other researchers. Hydrino formation by the disclosed cells has also been confirmed by electrical energy output, which is continuous over extended periods of time, multiples of the electrical input, and in most cases exceeds 10 times the input without an alternative source. The identification of the predicted molecular hydrino H2(1 / 4) as a product of the CIHT cell and solid fuel was confirmed by MAS HNMR, which showed the predicted upfield-shifted matrix peak at approximately -4.4 ppm; ToF-SIMS and ESI-ToFMS, which showed H2(1 / 4) complexed to the getter matrix as an m / e = M + n2 peak (M is the mass of the parent ion, and n is an integer electron beam excited emission); electron beam excited emission spectroscopy and photoluminescence emission spectroscopy, which showed the predicted rotational and vibrational spectra of H2(1 / 4) with 16 times the energy of H2, or the square of the quantum number p = 4; and the rotational energy of H2(1 / 4) at 1950 cm, which is 16 times the H2 rotational energy, or the square of the quantum number p = 4. -1Raman and FTIR spectroscopy showed a predicted total binding energy of H2(1 / 4) of 500 eV, XPS showed a predicted energy release from H to H(1 / 4) of 500 eV, and a ToF-SIMS peak with a kinetic energy of approximately 204 eV and an arrival time before the m / e=1 peak corresponding to H, which matched the predicted energy release from H to H(1 / 4) and the energy transferred to the third H. This was confirmed by Mills Prior Publications and by R. Mills, X Yu, Y. Lu, G Chu, J. He, J. Lotoski, "Catalyst Induced Hydrino Transition (CIHT) Electrochemical Cell," International Journal of Energy Research, (2013) and R. Mills, J. Lotoski, J. Kong, G Chu, J. He, J. Trevey, "High-Power-Density Catalyst Induced Hydrino Transition (CIHT) Electrochemical Cell," International Journal of Energy Research, (2013). Transition (CIHT) Electrochemical Cell (2014), which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

[0101] Using both a water flow calorimeter and a Setaram DSC131 differential scanning calorimeter (DSC), hydrino production from the disclosed cells, such as cells containing solid fuel for generating thermoelectric power, was confirmed by observing thermal energy from the hydrino-forming solid fuel exceeding the maximum theoretical energy by a factor of 60. MAS H NMR showed the expected H2(1 / 4) upfield matrix shift of approximately -4.4 ppm. -1The Raman peak beginning at 1 / 4 was consistent with the free-space rotational energy of H2(1 / 4) (0.2414 eV). These results are reported in Mills Prior Publications and in R. Mills, J. Lotoski, W. Good, J. He, "Solid Fuels that Form HOH Catalyst" (2014), which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

[0102] IV. SunCell and Power Converter A power generation system (also referred to herein as a "SunCell") that generates at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy comprises: at least one vessel capable of maintaining a pressure below atmospheric pressure; reactants capable of undergoing a reaction in the vessel that produces sufficient energy to form a plasma; (a) a mixture of hydrogen gas and oxygen gas, and / or Water vapor, and / or a mixture of hydrogen gas and water vapor; and (b) containing molten metal; the reactants; a mass flow controller for controlling the flow rate of at least one reactant into the vessel; a vacuum pump for maintaining a subatmospheric pressure within the vessel while one or more reactants are flowing into the vessel; at least one reservoir containing a portion of the molten metal, a molten metal pumping system (e.g., one or more electromagnetic pumps) configured to deliver the molten metal into the reservoir and through an injector tube to provide a molten metal stream, and at least one non-injector molten metal reservoir for receiving the molten metal stream; at least one ignition system including a source of electrical power or ignition current for powering the at least one stream of molten metal when hydrogen gas and / or oxygen gas and / or water vapor enters the vessel; a reactant supply system for replenishing reactants consumed in the reaction; and and a power converter or power output system that converts a portion of the energy produced by the reaction (e.g., light and / or heat output from the plasma) into electrical power and / or heat output. In some embodiments, the effluent comprises (or consists of) nascent water and atomic hydrogen. In some embodiments, the effluent comprises (or consists of) nascent water, atomic hydrogen, and molecular hydrogen. In some embodiments, the effluent further comprises a noble gas.

[0103] In some embodiments, the power generation system may comprise an optical rectenna such as that reported in A. Sharma, V. Singh, T.L. Bougher, B.A. Cola, "A carbon nanotube optical rectenna," Nature Nanotechnology, Vol. 10, (2015), pp. 1027-1032, doi:10.1038 / nnano.2015.220, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety, and at least one thermal energy to electrical power converter. In further embodiments, the enclosure is capable of at least one of atmospheric, superatmospheric, and subatmospheric pressures. In another embodiment, the at least one direct plasma power converter may include at least one of the group consisting of a plasma kinetic power converter, an E(vector) × B(vector) direct converter, a magnetohydrodynamic power converter, a magnetic mirror magnetohydrodynamic power converter, a charge drift converter, a post or Venetian blind power converter, a gyrotron, a photon bunching microwave power converter, and a photoelectric converter. In a further embodiment, the at least one thermoelectric converter may include at least one of the group consisting of a heat engine, a steam engine, a steam turbine and generator, a gas turbine and generator, a Rankine cycle engine, a Brayton cycle engine, a Stirling engine, a thermionic power converter, and a thermoelectric power converter. Exemplary thermoelectric power systems, which may include a closed cooling system or an open system that rejects heat to the surrounding atmosphere, are supercritical CO2, organic Rankine, or external combustor gas turbine systems.

[0104] In addition to the UV photovoltaics and thermophotovoltaics of the present disclosure, SunCell® may include other electrical conversion means known in the art, such as thermionic, magnetohydrodynamic, turbines, microturbines, Rankine or Brayton cycle turbines, chemical, and electrochemical power conversion systems. Rankine cycle turbines may include supercritical CO2, organics such as fluorocarbons or fluorocarbons, or vapors as the working fluid. In Rankine or Brayton cycle turbines, SunCell® may provide thermal energy output to at least one of the turbine system's preheater, recuperator, boiler, and externally fired heat exchanger stages. In one embodiment, a Brayton cycle turbine includes a SunCell® turbine heater integrated into the turbine's combustion section. The SunCell® turbine heater may include a duct that receives an airflow from at least one of a compressor and a recuperator, where the air is heated, and directs the heated, compressed air through the duct to the inlet of the turbine to perform pressure-volume work. The SunCell® turbine heater may replace or supplement the combustion chamber of a gas turbine. The Rankine or Brayton cycle may be closed, where the power converter further comprises at least one of a condenser and a cooler.

[0105] The power converter may be one described in the prior publications of Mills and prior applications of Mills. The hydrino reactants, such as H and HOH sources and the SunCell® system, may be any of the methods described herein or in previous U.S. patent applications, e.g., Hydrogen Catalytic Reactor, PCT / US08 / 61455, PCT application dated April 24, 2008; Heterogeneous Hydrogen Catalytic Reactor, PCT / US09 / 052072, PCT application dated July 29, 2009; Heterogeneous Hydrogen Catalytic Power Generation System, PCT / US10 / 27828, PCT application dated March 18, 2010; Electrochemical Hydrogen Catalytic Power Generation System, PCT / US11 / 28889, PCT application dated March 18, 2010; PCT application filed March 17, 2011; H2O-based electrochemical hydrogen catalytic power generation system, PCT / US12 / 31369, PCT application filed March 20, 2012; CIHT power generation system, PCT / US13 / 041938, PCT application filed May 21, 2013; power generation system and method therefor, PCT / IB2014 / 058177, PCT application filed January 10, 2014; photovoltaic power generation system and method therefor, PCT / US14 / 32584, PCT application filed April 1, 2014; power generation system and method therefor Methods relating thereto, PCT / US2015 / 033165, PCT application filed May 29, 2015; Methods relating to ultraviolet power generation systems, PCT / US2015 / 065826, PCT application filed December 15, 2015; Thermophotovoltaic generators, PCT / US16 / 12620, PCT application filed January 8, 2016; Thermophotovoltaic generator networks, PCT / US2017 / 035025, PCT application filed December 7, 2017; Thermophotovoltaic generators, PCT / US2017 / 013972, PCT application filed January 18, 2017 ; Extreme and Deep Ultraviolet Solar Cells, PCT / US2018 / 012635, PCT application filed January 5, 2018; Magnetohydrodynamic Generators, PCT / US18 / 17765, PCT application filed February 12, 2018; Magnetohydrodynamic Generators, PCT / US2018 / 034842, PCT application filed May 29, 2018; Magnetohydrodynamic Generators, PCT / IB2018 / 059646, PCT application filed December 5, 2018, and Magnetohydrodynamic Generators, PCT / IB2020 / 050360, PCT application filed January 16, 2020 (the "Mills Prior Applications"), which are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties.

[0106] In one embodiment, HO is ignited to form hydrinos with a high release of energy in the form of at least one of heat, plasma, and electromagnetic (light) energy output. (In this disclosure, "ignition" refers to a very high reaction rate of H to hydrinos, which may manifest as a burst, pulse, or other form of high energy release.) HO may comprise a fuel that can be ignited by application of a high current, such as a current in the range of about 10 A to 100,000 A. This can be achieved by applying a high voltage, such as about 5,000 to 100,000 V, to first form a highly conductive plasma, such as an arc. Alternatively, the high current can be passed through a conductive matrix, e.g., molten metal such as silver, which further contains a compound or mixture containing hydrino reactants such as H and HOH or HO, resulting in a highly conductive fuel, such as a solid fuel. (In this disclosure, solid fuel is used to refer to a reaction mixture that forms a catalyst, such as HOH and H, that further react to form hydrinos. The plasma voltage may be low, such as in the range of about 1 V to 100 V. However, the reaction mixture may include physical states other than solid. In embodiments, the reaction mixture may be in at least one of the following states: gas, liquid, molten matrix, solid, slurry, sol-gel, solution, mixture, gas suspension, airflow, such as a molten conductive matrix, such as a molten metal, such as at least one of molten silver, silver-copper alloy, and copper, as well as other states known to those skilled in the art.) In one embodiment, a solid fuel with very low resistivity includes a reaction mixture that includes HO. The low resistance is believed to be due to the conductive component of the reaction mixture. In embodiments, the resistance of the solid fuel is about 10 -9 ohms ~ 100 ohms, 10 -8 ohms to 10 ohms, 10 -3 ohm to 1 ohm, 10 -4 ohms ~ 10 -1 ohms, and 10 -4 ohms ~ 10 -2In another embodiment, the high resistivity fuel comprises HO with a small mole percentage or trace amount of added compounds or materials. In the latter case, a high current can be passed through the fuel to achieve ignition by causing breakdown and forming a highly conductive state such as an arc or arc plasma.

[0107] In one embodiment, the reactants may include a source of HO and a conductive matrix to form at least one of a source of catalyst, a catalyst, a source of atomic hydrogen, and atomic hydrogen. In a further embodiment, the reactants including the source of HO may include at least one of bulk HO, a state other than bulk HO, and a compound that reacts to form HO and release bound HO. Furthermore, HO may be in at least one of absorbed HO, bound HO, physically adsorbed HO, and water of hydration, and the bound HO may include a compound that interacts with HO. In an embodiment, the reactants may include a conductor and one or more compounds or materials that undergo release of at least one of bulk HO, absorbed HO, bound HO, physically adsorbed HO, and water of hydration. In other embodiments, the source of nascent HO catalyst and at least one of the source of atomic hydrogen may include at least one of: (a) at least one source of HO, (b) at least one source of oxygen, and (c) at least one source of hydrogen.

[0108] In one embodiment, the hydrino reaction rate depends on the application or development of the high current. In a SunCell® embodiment, the reactants to form hydrinos are subjected to a low voltage, high current, high power pulse that causes very fast reaction rates and energy release. In an exemplary embodiment, the 60 Hz voltage is less than 15 Vpeak and the current is 100 A / cm. 2 ~50,000A / cm 2 peak range, and the power is 1000W / cm 2 ~750,000W / cm 2Other frequencies, voltages, currents, and powers within about 1 / 100 to 100 times these parameters are suitable. In one embodiment, the hydrino reaction rate depends on the high current application or development. In one embodiment, the voltage is selected to induce a large AC, DC, or mixed AC-DC current within at least one of the following ranges: 100 A to 1,000,000 A, 1 kA to 100,000 A, and 10 kA to 50 kA. The DC or peak AC current density is greater than 100 A / cm. 2 ~1,000,000A / cm 2 , 1000A / cm 2 ~100,000A / cm 2 , and 2000A / cm 2 ~50,000A / cm 2 The DC or peak AC voltage may be within at least one range selected from approximately 0.1 V to 1000 V, 0.1 V to 100 V, 0.1 V to 15 V, and 1 V to 15 V. The AC frequency may be within approximately 0.1 Hz to 10 GHz, 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 10 Hz to 100 kHz, and 100 Hz to 10 kHz. The pulse time may be approximately 10 -6 seconds~10 seconds, 10 -5 seconds ~ 1 seconds, 10 -4 seconds to 0.1 seconds, and 10 -3 The time may be within at least one range selected from 0.01 seconds to 0.01 seconds.

[0109] In an embodiment including at least one DC EM pump with an AC or time-variable ignition current and including permanent magnets, the magnets may be shielded from the AC magnetic field of the AC ignition current. The shield may include mu-metal, am-metal, am-nickel, cryoperm-10, and other magnetic shielding materials known in the art. The magnetic shield may prevent demagnetization of the permanent magnets. In an exemplary embodiment, each shield may include a heavy iron bar, such as one with a thickness in the range of approximately 5 mm to 50 mm, positioned over and longitudinally covering the corresponding EM pump permanent magnet. Such a power generation system is shown in FIGS. Figure 23 (formerly Figure 25) , and Figure 29 (formerly Figure 31A) ~ Figure 31 (formerly Figure 31C) Shown below.

[0110] In one embodiment, at least one conductive SunCell® component, such as reaction cell chamber 5b31 or EM pump tube 5k6, may include, be lined with, or be coated with an electrical insulator such as a ceramic to avoid eddy currents that would demagnetize the EM pump's magnets. In an exemplary embodiment, a SunCell® containing a stainless steel reaction cell chamber includes a BN, SiC, or quartz liner, or a ceramic coating such as one of the present disclosure.

[0111] In an embodiment where the ignition power is time-dependent, such as AC power, such as 60 Hz power, each EM magnet of the DC EM pump may include at least one magnetic yoke between the opposing EM pump magnet and a magnetic shield, such as a mu-metal shield, to prevent demagnetization of the EM pump magnet due to the time-varying ignition power.

[0112] In one embodiment, the EM pump magnet 5k4 is Figure 23 (formerly Figure 25) ~ Figure 33 (formerly Figure 31E) As shown in FIG. 1, the magnets are oriented along the same axis as the injected molten metal flow, connecting two electrodes that may face each other along the same axis. The magnets may be positioned on opposite sides of the EM pump tube 5k6, with one magnet facing away from the other magnet along the injection axis. The EM pump busbars 5k2 may each be oriented perpendicular to the injection axis and away from the side of the nearest magnet. Each EM pump magnet further includes an L-shaped yoke that directs the magnetic flux from the corresponding vertically oriented magnet transversely to the EM pump tube 5k6, perpendicular to both the direction of the molten metal flow in the tube and the direction of the EM pump current. The ignition device may include one with a time-varying waveform including voltage and current, such as an AC waveform, such as a 60 Hz waveform. The vertical orientation of the magnets can prevent the magnets from being demagnetized by the time-varying ignition current.

[0113] In one embodiment, energy transfer from the atomic hydrogen catalyst to the hydrino state results in ionization of the catalyst. Electrons ionized from the catalyst can accumulate in the reaction mixture and reservoir, resulting in a space charge buildup. The space charge can shift the energy levels for subsequent energy transfer from the atomic hydrogen to the catalyst, accompanied by a slowdown in the reaction rate. In one embodiment, application of a high current removes the space charge, increasing the hydrino reaction rate. In another embodiment, a high current, such as an arc current, generates very high temperatures for reactants, such as water, which can serve as a source of H and HOH catalyst. The high temperatures can cause the thermal decomposition of water into at least one of H and HOH catalyst. In one embodiment, the SunCell® reaction mixture includes a source of H and a source of catalyst, such as nH (n is an integer) and / or HOH. At least one of nH and HOH may be formed by thermal decomposition or pyrolysis of at least one physical phase of water, such as at least one of solid, liquid, and gaseous water. Pyrolysis can occur at elevated temperatures, such as temperatures within at least one of the following ranges: about 500K to 10,000K, 1000K to 7000K, and 1000K to 5000K.In an exemplary embodiment, the reaction temperature is about 3500-4000 K, and the mole fraction of atomic H is high, as shown by J. Lede, F. Lapicque, and J. Villermaux [JL / e / d / e / , F. Lapicque, J. Villermaux, "Production of hydrogen by direct thermal decomposition of water," International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 1983, V8, 1983, pp. 675-679; H.G. Jellinek, H. Kachi, "The catalytic thermal decomposition of water and the production of hydrogen," International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 1984, V9, pp. 677-688; S.Z. Baykara, "Hydrogen production by direct solar thermal decomposition of water, possibilities for improvement of process efficiency," International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 1984, V9, pp. 677-688]. Energy, 2004, V29, pp. 1451-1458; SZ Baykara, "Experimental solar water thermolysis," International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2004, V29, pp. 1459-1469, which are incorporated herein by reference. The pyrolysis can be assisted by a solid surface, such as one of the parts of the cell. The solid surface can be heated to a high temperature by the input energy and the plasma sustained by the hydrino reaction. The pyrolysis gases, such as downstream of the ignition region, can be cooled to prevent the recombination or back-reaction of the products to starter water.The reaction mixture may include a coolant, such as at least one of a solid, liquid, or gas phase at a temperature lower than that of the product gas. Cooling of the pyrolysis reaction product gas may be achieved by contacting the product with a coolant. The coolant may include at least one of a cryogenic stream, water, and ice.

[0114] In one embodiment, the fuel or reactants may include at least one of H, a source of H, a source of catalyst, a source of HO, and HO. Suitable reactants may include a conductive metal matrix and a hydrate of at least one of an alkali hydrate, an alkaline earth hydrate, and a transition metal hydrate. The hydrate may include at least one of MgCl·6HO, BaI·2HO, and ZnCl·4HO. Alternatively, the reactants may include at least one of silver, copper, hydrogen, oxygen, and water.

[0115] In one embodiment, the reaction cell chamber 5b31 can be operated at low pressure to achieve a high gas temperature. The pressure can then be increased by the reaction mixture gas supply and controller to increase the reaction rate, and the high temperature causes thermal decomposition of at least one of the H bonds and H covalent bonds of the water dimer, preserving nascent HOH and atomic H. An exemplary threshold gas temperature for achieving thermal decomposition is approximately 3300°C. At temperatures above approximately 3300°C, plasma can break HO dimer bonds to form nascent HOH, which can act as a hydrino catalyst. At least one of the HO vapor pressure, H pressure, and O pressure in the reaction cell chamber can be in at least one of the ranges of approximately 0.01 Torr to 100 atmospheres, 0.1 Torr to 10 atmospheres, and 0.5 Torr to 1 atmosphere. The electromagnetic (EM) pumping rate can range from about 0.01 mL / sec to 10,000 mL / sec, 0.1 mL / sec to 1000 mL / sec, and / or 0.1 mL / sec to 100 mL / sec. In embodiments, at least one of a high ignition power and a low pressure can be initially maintained to heat the plasma and cell to achieve pyrolysis. The initial power can include at least one of a high frequency pulse, a high duty cycle, a higher voltage, a pulse with a higher current, and a continuous current. In one embodiment, at least one of the ignition powers can be reduced, and the pressure can be increased following heating of the plasma and cell to achieve pyrolysis. In another embodiment, the SunCell® can include a plasma torch, glow discharge, microwave, or RF plasma source to heat the hydrino reaction plasma and cell to achieve pyrolysis.

[0116] In one embodiment, the ignition power may be at an initial power level and waveform of the present disclosure and may be switched to a second power level and waveform when the reaction cell chamber reaches a desired temperature. In one embodiment, the second power level may be lower than the initial power level. The second power level may be approximately zero. The condition for switching at least one of the power level and waveform is the achievement of a reaction cell chamber temperature above a threshold at which the hydrino reaction rate is maintained within 20% to 100% of the initial rate while operating at the second power level. In one embodiment, the temperature threshold may be in at least one of the ranges of approximately 800°C to 3000°C, 900°C to 2500°C, and 1000°C to 2000°C.

[0117] In one embodiment, the reaction cell chamber is heated to a temperature that will support the hydrino reaction in the absence of ignition power. In one embodiment, EM pumping may or may not be maintained after termination of ignition power, and a supply of hydrino reactants, such as at least one of H, O, and HO, is maintained during ignition-off operation of the SunCell®. In an exemplary embodiment, Figure 23 (formerly Figure 25) The SunCell® shown in Figure 1 was well insulated with silica-alumina fiber insulation, and 2500 sccm H and 250 sccm O gases were flowed over the Pt / AlO beads while the SunCell® was heated to temperatures ranging from 900°C to 1400°C. With the H and O flows and EM pumping maintained continuously, the hydrino reaction continued autonomously in the absence of ignition power, as evidenced by the increase in temperature over time in the absence of input ignition power.

[0118] Ignition system In an embodiment, the ignition system comprises at least one switch that passes current and interrupts the current once ignition is achieved. The current flow may be initiated by contact of the molten metal stream. The switching may be performed electronically, for example, by means of at least one insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) and silicon controlled rectifier (SCR), and at least one metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET). Alternatively, ignition may be mechanically switched. The current may be interrupted after ignition to optimize the hydrino production energy output relative to the input ignition energy. The ignition system may comprise a switch that allows a controllable amount of energy to flow into the fuel to cause ignition and generate a plasma, and then turn off the energy output. In one embodiment, the power source providing the short bursts of high-current electrical energy is: a voltage selected to generate a high current AC, DC, or mixed AC-DC in at least one of the ranges of 100 A to 1,000,000 A, 1 kA to 100,000 A, and 10 kA to 50 kA; 1A / cm 2 ~1,000,000A / cm 2 , 1000A / cm 2 ~100,000A / cm 2 , and 2000A / cm 2 ~50,000A / cm 2 and at least one of a DC or a peak AC current density within at least one of the ranges of: The DC or peak AC voltage is within at least one of the ranges of 0.1 V to 500 kV, 0.1 V to 100 kV, and 1 V to 50 kV, and The AC frequency range is at least one of 0.1 Hz to 10 GHz, 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 10 Hz to 100 kHz, and 100 Hz to 10 kHz.

[0119] The system further includes a starting power / energy source, such as a battery, such as a lithium-ion battery. Alternatively, external power, such as grid power, may be provided for starting via a connection from an external power source to a generator. The connection may include an energy output bus bar. The starting power source may be at least one of a power supply to a heater for maintaining the molten metal conductive matrix, a power supply to the injection system, and a power supply to the ignition system.

[0120] The SunCell® may include a high-pressure water electrolyzer, e.g., a proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolyzer with high-pressure water to provide high-pressure hydrogen. The H2 and O2 chambers each include a recombiner to remove contaminants H2 and O2, respectively. The PEM may function as a separator and / or a salt bridge between the anode and cathode compartments, allowing hydrogen to be generated at the cathode and oxygen to be generated as a separate gas at the anode. The cathode may include a di-dichalcogenide hydrogen generation catalyst, such as one containing at least one of niobium and tantalum, which may further include sulfur. The cathode may include Pt or Ni, as known in the art. Hydrogen may be generated at high pressure and supplied to the reaction cell chamber 5b31, or it may be supplied by permeation through a hydrogen-permeable membrane. The SunCell® may include an oxygen gas supply line from the anode compartment to a storage reservoir or a vent. In one embodiment, the SunCell® comprises a sensor, a processor, and an electrolysis current controller.

[0121] In another embodiment, hydrogen fuel may be obtained by at least one of the electrolysis of water, reforming of natural gas, syngas reaction, and water-gas shift reaction in which steam and carbon react to produce H, CO, and CO, as well as other methods of hydrogen production known to those skilled in the art.

[0122] In another embodiment, hydrogen can be generated by pyrolysis using supplied water and heat generated by the SunCell®. The pyrolysis cycle can include one disclosed or one known in the art, such as one based on metals and their oxides, e.g., SnO / Sn and / or ZnO / Zn. In embodiments where the inductively coupled heater, EM pump, and ignition system only consume power at startup, hydrogen can be generated by pyrolysis so that parasitic power requirements are very low. The SunCell® can include a battery, such as a lithium-ion battery, to operate systems such as gas sensors and power control systems, such as those for reactive plasma gases.

[0123] Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) converter Charge separation based on the formation of a mass flow of ions or conductive media in a crossed magnetic field is a technique known as magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) power conversion. Positive and negative ions undergo Lorentzian motion in opposite directions and are received by corresponding MHD electrodes, affecting the voltage between those electrodes. A typical MHD method of forming a mass flow of ions involves expanding a high-pressure gas, into which ions are injected from a nozzle, to form a high-velocity stream through a crossed magnetic field with a set of MHD electrodes crossing the deflecting field to receive the deflected ions. In one embodiment, the pressure is typically greater than atmospheric pressure, and directional mass flow can be achieved through the hydrino reaction to generate a highly conductive, high-pressure, high-temperature molten metal vapor and a plasma that expands to form a high-velocity stream through the crossed-field section of the MHD converter. The high-velocity stream can be axial or radial through the MHD converter. Further directional flow can be achieved with confinement magnets such as Helmholtz coils or magnetic bottles.

[0124] Specifically, the MHD power generation system shown in Figures 1-22 includes a disclosed hydrino reaction plasma source, e.g., an EM pump 5ka, at least one reservoir 5c, at least two electrodes, such as those including a dual molten metal injector 5k61, a source of hydrino reactants, such as a HOH catalyst and a source of H, an ignition system including a power source 2 that applies voltage and current to the electrodes to form a plasma from the hydrino reactants, and an MHD generator. In one embodiment, the ignition system may include a voltage and current source, e.g., a DC power supply and a capacitor bank, to achieve pulse ignition with capacity for high current pulses. In a dual molten metal injector embodiment, current flows through the injected molten metal streams and ignites a plasma when the streams connect. The components of the MHD generator system, including the hydrino reaction plasma source and the MHD generator, are constructed from at least one of oxidation-resistant materials, such as oxidation-resistant metals, metals with oxidation-resistant coatings, and ceramics that comprise the system, allowing the system to be operated in air.

[0125] The power converter or power system may include a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) converter including a nozzle connected to the vessel, a magnetohydrodynamic channel, electrodes, magnets, a metal collection system, a metal recirculation system, a heat exchanger, and an optional gas recirculation system. In some embodiments, the molten metal may include silver. In embodiments with a magnetohydrodynamic converter, the MHD converter may deliver oxygen gas to form silver nanoparticles (e.g., sizes in the molecular range of less than about 10 nm or less than about 1 nm) upon interaction with the silver in the molten metal stream, and the silver nanoparticles are accelerated through a magnetohydrodynamic nozzle, providing kinetic energy storage for the electrical power generated from the reaction. A reactant supply system may supply oxygen gas to the converter and control the delivery of the oxygen gas. In various implementations, at least a portion of the kinetic energy storage of the silver nanoparticles is converted to electrical energy in the magnetohydrodynamic channel. Such converted electrical energy may result in the coalescence of the nanoparticles. The nanoparticles may coalesce in a condenser section (also referred to herein as an MHD condenser section) of the magnetohydrodynamic converter as molten metal that at least partially absorbs oxygen, and the molten metal with the absorbed oxygen is returned to the injector reservoir by a metal recirculation system. In some embodiments, the oxygen may be released from the metal by a plasma in the vessel. In some embodiments, a plasma is maintained in the magnetohydrodynamic channel and the metal collection system to promote the absorption of oxygen by the molten metal.

[0126] To prevent electrical shorting of the MHD electrodes by the molten metal vapor, the electrodes 304 (FIG. 1) may each include a conductor attached to a conductive support 305 covered with an electrical insulator, which serves as a standoff for the lead wires 305a and also serves as a spacer for the electrodes from the wall of the power generation channel. The electrodes 304 may be segmented and include a cathode 302 and an anode 303. Except for the conductive support 305, the electrodes may be freely suspended within the power generation channel 308. The spacing between the electrodes along the vertical axis may be sufficient to prevent shorting of the molten metal. The electrodes may include a refractory conductor such as W, Ta, Re, or Mo. The lead wires 305a may be connected to a wire that can be insulated with a refractory insulator such as BN. The wire may be coupled to a harness that passes through the channel at an MHD busbar penetration flange 301, which may include metal. Outside the MHD converter, the harness may be connected to a power consolidator and inverter. In one embodiment, the MHD electrode 304 includes a liquid electrode, such as liquid silver. In one embodiment, the ignition system may include a liquid electrode. The ignition system may be direct current or alternating current. The reactor may include a ceramic, such as quartz, alumina, zirconia, hafnia, or Pyrex. The liquid electrode may include a ceramic frit, which may further include micropores filled with a molten metal, such as silver.

[0127] Molten metal stream generation In embodiments such as those shown in Figures 2 and 3, the SunCell® includes two reservoirs 5c, each equipped with an electromagnetic (EM) pump, such as a DC or AC pump, or another EM pump of the present disclosure, and an injector that functions as an ignition electrode and reservoir inlet riser to level the molten metal level in the reservoir. The molten metal may include silver, a silver-copper alloy, gallium, galinstan, or another of the present disclosure. The SunCell® may further include a reaction cell chamber 5b31, an electrically insulating flange, such as a conflat flange, between the reservoir and the reaction cell chamber, and a drip edge at the top of each reservoir to electrically isolate each reservoir from the EM pump, where the metal flows of the two EM pump injectors cross and contact, allowing the ignition current to flow. In one embodiment, at least one of the interior of each reservoir 5c, reaction cell chamber 5b31, and EM pump tube 5k6 is coated with ceramic or includes a ceramic liner, e.g., BN, quartz, titania, alumina, yttria, hafnia, zirconia, silicon carbide, or a mixture such as TiO2-Yr2O3-Al2O3, or another of the present disclosure. In one embodiment, the SunCell® further includes an external resistance heater, e.g., a heating coil such as Kanthal wire wound around the outer surface of at least one SunCell® component. In one embodiment, the outer surface of at least one component of the SunCell, such as reaction cell 5b3, reservoir 5c, and EM pump tube 5k6, is coated with ceramic to electrically insulate the resistive heater coil, such as Kanthal wire, wound around the surface. In one embodiment, the SunCell® may further include at least one of a heat exchanger and insulation, which may be wrapped around the surface of at least one SunCell® component. At least one of the heat exchanger and the heater may be encased in insulation.

[0128] In one embodiment, the resistive heater can include a support for the heating element, such as a heating wire. The support can include sealed carbon. The sealant can include a ceramic, such as SiC. SiC can be formed by the reaction of Si with carbon at high temperatures in a vacuum furnace.

[0129] The SunCell® heater 415 may be a resistance heater or an inductively coupled heater. An exemplary SunCell® heater 415 is capable of operating temperatures up to 1400°C and includes Kanthal A-1 (Kanthal) resistance heating wire, a ferrite-chromium-aluminum alloy (FeCrAl alloy) with high resistivity and good oxidation resistance. Additional FeCrAl alloys suitable for heating elements include at least one of Kanthal APM, Kanthal AF, Kanthal D, and Alkrothal. Heating elements, such as resistance wire elements, may include NiCr alloys operating in the 1100°C to 1200°C range, including at least one of Nikrothal 80, Nikrothal 70, Nikrothal 60, and Nikrothal 40. Alternatively, the heater 415 may include molybdenum disilicide (MoSi2), e.g., at least one of Kanthal Super 1700, Kanthal Super 1800, Kanthal Super 1900, Kanthal Super RA, Kanthal Super ER, Kanthal Super HT, and Kanthal Super NC, which may operate in an oxidizing atmosphere in the range of 1500°C to 1800°C. The heating element may include molybdenum disilicide (MoSi2) alloyed with alumina. The heating element may have an oxidation-resistant coating, such as an alumina coating. The heating element of the resistive heater 415 may be constructed of SiC, which may operate at temperatures up to 1625°C.

[0130] In one embodiment, the SunCell® may further include a molten metal overflow system, such as one comprising an overflow tank, at least one pump, a cell molten metal storage sensor, a molten metal storage controller, a heater, a temperature control system, and a molten metal storage volume, to store and supply molten metal to the SunCell® as needed, as determined by the at least one sensor and controller. The overflow system molten metal storage controller may include molten metal level control devices of the present disclosure, such as an inlet riser pipe and an EM pump. The overflow system may include at least one of an MHD return conduit 310, a return reservoir 311, a return EM pump 312, and a return EM pump pipe 313.

[0131] Each electromagnetic pump may include one of two main types of electromagnetic pumps for liquid metals: AC or DC conduction pumps, in which an AC or DC magnetic field is established throughout a tube containing the liquid metal and AC or DC current, respectively, is supplied to the liquid through electrodes connected to the tube wall; and induction pumps, in which a moving field induces the necessary current, similar to that of an induction motor, where the current can cross an applied AC electric field. Induction pumps may include three main types: circular, planar, and spiral. Pumps may include mechanical and thermoelectric pumps, among others known in the art. Pumps may include centrifugal pumps with a motor-driven impeller. Power to the electromagnetic pump may be constant or pulsed, resulting in a corresponding constant or pulsed injection of molten metal. Pulsed injection may be driven by a program or function generator. Pulsed injection may maintain a pulsed plasma within the reaction cell chamber.

[0132] In one embodiment, the EM pump tube 5k6 includes a flow chopper that causes intermittent or pulsed injection of molten metal. The chopper may include a valve, such as an electronically controlled valve, further including a controller. The valve may include a solenoid valve. Alternatively, the chopper may include a rotating disk with at least one passage that periodically rotates to intersect the molten metal flow and allow the molten metal to flow through the passage, with the flow being blocked in the non-passage portions of the rotating disk.

[0133] The molten metal pump may include a moving magnet pump (MMP). An exemplary commercially available AC EM pump is the CMI Novacast CA15, and the heating and cooling system may be modified to support pumping of molten silver.

[0134] In one embodiment (FIGS. 4-22), EM pump 400 may comprise an AC, induction type, where the Lorentz force on the silver is caused by a time-varying current flowing through the silver and a cross-synchronous, time-varying magnetic field. The time-varying current flowing through the silver may be caused by Faraday induction of an initial time-varying magnetic field generated by EM pump transformer winding circuit 401a. The source of the initial time-varying magnetic field may comprise primary transformer winding 401, and the silver may act as a secondary transformer winding, such as a single-turn, short-circuited winding including the EM pump tube portion of current loop 405 and the EM pump current loop return portion 406. Primary winding 401 may comprise an AC electromagnet, where the initial time-varying magnetic field is conducted by magnetic circuit or EM pump transformer yoke 402 through the circumferential loop of silver 405 and 406, which are induced current loops. Silver may be contained in reservoirs, such as ceramic reservoirs 405 and 406, including ceramics of the present disclosure, such as silicon nitride (melting point = 1900°C), quartz, alumina, zirconia, magnesia, or hafnia. A protective SiO2 layer may be formed on the silicon nitrite by controlled passive oxidation. The reservoirs may include channels 405 and 406 surrounding a magnetic circuit or EM pump transformer yoke 402. The reservoirs may include a flattened portion 405 to induce currents with a component of flow perpendicular to the synchronous time-varying magnetic field and the desired direction of pump flow in response to the corresponding Lorentz force. The cross-synchronous time-varying magnetic field may be generated by an assembly 403c including an EM pump electromagnetic circuit or AC electromagnet 403 and an EM pump electromagnetic yoke 404. The magnetic yoke 404 may have a gap in the flat portion of the silver-containing reservoir 405. The electromagnets 401 of the EM pump transformer winding circuit 401a and the electromagnets 403 of the EM pump electromagnetic assembly 403c may be powered by a single-phase AC power supply or other suitable power source known in the art. The magnets may be positioned near the bends of the loop so that the desired current vector components are present. The phase of the AC current powering the transformer windings 401 and the electromagnet windings 403 may be synchronized to maintain the desired direction of the Lorentz pumping force. The power sources for the transformer windings 401 and the electromagnet windings 403 may be the same power source or separate power sources.Synchronization of the induced current and magnetic field may be by analog means, such as delay line components, or both via digital means known in the art. In one embodiment, the EM pump may comprise a single transformer that provides the induction of current in both closed current loops 405 and 406, with multiple yokes functioning as electromagnets and yokes 403 and 404. Because a single transformer is used, the corresponding induced currents and AC magnetic fields may be in phase.

[0135] In one embodiment (FIGS. 2-22), the induced current loop can include the inlet EM pump tube 5k6, the EM pump tube portion of current loop 405, the outlet EM pump tube 5k6, and a path through the silver in reservoir 5c, which in embodiments including these components can include the walls of inlet riser tube 5qa and injector 561. The EM pump can include a monitoring and control system, such as one for feedback control of SunCell power generation using primary winding current and voltage and pumping parameters. Examples of measured feedback parameters can include temperature in reaction cell chamber 5b31 and power at the MHD converter. The monitoring and control system can include corresponding sensors, controllers, and computers. In one embodiment, the SunCell® can be monitored and controlled by at least one wireless device, such as a cell phone. The SunCell® can also include an antenna for transmitting and receiving data and control signals.

[0136] In an embodiment in which the molten metal injector includes at least one EM pump including a current source and a magnet to induce a Lorentz pump force, EM pump magnet 5k4 can include a permanent magnet or an electromagnet, such as a DC or AC electromagnet. If the magnet is a permanent magnet or a DC electromagnet, the EM pump current source includes a DC power supply. If magnet 5k4 includes an AC electromagnet, the EM pump current source for EM busbar 5k2 includes an AC power supply that provides a current in phase with the AC EM pump electromagnetic field applied to EM pump tube 5k6 to generate the Lorentz pump force. In an embodiment in which a magnet such as an electromagnet is immersed in a corrosive coolant such as a water bath, the magnet such as an electromagnet can be hermetically sealed in a sealant, coating, such as a thermoplastic, or a non-magnetic housing, such as a stainless steel housing.

[0137] The EM pump comprises a multi-stage pump (FIGS. 6-21). The multi-stage EM pump can receive input metal flows, such as from the MHD return conduit 310 and from the bottom of the reservoir 5c, at different pump stages, each corresponding to a pressure that allows molten metal flow substantially only forward from the EM pump outlet and injector 5k61. In one embodiment, the multi-stage EM pump assembly 400a (FIG. 6) comprises at least one EM pump transformer winding circuit 401a including a transformer winding 401 and a transformer yoke 402 via induced current loops 405 and 406, and further comprises at least one AC EM pump electromagnetic circuit 403c including an AC electromagnet 403 and an EM pump electromagnetic yoke 404. The induced current loop can include an EM pump pipe section 405 and an EM pump current loop return 406. Electromagnetic yoke 404 may have a gap in the reservoir or flat portion of the EM pump tube of current loop 405 that contains the pumped molten metal, such as silver. In the embodiment shown in Figure 7, the induced current loop that includes EM pump tube 405 has an inlet and outlet that are positioned offset from the return flow bend of EM pump current loop return 406, making the induced current more transverse to the magnetic flux of electromagnets 403a and 403b to optimize the Lorentz pumping force, which is transverse to both the current and the magnetic flux. The pumped metal melts in EM pump tube 405 and solidifies in EM pump current loop return 406.

[0138] In one embodiment, a multi-stage EM pump can include multiple AC EM pump electromagnetic circuits 403c that provide magnetic flux perpendicular to both the current and metal flow. The multi-stage EM pump can receive an inlet along the EM pump pipe portion of the current loop 405 where the inlet pressure is suitable for the local pump pressure to achieve a forward pumping flow that increases in pressure in the next AC EM pump electromagnetic circuit 403c stage. In one exemplary embodiment, the MHD return conduit 310 enters a current loop, such as the EM pump pipe portion of the current loop 405, at the inlet before the first AC electromagnet circuit 403c, which includes AC electromagnet 403a and EM pump electromagnetic yoke 404a. Flow to the inlet from the reservoir 5c can enter after the first AC electromagnet circuit and before the second AC electromagnet circuit 403c, which includes AC electromagnet 403b and EM pump electromagnetic yoke 404b, where the pump maintains a molten metal pressure in the current loop 405 that maintains the desired flow from each inlet to the next pump stage or pump outlet and injector 5k61. The pressure of each pump stage can be controlled by controlling the current of the corresponding AC electromagnet in the AC electromagnet circuit. The exemplary transformer includes a silicon steel laminated transformer core 402, and the exemplary EM pump electromagnetic yokes 404a and 404b each comprise a sheet stack of laminated silicon steel (grain oriented steel).

[0139] In one embodiment, the EM pump current loop return 406, such as a ceramic channel, may include a molten metal flow restrictor or may be filled with a solid conductor to completely close the current in the current loop while preventing backflow of molten metal from the high-pressure section to the low-pressure section of the EM pump tubing. The solid may include a metal, such as Haynes 230, Pyromet® Alloy 625, Carpenter L-605 alloy, BioDur® Carpenter CCM® alloy, or a disclosed stainless steel such as Haynes 230, 310 stainless steel, or 625 stainless steel. The solid may include a refractory metal. The solid may include an oxidation-resistant metal. The solid may include a metal or conductive cap layer or coating, such as iridium, to prevent oxidation of the solid conductor.

[0140] In one embodiment, the solid conductor of conduit 406, which provides a return current path while preventing the flow of silver black, comprises a solid molten metal, such as solid silver. The solid silver may be maintained at a temperature below the melting point of silver at one or more locations along the path of conduit 406 so as to remain solid in at least a portion of conduit 406 and prevent the flow of silver within conduit 406. Conduit 406 may include at least one heat exchanger, such as a coolant loop that is free of slight heating or insulation and away from hot section 405, so that the temperature of at least a portion of conduit 406 may be maintained below the melting point of the molten metal.

[0141] At least one of the supply pipes (FIGS. 9-21), the MHD return conduit 310, the EM pump reservoir supply pipe 416, and the EM pump inlet supply pipe 417, can be heated by resistive or inductively coupled heaters. The inductively coupled heater can be comprised of an antenna 415 that encases the supply pipe, where the antenna may be water-cooled. The components encased by the inductively coupled heater antenna 5f or 415 can include an inner layer of insulating material. The inductively coupled heater antenna can serve the dual function of heating and water-cooling to maintain the desired temperature of the corresponding component. The SunCell may further include a structural support 418 that secures components such as the MHD magnet housing 306a, the MHD nozzle 307, the MHD channel 308, the power, sensor, and control supply pipes 419 attached to the structural support 418, and heat shields 420 around the EM pump reservoir supply pipe 416 and the EM pump inlet supply pipe 417.

[0142] In another embodiment, the ignition system comprises an induction system (FIGS. 8-21), in which a power source is supplied to the conductive molten metal to cause ignition of the hydrino reaction, providing induced current, voltage, and power. The ignition system may comprise an electrodeless system, in which ignition current is applied by induction via an induction ignition transformer assembly 410. The induction current may flow through intersecting melt streams from multiple injectors maintained by a pump, such as the EM pump 400. In one embodiment, the reservoir 5c may further comprise a ceramic cross-connecting channel 414, such as a channel between the bases of the reservoir 5c. The induction ignition transformer assembly 410 may comprise an inductive ignition transformer winding 411 and an induction ignition transformer. The transformer yoke 412 may extend through the reservoir 5c, the intersecting melt streams from the multiple molten metal injectors, and the induction current loop formed by the cross-connecting channel 414. The induction ignition transformer assembly 410 may be similar to that of the EM pump transformer winding circuit 401a.

[0143] In one embodiment, the ignition power source may be of the AC, inductive type, where current flow in a molten metal, such as silver, is generated by Faraday induction of a time-varying magnetic field through the silver. The source of the time-varying magnetic field may include a primary transformer winding, an inductive ignition transformer winding 411, and the silver may function, at least in part, as a secondary transformer winding, such as a single-turn shorted winding. The primary winding 411 may include an AC electromagnet, where an inductive ignition transformer yoke 412 conducts the time-varying magnetic field through a circumferential conductive loop or circuit containing the molten silver. In one embodiment, the inductive ignition system may include multiple closed magnetic loop yokes 412 that maintain a time-varying magnetic flux through a secondary containing the molten silver circuit. At least one yoke and corresponding magnetic circuit may include a winding 411, and the additive magnetic flux of multiple yokes 412, each having a winding 411, may produce induced currents and voltages in parallel. The number of turns in the primary winding of the winding 411 of each yoke 412 can be selected to achieve a desired secondary voltage from the voltage applied to each winding, and the desired secondary current can be achieved by selecting the number of closed-loop yokes 412 with corresponding windings 411, where the voltage is independent of the yoke and the number of turns in the winding and the parallel currents are added.

[0144] In one embodiment, the heater 415 may include a resistive heater, such as a wire such as Kanthal or others disclosed herein. The resistive heater may include a refractory resistance filament or wire that can be wrapped around the component to be heated. Exemplary resistive heater elements and components may include high-temperature conductors such as carbon, nichrome, 300 series stainless steel, Incoloy 800 and Inconel 600, 601, 718, 625, Haynes 230, 188, 214, nickel, Hastelloy C, titanium, tantalum, molybdenum, TZM, rhenium, niobium, and tungsten. The filament or wire may be embedded in a potting material to protect it from oxidation. Heating elements such as filaments, wires, and meshes may be operated in a vacuum to protect them from oxidation. An exemplary heater includes Kanthal A-1 (Kanthal) resistance heating wire, a ferrite-chromium-aluminum alloy (FeCrAl alloy) capable of operating temperatures up to 1400°C and having high resistivity and good oxidation resistance. Another exemplary filament is Kanthal APM, which forms a heat-resistant oxide coating that is resistant to oxidizing and carburizing environments and can operate up to 1475°C. The heat loss rate at 1375K and an emissivity of 1 is 200 kW / m 2 or 0.2 W / cm 2 A commercially available resistance heater operating at 1475K has a power of 4.6 W / cm 2 Heating can be enhanced by the use of insulation external to the heating element.

[0145] An exemplary heater 415 includes Kanthal A-1 (Kanthal) resistance heating wire, a ferrite-chromium-aluminum alloy (FeCrAl alloy) capable of operating temperatures up to 1400°C and having high resistivity and good oxidation resistance. Additional FeCrAl alloys suitable for heating elements are at least one of Kanthal APM, Kanthal AF, Kanthal D, and Alcrothal. Heating elements, such as resistance wire elements, may include NiCr alloys operating in the 1100°C to 1200°C range, such as at least one of Nikrotha 80, Nikrotha 70, Nikrotha 60, and Nikrotha 40. Alternatively, the heater 415 may include molybdenum disilicide (MoSi2), such as at least one of Kanthal Super 1700, Kanthal Super 1800, Kanthal Super 1900, Kanthal Super RA, Kanthal Super ER, Kanthal Super HT, and Kanthal Super NC, and may operate in an oxidizing atmosphere in the range of 1500°C to 1800°C. The heating element may include molybdenum disilicide (MoSi2) alloyed with alumina. The heating element may have an oxidation-resistant coating, such as an alumina coating. The heating element of the resistive heater 415 may include SiC, which may operate at temperatures up to 1625°C. The heater may include insulation to increase at least one of its efficiency and effectiveness. The insulation may include ceramics known to those skilled in the art, such as insulation including alumina silicate. The insulation may be removable and / or reversible. The insulation may be removed after startup to more effectively transfer heat to the desired recipient, such as the surrounding environment or a heat exchanger. The insulation may be mechanically removed. The insulation may include a vacuum-compatible vacuum reservoir and pump, where the insulation is installed by pulling a vacuum and the insulation is reversed by adding a heat transfer gas, such as a noble gas, such as helium. An evacuated chamber to which a heat transfer gas, such as helium, can be added or evacuated can function as an adjustable insulation.

[0146] The ignition current may be time-varying, such as about 60 Hz AC, but may have other characteristics and waveforms, such as a waveform having a frequency in at least one of the ranges of 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 10 Hz to 10 kHz, 10 Hz to 1 kHz, and 10 Hz to 100 Hz, a peak current in at least one of the ranges of about 1 A to 100 mA, 10 A to 10 mA, 100 A to 1 mA, 100 A to 100 kA, and 1 kA to 100 kA, and a peak voltage in at least one of the ranges of about 1 V to 1 MV, 2 V to 100 kV, 3 V to 10 kV, 3 V to 1 kV, 2 V to 100 V, and 3 V to 30 V, where the waveform may include a sine wave, square wave, triangular, or other desired waveform that may include a duty cycle in at least one of the ranges of 1% to 99%, 5% to 75%, and 10% to 50%. To minimize the skin effect at high frequencies, the windings such as 411 of the ignition system comprise at least one of braid, multi-strand, and Litz wire.

[0147] In an exemplary MHD thermodynamic cycle, (i) silver nanoparticles are formed in a reaction cell chamber, where they can be transported by at least one of thermophoresis and temperature gradients that select for them within the molecular domain; (ii) a hydrino plasma reaction in the presence of released O forms a high-temperature, high-pressure 25 mol% O and 70 mol% silver nanoparticle gas, which flows into the nozzle inlet; (iii) the 25 mol% O and 75 mol% silver nanoparticle gas expands through the nozzle; (iv) the resulting kinetic energy of the jet is converted to electricity in the MHD channel; (v) the nanoparticles grow in size within the MHD channel and coalesce into silver liquid at the end of the MHD channel; (vi) the liquid silver absorbs 25 mol% O; and (vii) an EM pump pumps the liquid mixture back into the reaction cell chamber.

[0148] For a gaseous mixture of oxygen and silver nanoparticles, the temperature of the oxygen and silver nanoparticles is the same in the free molecular regime, so the ideal gas equation is applied to estimate the acceleration of the gas mixture in the nozzle expansion, where the O2 and nanoparticle mixture has a common temperature and common kinetic energy. It may be treated as an isentropic expansion of an ideal gas / vapor in a converging-diverging nozzle. The stagnation temperature, T0, stagnation pressure, p0, and gas constant, R, are given by v , and the specific heat ratio k, the thermodynamic parameters can be calculated using the Liepmann and Roshko equations [Liepmann, HW and A. Roshko, Elements of Gas Dynamics, Wiley (1957)]. The stagnation sound speed c0 and density ρ0 are

number

number

number

[0149] Due to the large molecular weight of nanoparticles, the MHD transformation parameters are similar to those of LMMHD, and the MHD working medium is dense and moves slowly compared to the expansion of a gas.

[0150] Power Generation Systems and Configurations In an exemplary embodiment, Figure 23 (formerly Figure 25)The SunCell® with pedestal electrode shown in Figure 1 comprises (i) an injector reservoir 5c, an EM pump tube 5k6 and nozzle 5q, a reservoir bottom plate 409a, and a spherical reaction cell chamber 5b31 dome; (ii) a non-injector reservoir including a sleeve reservoir 409d, which may comprise stainless steel welded to a lower hemisphere 5b41 with a sleeve reservoir flange 409e at the end of the sleeve reservoir 409d; and (iii) an electrical insulator insert reservoir 409f comprised of an upper pedestal 5c1 and a lower insert reservoir flange 409g that fits onto the sleeve reservoir flange 409e, where the insert reservoir 409f, the drip edge 5c 1a, (iv) a reservoir bottom plate 409a bolted to the sleeve reservoir flange 409e to sandwich the insert reservoir flange 409g and comprising stainless steel with penetrations for the ignition busbar 10a1 and the ignition busbar 10. In one embodiment, the SunCell® may include a vacuum housing that encloses and seals the joints and includes the sleeve reservoir flange 409e, the insert reservoir flange 409g, and the reservoir bottom plate 409a, where the housing is electrically insulated from the electrode busbar 10.

[0151] Figure 23 (formerly Figure 25)In the embodiment shown in Figure 1, the inverted pedestal 5c2, ignition busbar, and electrode 10 are oriented toward the approximate center of the cell 5b3, in the negative direction of the z-axis, and at least one counter-injector electrode 5k61 optionally injects molten metal from the reservoir 5c along the positive z-direction relative to gravity. The injected molten metal flow can optionally maintain a coating or pool of liquid metal on the pedestal 5c2 against gravity. The pool or coating can at least partially cover the electrode 10. The pool or coating can protect the electrode from damage such as corrosion or melting. In the latter case, the EM pumping speed can be increased to enhance electrode cooling by the flowing injected molten metal. Increasing the area and thickness of the electrode can also dissipate localized hot spots and prevent melting. The pedestal can be positively biased and the injector electrode can be negatively biased. In another embodiment, the pedestal can be negatively biased and the injector electrode can be positively biased, or the injector electrode can be immersed in the molten metal. Molten metal, such as gallium, may fill a portion of the lower portion of the reaction cell chamber 5b31. In addition to a coating or reservoir of injected molten metal, the electrode 10, such as a W electrode, may be protected from corrosion by an applied negative bias. In one embodiment, the electrode 10 may include a coating, such as an inert conductive coating, such as a rhenium coating, to protect the electrode from corrosion. In one embodiment, the electrode may be cooled. Cooling may reduce at least one of the electrode corrosion rate and the rate of alloy formation with the molten metal. Cooling may be achieved by means such as centerline water cooling. In one embodiment, the surface area of ​​the reversing electrode is increased by increasing the size of the surface in contact with at least one of the plasma and molten metal flow from the injector electrode. In an exemplary embodiment, a large plate or cup is attached to the end of the electrode 10. In another embodiment, the injector electrode may be submerged to increase the area of ​​the counter electrode. Figure 23 (formerly Figure 25)1 illustrates an exemplary spherical reaction cell chamber. Other shapes, such as rectangular, cubic, cylindrical, and conical, are within the scope of this disclosure. In one embodiment, the bottom of the reaction cell chamber, which connects to the top of the reservoir, may be sloped like a cone to facilitate mixing of the molten metal as it enters the inlet of the EM pump. In one embodiment, at least a portion of the outer surface of the reaction cell chamber may be covered with a material with a high heat transfer coefficient, such as copper, to avoid hot spots on the reaction cell chamber walls. In one embodiment, the SunCell® includes multiple pumps, such as EM pumps, to inject molten metal into the reaction cell chamber walls and maintain the molten metal walls, preventing the plasma in the reaction cell chamber from melting the walls. In another embodiment, the reaction cell chamber walls include liners 5b31a, such as BN, fused silica, or quartz liners, to avoid hot spots. The exemplary reaction cell chamber includes a cubic upper section lined with a quartz plate and a spherical lower section containing an EM pump at the bottom, which promotes molten metal mixing.

[0152] In one embodiment, the sleeve reservoir 409d may include an electrical insulator that fits over the ignition busbar and electrode 10, such that molten metal is contained exclusively within the cup or drip edge 5c1a at the end of the inverted base 5c2. An insert reservoir 409f having an insert reservoir flange 409g may be attached to the reaction cell chamber 5b3 by a reservoir bottom plate 409a, a sleeve reservoir 409d, and a sleeve reservoir flange 409e. An electrode may penetrate the reservoir bottom plate 409a through an electrode penetration 10a1. In one embodiment, the insert reservoir 409f may include a coating on the electrode busbar 10. In one embodiment, at least one SunCell® component, such as insert reservoir 409f, reaction cell chamber liner or coating, and busbar liner or coating, may comprise a ceramic such as BN, quartz, titania, alumina, yttria, hafnia, zirconia, silicon carbide, mullite, or a mixture such as ZrO2-TiO2-Y2O3, TiO2-Yr2O3-Al2O3, or another of the present disclosure, or one comprising at least one of SiO2, Al2O3, ZrO2, HfO2, TiO2, MgO, BN, BN-ZrO2, BN-B2O3, and a ceramic that serves to bond to the metal of the component and then bond to the BN or another ceramic. Exemplary composite coatings containing BN from Oerlikon are Ni13Cr8Fe3.5Al6.5BN, ZrO29.5Dy2O30.7BN, ZrO27.5Y2O30.7BN, and CO25Cr5Al0.27Y1.75Si15BN. In one embodiment, a suitable metal, ceramic, or carbon coated with BN can function as a liner or coating. A suitable metal or ceramic can operate at SunCell® temperatures with a BN coating attached. In one embodiment, the binder in SunCell® components, such as the sleeve reservoir 409d, reaction cell chamber liner or coating, or busbar liner or coating, can be baked out by at least one of heating and running under vacuum.Alternatively, a passivation coating may be formed or applied to the ceramic. In an exemplary embodiment, BN is oxidized to form a B2O3 passivation coating.

[0153] The EM pump tube 5k6 may include a material, liner, or coating that is resistant to forming an alloy with gallium, such as W, Ta, Re, Mo, BN, alumina, mullite, silica, quartz, zirconia, hafnia, titania, or at least one of the other disclosed materials. In one embodiment, the pump tube, liner, or coating includes carbon. The carbon may be coated by a suspension means, such as a spray or liquid coating, that is cured and degassed. In an exemplary embodiment, a carbon suspension is poured into the pump tube to fill it, the carbon suspension is cured, and then a channel is machined through the tube to form a carbon liner on the wall. In one embodiment, a carbon-coated metal, such as Ni, may be resistant to carbide formation at high temperatures. In one embodiment, the EM pump tube 5k6 may include a metal tube filled with a liner or coating material, such as BN, through which holes are formed to form the pump tube. The EM pump tube may comprise an assembly including multiple parts. The parts may include a material, liner, or coating that is resistant to forming an alloy with gallium. In one embodiment, the parts may be coated separately and assembled. The assembly may include at least one of two opposing bus bars 5k2, a housing containing a liquid metal inlet and a liquid metal outlet, and a means for sealing the housing, such as a Swagelok. In one embodiment, the EM pump bus bar 5k2 may include a conductive portion in contact with the gallium inside the EM pump tube that is resistant to forming an alloy with gallium. The conductive portion may include an alloy-resistant material such as Ta, W, Re, Ir, or Mo, or a cladding or coating that is alloy-resistant to another metal, such as stainless steel, such as one including Ta, W, Re, Ir, or Mo.

[0154] In one embodiment, the SunCell® includes an inlet riser pipe 5qa to prevent the flow of hot gallium into the reservoir bottom 5kk1 and inhibit the formation of gallium alloys. The reservoir bottom 5kk1 may include a liner, cladding, or coating to inhibit the formation of gallium alloys.

[0155] In one embodiment, which allows for good electrical contact between EM pump busbar 5k2 and the molten metal in EM pump tube 5k6, the coating is applied before the EM pump busbar is attached by means such as welding. Alternatively, any coating may be removed from the busbar that penetrates the molten metal prior to operation by means known in the art, such as grinding, ablation, or etching.

[0156] In another embodiment, the reservoir insert flange 409g may be replaced with a feedthrough in the reservoir bottom plate 409a that electrically isolates the feedthrough's busbar 10 and pedestal 5cl or reservoir insert 409f from the reservoir bottom plate 409a. The feedthrough may be welded to the reservoir bottom plate. An exemplary feedthrough including the busbar 10 is #FA10775 from Solid Sealing Technology, Inc. The busbar 10 may be bonded to the electrode 8, or the busbar 10 and electrode 8 may be constructed from a single piece. The reservoir bottom plate may be bonded directly to the sleeve reservoir flange. The union may include a conflat flange bolted to an intervening gasket. The flange may include a knife edge for sealing a soft metal gasket, such as a copper gasket. The ceramic base 5c1 containing the reservoir insert 409f may be countersunk into the counterbore reservoir bottom plate 409a, and the bond between the base and reservoir bottom plate may be sealed with a gasket, such as a carbon gasket or another member of the present disclosure. The electrode 8 and bus bar 10 may include end plates at the end where the plasma discharge occurs. The bond between the base and reservoir bottom plate may be sealed by applying pressure to the gasket and pushing a disk, which then applies pressure to the gasket. A disk may be threaded onto the end of the electrode 8 so that rotating the disk applies pressure to the gasket. The feedthrough may include an annular collar that connects to the bus bar and electrode. The annular collar may include a set screw that, when tightened, locks the electrode in place. The position may be fixed by the gasket under tension applied by the end disk pulling the base upward. The base 5c1 may include a shaft for accessing a set screw. The shaft may be threaded to seal to the outer surface of the base with a non-conductive set screw of a ceramic such as BN, which may include BN, for example BN-ZrO2. In another embodiment, the busbar 10 and electrode 8 may comprise butt-end connectable rods.In one embodiment, the base 5c1 may have two or more threaded shafts that are tightened against the bus bar 10 or electrode 8 to secure it in place under tension. The tension may provide at least one of the connection between the bus bar 10 and electrode 8 and pressure on the gasket. Alternatively, the counter electrode may include a shortened insulating base 5c1, where at least one of the electrode 8 and bus bar 10 includes male threads, a washer, and a corresponding female nut such that the nut and washer tighten against the shortened insulating base 5c1. Alternatively, the electrode 8 may include male threads that thread into matching female threads at one end of the bus bar 10, and the electrode may further include a locking washer that tightens the shortened insulating base 5c1 against the base washer and the countersunk reservoir bottom plate 409a. The counter electrode may include other means of securing the base, bus bar, and electrode known to those skilled in the art.

[0157] In another embodiment, at least one seal, such as (i) the seal between the insert reservoir flange 409g and the sleeve reservoir flange 409e and (ii) the seal between the reservoir bottom plate 409a and the sleeve reservoir flange 409, may comprise a wet seal ( Figure 23 (formerly Figure 25) In the latter case, the insert reservoir flange 409g can be replaced with a feedthrough attached to the reservoir bottom plate 409a that electrically insulates the feedthrough and the busbar 10 of the pedestal 5c1 from the reservoir bottom plate 409a, and a wet seal can be included between the reservoir bottom plate 409a and the feedthrough. The wet seal can include solid gallium oxide, as gallium forms an oxide with a melting point of 1900°C.

[0158] In one embodiment, hydrogen can be supplied to the cell through a hydrogen-permeable membrane, such as a structurally reinforced Pd-Ag or niobium membrane. The rate of hydrogen permeation through the hydrogen-permeable membrane can be increased by maintaining a plasma on the outer surface of the permeable membrane. The SunCell® can include a semi-permeable membrane, which can include an electrode of the plasma cell, such as the cathode of the plasma cell. Figure 23 (formerly Figure 25)The SunCell® as shown in FIG. 1 may further include an outer sealed plasma chamber including an outer wall surrounding a portion of the wall of cell 5b3, where a portion of the metal wall of cell 5b3 includes the plasma cell electrode. The sealed plasma chamber may include a chamber around cell 5b3, such as a housing, where the wall of cell 5b3 may include the plasma cell electrode and a housing or independent electrode within the chamber may include the counter electrode. The SunCell® may further include a plasma power supply, a plasma control system, a gas supply source such as a hydrogen gas supply tank, a hydrogen supply monitor and regulator, and a vacuum pump.

[0159] The system may operate through the generation of two plasmas. An initial reaction mixture, such as a non-stoichiometric H2 / O2 mixture (e.g., H2 / O2 having less than 20%, or less than 10%, or less than 5%, or less than 3% O2 ​​by mole percentage of the mixture), may be passed through a plasma cell, such as a glow discharge, to create a reaction mixture capable of undergoing a catalytic reaction with sufficient exothermicity to generate the plasma described herein. For example, a non-stoichiometric H2 / O2 mixture may be passed through a glow discharge to create an effluent of atomic hydrogen and nascent H2O (e.g., a mixture with sufficient concentration and internal energy to prevent the formation of hydrogen bonds). The glow discharge effluent may be directed into a reaction chamber where an electric current is supplied between two electrodes (e.g., molten metal is passed between them). When the effluent interacts with the polarized molten metal (e.g., gallium), a catalytic reaction between the nascent water and atomic hydrogen is triggered, for example, upon the formation of an arc current. The power generation system may include: (a) a plasma cell (e.g., a glow discharge cell); (b) a pair of electrodes in electrical contact with each other through the molten metal flowing therebetween so that an electrical bias is applied to the molten metal; (c) a molten metal injection system for flowing molten metal between the electrodes; wherein the plasma cell effluent is directed at a biased molten metal (e.g., a positive or negative electrode).

[0160] In one embodiment, the SunCell® includes at least one ceramic reservoir 5c and a reaction cell chamber 5b31, such as one comprising quartz. Figure 37 (formerly Figure 66A) ~ Figure 38 (formerly Figure 66B) As shown in FIG. 1, two cylindrical reaction cell chambers 5b31 each containing a reservoir may be provided, with the reaction cell chambers 5b31 at the top fused along the seam where they intersect. In one embodiment, the apex formed by the intersection of the reaction cell chambers 5b31 may include a gasket seal, such as two flanges bolted together with an intervening gasket, such as a graphite gasket, to accommodate thermal expansion and other stresses. Each reservoir may include a means, such as an inlet riser 5qa, for maintaining a time-averaged level of molten metal within the reservoir. The bottom of each reservoir may include a reservoir flange 5k17 that may be sealed to a bottom plate 5kk1, which includes an EM pump 5ka with penetrations for the inlet and injection tube 5k61, and further includes an EM pump assembly 5kk below each bottom plate, including an EM magnet 5k4 and an EM pump tube 5k6. In one embodiment, a permanent EM pump magnet 5k4 ( Figure 37 (formerly Figure 66A) ~ Figure 38 (formerly Figure 66B) ) may be replaced with an electromagnet, such as a DC or AC electromagnet. If magnet 5k4 includes an AC electromagnet, EM pump current source for EM busbar 5k2 includes an AC power supply that supplies current in phase with the AC EM pump electromagnetic field applied to EM pump tube 5k6 to generate a Lorentz pump force. Each EM pump assembly 5kk may be mounted to the reservoir flange at the same angle as the corresponding reservoir 5c, such that the reservoir flange is perpendicular to the tilted reservoir. EM pump assembly 5kk may be mounted on slide table 409c ( ) with supports for mounting and aligning the corresponding tilted EM pump assembly 5kk and reservoir 5c. Figure 38 (formerly Figure 66B)) The bottom plate may be sealed to the reservoir by a wet seal. The bottom plate may further include penetrations with tubes for venting or supplying gas to the reaction cell chamber 5b31, which includes the region where the reservoir is fused. The reservoir may further include at least one of a gas inlet line 710 and a reservoir vacuum line 711, at least one of which may extend above the molten metal level. At least one of the gas inlet line 710 and the vacuum line 711 may include a cap, such as a carbon cap, or a cover, such as a carbon cover with side openings, that at least partially blocks the ingress of molten metal into the tube while allowing gas flow. In another design, the fusion reservoir portion may be cut out horizontally and attached to the cutout portion of a vertical cylinder. The cylinder may further include a top sealing plate, such as a quartz plate, or may be coupled to the converging-diverging nozzle of the MHD converter. The top plate may include at least one penetration for lines, such as a vacuum and gas supply line. In one embodiment, the quartz may be housed in a tight-fitting casing that provides support against outward deformation of the quartz due to operation at high temperatures and pressures. The casing may include at least one of carbon, ceramic, and a metal with a high melting point that resists deformation at high temperatures. An exemplary casing includes at least one of stainless steel, C, W, Re, Ta, Mo, Nb, Ir, Ru, Hf, Tc, Rh, V, Cr, Zr, Pa, Pt, Th, Lu, Ti, Pd, Tm, Sc, Fe, Y, Er, Co, Ho, Ni, and Dy. At least one seal for the SunCell components, such as the reservoir 5c, the reaction cell chamber 5b31, the converging-diverging nozzle or MHD nozzle section 307, the MHD expansion or generation section 308, the MHD condenser section 309, the MHD electrode penetration, the electromagnetic pump busbar 5k2, and the ignition reservoir busbar 5k2a1 that supplies ignition power to the molten metal in the reservoir, may include a wet seal. In the exemplary embodiment, the reservoir flange 5k17 includes a wet seal with the bottom plate 5kk1, and the periphery of the flange can be cooled by a cooling loop 5k18, such as a water cooling loop.In another exemplary embodiment, the EM pump tube includes a liner, such as a BN liner, and at least one of the electromagnetic pump busbars 5k2, and the ignition reservoir busbar 5k2a1 includes a wet seal.

[0161] In one embodiment, a ceramic SunCell®, such as one made of quartz, is attached to a metal baseplate 5kk1 ( Figure 38 (formerly Figure 66B) ), where the wet seal includes a penetration into the reservoir 5c that allows molten metal, such as silver, in the reservoir to contact the solidified molten metal on the bottom plate 5kk1 of each EM pump assembly to form a wet seal. Each bottom plate may be connected to the terminals of an ignition power source, such as a DC or AC power source, so that the wet seal can also function as a bus bar for the ignition power source. The EM pump may be an induction AC type as shown in Figures 4 and 5. The ceramic SunCell® is composed of multiple components, such as the EM pump, reservoir, reaction cell chamber, and MHD components, which are sealed with a flanged gasket union that can be secured with bolts. The gasket may include carbon or a ceramic such as Thermiculite.

[0162] Because rhenium (MP 3185°C) is resistant to attack by gallium, galinstan, silver, and copper, and to oxidation by hydrino reaction mixtures such as oxygen and water and those containing oxygen and water, it may serve as a coating for metal components such as the EM pump assembly 5kk, including the bottom plate 5kk1, EM pump tube 5k6, EM pump bus bar 5k2, EM pump injector 5k61, EM pump nozzle 5q, inlet riser 5qa, gas lines 710, and vacuum lines 711. Components may be coated with rhenium by electroplating, vacuum evaporation, chemical deposition, and other methods known in the art. In one embodiment, bus bars or electrical connections at penetrations such as the EM pump bus bar 5k2, or penetrations for MHD electrodes in the MHD generator channel 308, may include solid rhenium sealed at the penetrations by wet seals.

[0163] One embodiment ( Figure 37 (formerly Figure 66A) ~ Figure 38 (formerly Figure 66B) In the exemplary embodiment, the heater for melting the metal to form the molten metal includes a resistance heater, such as a Kanthal wire heater, around the reservoir 5c and the reaction cell chamber 5b31, such as one containing quartz. The EM pump 5kk may include a heat transfer block for transferring heat from the reservoir 5c to the EM pump tube 5k6. In the exemplary embodiment, the heater includes a Kanthal wire coil wrapped around the reservoir and the reaction cell chamber, and a graphite heat transfer block 5k6 with ceramic heat transfer paste attached to the EM pump tube transfers heat to the tube to melt the metal therein. A larger diameter EM pump tube may be used to improve the transfer of heat to the EM pump tube, causing the EM pump tube to melt. The components containing the molten metal may be sufficiently insulated with insulation such as ceramic fiber or other high-temperature insulation materials known in the art. To avoid thermal shock, the components may be heated gradually.

[0164] In one embodiment, the SunCell® includes a heater, such as a resistance heater. The heater may comprise a kiln or furnace disposed over at least one of the reaction cell chamber, the reservoir, and the EM pump tubing. In embodiments where the EM pump is inside the kiln, the EM pump magnet and wet seal may be selectively insulated and cooled by a cooling system, such as a water-cooling system. In one embodiment, each reservoir may include insulation, such as a ceramic insulator, at the base of the molten metal. The insulator may comprise a moldable ceramic, such as BN, or one containing alumina, magnesia, silica, zirconia, or hafnia. The ceramic insulator at the base of the molten metal may include penetrations for the EM pump inlet and injector, gas and vacuum lines, thermocouples, and ignition busbars that are in direct contact with the molten metal. In one embodiment, the insulation allows the molten metal to melt at the bottom of the reservoir by reducing heat loss to the bottom plate and wet seal cooling. The diameter of the EM pump inlet penetration may be increased to increase heat transfer from the molten metal in the reservoir to the molten metal in the EM pump tube. The EM pump tube may include a heat transfer block to transfer heat from the inlet penetration to the EM pump tube.

[0165] In one embodiment, the bottom plate 5kk1 may include a refractory material or stainless steel, which may be coated with a liner or coating, such as one of those disclosed herein, that is resistant to corrosion by at least one of O2 and HO and alloy formation with molten metals such as gallium or silver, such as C, W, Re, Ta, Mo, Nb, Ir, Ru, Hf, Tc, Rh, V, Cr, Zr, Pa, Pt, Th, Lu, Ti, Pd, Tm, Sc, Fe, Y, Er, Co, Ho, Ni, and Dy. In one embodiment, the EM pump tube may be lined or coated with a material that prevents corrosion or alloy formation. The EM busbar may include a conductor that is resistant to at least one of corrosion and alloy formation. Exemplary EM pump busbars in which the molten metal is gallium include Ta, W, Re, and Ir. Exemplary EM pump busbars in which the molten metal is silver include W, Ta, Re, Ni, Co, and Cr. In one embodiment, the EM busbar may include carbon or a high-melting-point metal that may be coated with a conductive coating that resists alloying with molten metals, such as at least one of gallium and silver. Exemplary coatings include carbides or diborates such as titanium, zirconium, and hafnium.

[0166] In one embodiment where a molten metal such as copper or gallium may form an alloy with a base plate such as stainless steel, the base plate includes a liner or is coated with an alloy such as Ta, W, Re, or a non-ceramic-forming material such as BN, mullite, or zirconia-titania-yttria (ZTY).

[0167] Figure 37 (formerly Figure 66A) ~ Figure 38 (formerly Figure 66B)In the SunCell® embodiment shown in Figure 1, the molten metal includes gallium or galinstan, the seal on the bottom plate 5kk1 includes a gasket, such as a Viton O-ring or a carbon (Graphoil) gasket, and the diameter of the inlet riser pipe 5qa is large enough so that the level of the molten metal in the reservoir 5c is maintained substantially even with a substantially steady flow of molten metal injected from both reservoirs. To overcome the higher viscosity of gallium and galinstan, the diameter of each inlet riser pipe is larger than that of the silver molten metal embodiment. The diameter of the inlet riser pipe can range from approximately 3 mm to 2 cm. The bottom plate 5kk1 can be stainless steel maintained below approximately 500°C or ceramic-coated to prevent the formation of gallium alloys. Exemplary bottom plate coatings are mullite and ZTY.

[0168] In one embodiment, the wet seal of the penetration can include a nipple through which the molten silver partially extends and which is continuous with the solidified silver electrode. In an exemplary embodiment, the EM pump bus bar 5k2 includes a wet seal that includes an inner ceramic-coated EM pump tube 5k6 with opposing nipples through which the molten silver passes and contacts the solidified portion, which includes the EM pump power connector. Additionally, at least one bus bar can optionally further include a connector to one lead of the ignition power supply.

[0169] The EM pump tube 5k6 may include a material, liner, or coating that is resistant to alloy formation with gallium or silver, such as at least one of W, Ta, Re, Ir, Mo, BN, alumina, mullite, silica, quartz, zirconia, hafnia, titania, or another of the present disclosure. In one embodiment, the pump tube, liner, or coating includes carbon. The carbon may be applied by a suspension means such as a spray or liquid coating that is cured and degassed. In one embodiment, a carbon-coated metal such as Ni may be resistant to carbide formation at high temperatures. In one embodiment, the EM pump tube 5k6 may include a metal tube filled with a liner or coating material such as BN, in which holes are formed to form the pump tube. The EM pump tube may be segmented or may include an assembly including multiple parts ( Figure 31 (formerly Figure 31C) ). The components may include materials such as Ta or a liner or coating that are resistant to forming an alloy with gallium. In one embodiment, the components may be coated separately and assembled. The assembly may include at least one of a housing including two opposing bus bars 5k2, a liquid metal inlet, and a liquid metal outlet, and a means for sealing the housing, such as a Swagelok. In one embodiment, the EM pump bus bar 5k2 may include a conductive portion in contact with the gallium inside the EM pump tube that is resistant to forming an alloy with gallium. The conductive portion may include an alloy-resistant material such as Ta, W, Re, or Mo, or an alloy-resistant cladding or coating on another metal, such as stainless steel, including Ta, W, Re, Ir, or Mo. In one embodiment, the exterior or EM pump tube, for example, including Ta or W, may be coated or clad with a coating of the coating of the present disclosure to protect the exterior from oxidation. In an exemplary embodiment, the Ta EM pump tube may be coated with Re, ZTY, or mullite, or clad in stainless steel, where the external cladding of the Ta EM pump tube may be constructed of stainless steel pieces welded or bonded using an extreme temperature rated stainless steel adhesive such as J-BWeld 37901.

[0170] In one embodiment, the liner may comprise a thin-walled, flexible metal resistant to alloying with gallium, such as a W, Ta, Re, Ir, Mo, or Ta tube liner, which may be inserted into EM pump tube 5k6 comprising another metal, such as stainless steel. The liner may be inserted into a pre-formed EM pump tube or straight tube, after which the tube is bent. EM pump bus bar 5k2 may be attached, such as by welding, after the liner is attached to the formed EM pump tube. The EM pump tube liner may form a tight seal with EM pump bus bar 5k2 via a compression fitting or a sealing material, such as a carbon or ceramic sealant.

[0171] In embodiments where at least one of the molten metal and the alloy formed from the molten metal may release gas and create a gas boundary layer that at least partially blocks the Lorentz current and thereby interferes with EM pumping, the EM pump tube 5k6 at the location of the magnet 5k4 may be vertical to disrupt the gas boundary layer.

[0172] In one embodiment, the SunCell® includes an interference rejector that includes means for reducing or eliminating interference between the power source and the ignition circuit and the power supply to the EM pump 5kk. The interference rejector may include at least one of one or more circuit elements and one or more controllers for adjusting the relative voltage, current, polarity, waveform, and duty cycle of the ignition and EM pump currents to prevent interference between the two corresponding power sources.

[0173] The SunCell® may further include a photovoltaic (PV) converter and a window to transmit light to the PV converter. Figure 24 (formerly Figure 26) ~ Figure 25 (formerly Figure 27) In one embodiment shown in Figure 1, the SunCell® comprises a reaction cell chamber 5b31 with a tapered cross section along the vertical axis and a PV window 5b4 at the apex of the tapered section. The window with the mating taper is circular ( Figure 24 (formerly Figure 26) ) or square or rectangular ( Figure 25 (formerly Figure 27)The taper may include any desired shape to accommodate the PV array 26a, such as a taper. The taper inhibits metallization of the PV window 5b4 to enable efficient conversion of light to electrical power by the photovoltaic (PV) converter 26a. The PV converter 26a may include a high-density receiver array of concentrator PV cells, such as the PV cells of the present disclosure, and may further include a cooling system, such as one comprising a microchannel plate. The PV window 5b4 may include a coating that inhibits metallization. The PV window may be cooled to prevent thermal degradation of the PV window coating. The SunCell® Figure 23 (formerly Figure 25) The inverted base 5c2 may include at least one partial inverted base 5c2 having a cup or drip edge 5c1a at the end of the inverted base 5c2, similar to that shown in FIG. 1. However, the vertical axis of each of the base and electrode 10 may be oriented at an angle relative to the vertical or z-axis. The angle may be in the range of 1° to 90°. In one embodiment, at least one counter injector electrode 5k61 optionally injects molten metal from the reservoir 5c obliquely in the positive z-direction relative to gravity. The injection pump may be provided by an EM pump assembly 5kk mounted on the EM pump assembly slide table 409c. In the exemplary embodiment, the partial inverted base 5c2 and counter injector electrode 5k61 are Figure 24 (formerly Figure 26) It may be positioned on an axis at 135° to the horizontal or x-axis, as shown in Figure 25 (formerly Figure 27) The reaction cell chamber 5b3 is oriented on an axis at 45° to the horizontal or x-axis as shown in FIG. An insert reservoir 409f having an insert reservoir flange 409g may be attached to the cell chamber 5b3 by a reservoir bottom plate 409a, a sleeve reservoir 409d, and a sleeve reservoir flange 409e. An electrode may penetrate the reservoir bottom plate 409a via an electrode penetration 10a1. The injector electrode nozzle 5q may be located below the surface of a liquid metal, such as liquid gallium, contained in the bottom of the reaction cell chamber 5b and reservoir 5c. Gas may be supplied to the reaction cell chamber 5b3, or the chamber may be evacuated through a gas port such as 409h.

[0174] Figure 26 (formerly Figure 28)In an alternative embodiment shown in FIG. 1, the SunCell® comprises a reaction cell chamber 5b31 having a tapered cross section along the negative vertical axis and a taper ( Figure 24 (formerly Figure 26) ~ Figure 25 (formerly Figure 27) and a PV window 5b4 at the larger diameter end (opposite the tapered end of the embodiment shown in Figure 1). In one embodiment, the SunCell® includes a reaction cell chamber 5b31 that includes a positive cylindrical shape. The injector nozzle and pedestal counter electrode can be oriented on the vertical axis at either end of the cylinder or along a line inclined relative to the vertical axis.

[0175] Figure 24 (formerly Figure 26) and Figure 25 (formerly Figure 27) In the embodiment shown in FIG. 1, the electrode 10 and the PV panel 26a may be swapped in position and orientation such that the molten metal injector 5k6 and the nozzle 5q inject the molten metal perpendicular to the counter electrode 10, and the PV panel 26a receives light from the plasma side.

[0176] The SunCell® may include a transparent window that acts as a light source for wavelengths transmitted through the window. The SunCell® may include a blackbody radiator 5b4 that may act as a blackbody light source. In one embodiment, the SunCell® includes a light source (e.g., plasma from a reaction) and the hydrino plasma light emitted from the window is utilized for lighting applications such as indoor, street, commercial, or industrial lighting, or for heating or processing applications such as chemical processing or lithography.

[0177] In one embodiment, the upper electrode includes a positive electrode. The SunCell may include an optical window and a photovoltaic (PV) panel behind the positive electrode. The positive electrode may function as a blackbody radiator that provides at least one of heat, light, and illumination for the PV panel. In the latter case, illumination for the PV panel generates electricity from incident light. In one embodiment, the optical window may include a vacuum-tight outer window and an inner pivoting window to prevent molten metal from adhering to the inner window and making it opaque. In one embodiment, the positive electrode may heat a blackbody radiator that emits light through the PV window to the PV panel. The blackbody radiator may be connected to the positive electrode and receive heat therefrom by conduction and radiation. The blackbody radiator may include one or more of the group consisting of a high melting point metal, for example, tungsten (melting point=3422°C) or tantalum (melting point=3020°C), or a ceramic such as one of the present disclosure, for example, graphite (sublimation point=3642°C), borides, carbides, nitrides, and oxides such as alumina, zirconia, yttria-stabilized zirconia, magnesia, hafnia, thorium dioxide (ThO2), and other metal oxides; transition metal diborides such as hafnium diboride (HfB2), zirconium diboride (ZrB2), or niobium boride (NbB2); metal nitrides such as hafnium nitride (HfN), zirconium nitride (ZrN), titanium nitride (TiN), and carbides such as titanium carbide (TiC), zirconium carbide, tantalum carbide (TaC), and their related composite materials.Exemplary ceramics having desirable high melting points include magnesium oxide (MgO) (melting point = 2852°C), zirconium oxide (ZrO) (melting point = 2715°C), boron nitride (BN) (melting point = 2973°C), zirconium dioxide (ZrO2) (melting point = 2715°C), hafnium boride (HfB2) (melting point = 3380°C), hafnium carbide (HfC) (melting point = 3900°C), Ta4HfC5 (melting point = 4000°C), Ta4HfC5TaX4HfCX5 (4215°C), hafnium nitride (HfN) (melting point = 3385°C), zirconium diboride (ZrB2) (melting point = 3246°C), zirconium carbide (ZrC) (melting point = 34 00°C), zirconium nitride (ZrN) (melting point = 2950°C), titanium boride (TiB2) (melting point = 3225°C), titanium carbide (TiC) (melting point = 3100°C), titanium nitride (TiN) (melting point = 2950°C), silicon carbide (SiC) (melting point = 2820°C), tantalum boride (TaB2) (melting point = 3040°C), tantalum carbide (TaC) (melting point = 3800°C), tantalum nitride (TaN) (melting point = 2700°C), niobium carbide (NbC) (melting point = 3490°C), niobium nitride (NbN) (melting point = 2573°C), vanadium carbide (VC) (melting point = 2810°C), and vanadium nitride (VN) (melting point = 2050°C).

[0178] In one embodiment, the SunCell® includes an inductive ignition system with cross-connecting channels of reservoirs 414, a pump such as an electromagnetic induction pump, a conduction EM pump, or a mechanical pump of the injector reservoirs, and a non-injector reservoir that functions as a counter electrode. The cross-connecting channels of reservoirs 414 may include restricted flow means that may keep the non-injector reservoirs substantially full. In one embodiment, the cross-connecting channels of reservoirs 414 may include a non-flow conductor such as a solid conductor (e.g., solid silver).

[0179] One embodiment ( Figure 27 (formerly Figure 29)), the SunCell® includes a current connector or reservoir jumper cable 414a between the cathode and anode bus bars or current connectors. The cell body 5b3 may comprise a non-conductor, or the cell body 5b3 may comprise a conductor, such as stainless steel, with at least one electrode electrically isolated from the cell body 5b3 such that an induced current is forced to flow between the electrodes. The current connector or jumper cable may connect at least one of the pedestal electrodes 8 and at least one of the electrical connectors to a bus bar in contact with the EM pump and metal in the EM pump's reservoir 5c. The SunCell® cathode and anode, e.g., Figure 23 (formerly Figure 25) ~ Figure 26 (formerly Figure 28)The cathode and anode, including pedestal electrodes such as inverted pedestal 5c2 or pedestal 5c2 at an angle to the z-axis, may include an electrical connector between the anode and cathode that forms a closed current loop with a molten metal flow injected by at least one EM pump 5kk. The metal flow can close the conductive loop by contacting at least one of molten metal EM pump injectors 5k61 and 5q, or the metal in reservoir 5c and the pedestal electrode. The SunCell® may further include an ignition transformer winding 401 with a yoke 402 within the closed conductive loop to induce current in the molten metal in the loop, which functions as a single loop with a shorted secondary. The transformer winding 401 and yoke 402 may induce ignition current in the closed current loop. In an exemplary embodiment, the primary is operable within at least one frequency range of 1 Hz to 100 kHz, 10 Hz to 10 kHz, and 60 Hz to 2000 Hz, the input voltage is operable within at least one range of approximately 10 V to 10 MV, 50 V to 1 MV, 50 V to 100 kV, 50 V to 10 kV, 50 V to 1 kV, and 100 V to 480 V, and the input current is approximately 1 A to 1 mA, 10 A .... The ignition voltage can be operated within at least one of the ranges of about 0.1 V to 100 kV, 1 V to 10 kV, 1 V to 1 kV, and 1 V to 50 V, and the ignition current can be within the ranges of about 10 A to 1 mA, 100 A to 100 kA, 100 A to 10 kA, and 100 A to 5 kA. In one embodiment, the plasma gas can include at least one of any gas, such as a noble gas, hydrogen, water vapor, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, oxygen, and atmospheric air. The gas pressure can be within at least one of the ranges of about 1 microtorr to 100 atmospheres, 1 millitorr to 10 atmospheres, 100 millitorr to 5 atmospheres, and 1 torr to 1 atmosphere.

[0180] An exemplary test embodiment included a quartz SunCell® with two crossed EM pump injectors, such as the SunCell® shown in FIG. 10. Two molten metal injectors, each containing an induction-type electromagnetic pump with an exemplary Fe-based amorphous core, pumped the Galinstan flow so that they intersected to create a triangular current loop connecting the primary side of a 1000 Hz transformer. The current loop included the flow, two Galinstan reservoirs, and a cross-channel at the base of the reservoirs. This loop acted as a shorted secondary to the primary side of the 1000 Hz transformer. The induced current in the secondary maintained the atmospheric plasma with low power consumption. The induction system enabled the disclosed silver-based working fluid—the SunCell®—to function as a magnetohydrodynamic generator, where the hydrino reactant was supplied to the reaction cell chamber according to the present disclosure. Specifically, (i) the ignition transformer primary loop operated at 1000 Hz, (ii) the input voltage was 100 V–150 V, and (iii) the input current was 25 A. The 60 Hz voltage and current of the EM pump current transformer were 300 V and 6.6 A, respectively. Each EM pump electromagnet was powered at 60 Hz, 15–20 A, through a series 299 μF capacitor to align the phase of the resulting magnetic field with the Lorentz crossover current of the EM pump current transformer.

[0181] The transformer was powered from a 1000 Hz AC power source. In one embodiment, the ignition transformer may be powered by a variable frequency drive, such as a single-phase variable frequency drive (VFD). In one embodiment, the VFD input power is regulated to provide an output voltage and current, which in turn provides a desired ignition voltage and current, where the number of turns and wire size are selected to match the corresponding output voltage and current of the VFD. The inductive ignition current may be in at least one of the following ranges: approximately 10 A to 100 kA, 100 A to 10 kA, and 100 A to 5 kA. The inductive ignition voltage may be in at least one of the following ranges: approximately 0.5 V to 1 kV, 1 V to 100 V, and 1 V to 10 V. The frequency may be in at least one of the following ranges: approximately 1 Hz to 100 kHz, 10 Hz to 10 kHz, and 10 Hz to 1 kHz. An exemplary VFD is an ATO 7.5 kW, single-phase 500 Hz VFD with a 220V to 240V output.

[0182] Another exemplary testing embodiment is Figure 27 (formerly Figure 29) The SunCell® generator shown in Figure 1 was a Pyrex SunCell® generator with one EM pump injector electrode and a pedestal counter electrode, with a connecting jumper cable 414a between them. A molten metal injector, including a DC-type electromagnetic pump, pumped the Galinstan flow connected to the pedestal counter electrode, closing a current loop consisting of the flow, the EM pump reservoir, and the jumper cables connected at each end to the corresponding electrode bus through the primary side of a 60 Hz transformer. The loop acted as a shorted secondary side to the primary side of the 60 Hz transformer. Inductive current in the secondary side maintained the atmospheric plasma with low power consumption. An inductive ignition system enabled the silver- or gallium-based molten metal SunCell® generator of the present disclosure, in which hydrino reactants were supplied to the reaction cell chamber according to the present disclosure. Specifically, (i) the primary loop of the ignition transformer operated at 60 Hz, (ii) the input voltage was 300 Vpeak, and (iii) the input current was 29 Apeak. The maximum induction plasma ignition current was 1.38 kA.

[0183] In one embodiment, the power source or ignition power source comprises a non-DC source, such as a time-varying current source, such as a pulsed or AC source. The peak current may be in at least one of the following ranges: 10 A to 100 mA, 100 A to 10 mA, 100 A to 1 mA, 100 A to 100 kA, 100 A to 10 kA, and 100 A to 1 kA. The peak voltage may be in at least one of the following ranges: 0.5 V to 1 kV, 1 V to 100 V, and 1 V to 10 V. In one embodiment, the EM pump power source and AC ignition system may be selected to avoid inferences that result in at least one of ineffective EM pumping and distortion of the desired ignition waveform.

[0184] In one embodiment, the power source or ignition power supply for providing the ignition current may comprise at least one of a DC, an AC, and a DC and AC power source, such as one powered by at least one of AC, DC, and DC and AC power, such as a switching power supply, a variable frequency controller (VFD), an AC-to-AC converter, a DC-to-DC converter, an AC-to-DC converter, a DC-to-AC converter, a rectifier, a full-wave rectifier, an inverter, a photovoltaic array generator, a magnetohydrodynamic generator, or even a conventional generator, such as a Rankine or Brayton cycle generator, a thermoelectric generator, and a thermoelectric generator. The ignition power supply may include at least one circuit element such as a transition, an IGBT, an inductor, a transformer, a capacitor, a rectifier, a bridge such as an H-bridge, a resistor, an operational amplifier, or another circuit element or power conditioning device known in the art to generate the desired ignition current. In an exemplary embodiment, the ignition power supply may include a full-wave rectified high-frequency source, e.g., one that provides positive square-wave pulses with a duty cycle of approximately 50% or greater. The frequency may be within a range of approximately 60 Hz to 100 kHz. An exemplary power supply provides approximately 30 to 40 V and 3000 to 5000 A at a frequency ranging from approximately 10 kHz to 40 kHz. In one embodiment, the power source for supplying the ignition current may include a capacitor bank charged to an initial offset voltage, e.g., in the range of 1 V to 100 V, which may be in series with an AC transformer or power source, where the resulting voltage may include a DC voltage with AC modulation. The DC component decays at a rate dependent on its normal discharge time constant, or the discharge time may be increased or eliminated, where the ignition power supply further includes a DC power source that recharges the capacitor bank. The DC voltage component may help initiate a plasma, which may then be maintained at a lower voltage. An ignition power source, such as a capacitor bank, may include a high speed switch, such as one controlled by a servo motor or solenoid, to connect and disconnect ignition power to the electrodes.

[0185] In one embodiment, at least one of the hydrino plasma and the ignition current may comprise an arc current. The arc current may have the characteristic that the higher the current, the lower the voltage. In one embodiment, at least one of the reaction cell chamber wall and the electrode is selected to form and support at least one of the hydrino plasma current and the ignition current, which may comprise an arc current having a very high current and a very low voltage. The current density may be about 1 A / cm. 2 ~100MA / cm 2 , 10A / cm 2 ~10MA / cm 2 , 100A / cm 2 ~10MA / cm 2 , and 1 kA / cm 2 ~1A / cm 2 The range may be at least one of:

[0186] In one embodiment, the ignition system may apply a high starting power to the plasma and then reduce the ignition power after the resistance decreases. The decrease in resistance may be due to at least one of increased conductivity due to the reduction of oxides in the ignition circuit, such as the electrode or molten metal stream, and the formation of the plasma. In an exemplary embodiment, the ignition system includes a capacitor bank in series with the AC to generate AC modulation of the high-power DC, where the DC voltage decays as the capacitor discharges, leaving only the lower AC power.

[0187] In one embodiment, the molten metal can be selected to be more volatile to form gaseous nanoparticles or to include more volatile components to enhance the conductivity of the plasma. For example, the molten metal can be more volatile than silver or include components more volatile than silver (e.g., the molten metal can have a boiling point lower than that of silver). In an exemplary embodiment, the molten metal can include galinstan, which has increased volatility relative to gallium at a given temperature, since galinstan boils at approximately 1300°C compared to the boiling point of gallium at 2400°C. In another exemplary embodiment, silver can fume at its melting point in the presence of trace oxygen. Zinc is another exemplary metal that exhibits nanoparticle fuming. Zinc forms a non-volatile oxide (boiling point = 1974°C), and ZnO can be reduced by hydrogen. ZnO can be reduced by hydrogen in the hydrino reaction mixture. In one embodiment, the molten metal can include a mixture or alloy of zinc metal with gallium or galinstan. The ratio of each metal can be selected to achieve the desired nanoparticle formation and at least one enhancement of power generation and MHD power conversion. The increased ion recombination rate due to higher plasma conductivity can sustain the hydrino reaction and plasma with reduced or no ignition current. In one embodiment, the SunCell® includes a condenser for refluxing vaporized metal or aerosolized nanoparticle metal, such as Galinstan. In one embodiment, the refluxing metal in the vapor phase sustains the hydrino reaction with low to no ignition power. In an exemplary embodiment, the cell operates near the boiling point of Galinstan, so that the refluxing Galinstan metal sustains the hydrino reaction with low or no ignition power. Furthermore, in another exemplary embodiment, refluxing silver nanoparticles sustain the hydrino reaction with low or no ignition power.

[0188] In one embodiment, one or more properties of the metal, such as a low boiling point or low heat of vaporization compared to other candidates and the ability to form nanoparticle fumes at temperatures below the boiling point, make it suitable as a working gas in an MHD system, which upon sufficient heating will form a gas phase and provide pressure-volume work or kinetic energy to the MHD conversion system to generate electricity.

[0189] In one embodiment, the pedestal electrode 8 may be embedded in the insert reservoir 409f, where the pumped molten metal fills pockets such as 5c1a, dynamically forming a pool of molten metal in contact with the pedestal electrode 8. The pedestal electrode 8 may include a conductor that does not alloy with molten metal, such as gallium, at the operating temperatures of the SunCell®. Exemplary pedestal electrodes 8 include tungsten, tantalum, stainless steel, or molybdenum (Mo), which does not form alloys with gallium, e.g., Mo3Ga, below operating temperatures of 600°C. In one embodiment, the inlet of the EM pump may include a filter 5qa1, such as a screen or mesh, that blocks alloy particles while allowing gallium to enter. To increase surface area, the filter may extend vertically and / or horizontally and connect to the inlet. The filter may include a material that is resistant to forming an alloy with gallium, such as stainless steel (SS), tantalum, or tungsten. An exemplary inlet filter includes a stainless steel cylinder with a diameter equal to the diameter of the inlet but projecting vertically. Many of the filters may be cleaned periodically as part of routine maintenance.

[0190] In one embodiment, the non-injector electrode may be intermittently immersed in molten metal to cool it. In one embodiment, the SunCell® includes an injector EM pump and its reservoir 5c, and at least one additional EM pump, and may also include a separate reservoir for the additional EM pump. Using the additional reservoir, the additional EM pump may perform at least one of: (i) reversibly pumping molten metal into the reaction cell chamber and intermittently immersing the non-injector electrode to cool it; and (ii) pumping molten metal to the non-injector electrode to cool it. The SunCell® may include a coolant tank with coolant, a coolant pump for circulating the coolant through the non-injector electrode, and a heat exchanger for rejecting heat from the coolant. In one embodiment, the non-injector electrode may include a channel or cannula for a coolant, such as water, molten salt, molten metal, or another coolant known in the art for cooling non-injector electrodes.

[0191] Figure 23 (formerly Figure 25)In the inverted embodiment shown in Figure 1, the SunCell® is rotated 180° so that the injection of molten metal is along the negative z-axis, with the non-injector electrode at the bottom of the cell and the injector electrode at the top of the reaction cell chamber. At least one of the non-injector electrode and the injector electrode can be attached to a corresponding plate and connected to the reaction cell chamber by a corresponding flange seal. The seal can include a gasket made of a material that does not alloy with gallium, such as Ta or W, or one of the ceramics disclosed herein or known in the art. The bottom reaction cell chamber portion can function as a reservoir, the original reservoir can be removed, and the EM pump can include an inlet riser in the new bottom reservoir that penetrates the bottom plate and connects to the EM pump tubing, and can provide molten metal flow to the EM pump, where the outlet portion of the EM pump tubing penetrates the top plate and connects to a nozzle in the reaction cell chamber. During operation, the EM pump can pump molten metal from the bottom reservoir and inject it into the non-injector electrode 8 at the bottom of the reaction cell chamber. The inverted SunCell® can be cooled by the high flow rate of gallium injected by the injector electrode at the top of the cell. The non-injector electrode 8 can include a recessed cavity to trap gallium for better cooling the electrode. In one embodiment, the non-injector electrode can function as the positive electrode, although opposite polarity is also an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0192] In one embodiment, the electrodes 8 may be cooled by heat dissipation. A large radiating surface area may be provided to increase heat transfer. In one embodiment, the busbar 10 may include an attached heat sink, e.g., a vane heat sink such as a flat plate. The plate may be attached by clamping an edge face along the axis of the busbar 10. The vane may include a paddle-ring pattern. The vane may be heated by conductive heat transfer from the busbar 10, which may be resistively heated by the ignition current and heated by the hydrino reaction. The heat sink, such as a vane, may include a refractory metal such as Ta, Re, or W.

[0193] In one embodiment, the PV window can include an electrostatic precipitator (ESP) in front of the PV window to block oxide particles such as GaO. The ESP can include a tube with a central corona discharge electrode, such as a central wire, and a high-voltage power supply that generates an electrical discharge, such as a corona discharge, at the wire. The electrical discharge can charge the oxide particles, causing them to be attracted to and move toward the walls of the ESP tube, where they can be collected and / or removed. The ESP tube walls can be precisely polished to reflect light from the reaction cell chamber to the PV window and a PV converter, such as a high-density receiver array of a concentrator PV cell.

[0194] In one embodiment, the PV window system includes a transparent, rotating baffle (both in the xy plane for light propagating along the z axis) in front of a stationary, sealed window, and a window that can rotate in the xy plane for light propagating along the z axis. An exemplary embodiment includes a rotating, transparent disk, such as a Clear View Screen (https: / / en.wikipedia.org / wiki / Clear_view_screen), which can include at least one of the baffle and the window. In one embodiment, the SunCell® includes a corona discharge system including a negative electrode, a counter electrode, and a discharge power supply. In an exemplary embodiment, the negative electrode can include a pin, needle, or wire, such as a rotating one, that can be near the PV baffle or window. The cell body can include a counter electrode. A corona discharge can also be maintained near the PV window to negatively charge particles formed during power generation, such as GaO, and at least one of the PV baffle or window, so that the particles are repelled by the PV baffle or window.

[0195] In one embodiment, the molten metal stream injected by the EM pump may become misaligned or deviate from its trajectory, impinging on the center of the counter electrode. The EM pump may further include a controller that senses the misalignment and modifies the EM pump current to re-establish proper flow alignment, which in turn re-establishes the initial EM pump speed. The controller may include a sensor, such as at least one thermocouple, to sense the misalignment, which causes an increase in the temperature of at least one monitored component. In an exemplary embodiment, the controller maintains injection stability by controlling the EM pump current using the sensor, such as the thermocouple and software.

[0196] In an embodiment, the injector nozzle 5q and counter electrode 8 are axially aligned to ensure the molten metal stream impinges on the center of the counter electrode. Other manufacturing methods known in the art, such as laser alignment and drilling holes in the nozzle 5q after inserting the injector pump tubing 5k61, may also be implemented to achieve alignment. In another embodiment, a concave counter electrode may reduce the adverse effects of misalignment by containing the injected molten metal within the concave surface.

[0197] Maintaining plasma generation In one embodiment, the SunCell® includes a vacuum system including an inlet to the vacuum line, a vacuum line, a trap, and a vacuum pump. The vacuum pump may include a Roots pump, scroll, or multi-lobe pump with a high pumping speed, and may further include a water vapor trap, which may be connected in series or parallel to the vacuum pump, such as a series connection preceding the vacuum pump. In one embodiment, a vacuum pump such as a multi-lobe pump, or a scroll or Roots pump with stainless steel pump components, may be resistant to damage from gallium alloy formation. The water vapor trap may include a water-absorbing material such as a solid desiccant or cryogenic trap. In one embodiment, the pump includes at least one of a cryopump, a cryofilter, or a refrigerator to cool and condense at least one gas, such as water vapor, before entering the pump. To increase pumping capacity and speed, the pumping system may include multiple vacuum lines connected to the reaction cell chamber and a vacuum manifold connected to the vacuum line, with the manifold connected to the vacuum pump. In one embodiment, the inlet to the vacuum line includes a shield to prevent molten metal particles in the reaction cell chamber from entering the vacuum line. An exemplary shield may include a metal plate or dome that covers the inlet but is raised from the surface of the inlet, providing a selective gap for gas flow from the reaction cell chamber to the vacuum line. The vacuum system may further include a particle flow restrictor to the vacuum line inlet, e.g., a set of baffles that allow gas flow while blocking particle flow.

[0198] The vacuum system may be capable of at least one of ultra-high vacuum and maintain the reaction cell chamber operating pressure within at least one of a low range of approximately 0.01 Torr to 500 Torr, 0.1 Torr to 50 Torr, 1 Torr to 10 Torr, and 1 Torr to 5 Torr. This pressure may be maintained low in the case of at least one of (i) H2 addition via trace HOH catalyst provided as trace water or via O2 reacting with H2 to form HOH, and (ii) H2O addition. If a noble gas such as argon is also provided to the reaction mixture, the pressure may be maintained within at least one of a high operating pressure range of approximately 100 Torr to 100 atmospheres, 500 Torr to 10 atmospheres, and 1 atmosphere to 10 atmospheres, and the argon may be in excess relative to the other reaction cell chamber gases. The argon pressure may extend the lifetime of at least one of the HOH catalyst and atomic H and may prevent the plasma formed at the electrodes from dispersing rapidly, resulting in increased plasma intensity.

[0199] In one embodiment, the reaction cell chamber includes a means for controlling the pressure of the reaction cell chamber within a desired range by changing its volume in response to pressure changes within the reaction cell chamber. The means includes a pressure sensor, a mechanically expandable portion, an actuator for expanding and contracting the expandable portion, and a controller for controlling the differential volume created by the expansion and contraction of the expandable portion. The expandable portion may include a bellows. The actuator may include a mechanical actuator, a pneumatic actuator, an electromagnetic actuator, a piezoelectric actuator, a hydraulic actuator, and other actuators known in the art.

[0200] In one embodiment, the SunCell® comprises: (i) a gas recirculation system having a gas inlet and a gas outlet; (ii) a gas separation system, e.g., a gas separator system for separating gases, e.g., noble gases such as argon, O, H, HO, and GaX (X = halide) or N x O yThe system may include: (iii) a gas separation system capable of separating at least two volatile species of the reaction mixture, such as (x, y = integers), from hydrino gas and at least two gases of the mixture; at least one noble gas, O, H, and HO partial pressure sensor; (iv) a flow regulator; (v) at least one micro-injector, e.g., a micro-injector for injecting water; (vi) at least one valve; (vii) a pump; (viii) an exhaust gas pressure and flow controller; and (ix) a computer for maintaining the pressure of at least one of the noble gas, such as argon, O, H, HO, and hydrino gas. The recirculation system may include a semi-permeable membrane that allows at least one gas, such as molecular hydrino gas, to be removed from the recirculated gas. In one embodiment, at least one gas, such as a noble gas, may be selectively recirculated. Meanwhile, at least one gas of the reaction mixture may be exhausted via exhaust to be discharged from an outlet. The noble gas may be at least one of increasing the hydrino reaction rate and increasing the transport rate of at least one species in the reaction cell chamber from the exhaust. The noble gas may increase the exhaust rate of excess water to maintain a desired pressure. The noble gas may increase the rate at which hydrinos are exhausted. In one embodiment, a noble gas, such as argon, may be replaced with at least one near-noble gas that is readily available from the ambient atmosphere and easily exhausted to the ambient atmosphere. The near-noble gas may have low reactivity with the reaction mixture. The near-noble gas may be obtained from the atmosphere and exhausted rather than recycled by a recirculation system. The near-noble gas may be formed from gases that are readily available from the atmosphere and can be exhausted to the atmosphere. The near-noble gas may include nitrogen, which may be separated from oxygen before entering the reaction cell chamber. Alternatively, air may be used as a source of near-noble gas, and oxygen may react with carbon from the source to form carbon dioxide. At least one of nitrogen and carbon dioxide may function as the near-noble gas. Alternatively, oxygen can be removed by reaction with a molten metal such as gallium.The resulting gallium oxide can be regenerated in a gallium regeneration system, for example, by reacting gallium oxide with aqueous sodium hydroxide to form sodium gallium, which is then electrolyzed to gallium metal and emitted oxygen.

[0201] In one embodiment, the SunCell® can be operated and distinctly closed by adding at least one of the reactants HO and HO, where the atmosphere in the reaction cell chamber includes the reactants and a noble gas, such as argon. The near-noble gas can be maintained at a high pressure, such as within a range of 10 Torr to 100 atmospheres. The atmospheric air can be continuously and periodically or intermittently evacuated or recirculated by a recirculation system. Excess oxygen can be removed by degassing. The reactant O can be added with H such that O is a minor species that essentially forms the HOH catalyst when injected into the reaction cell chamber with excess H. A torch can inject a mixture of H and O, which reacts instantly to form the HOH catalyst and excess H reactant. In one embodiment, the excess oxygen can be at least partially released from the gallium oxide by at least one of hydrogen reduction, electrolytic reduction, thermal decomposition, and vaporization and sublimation due to the volatility of GaO. In one embodiment, at least one of the oxygen abundance can be controlled, and the oxygen abundance can be allowed to form the HOH catalyst at least in part by intermittently flowing oxygen into the reaction cell chamber in the presence of hydrogen. In one embodiment, the oxygen abundance can be recycled as HO by reaction with added H. In another embodiment, excess oxygen abundance can be removed as GaO and regenerated according to the present disclosure, such as by at least one of the skimmers and electrolysis systems of the present disclosure. The source of the excess oxygen can be at least one of O addition and HO addition.

[0202] In one embodiment, the gas pressure in the reaction cell chamber can be controlled at least in part by controlling at least one of a pumping rate and a recirculation rate. At least one of these rates can be controlled by a valve controlled by a pressure sensor and a controller. Exemplary valves for controlling gas flow are solenoid valves and variable flow control valves that open and close in response to upper and lower target pressure limits, e.g., variable flow control valves such as butterfly valves and throttle valves controlled by a pressure sensor and a controller to maintain a desired gas pressure range.

[0203] In one embodiment, the SunCell® includes a means for evacuating or removing molecular hydrino gas from the reaction cell chamber 5b31. In one embodiment, at least one of the reaction cell liner and reaction cell chamber wall has a high permeation rate for molecular hydrinos, such as H2(1 / 4). To increase the permeation rate, at least one of the wall thicknesses may be minimized and the operating temperature of the wall maximized. In one embodiment, the thickness of at least one of the reservoir 5c wall and reaction cell chamber 5b31 wall may range from 0.05 mm to 5 mm. In one embodiment, the reaction cell chamber wall is thinner in at least one region compared to another region to increase the diffusion or permeation rate of molecular hydrino product from the reaction cell chamber 5b31. In one embodiment, an upper sidewall portion of the reaction cell chamber wall, e.g., Figure 29 (formerly Figure 31A) The portion of the sleeve-reservoir flange 409e immediately below the sleeve-reservoir flange 409e is thinned. Thinning may also be desirable to reduce heat conduction to the sleeve-reservoir flange 409e. The degree of thinning relative to other wall regions can range from 5% to 90% (e.g., the thinned region is 5% to 90% of the cross-sectional width of a non-thinned region, such as the lower sidewall portion below the electrode 8 near the reaction chamber).

[0204] The SunCell® is equipped with temperature sensors, temperature controllers, and heat exchangers, such as water jets, to controllably maintain the reaction cell chamber walls at a desired temperature, e.g., in the range of 300°C to 1000°C, to provide the desired polymeric hydrino permeability.

[0205] At least one of the wall and liner materials may be selected to increase the permeation rate. In one embodiment, the reaction cell chamber 5b31 may include multiple materials, such as one or more materials in contact with gallium and one or more materials isolated from gallium by a liner, coating, or cladding, such as a liner, coating, or cladding of the present disclosure. At least one of the isolated or protected materials may have increased permeability to molecular hydrinos compared to a material not isolated or protected from gallium contact. In an exemplary embodiment, the reaction cell chamber material may include one or more stainless steels, such as 347 stainless steel, 4130 alloy stainless steel, or Cr-Mo stainless steel, nickel, Ti, niobium, vanadium, iron, W, Re, Ta, Mo, niobium, and Nb(94.33 wt%)-Mo(4.86 wt%)-Zr(0.81 wt%). Crystalline materials, such as SiC, may be more permeable to hydrinos than amorphous materials, such as SiAlON or quartz, as is the exemplary liner.

[0206] Different reaction cell chamber walls, such as those with high permeability to hydrinos, may be used with SunCell® (Trademark) containing other metals with lower permeability, such as 347 or 304 stainless steel. Figure 30 (formerly Figure 31B)) reaction cell chamber wall. This wall portion may be tubular. The replacement portion may be welded, soldered, or brazed to the SunCell® balance by methods known in the art, such as using metals with different thermal expansion coefficients to match the expansion coefficients of the joined materials. In one embodiment, a replacement portion comprising a refractory metal such as Ta, W, Nb, or Mo may be bonded to a dissimilar metal such as stainless steel with an adhesive such as a Coltronics adhesive such as Resbond or Durabond 954. In one embodiment, the bond between dissimilar metals may include laminated materials such as ceramic laminations between the bonded metals, with each metal bonded to one side of the laminate. The ceramic may include one of the ceramics disclosed herein, such as BN, quartz, alumina, hafnia, or zirconia. An exemplary bond is Ta / Durabond 954 / BN / Durabond 954 / stainless steel. In one embodiment, the flange 409e and bottom plate 409a may be sealed with a gasket or may be welded.

[0207] In one embodiment, a reaction cell chamber containing a carbon liner includes at least one wall having a high heat transfer capacity, a large diameter, and a sophisticated cooling system, where the heat transfer capacity, large diameter, and cooling system are sufficient to maintain the temperature of the carbon liner below a temperature at which it reacts with at least one component of the hydrino reaction mixture, such as water or hydrogen. An exemplary heat transfer capacity is about 10 W / cm. 2 ~10kW / cm 2 The wall area of ​​the reaction cell chamber may range from about 100 to 200°C. An exemplary diameter may range from about 2 cm to 100 cm, and an exemplary cooling system is an external water bath. An exemplary desired liner temperature may be less than about 700 to 750°C. The reaction cell chamber wall may also be highly permeable to molecular hydrinos. A liner may be in contact with the wall to improve heat transfer from the liner to the cooling system and maintain the desired temperature.

[0208] In one embodiment, the SunCell® includes a gap between the liner and at least one reaction cell chamber wall and a vacuum pump, the gap comprising a chamber evacuated by the vacuum pump to remove molecular hydrinos. The liner may be porous. In an exemplary embodiment, the liner includes a porous ceramic, such as porous BN, SiC-coated carbon, or quartz, to increase the permeation rate. In one embodiment, the SunCell® may include thermal insulation. The thermal insulation may be highly permeable to hydrinos. In another embodiment, the SunCell® includes a molecular hydrino getter, such as iron nanoparticles, inside and outside at least one of the reaction cell chambers, which binds molecular hydrinos and removes them from the reaction cell chamber. In one embodiment, molecular hydrino gas can be pumped out of the reaction cell chamber. The reaction gas mixture, such as that containing HO and hydrogen of the present disclosure, may include a flushing gas, such as a noble gas, to assist in the removal of molecular hydrino gas by evacuation. The flushing gas may be vented to the atmosphere or circulated by a recirculator of the present disclosure.

[0209] In one embodiment, the liner may include a hydrogen dissociator such as niobium. The liner may include multiple materials, such as a material that resists gallium alloy formation in the hottest zone of the reaction cell chamber, and another material, such as a hydrogen dissociator, in at least one zone operating below the gallium alloy formation temperature of the other material.

[0210] In one embodiment, gallium oxide, such as GaO, can be removed from the reaction cell chamber by at least one of vaporization and sublimation due to the volatility of GaO. Removal can be achieved by at least one method of flowing a gas into the reaction cell chamber and maintaining a low pressure, such as subatmospheric pressure. The gas flow can be maintained by a recirculator of the present disclosure. The low pressure can be maintained by a vacuum pump system of the present disclosure. The gallium oxide can be condensed in a condenser of the present disclosure and returned to the reaction cell chamber. Alternatively, the gallium oxide can be captured in a filter or trap, such as a cryotrap, which can be removed and reclaimed by the systems and methods of the present disclosure. The trap can be in at least one gas line of the recirculator. In one embodiment, GaO can be captured in a trap in a vacuum system, which can include at least one of a filter, a cryotrap, and an electrostatic precipitator. The electrostatic precipitator can include a high-voltage electrode for capturing charged particles to maintain a plasma and electrostatically charge the GaO particles. In an exemplary embodiment, each set of at least one set of electrodes may include a wire capable of generating a corona discharge that negatively electrostatically charges GaO particles, and a positively charged collector electrode, such as a plate or tube electrode, that precipitates the charged particles from the gas flow from the charge reaction cell chamber. The GaO particles may be removed from each collector electrode by means known in the art, such as mechanically, and the GaO may be converted to gallium for reuse. Gallium may be regenerated from GaO by systems and methods such as electrolysis in NaOH solution.

[0211] The electrostatic precipitator (ESP) may further include a means for precipitating at least one desired chemical species from the gas stream from the reaction cell chamber and returning it to the reaction cell chamber. The precipitator may include a transport means, such as an auger, conveyor belt, pneumatic, electromechanical, or other transport means known in the art, for returning particles collected by the precipitator to the reaction cell chamber. The precipitator may be attached to a portion of a vacuum line that includes a reflux condenser that returns the desired particles to the reaction cell chamber by gravity flow, where the particles may settle and flow back into the reaction cell chamber by gravity flow, such as the flow in the vacuum line. The vacuum line may be oriented vertically at least in part to allow the desired particles to experience the gravity return flow.

[0212] In an exemplary test embodiment, the reaction cell chamber was maintained within a pressure range of approximately 1-2 atmospheres with 4 mL / min H2O injection. The DC voltage was approximately 30 V and the DC current was approximately 1.5 kA. Figure 23 (formerly Figure 25) The reactor consisted of a 6-inch diameter stainless steel sphere containing 3.6 kg of molten gallium, as shown in Figure 1. The electrodes consisted of a 1-inch submerged stainless steel nozzle of a DC EM pump and a counter electrode consisting of a 4 cm diameter, 1 cm thick W disk and a 1 cm diameter lead wire covered by a BN pedestal. The EM pump speed was approximately 30-40 mL / s. The gallium was positively polarized at the submerged nozzle, and the W pedestal electrode was negatively polarized. The gallium was thoroughly mixed by the EM pump injector. The power output of the SunCell® was approximately 85 kW, measured using the product of the mass, specific heat, and temperature rise of the gallium and stainless steel reactor.

[0213] In another test embodiment, 2500 sccm of H and 25 sccm of O were flowed through approximately 2 g of 10% Pt / AlO beads held in an external chamber aligned with the H and O gas inlets and the reaction cell chamber. Additionally, argon was flowed through the reaction cell chamber at a rate that maintained a chamber pressure of 50 Torr while an active vacuum pump was applied. The DC voltage was approximately 20 V and the DC current was approximately 1.25 kA. The power output of the SunCell® was measured to be approximately 120 kW using the product of the mass, specific heat, and temperature rise of the gallium and stainless steel reactor.

[0214] In one embodiment, a recirculator, such as a recirculation system or a noble gas recirculation system, which can operate at one or more of subatmospheric, atmospheric, and superatmospheric pressures, can include (i) a gas transfer device, e.g., at least one of a vacuum pump, a compressor, and a blower, for recirculating at least one gas from the reaction cell chamber; (ii) a recirculation gas line; (iii) a separation system for removing off-gases, such as hydrinos and oxygen; and (iv) a reactant supply system. In one embodiment, the gas transfer device can deliver gas from the reaction cell chamber, force the gas through the separation system to remove off-gases, and return regenerated gas to the reaction cell chamber. The gas transfer device can include at least two of a pump, a compressor, and a blower as the same unit. In one embodiment, the pump, compressor, blower, or a combination thereof can include at least one of a cryopump, a cryofilter, or a refrigerator to at least one of cool the gas before entering the gas transfer device and condense at least one gas, such as water vapor. The recirculation gas lines may include a line from the vacuum pump to the gas transfer device, a line from the gas transfer device to a separation system for removing exhaust gases, and a line from the separation system for removing exhaust gases to the reaction cell chamber, which may be connected to a reactant supply system. An exemplary reactant supply system includes at least one connection to the reaction cell chamber with at least one reaction mixture gas supply line for at least one of a noble gas such as argon, oxygen, hydrogen, and water. The addition of reactant O with H essentially forms the HOH catalyst when injected into the reaction cell chamber with excess H, where O is a minor species. A torch injects a mixture of H and O, which immediately reacts to form the HOH catalyst and excess H reactant. The reactant supply system may include a gas manifold connected to the reaction mixture gas supply line and an outlet line to the reaction cell chamber.

[0215] The separation system for removing the exhaust gas may include a cryofilter or cryotrap. The separation system for removing the hydrino-producing gas from the recycle gas may include a semipermeable membrane that selectively vents the hydrinos by diffusion across the semipermeable membrane from the recycle gas to the atmosphere, or to an exhaust chamber or stream. The recycler separation system may include an oxygen scrubber system that removes oxygen from the recycle gas. The scrubber system may include at least one of a reservoir and a getter or adsorbent within the reservoir that reacts with oxygen, such as a metal, such as an alkali metal, an alkaline earth metal, or iron. Alternatively, an adsorbent, such as activated carbon or another oxygen scavenger known in the art, may absorb oxygen. The charcoal adsorbent may include a charcoal filter that may be sealed in a gas-permeable cartridge, such as a commercially available product. The cartridge may be removable. The oxygen adsorbent in the scrubber system may be periodically replaced or regenerated by methods known in the art. The scrubber regeneration system of the recirculation system may include one or more sorbent heaters and / or one or more vacuum pumps. In an exemplary embodiment, a charcoal sorbent is at least one of heated by a heater and subjected to a vacuum provided by a vacuum pump to release exhausted or collected oxygen, and the resulting regenerated charcoal is reused. Heat from the SunCell® can be used to regenerate the sorbent. In one embodiment, the SunCell® includes at least one heat exchanger, a coolant pump, and a coolant flow loop that functions as a scrubber heater to regenerate the sorbent, such as charcoal. The scrubber's large volume and area allow it to effectively scrub without significantly increasing gas flow resistance. Flow can be maintained by a gas transfer device connected to the recirculation line. Cooling the charcoal can more effectively absorb species being scrubbed from the recirculation gas, such as mixtures containing noble gases like argon. Oxygen sorbents, such as charcoal, can also scrub or absorb hydrino gas.The separation system may include multiple scrubber systems, each of which includes: (i) a chamber capable of maintaining a gas seal; (ii) an adsorbent for removing exhaust gases such as oxygen; (iii) inlet and outlet valves capable of isolating the chamber from the recycle gas line and isolating the recycle gas line from the chamber; (iv) means, such as a robotic mechanism controlled by a controller, for connecting and disconnecting the chamber to the recycle line; (v) means for regenerating the adsorbent, such as a heater and a vacuum pump, which may be common to regenerating at least one other scrubber system during its regeneration; and (vi) a control device for controlling the disconnection of the nth scrubber system, the connection of the n+1th scrubber system, and the regeneration of the nth scrubber system while the n+1th scrubber system functions as the active scrubber system, wherein at least one of the multiple scrubber systems may be regenerated while at least one of the other scrubber systems is actively scrubbing or absorbing the desired gas. The scrubber system may allow the SunCell® to operate under closed-vent conditions with periodic controlled venting or gas recovery. In an exemplary embodiment, hydrogen and oxygen may be collected separately from an adsorbent, such as activated carbon, by heating to different temperatures at which the corresponding gases are released approximately separately.

[0216] In embodiments involving a reaction cell chamber gas mixture of a noble gas, hydrogen, and oxygen in which the partial pressure of the noble gas exceeds the partial pressure of hydrogen in the reaction cell chamber gas, the oxygen partial pressure can be increased to compensate for the reduced rate of reaction between hydrogen and oxygen to form the HOH catalyst due to the reactant concentration dilution effect of the noble gas, such as argon. In one embodiment, the HOH catalyst may be formed prior to combining with the noble gas, such as argon. The hydrogen and oxygen can be reacted by a high-temperature surface, such as a combustor, plasma source, or filament, such as a recombiner or recombiner catalyst. The recombiner catalyst may include a noble metal supported on a ceramic support, such as Pt, Pd, or Ir on alumina, zirconia, hafnia, silica, or zeolite powder or beads, or another supported recombiner catalyst of the present disclosure, or Raney Ni, Ni, niobium, titanium, or other dissociating metals disclosed herein or known in the art, in a form providing a large surface area, such as a powder, mat, woven fabric, or cloth. An exemplary recombiner includes 10 wt% Pt on Al2O3 beads. The plasma source may include a glow discharge, microwave plasma, plasma torch, inductively or capacitively coupled RF discharge, dielectric barrier discharge, piezoelectric direct discharge, acoustic discharge, or another discharge cell as disclosed herein or known in the art. The hot filament may include a hot tungsten filament, a Pt or Pd black on Pt filament, or another catalytic filament as known in the art.

[0217] The inlet flow of reaction mixture species, such as water, hydrogen, oxygen, and / or a noble gas, can be continuous or intermittent. The inlet flow rate and the exhaust or vacuum flow rate can be controlled to achieve a desired pressure range. The inlet flow can be intermittent, with the flow stopped at the maximum pressure of the desired range and started at the minimum pressure of the desired range. When the reaction mixture gas includes a high-pressure noble gas such as argon, the reaction cell chamber can be evacuated, filled with the reaction mixture, and operated under near-static exhaust flow conditions, while the inlet flow of reactants, such as water, hydrogen, and / or oxygen, is maintained under continuous or intermittent flow conditions to maintain the pressure in the desired range. Furthermore, the noble gas can be flowed at an economically practical flow rate with a corresponding exhaust pump speed, or the noble gas can be regenerated or scrubbed and recycled by a recirculation system or recirculator. In one embodiment, the reaction mixture gas can be forced into the cell by an impeller or gas jet to increase the flow rate of the reactants through the cell while maintaining the reaction cell pressure in the desired range.

[0218] The reaction cell chamber 5b31 gas may include at least one of H, a noble gas such as argon, O, and an oxide such as HO and CO. In one embodiment, the internal pressure of the reaction cell chamber 5b31 may be lower than atmospheric pressure. The pressure may be within at least one of the following ranges: approximately 1 mTorr to 750 Torr, 10 mTorr to 100 Torr, 100 mTorr to 10 Torr, and 250 mTorr to 1 Torr. The SunCell® may include a water vapor supply system including a reservoir with a heater and temperature controller, a channel or conduit, and a valve. In one embodiment, the reaction cell chamber gas may include HO vapor. The water vapor may be supplied by an external water reservoir associated with the reaction cell chamber through a channel by controlling the temperature of the water reservoir, where the water reservoir may be the coldest component of the water vapor supply system. The temperature of the water reservoir may control the water vapor pressure based on the partial pressure of water as a function of temperature. The water reservoir may further include a cooling device to reduce the vapor pressure. The water may contain additives, such as dissolved compounds such as NaCl or other alkali or alkaline earth halides or sodium chloride, adsorbents such as zeolites, hydrate-forming materials or compounds, or other materials or compounds known to those skilled in the art that reduce vapor pressure. Exemplary mechanisms for reducing vapor pressure are through coalescence effects or bonding interactions. In one embodiment, the water vapor pressure source may include ice contained in a reservoir and supplied to the reaction cell chamber 5b31 via a conduit. The ice may have a large surface area to increase at least one of the rate of formation of HOH catalyst and H from the ice and the rate of the hydrino reaction. The ice may be in the form of fine chips to increase the surface area. The ice may be maintained at a desired temperature below 0°C to control the water vapor pressure. A carrier gas, such as at least one of H2 and argon, may flow through the ice reservoir into the reaction cell chamber. The water vapor pressure may also be controlled by controlling the flow rate of the carrier gas.

[0219] The molar equivalent of H in liquid H2O is 55 moles / liter, where 22.4 liters of H2 gas occupies at standard temperature and pressure (STP). In one embodiment, H2 is supplied as a reactant to the reaction cell chamber 5b31 to form hydrinos in the form of at least one of liquid water and steam. The SunCell® may include at least one injector of liquid water and / or steam. The injector may include at least one of a water jet and a steam jet. The injector orifice into the reaction cell chamber may be small to prevent backflow. The injector may include ceramic or another oxidation-resistant refractory material, such as that disclosed herein. The SunCell® may include a water and / or steam source and a pressure and flow control system. In one embodiment, the SunCell® may further include a sonicator, injector, aerosolizer, or nebulizer to generate small water droplets that can flow into the reaction cell chamber along with the carrier gas flow. The sonicator may include at least one of a transducer and a piezoelectric element. The vapor pressure of water in the carrier gas stream may be controlled by controlling the temperature of the water vapor source or the temperature of the flow path from the water source to the reaction cell chamber. In one embodiment, the SunCell® may further include a hydrogen source and a hydrogen recombiner, such as a copper oxide recombiner, where water is added to the reaction cell chamber 5b31 by flowing hydrogen through a recombiner, such as a heated copper oxide recombiner, such that the generated water vapor flows into the reaction cell chamber. In another embodiment, the SunCell® may further include a steam injector. The steam injector may include at least one of a control valve and a controller for controlling the flow of steam and cell gas to the at least one steam injector, a gas inlet to a converging nozzle, a converging-diverging nozzle, a combining cone that may be associated with the water source and the overflow outlet, a water source, an overflow outlet, a delivery cone, and a check valve. Control values ​​may include timers, sensors such as cell pressure or water sensors, or electronic solenoids or other computer controlled values ​​that may be controlled by manual actuators. In one embodiment, the SunCell® may further include a pump for injecting water.To prevent heat from the SunCell® from boiling the water in the pump, the water may be delivered through a narrow cross-section conduit, such as a thin hypodermic needle. The pump may include a syringe pump, a peristaltic pump, a metering pump, or others known in the art. The syringe pump may include multiple syringes so that at least one syringe can be refilled while another syringe is injecting. The syringe pump may amplify the force of the water in the conduit because the cross-section of the conduit is much smaller than the syringe plunger. The conduit may prevent the water in the pump from boiling, provide a heat sink, and / or provide cooling.

[0220] In one embodiment, the reaction cell mixture in the reaction cell chamber is controlled by controlling the reaction cell chamber pressure by at least one of controlling the reactant injection rate and controlling the rate at which excess reactants of the reaction mixture and product are evacuated from the reaction cell chamber 5b31. In one embodiment, the SunCell® includes a valve, e.g., a pressure sensor, a vacuum pump, a vacuum line, a valve controller, and a pressure-activated valve, e.g., a solenoid valve or a throttle valve, that opens and closes the vacuum line from the reaction cell chamber to the vacuum pump in response to a controller processing the pressure measured by the sensor. The valve can control the pressure of the reaction cell chamber gas. The valve remains closed until the cell pressure reaches a first high setting, and then activates to open until the vacuum pump reduces the pressure to a second low setting, at which point the valve can be activated to close. In one embodiment, the controller can control at least one reaction parameter, such as the reaction cell chamber pressure, the reactant injection rate, the voltage, the current, and the molten metal injection rate, to maintain a non-pulsed, or near-steady, or continuous plasma.

[0221] In one embodiment, the SunCell® includes a pressure sensor, a source of at least one reactant or species of the reaction mixture, e.g., a source of HO, HO, and a noble gas such as argon, a reactant line, a valve controller, and a pressure-activated valve, e.g., a solenoid valve or throttle valve, that opens and closes the source of at least one reactant or species of the reaction mixture and the reactant line from the reaction cell chamber in response to the controller processing the pressure measured by the sensor. The valve can control the pressure of the reaction cell chamber gas. The valve can remain open until the cell pressure reaches a first high setting, and then the valve can be actuated to close until the pressure is reduced by a vacuum pump to a second low setting, which can actuate the valve.

[0222] In one embodiment, the SunCell® may include an injector such as a micropump. The micropump may include mechanical or non-mechanical devices. Exemplary mechanical devices include moving parts, which may include actuation and microvalve membranes and flaps. The driving force of the micropump may be generated by utilizing at least one of the following effects: piezoelectric, electrostatic, thermopneumatic, pneumatic, and magnetic. Non-mechanical pumps may function using at least one of electrohydrodynamic, electroosmotic, electrochemical, ultrasonic, capillary, chemical, and other flow-generating mechanisms known in the art. The micropump may include at least one of piezoelectric, electroosmotic, diaphragm, peristaltic, syringe, and valveless micropumps and capillaries, chemically powered pumps, and other micropumps known in the art. The injector, such as a micropump, may continuously deliver a reactant, such as water, or may deliver the reactant intermittently, such as in a pulsed mode. In one embodiment, the water injector includes at least one of a pump, such as a micropump, at least one valve, and a water reservoir, and may further include a cooler or an extension conduit to remove the water reservoir and valve for the reaction cell chamber a sufficient distance to avoid overheating or boiling of the pre-injected water.

[0223] The SunCell® may include an injection controller and at least one sensor, such as a sensor that records pressure, temperature, plasma conductivity, or other reactant gas or plasma parameter. The injection sequence may be controlled by the controller, which uses input from the at least one sensor to provide the necessary power while avoiding damage to the SunCell® from excessive power. In one embodiment, the SunCell® includes multiple injectors, such as water injectors, for injecting into different regions within the reaction cell chamber, actively activated by the controller to alternate the location of plasma hot spots in time to avoid damage to the SunCell®. Injections may include intermittent, periodic intermittent, continuous, or any other injection pattern that achieves the desired power, gain, and performance optimization.

[0224] The SunCell® may include valves, such as pump inlet and outlet valves, that open and close in response to pump injection and filling, and the open and closed inlet and outlet valve states may be 180° out of phase with each other. The pump may generate a pressure higher than the reaction cell chamber pressure to achieve injection. If pump injection is sensitive to the reaction cell chamber pressure, the SunCell® includes a gas connection between the reaction cell chamber and a reservoir that supplies water to the pump to dynamically match the pump head pressure to the reaction cell chamber head pressure.

[0225] In an embodiment where the pressure in the reaction cell chamber is lower than the pressure of the pump, the pump can include at least one valve to stop flow to the reaction cell chamber when the pump is idle. The pump can include at least one valve. In an exemplary embodiment, a peristaltic micropump includes at least three microvalves in series. These three valves are sequentially opened and closed to draw fluid from an inlet to an outlet in a process called peristalsis. In one embodiment, the valves can be actively actuated, such as a solenoid or piezoelectric check valve, or can be passively operated, such that back pressure on a check valve, e.g., a ball, swing, diaphragm, or duckbill check valve, closes the valve.

[0226] In embodiments where a pressure gradient exists between the water supply source injected into the reaction cell chamber and the reaction cell chamber, the pump may include two valves, a reservoir valve and a reaction cell chamber valve, which may open and close periodically with 180° phase shifts. These valves may be separated by a pump chamber with a desired injection volume. When the reaction cell chamber valve closes, the reservoir valve opens to the water reservoir to fill the pump chamber. When the reservoir valve closes, the reaction cell chamber valve opens to inject a desired amount of water into the reaction cell chamber. Flow into and out of the pump chamber may be driven by a pressure gradient. The water flow rate may be controlled by controlling the periodicity of the valve opening and closing in synchronization with the volume of the pump chamber. In one embodiment, the water microinjector may include two valves, an inlet valve and an outlet valve for a microchamber or a volume of approximately 10 μL to 15 μL, which are mechanically linked and open and close with 180° phase shifts. These valves may be mechanically driven by a cam.

[0227] In another embodiment, another species in the reaction cell mixture, such as at least one of HO, a noble gas, and water, can replace or be added to the water. If the species flowing into the reaction cell chamber is a room temperature gas, the SunCell® can be equipped with a mass flow controller to control the input flow of gas.

[0228] In one embodiment, an additive is added to the reaction cell chamber 5b31 to increase the hydrino reaction rate by providing at least one source of H and HOH in the molten metal. A suitable additive is capable of reversibly forming a hydrate, which forms at approximately the SunCell® operating temperature and is released at higher temperatures, such as in the hydrino reaction plasma. In one embodiment, the SunCell® operating temperature may be in the range of approximately 100°C to 3000°C, and the corresponding temperature range of the hydrino reaction plasma may be in the range of approximately 50°C to approximately 2000°C higher than the SunCell® operating temperature. In an exemplary embodiment, an additive, such as lithium vanadate or bismuth oxide, may be added to the molten metal, which may provide at least one of H and HOH catalysts by binding water molecules and releasing them into the plasma. A water source may be continuously supplied to the reaction cell chamber, and at least a portion of the water may bind to the additive. The additive may increase the hydrino reaction rate by binding water as hydrated water and transporting the bound water to the plasma, where the corresponding additive hydrate dehydrates to provide at least one H and HOH catalyst for the hydrino reaction. The water source may include at least one of liquid and gaseous water, hydrogen, and oxygen. The SunCell® may include at least one of a water injector of the present disclosure and a hydrogen and oxygen recombining agent of the present disclosure, such as a noble metal supported on a ceramic, such as alumina. A mixture of hydrogen and oxygen is fed to a recombiner, which recombines the hydrogen and oxygen into water and allows the water to flow into the reaction cell chamber.

[0229] In another embodiment where a pressure gradient exists between the water supply injected into the reaction cell chamber and the reaction cell chamber, the inlet flow of water can be continuously supplied through a flow controller or restrictor, such as at least one of: (i) a needle valve; (ii) thin or small-diameter tubing; (iii) a hygroscopic material such as cellulose, cotton, polyethylene glycol, or another hygroscopic material known in the art; and (iv) a semipermeable membrane such as a ceramic membrane, a frit, or another semipermeable membrane known in the art. The hygroscopic material, such as cotton, can comprise packing and can serve to restrict flow in addition to another restrictor, such as a needle valve. The SunCell® can include a holder for the hygroscopic material or semipermeable membrane. The flow rate of the flow restrictor can be adjusted, and a vacuum pump and pressure-controlled exhaust valve can further maintain a desirable dynamic chamber pressure and water flow rate. In another embodiment, other species of the reaction cell mixture, such as at least one of H2O2, a noble gas, and water, can replace or be added to the water. If the species entering the reaction cell chamber is a room temperature gas, the SunCell® may include a mass flow controller to control the input flow of gas.

[0230] In one embodiment, the injector, operating under vacuum in the reaction cell chamber, may include a flow restrictor, such as a needle valve or a capillary tube, whose length and diameter are controlled to control the water flow rate. Exemplary small-diameter tube injectors include those similar to those used in ESI-ToF injection systems, such as those with an inner diameter (ID) ranging from approximately 25 μm to 300 μm. The flow restrictor may be combined with at least one other injector element, such as a valve or a pump. In an exemplary embodiment, the water head pressure of the small-diameter tube is controlled by a pump, such as a syringe pump. The injection rate may be further controlled by a valve from the tube to the reaction cell chamber. The head pressure is applied by pressurizing a gas above the water surface, where the gas is compressible and the water is incompressible. The gas pressurization may be applied by a pump. The water injection rate may be controlled by at least one of the diameter, length, and head pressure of the tube, as well as the opening and closing frequency and duty cycle of the valve. The tube diameter may be in the range of about 10 μm to 10 mm, the length may be in the range of about 1 cm to 1 m, the head pressure may be in the range of about 1 Torr to 100 atmospheres, the valve opening and closing frequency may be in the range of about 0.1 Hz to 1 kHz, and the duty cycle may be in the range of about 0.01 to 0.99.

[0231] In one embodiment, the SunCell® includes a hydrogen source, such as hydrogen gas, and an oxygen source, such as oxygen gas. At least one of the hydrogen and oxygen sources includes at least one gas tank, flow regulator, pressure gauge, valve, and gas line to the reaction cell chamber. In one embodiment, the HOH catalyst is produced from the combustion of hydrogen and oxygen. The hydrogen and oxygen gases can be flowed into the reaction cell chamber. The inlet flow of reactants, such as at least one of hydrogen and oxygen, can be continuous or intermittent. The flow rate and exhaust or vacuum flow rate can be controlled to achieve a desired pressure. The inlet flow can be intermittent, and the flow can be stopped at a maximum pressure in a desired range and started at a minimum pressure in a desired range. At least one of the H2 pressure and flow rate and the O2 pressure and flow rate can be controlled to maintain at least one of the HOH and H2 concentrations or partial pressures within a desired range to control and optimize power from the hydrino reaction. In one embodiment, at least one of the abundance and flow of hydrogen can be significantly greater than the abundance and flow of oxygen. The ratio of at least one of the partial pressure of H2 to O2 and the flow rate of H2 to O2 can be within at least one of the following ranges: approximately 1.1 to 10,000, 1.5 to 1000, 1.5 to 500, 1.5 to 100, 2 to 50, and 2 to 10. In one embodiment, the total pressure can be maintained within a range that supports a high concentration of nascent HOH and atomic H, e.g., at least one of the pressure ranges of approximately 1 mTorr to 500 Torr, 10 mTorr to 100 Torr, 100 mTorr to 50 Torr, and 1 Torr to 100 Torr. In one embodiment, at least one of the reservoir and reaction cell chamber can be maintained at an operating temperature greater than the decomposition temperature of at least one of gallium oxyhydroxide and gallium hydroxide. The operating temperature can be within at least one of the ranges of about 200° C. to 2000° C., 200° C. to 1000° C., and 200° C. to 700° C. When the formation of gallium oxyhydroxide and gallium hydroxide is suppressed, the amount of water present can be controlled in a gaseous state.

[0232] In an embodiment, the SunCell® includes a gas mixer that mixes at least two gases, such as hydrogen and oxygen, flowing into the reaction cell chamber. In one embodiment, the water micro-injector includes a mixer that mixes hydrogen and oxygen, forming the mixture as it enters the reaction cell chamber. The mixer may further include at least one mass flow controller, e.g., a mass flow controller for each gas or a gas mixture, such as a premixed gas. The premixed gas may include each gas in its desired molar ratio, such as a mixture including hydrogen and oxygen. The H2 mole percentage in the H2O2 mixture may be in significant excess, e.g., 1.5 to 1000 times the mole percentage of O2. The mass flow controller may control the flow of hydrogen and oxygen and subsequent combustion to form the HOH catalyst, such that the resulting gas flow to the reaction cell chamber contains excess hydrogen and HOH catalyst. In an exemplary embodiment, the H2 mole percentage is within the range of approximately 1.5 to 1000 times the mole percentage of HOH. The mixer may include a hydrogen-oxygen torch. The torch may include designs known in the art, such as commercially available hydrogen-oxygen torches. In an exemplary embodiment, O and H are mixed by a torch injector, and O reacts to form HOH in the H stream to prevent oxygen from reacting with gallium cell components or the electrolyte and dissolving gallium oxide, facilitating its regeneration to gallium by immediate electrolysis, such as in a NaI electrolyte or other disclosed method. Alternatively, an H O mixture containing at least a 10-fold molar excess of hydrogen is flowed into the reaction cell chamber by a single flow controller, as opposed to two flow controllers feeding the torch.

[0233] By reacting HO with gallium to form H and GaO, providing hydrogen as H gas to the reaction cell chamber rather than water as the source of H can reduce the amount of GaO formed. A water microinjector including a gas mixer may have the desirable property of enabling the ability to inject precise amounts of water at very low flow rates due to the ability to more precisely control gas flow than liquid flow. Furthermore, the reaction of O with excess H can form approximately 100% nascent water as an initial product compared to bulk water and steam containing multiple hydrogen-bonded water molecules. In one embodiment, gallium is maintained at a temperature below 100°C so that it may be less reactive in consuming the HOH catalyst by forming gallium oxide. Gallium can be maintained at low temperatures by a cooling system, such as a cooling system including a heat exchanger or water bath for at least one of the reservoir and reaction cell chamber. In an exemplary embodiment, the SunCell® is operated under conditions of high H flow with trace O flow, such as 99% H / 1% O, where the pressure of the reaction cell chamber is maintained low within a pressure range of approximately 1-30 Torr and controlled to generate the desired power, where the theoretical maximum power from forming H (1 / 4) can be approximately 1 kW / 30 sccm. The resulting gallium oxide can be reduced by in situ hydrogen plasma and electrolytic reduction. In an exemplary embodiment where the vacuum system can generate a maximum excess power of 75 kW to achieve ultra-high vacuum, the operating conditions are an oxide-free gallium surface, a low operating pressure, e.g., approximately 1-5 Torr, and a high H flow rate, e.g., approximately 2000 sccm, using a trace HOH catalyst supplied as oxygen at approximately 10-20 sccm via a torch injector.

[0234] In one embodiment, the surfaces of SunCell® components or components that come into contact with gallium, such as the walls of the reaction cell chamber, the top of the reaction cell chamber, the interior walls of the reservoir, and the interior walls of the EM pump tubing, can be coated with a coating that does not readily alloy with gallium, such as a ceramic such as mullite, BN, or another disclosed material, or a metal such as W, Ta, Re, Nb, Zr, Mo, TZM, or another disclosed material. In another embodiment, the surfaces can be coated with a material that does not readily alloy with gallium, such as a ceramic such as carbon, BN, alumi...

Claims

1. 1. A power generation system, comprising: (a) at least one reservoir capable of maintaining a subatmospheric pressure, the reservoir comprising a reaction chamber; (b) two electrodes configured to allow molten metal to flow between the two electrodes to complete a circuit; (c) a power source connected to the two electrodes to apply a current between the two electrodes when the circuit is closed; (d) a plasma generating cell (e.g., a glow discharge cell) for inducing the formation of a first plasma from the gas, the effluent from the plasma generating cell being directed to a circuit (e.g., the molten metal, the anode, the cathode, electrodes submerged in a molten metal reservoir), where, upon application of a current to the circuit, the effluent from the plasma generating cell reacts to produce a second plasma and reaction products; (e) a power adapter configured to convert and / or transfer energy from the second plasma into mechanical energy, thermal energy, and / or electrical energy.

2. The power generation system according to claim 1, The gas in the plasma generating cell is hydrogen (H ２ ) and oxygen (O ２ ) and a mixture thereof.

3. 3. The power generation system according to claim 1, wherein the metal is gallium.

4. 4. The power generation system according to claim 1, wherein the second plasma is formed in a reaction cell, and the wall reaction cell chamber includes a first section and a second section; the first section is composed of stainless steel, such as 347 stainless steel, such as 4130 alloy stainless steel or a Cr—Mo stainless steel, nickel, Ti, niobium, vanadium, iron, W, Re, Ta, Mo, niobium, and Nb (94.33 wt%)-Mo (4.86 wt%)-Zr (0.81 wt%); the second section includes a high melting point metal different from the metal of the first section; A power generation system, wherein the bond between the dissimilar metals is formed by a laminate material (e.g., a ceramic such as BN).

5. A power generation system that generates at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy, at least one reservoir capable of maintaining a pressure below atmospheric pressure; a reactant capable of undergoing a reaction in said reservoir that produces sufficient energy to form a plasma; (a) a mixture of hydrogen gas and oxygen gas, and / or water vapor, and / or a mixture of hydrogen gas and water vapor; and (b) the reactants comprising molten metal; a mass flow controller for controlling the flow rate of at least one reactant into the reservoir; a vacuum pump for maintaining a subatmospheric pressure within the reservoir while one or more reactants are flowing into the reservoir; a molten metal injector system including at least one reservoir containing a portion of the molten metal, a molten metal pumping system (e.g., one or more electromagnetic pumps) configured to deliver the molten metal into the reservoir and through an injector tube to provide a molten metal stream, and at least a non-injector molten metal reservoir for receiving the molten metal stream; at least one ignition system including a source of electrical power or ignition current for powering the at least one stream of molten metal when hydrogen gas and / or oxygen gas and / or water vapor enters the reservoir; a reactant supply system for replenishing reactants consumed in the reaction; a power converter or output system that converts a portion of the energy produced by the reaction (e.g., light, plasma jet, and / or heat output from the plasma) into electrical power and / or heat output.

6. 6. The power generation system according to claim 5, further comprising a gas mixer for mixing hydrogen gas and oxygen gas and / or water molecules, and a hydrogen and oxygen recombiner and / or hydrogen dissociator, wherein the hydrogen and oxygen recombiner includes a plasma cell.

7. 7. The power generation system according to claim 6, wherein the plasma cell includes a central positive electrode and a grounded tubular counter electrode, and a voltage (for example, a voltage in the range of 50 V to 1000 V) is applied between the electrodes to generate water (H ２ ) and oxygen (O ２ 2. A power generation system inducing the formation of plasma from a gas mixture with a plasma.

8. 8. The power generation system of claim 6 or 7, wherein the gas mixture supplied to the plasma generation cell to generate the first plasma is a non-stoichiometric H gas mixture that flows through a plasma cell (e.g., a glow discharge cell) to generate a reaction mixture capable of undergoing a reaction sufficiently exothermic to generate a second plasma. ２ / O ２ Mixtures (e.g., 1 / 3 mol % O ２ Alternatively, the mole percentage of the mixture is 0.01% to 30%, or 0.1% to 20%, or less than 10%, or less than 5%, or less than 3% O ２ H with ２ / O ２ 2. A power generation system comprising:

9. 9. The power generation system of claim 8, wherein the non-stoichiometric H ２ / O ２ The mixture passes through a glow discharge to form atomic hydrogen and nascent H ２ generating an effluent of O (e.g., a mixture containing water at a concentration with internal energy sufficient to prevent the formation of hydrogen bonds); the glow discharge effluent is directed into a reaction chamber where an ignition current is supplied between two electrodes (e.g., by molten metal passing therebetween); A power generation system in which a reaction between nascent water and atomic hydrogen is induced when the effluent interacts with a biased molten metal (e.g., gallium), for example, upon the formation of an arc current.

10. 1. A power generation system, comprising: (a) a vessel capable of maintaining a subatmospheric pressure containing a reaction chamber; (b) a plurality of electrode pairs, each pair including an electrode configured to allow molten metal flow therebetween to complete a circuit; (c) a power source connected to the two electrodes to apply a current therebetween when the circuit is closed; (d) a plasma generation cell (e.g., a glow discharge cell) for inducing the formation of a first plasma from the gas, the output from the plasma generation cell being directed to a circuit (e.g., the molten metal, the anode, the cathode, electrodes submerged in a molten metal reservoir); a plasma generating cell, wherein when a current is applied to the circuit, effluent from the plasma generating cell reacts to form a second plasma and reaction products; (e) a power adapter configured to convert and / or transfer energy from the second plasma into mechanical energy, thermal energy, and / or electrical energy; A power generation system in which at least one of the reaction products (e.g., intermediate, final product) has at least one spectroscopic identifying characteristic as described herein (e.g., as shown in Example 10).

11. The power generation system according to any one of claims 1 to 10, wherein an inert gas (e.g., argon) is injected into the reservoir.

12. 12. The power generation system of any one of claims 5-11, further comprising a water micro-injector configured to inject water into the reservoir (e.g., to produce a water vapor-containing plasma, such as hydrogen-bonded or non-nascent water vapor).

13. 13. The power generation system of any one of claims 5 to 12, wherein (eg during operation) the molten metal reacts with water to form atomic hydrogen.

14. 14. The power generation system according to claim 1, wherein the molten metal is gallium, and the power generation system further comprises a gallium regeneration system for regenerating gallium from gallium oxide (e.g., gallium oxide produced in the reaction).

15. 15. The power generation system of claim 1, wherein the reservoir comprises a light-transmitting photovoltaic (PV) window for transmitting light from an interior of the reservoir to a photovoltaic converter, at least one reservoir shape, and at least one baffle including a rotating window.

16. 16. The power generation system of claim 15, wherein the positive ignition electrode (e.g., an upper ignition electrode, an electrode positioned higher than the other electrodes) is closer to the window (e.g., compared to the negative ignition electrode), and the positive electrode emits blackbody radiation to the photovoltaic converter via photovoltaics.

17. 1. An electrode system comprising: (a) a first electrode and a second electrode; (b) a flow of molten metal (e.g., molten silver, molten gallium, etc.) in electrical contact with the first electrode and the second electrode; (c) a circulation system including a pump that draws the molten metal from the reservoir and transports it through a conduit (e.g., a tube) to generate a stream of the molten metal exiting the conduit; (d) a power source configured to provide a potential difference between the first electrode and the second electrode; an electrode system in which the molten metal stream simultaneously contacts the first electrode and the second electrode to generate a current between the electrodes;

18. 1. An electric circuit comprising: (a) a heating means for producing molten metal; (b) pumping means for transporting said molten metal from a reservoir through a conduit and generating said molten metal stream exiting said conduit; (c) a first electrode and a second electrode in electrical communication with a power supply means for creating a potential difference between the first electrode and the second electrode; The molten metal stream simultaneously contacts the first electrode and the second electrode to complete an electric circuit between the first electrode and the second electrode.

19. In an electric circuit comprising a first electrode and a second electrode, the improvement includes passing a stream of molten metal through the electrodes to allow an electric current to flow therebetween.

20. 1. A system for generating a plasma, comprising: (a) a molten metal injector system configured to produce molten metal from a metal reservoir; (b) an electrode system for inducing an electric current through said molten metal stream; (c) at least one of: (i) a water injection system configured to contact a metered amount of water with the molten metal, wherein a portion of the water and a portion of the molten metal react to form an oxide of the metal and hydrogen gas; (ii) a mixture of excess hydrogen gas and oxygen gas; and (iii) a mixture of excess hydrogen gas and oxygen gas. (d) a power source configured to provide the current; The system wherein the plasma is generated when an electric current is applied through the metal stream.

21. 11. The system of claim 10, (a) a pumping system configured to transfer collected metal after the plasma is generated to the metal reservoir; (b) a metal regeneration system configured to collect the metal oxides and convert the metal oxides to the metal, the metal regeneration system including an anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte, wherein an electrical bias is supplied between the anode and the cathode to convert the metal oxides to the metal; A system in which metals recovered in said metal recovery system are transferred to said pumping system.

22. 1. A system for generating plasma, comprising: (a) two electrodes configured to allow molten metal to flow between the electrodes to complete a circuit; (b) a power source connected to the two electrodes to apply a current between the two electrodes when the circuit is closed; (c) a recombiner cell (e.g., a glow discharge cell) for inducing the formation of nascent water and atomic hydrogen from the gas, wherein the recombiner effluent is directed to a circuit (e.g., molten metal, anode, cathode, electrodes submerged in a molten reservoir); The system wherein when current flows through the circuit, the effluent of the recombiner cell reacts to form a plasma.

23. 1. A method comprising: (a) electrically biasing the molten metal; and (b) interacting effluent from a plasma generating cell (e.g., a glow discharge cell) with biased molten metal to induce the formation of a plasma.

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