Systems and Methods for Quantum Computing

Abstract

The present disclosure describes non-classical (eg, quantum) computing systems and methods that utilize dopant molecules contained in a host material as quantum bits.

Description

Technical Field

[0001] Cross - Reference to Related Applications This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 201,756, filed May 12, 2021, entitled "Solid Spin Quantum Computers", which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety for all purposes.

[0002] The disclosed embodiments generally relate to non - classical (e.g., quantum) computing systems and methods that utilize dopant molecules contained in a host material as qubits.

Background Art

[0003] Non - classical computers (e.g., quantum computers) typically utilize quantum mechanical phenomena such as superposition, entanglement, and interference to perform data - computing operations. Compared to classical computers that utilize binary numbers (bits) which always have a defined state (0 or 1), non - classical computers utilize quantum bits (qubits) which can exist in a superposition of basis states (i.e., some linear combination of the basis states |0⟩ and |1⟩, where the basis states |0⟩ and |1⟩ are orthonormal). The various qubits of a non - classical computer may be entangled with other qubits (i.e., the quantum states of two or more qubits can be correlated such that an operation on one qubit affects the state of the entangled qubits). Quantum operations can be performed to probabilistically converge the state of the qubits to a specific final state that represents a solution to some problem. For certain classes of problems, non - classical computers can converge to a solution faster than is possible using any known algorithm on a classical computer. In some cases, this “quantum advantage” can enable non - classical computers to solve problems that would be intractable for any known classical computer to handle. Such problems include factoring large relatively prime numbers (e.g., to break modern cryptographic hash functions), searching for a particular item within large amounts of data, and simulating the chemical behavior of drugs, materials, or other molecules. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

[0004] In some embodiments, the present disclosure describes non - classical (e.g., quantum) computing systems and methods that utilize dopant molecules contained within a host material as qubits.

[0005] It should be understood that both the foregoing general description and the following detailed description are exemplary and explanatory only and are not restrictive of the disclosed embodiments as claimed.

[0006] The accompanying drawings, which include some portions of this specification, illustrate several embodiments and, together with the description, serve to explain the specific principles and features of the disclosed embodiments. In the drawings,

Brief Description of the Drawings

[0007]

Fig. 1A

Fig. 1B

Fig. 2A

Fig. 2B

Fig. 3

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Best Mode for Carrying Out the Invention

[0008] Here, exemplary embodiments will be described in detail and discussed with reference to the accompanying drawings. Unless otherwise defined, technical and / or scientific terms have the meanings commonly understood by those of ordinary skill in the art. The disclosed embodiments are described in sufficient detail to enable those of ordinary skill in the art to practice the disclosed embodiments. Of course, other embodiments may be utilized and changes may be made without departing from the scope of the disclosed embodiments. Thus, the materials, methods, and examples are illustrative only and are not necessarily intended to be limiting.

[0009] As used herein, the term "or" is intended to convey both a disjunctive and a conjunctive meaning. For example, the phrase "A or B" shall be construed to include only element A, only element B, as well as combinations of elements A and B.

[0010] In the figures (also "FIGs." or "Figs."), like numerals refer to like elements.

[0011] Non-classical computers (e.g., quantum computers) typically utilize quantum mechanical phenomena such as superposition, entanglement, and interference to perform computational operations on data. Compared to classical computers that utilize binary numbers (bits) that always have a defined state (0 or 1), non-classical computers utilize quantum bits (qubits) that can exist in a superposition of basis states (i.e., some linear combination of the basis states |0> and |1>). The various qubits of a non-classical computer may be entangled with other qubits (i.e., the quantum states of two or more qubits may be correlated such that an operation on one qubit affects the state of the entangled qubit). Quantum operations can be performed to direct the state of the qubits to probabilistically converge to a solution to some problem. For certain classes of problems, non-classical computers can converge to a solution faster than would be possible using any known algorithm on a classical computer. In some cases, this "quantum advantage" can enable non-classical computers to solve problems that would be difficult to handle if using any known classical computer. Such problems include factoring large relatively prime numbers (e.g., to break modern cryptographic hash functions), searching for a particular item within a large amount of data, and simulating the chemical behavior of drugs, materials, or other molecules.

[0012] Numerous chemical and physical systems have been proposed for use as qubits in non-classical computers. For example, a significant amount of resources have been directed towards superconducting qubits that utilize Josephson junctions (i.e., superconductor-insulator-superconductor transitions). Such superconducting qubits utilize different quantum tunneling modes through the Josephson junction as the ground state. These superconducting qubits can be fabricated using well-known semiconductor manufacturing techniques, enabling relatively simple circuit designs. However, superconducting qubits suffer from several drawbacks. For example, superconducting qubits generally must be cooled to just a few degrees above absolute zero and require complex cryogenic systems. Such use of complex cryogenics also makes it difficult to scale beyond a small number of qubits and limits the ultimate computational power of superconducting qubit-based non-classical computers.

[0013] A number of other systems, including trapped ion arrays, trapped neutral atom arrays, and chemical defects in solid lattices, have been used as qubits. One system proposed for use in quantum computing is the so-called nitrogen-vacancy (NV) center in diamond. The electron spin associated with the NV center can be optically initialized and its spin state read out by fluorescence detection. Additionally, the electron spin can be manipulated by microwave (MW) or radio frequency (RF) irradiation and can exhibit relatively long relaxation and coherence times. However, existing NV quantum computers can only support a limited number of qubits before the adverse effects associated with an increase in the number of qubits lead to a decrease in the relaxation and coherence times, negating the very properties that make NV quantum computers attractive in the first place. This is due to the fact that the natural abundance of carbon-13 ( 13 C) spins in diamond is 1.1%. Increasing the isotope concentration of 13 C spins in diamond increases the number of nearby 13 C spins, resulting in worse NV center properties. Additionally, 13The random distribution of C spins results in coupling on a very wide scale, and some 13 C spins are very strongly coupled to the NV centers (e.g., in the case of adjacent 13 C spins). This can make it difficult to manipulate and control the NV centers. Furthermore, all NV centers, 13 due to the random distribution of C spins, have different associated 13 C spin baths, so the NV qubits interact almost exclusively with a single NV spin, resulting in a low signal-to-noise (SNR) and requiring multiple executions of non-classical calculations to achieve a measurable signal. Additionally, it can be difficult to prepare highly crystalline diamonds with a controlled NV doping rate, so it can be difficult to prepare diamonds doped controllably at the NV centers.

[0014] Therefore, there is a need for qubits based on chemical or physical systems that avoid the problems associated with known qubits. Ideally, such chemical or physical systems should be relatively simple to fabricate on a single device, support hundreds or thousands of qubits, allow each qubit to be operated independently from all other qubits, and have a coherence lifetime substantially longer than the time required to perform a quantum operation on each qubit. Systems consistent with the disclosed embodiments can meet some or all of these criteria and thus can provide a technological improvement in the implementation of non-classical computing.

[0015] As used herein, the terms "non-classical computing," "non-classical procedure," "non-classical operation," and "non-classical computer" generally refer to any system or method for performing a computational procedure outside the paradigm of classical computing. Non-classical computing, non-classical procedures, non-classical operations, or non-classical computers may include quantum computing, quantum procedures, quantum operations, or quantum computers.

[0016] As used herein, the terms "quantum computing," "quantum procedure," "quantum operation," and "quantum computer" generally refer to any method or system for performing calculations using quantum mechanical operations (such as unitary transformations or completely positive trace-preserving (CPTP) maps on a quantum channel) represented by a quantum device on a Hilbert space. Thus, quantum and classical (or digital) computing can be similar in the following respects. That is, both types of computing may include a sequence of instructions that are executed on input information and then provide an output. Various paradigms of quantum computing can decompose quantum operations into a sequence of basic quantum operations that simultaneously affect a subset of the qubits of a quantum device. The quantum operations can be selected, for example, based on their locality or ease of physical implementation. A quantum procedure or computation can then consist of a sequence of instructions that can represent different quantum evolutions on a quantum device for various applications. For example, a procedure for computing or simulating quantum chemistry can represent quantum states, as well as annihilation and creation operators of electron spin orbitals, by using qubits (such as two-level quantum systems) and a universal set of quantum gates (such as Hadamard, controlled Not (CNOT), and π / 8 rotations) via, for example, the so-called Jordan-Wigner transformation or Bravyi-Kitaev transformation.

[0017] Further examples of quantum procedures or computations can include procedures for optimization such as the quantum approximate optimization algorithm (QAOA) or quantum minimum finding. QAOA can include performing rotations of single qubits and entangling gates of multiple qubits. In quantum adiabatic computing, the instructions may carry the initial quantum system along a probabilistic or non-probabilistic path of evolution to a final one. Quantum-inspired procedures can include simulated annealing, parallel tempering, master equation solvers, Monte Carlo procedures, quantum algorithms for approximating the maximum independent set, and the like. Quantum-classical or hybrid algorithms or procedures can include procedures such as the variational quantum eigenvalue solver (VQE), as well as the variational and adiabatically navigated quantum eigenvalue solver (VanQver).

[0018] Generally, an example of a quantum procedure or computation may include any procedure or computation described in M.A. Nielsen and I.L. Chuang, Quantum Computation and Quantum Information, Cambridge University Press (2013), which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety for all purposes.

[0019] A quantum computer may comprise one or more adiabatic quantum computers, quantum gate arrays, one-way quantum computers, topological quantum computers, quantum Turing machines, quantum annealers, Ising solvers, or gate models of quantum computation.

[0020] A host material doped as qubits for performing non-classical computations Systems and methods for performing non-classical computations are provided herein. The systems and methods generally utilize dopant molecules contained within an organic host material. The dopant molecules generally function as qubits and are associated with an electronic energy level structure including a triplet electron manifold. The triplet electron manifold may include a ground state triplet (GST) electron manifold or an excited state triplet (EST) electron manifold. The triplet electron manifold generally includes three triplet states which may be linearly combined to form the ground state of a qubit (e.g., with respect to a laboratory reference frame, a rotating reference frame, or another suitable time-independent or time-dependent reference frame). The ground state generally has a long lifetime at temperatures achievable using a liquid helium-based cryogenic system. The dopant molecules are arranged within the host material to allow for a relatively strong coupling between neighboring dopant molecules and may allow for the spread of information across a qubit network due to entanglement. The quantum states of the various dopant molecules may be individually manipulated using optical, MW, or RF techniques, enabling individual control of each qubit for performing non-classical computations.

[0021] Figure 1A shows a top view of a system 100 for performing non - classical computing according to various embodiments. In the illustrated example, system 100 includes at least one host material 110. In some embodiments, host material 110 includes at least one organic molecule.

[0022] In some embodiments, host material 110 includes a crystalline host material. In some embodiments, host material 110 includes a single - crystalline host material. In some embodiments, host material 110 includes a poly - crystalline host material. In some embodiments, host material 110 includes a liquid - crystalline host material. In some embodiments, host material 110 includes an amorphous host material. In some embodiments, host material 110 includes a powdered host material. In some embodiments, host material 110 includes a frozen - solution host material. In some embodiments, a frozen - solution host material includes a solution frozen at cryogenic temperatures. For example, in some embodiments, a frozen - solution host material is frozen at a temperature of at least about 1 kelvin (K), 2K, 3K, 4K, 5K, 6K, 7K, 8K, 9K, 10K, 15K, 20K, 25K, 30K, 35K, 40K, 45K, 50K, or more, up to about 50K, 45K, 40K, 35K, 30K, 25K, 20K, 15K, 10K, 9K, 8K, 7K, 6K, 5K, 4K, 3K, 2K, 1K, or less, or at a temperature between any two of the foregoing values.

[0023] In some embodiments, the host material 110 includes a straight-chain or branched alkane. In some embodiments, the straight-chain or branched alkane includes a C4-C20 straight-chain or branched alkane. In some embodiments, the straight-chain or branched alkane includes a C4 straight-chain or branched alkane, a C5 straight-chain or branched alkane, a C6 straight-chain or branched alkane, a C7 straight-chain or branched alkane, a C8 straight-chain or branched alkane, a C9 straight-chain or branched alkane, a C10 straight-chain or branched alkane, a C11 straight-chain or branched alkane, a C12 straight-chain or branched alkane, a C13 straight-chain or branched alkane, a C14 straight-chain or branched alkane, a C16 straight-chain or branched alkane, a C17 straight-chain or branched alkane, a C18 straight-chain or branched alkane, a C19 straight-chain or branched alkane, or a C20 straight-chain or branched alkane. In some embodiments, the host material 110 includes an aromatic hydrocarbon. In some embodiments, the host material 110 includes a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon. In some embodiments, the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon is optionally substituted with a methylene, carbonyl, imine, or thiocarbonyl group. In some embodiments, the host material 110 includes a diaryl ketone. In some embodiments, the host material 110 includes naphthalene, anthracene, p-terphenyl, benzoic acid, fluorene, biphenyl, benzene, n-hexane, biphenylene, ortho-terphenyl, meta-terphenyl, para-terphenyl, or benzophenone.

[0024] In some embodiments, the host material includes an isotope-enriched host material. In some embodiments, the host material is isotope-enriched with a specific atomic isotope. In some embodiments, the isotope is hydrogen ( 1 H), deuterium ( 2 H), carbon-13 ( 13 C), nitrogen-15 ( 15 N), fluorine-19 ( 19 F), silicon-29 ( 29 Si), or phosphorus-31 ( 31It includes (P). In some embodiments, the host material is isotopically enriched to characterize the isotope in an abundance of at least about 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or more, up to about 99%, 98%, 97%, 96%, 95%, 94%, 93%, 92%, 91%, 90%, 85%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 65%, 60%, 55%, 50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 9%, 8%, 7%, 6%, 5%, 4%, 3%, 2%, 1%, or less, or in an abundance within a range defined by any two of the foregoing values. In some embodiments, the isotope enrichment enables improved control over the magnetic environment of the dopant molecules 120 described herein.

[0025] In some embodiments, the host material 110 does not include diamond or graphite.

[0026] In some embodiments, the host material 110 is configured to contain a plurality of dopant molecules 120 described herein.

[0027] In the illustrated example, the system 100 includes a plurality of dopant molecules 120. In some embodiments, the plurality of dopant molecules 120 are contained in the host material 110. In some embodiments, each dopant molecule 120 includes a qubit for use in performing non - classical calculations. The quantum state of the qubit is described in more detail in FIGS. 2A and 2B.

[0028] In some embodiments, each dopant molecule 120 includes an organic molecule. In some embodiments, each dopant molecule 120 includes an organometallic molecule. In some embodiments, each dopant molecule 120 includes an inorganic composite molecule. In some embodiments, each dopant molecule 120 includes a GST molecule, i.e., in some embodiments, each dopant molecule 120 is associated with a GST electronic manifold as described herein with respect to FIG. 2A. In some embodiments, each dopant molecule 120 includes an EST molecule, i.e., in some embodiments, each dopant molecule 120 is associated with an EST electronic manifold as described herein with respect to FIG. 2B. In some embodiments, each dopant molecule 120 includes a photoexcited triplet state (PETS) molecule, i.e., in some embodiments, each dopant molecule is associated with a PETS electronic manifold as described herein with respect to FIG. 2B.

[0029] In some embodiments, each dopant molecule 120 includes an [n]acene molecule (wherein n is at least about 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, or more, up to about 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or less, or in a range defined by any two of the foregoing values such as about 2 to about 3, about 2 to about 4, about 2 to about 5, about 2 to about 6, about 3 to about 4, about 3 to about 5, about 3 to about 6, about 4 to about 5, about 4 to about 6, or about 5 to about 6). In some embodiments, each dopant molecule 120 includes a xanthene dye. In some embodiments, each dopant molecule 120 includes a thioxanthene dye. In some embodiments, each dopant molecule 120 includes a donor-acceptor molecule (including a donor moiety containing an electron-rich functional group such as an amine group or a carbazole group, and an acceptor moiety containing an electron-deficient functional group such as an aromatic nitrile, pyrazine, triazine, benzophenone, or sulfone group). In some embodiments, each dopant molecule 120 includes acridine, pentacene, pyrene, diazapentacene, benzophenone, or benzopyrazine.

[0030] In some embodiments, at least one dopant molecule 120 is bound to at least one other dopant molecule 120 by a binding interaction 130. In some embodiments, at least one dopant molecule 120 is bound by a binding interaction 130 to at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, or more other dopant molecules 120, up to about 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or 1 other dopant molecule 120, or a number of dopant molecules within a range defined by any two of the foregoing values. For example, in some embodiments, at least one dopant molecule 120 is bound to about 1 to about 2, about 1 to about 3, about 1 to about 4, about 1 to about 5, about 1 to about 6, about 1 to about 7, about 1 to about 8, about 2 to about 3, about 2 to about 4, about 2 to about 5, about 2 to about 6, about 2 to about 7, about 2 to about 8, about 3 to about 4, about 3 to about 5, about 3 to about 6, about 3 to about 7, about 3 to about 8, about 4 to about 5, about 4 to about 6, about 4 to about 7, about 4 to about 8, about 5 to about 6, about 5 to about 7, about 5 to about 8, about 6 to about 7, about 6 to about 8, or about 7 to about 8 other dopant molecules 120.

[0031] In some embodiments, each dopant molecule is bound to at least one other dopant molecule by a binding interaction 130. In some embodiments, each dopant molecule 120 is bound by a binding interaction 130 to at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, or more other dopant molecules 120, up to about 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or 1 other dopant molecule 120, or a number of dopant molecules within a range defined by any two of the foregoing values. For example, in some embodiments, each dopant molecule 120 is bound to about 1 to about 2, about 1 to about 3, about 1 to about 4, about 1 to about 5, about 1 to about 6, about 1 to about 7, about 1 to about 8, about 2 to about 3, about 2 to about 4, about 2 to about 5, about 2 to about 6, about 2 to about 7, about 2 to about 8, about 3 to about 4, about 3 to about 5, about 3 to about 6, about 3 to about 7, about 3 to about 8, about 4 to about 5, about 4 to about 6, about 4 to about 7, about 4 to about 8, about 5 to about 6, about 5 to about 7, about 5 to about 8, about 6 to about 7, about 6 to about 8, or about 7 to about 8 other dopant molecules 120. In some embodiments, the set of dopant molecules 120 to which each dopant molecule 120 is bound is referred to as its "nearest neighbors".

[0032] In some embodiments, the binding interaction 130 includes an electronic binding interaction. In some embodiments, the binding interaction 130 includes an electron dipole binding interaction. In some embodiments, the binding interaction 130 has a binding strength. In some embodiments, the binding strength is at least about 100 Hertz (Hz), 200 Hz, 300 Hz, 400 Hz, 500 Hz, 600 Hz, 700 Hz, 800 Hz, 900 Hz, 1 kilohertz (kHz), 2 kHz, 3 kHz, 4 kHz, 5 kHz, 6 kHz, 7 kHz, 8 kHz, 9 kHz, 10 kHz, 20 kHz, 30 kHz, 40 kHz, 50 kHz, 60 kHz, 70 kHz, 80 kHz, 90 kHz, 100 kHz, 200 kHz, 300 kHz, 400 kHz, 500 kHz, 600 kHz, 700 kHz, 800 kHz, 900 kHz, 1 megahertz (MHz), 2 MHz, 3 MHz, 4 MHz, 5 MHz, 6 MHz, 7 MHz, 8 MHz, 9 MHz, 10 MHz, or more, up to about 10 MHz, 9 MHz, 8 MHz, 7 MHz, 6 MHz, 5 MHz, 4 MHz, 3 MHz, 2 MHz, 1 MHz, 900 kHz, 800 kHz, 700 kHz, 600 kHz, 500 kHz, 400 kHz, 300 kHz, 200 kHz, 100 kHz, 90 kHz, 80 kHz, 70 kHz, 60 kHz, 50 kHz, 40 kHz, 30 kHz, 20 kHz, 10 kHz, 9 kHz, 8 kHz, 7 kHz, 6 kHz, 5 kHz, 4 kHz, 3 kHz, 2 kHz, 1 kHz, 900 Hz, 800 Hz, 700 Hz, 600 Hz, 500 Hz, 400 Hz, 300 Hz, 200 Hz, 100 Hz, or less, or within a range defined by any two of the foregoing values. For example, in some embodiments, the binding strength is from about 100 Hz to about 1,000 kHz, from about 100 Hz to about 100 kHz, from about 100 Hz to about 10 kHz, from about 100 Hz to about 1 kHz, from about 1 kHz to about 1,000 kHz, from about 1 kHz to about 100 kHz, from about 1 kHz to about 10 kHz, from about 10 kHz to about 1,000 kHz, from about 10 kHz to about 100 kHz, or from about 100 kHz to about 1,000 kHz. In some embodiments, the binding interaction 130 between each pair of dopant molecules 120 is the same. In some embodiments, the binding interaction 130 between each pair of dopant molecules 120 is different.

[0033] In some embodiments, the plurality of dopant molecules 120 are separated by an average distance 140. In some embodiments, the average distance 140 is at least about 0.3 nanometers (nm), 0.4 nm, 0.5 nm, 0.6 nm, 0.7 nm, 0.8 nm, 0.9 nm, 1 nm, 2 nm, 3 nm, 4 nm, 5 nm, 6 nm, 7 nm, 8 nm, 9 nm, 10 nm, or more, up to about 10 nm, 9 nm, 8 nm, 7 nm, 6 nm, 5 nm, 4 nm, 3 nm, 2 nm, 1 nm, 0.9 nm, 0.8 nm, 0.7 nm, 0.6 nm, 0.5 nm, 0.4 nm, 0.3 nm, or less, or within a range defined by any two of the foregoing values. For example, in some embodiments, the average distance 140 is from about 0.3 nm to about 1 nm, from about 0.3 nm to about 10 nm, or from about 1 nm to about 10 nm.

[0034] In some embodiments, the plurality of dopant molecules 120 are at least about 1×10 6 dopant molecules per cubic micrometer (μm -3 ), 2×10 6 μm -3 , 3×10 6 μm -3 , 4×10 6 μm -3 , 5×10 6 μm -3 , 6×10 6 μm -3 , 7×10 6 μm -3 , 8×10 6 μm -3 , 9×10 6 μm -3 , 1×10 7 μm -3 , 2×10 7 μm -3 , 3×10 7 μm -3 , 4×10 7 μm -3 , 5×10 7 μm -3 , 6×10 7 μm -3 , 7×10 7 μm -3, 8×10 7 μm -3 , 9×10 7 μm -3 , 1×10 8 μm -3 , 2×10 8 μm -3 , 3×10 8 μm -3 , 4×10 8 μm -3 , 5×10 8 μm -3 , 6×10 8 μm -3 , 7×10 8 μm -3 , 8×10 8 μm -3 , 9×10 8 μm -3 , 1×10 9 μm -3 , 2×10 9 μm -3 , 3×10 9 μm -3 , 4×10 9 μm -3 , 5×10 9 μm -3 , 6×10 9 μm -3 , 7×10 9 μm -3 , 8×10 9 μm -3 , 9×10 9 μm -3 , 1×10 10 μm -3 , 2×10 10 μm -3 , 3×10 10 μm -3 , 4×10 10 μm -3 , 5×10 10 μm -3 , 6×10 10 μm -3 , 7×10 10 μm -3 , 8×10 10 μm -3 , 9×10 10 μm -3 , 1×10 11 μm -3 , 2×1011 μm -3 、 3×10 11 μm -3 、 4×10 11 μm -3 、 5×10 11 μm -3 、 6×10 11 μm -3 、 7×10 11 μm -3 、 8×10 11 μm -3 、 9×10 11 μm -3 、 1×10 12 μm -3 、 or more, up to about 1×10 12 μm -3 、 9×10 11 μm -3 、 8×10 11 μm -3 、 7×10 11 μm -3 、 6×10 11 μm -3 、 5×10 11 μm -3 、 4×10 11 μm -3 、 3×10 11 μm -3 、 2×10 11 μm -3 、 1×10 11 μm -3 、 9×10 10 μm -3 、 8×10 10 μm -3 、 7×10 10 μm -3 、 6×10 10 μm -3 、 5×10 10 μm -3 、 4×10 10 μm -3 、 3×10 10 μm -3 、 2×10 10 μm -3 、 1×10 10 μm -3 、 9×10 9 μm -3 、 8×10 9 μm -3 、 7×109 μm -3 、 6×10 9 μm -3 、 5×10 9 μm -3 、 4×10 9 μm -3 、 3×10 9 μm -3 、 2×10 9 μm -3 、 1×10 9 μm -3 、 9×10 8 μm -3 、 8×10 8 μm -3 、 7×10 8 μm -3 、 6×10 8 μm -3 、 5×10 8 μm -3 、 4×10 8 μm -3 、 3×10 8 μm -3 、 2×10 8 μm -3 、 1×10 8 μm -3 、 9×10 7 μm -3 、 8×10 7 μm -3 、 7×10 7 μm -3 、 6×10 7 μm -3 、 5×10 7 μm -3 、 4×10 7 μm -3 、 3×10 7 μm -3 、 2×10 7 μm -3 、 1×10 7 μm -3 、 9×10 6 μm -3 、 8×10 6 μm -3 、 7×10 6 μm -3 、 6×10 6 μm -3 、 5×10 6 μm -3 、 4×10 6μm -3 、 3×10 6 μm -3 、 2×10 6 μm -3 、 1×10 6 μm -3 、 or at a concentration below that, or within a range defined by any two of the aforementioned values, is contained in the host material 110.

[0035] Although shown in FIG. 1A as containing nine dopant molecules 120, the system 100 may contain any number of dopant molecules 120. For example, the system 100 may contain at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, 1,000, 2,000, 3,000, 4,000, 5,000, 6,000, 7,000, 8,000, 9,000, 10,000, 20,000, 30,000, 40,000, 50,000, 60,000, 70,000, 80,000, 90,000, 100,000, 200,000, 300,000, 400,000, 500,000, 600,000, 7000,000, 800,000, 900,000, 1,000,000 or more dopant molecules 120, up to about 1,000,000, 900,000, 800,000, 700,000, 600,000, 500,000, 400,000, 300,000, 200,000, 100,000, 90,000, 80,000, 70,000, 60,000, 50,000, 40,000, 30,000, 20,000, 10,000, 9,000, 8,000, 7,000, 6,000, 5,000, 4,000, 3,000, 2,000, 1,000, 900, 800, 700, 600, 500, 400, 300, 200, 100, 90, 80, 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or 1 dopant molecule 120, or a number of dopant molecules 120 within a range defined by any two of the aforementioned values.

[0036] FIG. 1A depicts dopant molecules 120 arranged in an array, but this depiction is not intended to be limiting. In some embodiments, each of the dopant molecules 120 may have any number of nearest neighbors described herein. In some embodiments, different dopant molecules 120 may have different numbers of nearest neighbors. For example, one dopant molecule 120 can have eight nearest neighbors, and another dopant molecule 120 can have two nearest neighbors. In some embodiments, the dopant molecules 120 are arranged in a regular, irregular, or disordered array. In some embodiments, the spatial arrangement of the nearest neighbors around each of the dopant molecules 120 is different. In some embodiments, the separation between each nearest neighbor and each of the dopant molecules 120 is different.

[0037] FIG. 1B shows a side view of system 100 according to various embodiments. In the illustrated example, system 100 includes at least one host material 110 and a plurality of dopant molecules 120.

[0038] In the illustrated embodiment, the host material 110 includes a thickness 150. In some embodiments, the host material 110 includes a thin film. That is, in some embodiments, the thickness 150 is at least about 0.3 nm, 0.4 nm, 0.5 nm, 0.6 nm, 0.7 nm, 0.8 nm, 0.9 nm, 1 nm, 2 nm, 3 nm, 4 nm, 5 nm, 6 nm, 7 nm, 8 nm, 9 nm, 10 nm, 20 nm, 30 nm, 40 nm, 50 nm, 60 nm, 70 nm, 80 nm, 90 nm, 100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, 400 nm, 500 nm, 600 nm, 700 nm, 800 nm, 900 nm, 1,000 nm, or more, up to about 1,000 nm, 900 nm, 800 nm, 700 nm, 600 nm, 500 nm, 400 nm, 300 nm, 200 nm, 100 nm, 90 nm, 80 nm, 70 nm, 60 nm, 50 nm, 40 nm, 30 nm, 20 nm, 10 nm, 9 nm, 8 nm, 7 nm, 6 nm, 5 nm, 4 nm, 3 nm, 2 nm, 1 nm, 0.9 nm, 0.8 nm, 0.7 nm, 0.6 nm, 0.5 nm, 0.4 nm, 0.3 nm, or less, or within a range defined by any two of the foregoing values. For example, in some embodiments, the thickness 150 is from about 0.3 nm to about 1 nm, from about 0.3 nm to about 10 nm, from about 0.3 nm to about 100 nm, from about 0.3 nm to about 1,000 nm, from about 1 nm to about 10 nm, from about 1 nm to about 10 nm, from about 1 nm to about 100 nm, from about 1 nm to about 1,000 nm, from about 10 nm to about 100 nm, from about 10 nm to about 1,000 nm, or from about 100 nm to about 1,000 nm. In some embodiments, the use of the thin film host material 110 enables the formation of a quasi-two-dimensional (quasi-2D) layer of dopant molecules 120, as described herein.

[0039] In some embodiments, the thin film is formed on a substrate (not shown in FIG. 1B). In some embodiments, the substrate includes a host material 110. In some embodiments, the substrate includes a microfabrication material such as silicon, glass, or sapphire. In some embodiments, the thin film is formed using one or more microfabrication techniques such as wet cleaning, piranha cleaning, RCA cleaning, surface passivation, spin coating, dip coating, chemical vapor deposition (CVD), atmospheric pressure CVD, low pressure CVD, ultra-high vacuum CVD, aerosol-assisted CVD, direct liquid injection CVD, hot wall CVD, cold wall CVD, microwave plasma-assisted CVD, plasma-enhanced CVD (PECVD), remote PECVD, low energy PECVD, atomic layer CVD, combustion CVD, rapid thermal CVD, photo-initiated CVD, laser CVD, vapor phase growth, physical vapor deposition, sputter deposition, evaporation deposition, pulsed laser deposition, pulsed electron deposition, atomic layer deposition, molecular beam epitaxy, etching, wet etching, dry etching, reactive ion etching (RIE), deep reactive ion etching, atomic layer etching, or self-assembly (for forming self-assembled monolayers).

[0040] In some embodiments, the host material 110 has a thickness 150 of at least about 1 nm, 2 nm, 3 nm, 4 nm, 5 nm, 6 nm, 7 nm, 8 nm, 9 nm, 10 nm, 20 nm, 30 nm, 40 nm, 50 nm, 60 nm, 70 nm, 80 nm, 90 nm, 100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, 400 nm, 500 nm, 600 nm, 700 nm, 800 nm, 900 nm, 1 micrometer (μm), 2 μm, 3 μm, 4 μm, 5 μm, 6 μm, 7 μm, 8 μm, 9 μm, 10 μm, 20 μm, 30 μm, 40 μm, 50 μm, 60 μm, 70 μm, 80 μm, 90 μm, 100 μm, 200 μm, 300 μm, 400 μm, 500 μm, 600 μm, 700 μm, 800 μm, 900 μm, 1 millimeter (mm), 2 mm, 3 mm, 4 mm, 5 mm, 6 mm, 7 mm, 8 mm, 9 mm, 10 mm, or more, up to about 10 mm, 9 mm, 8 mm, 7 mm, 6 mm, 5 mm, 4 mm, 3 mm, 2 mm, 1 mm, 900 μm, 800 μm, 700 μm, 600 μm, 500 μm, 400 μm, 300 μm, 200 μm, 100 μm, 90 μm, 80 μm, 70 μm, 60 μm, 50 μm, 40 μm, 30 μm, 20 μm, 10 μm, 9 μm, 8 μm, 7 μm, 6 μm, 5 μm, 4 μm, 3 μm, 2 μm, 1 μm, 900 nm, 800 nm, 700 nm, 600 nm, 500 nm, 400 nm, 300 nm, 200 nm, 100 nm, 90 nm, 80 nm, 70 nm, 60 nm, 50 nm, 40 nm, 30 nm, 20 nm, 10 nm, 9 nm, 8 nm, 7 nm, 6 nm, 5 nm, 4 nm, 3 nm, 2 nm, 1 nm, or less, or within a range defined by any two of the foregoing values. In some embodiments, the host material 110 is not formed on a substrate.

[0041] In the illustrated embodiment, a plurality of dopant molecules 120 are disposed in a pseudo-2D layer. In some embodiments, the pseudo-2D layer comprises a thin slice of space in which the plurality of dopant molecules 120 are confined. In some embodiments, vectors can be depicted between pairs of dopant molecules 120 in the pseudo-2D layer. In some embodiments, the vectors are angled with respect to the plane defined by the host material 110. In some embodiments, the angle is at least about 0 degrees, 1 degree, 2 degrees, 3 degrees, 4 degrees, 5 degrees, 6 degrees, 7 degrees, 8 degrees, 9 degrees, 10 degrees, 15 degrees, 20 degrees, 25 degrees, 30 degrees, 35 degrees, 40 degrees, 45 degrees, 50 degrees, 55 degrees, 60 degrees, 65 degrees, 70 degrees, 75 degrees, 80 degrees, 85 degrees, or 90 degrees, up to about 90 degrees, 85 degrees, 80 degrees, 75 degrees, 70 degrees, 65 degrees, 60 degrees, 55 degrees, 50 degrees, 45 degrees, 40 degrees, 35 degrees, 30 degrees, 25 degrees, 20 degrees, 15 degrees, 10 degrees, 9 degrees, 8 degrees, 7 degrees, 6 degrees, 5 degrees, 4 degrees, 3 degrees, 2 degrees, 1 degree, or 0 degrees, or within a range defined by any two of the foregoing values. In some embodiments, by disposing the plurality of dopant molecules 120 in a pseudo-2D layer, the extent to which each of the plurality of dopant molecules 120 must interact with its nearest neighbors located substantially above or below them is reduced, and the quantum dynamics of the plurality of dopant molecules 120 are simplified.

[0042] FIG. 1B depicts a pseudo-2D layer that includes a thin slice of space in which a plurality of dopant molecules 120 are confined, but the disclosed embodiments are not so limited. In some embodiments, the plurality of dopant molecules 120 can be disposed in a thicker layer. In such thicker layers, each of the plurality of dopant molecules 120 may interact with its nearest neighbors located substantially above or below them.

[0043] An electronic triplet state for use as the ground state of a qubit FIG. 2A shows an example of an electronic energy level diagram 200 of a GST molecule. In some embodiments, the GST molecule is used as a quantum bit (e.g., the quantum bit described herein with respect to FIGS. 1A and 1B). In the illustrated example, the GST molecule is associated with a GST electronic manifold 210, a first singlet electronic state 220, a second singlet electronic state 230, and an EST electronic manifold 240. In some embodiments, the GST electronic manifold 210 includes a first triplet state 211, a second triplet state 212, and a third triplet state 213. In some embodiments, the first triplet state 211, the second triplet state 212, and the third triplet state 213 represent the lowest energy electronic states of the GST molecule. In some embodiments, the first triplet state 211 is denoted as |T1>, the second triplet state 212 is denoted as |T2>, and the third triplet state 213 is denoted as |T3>. In some embodiments, the EST electronic manifold 240 includes a first triplet state 241, a second triplet state 242, and a third triplet state 243. In some embodiments, the first singlet electronic state 220, the second singlet electronic state 230, and the EST electronic manifold 240 each represent an electronic state having a higher energy than the GST molecule. As shown in FIG. 2A, in some embodiments, the second singlet electronic state 230 has a lower energy than the EST electronic manifold 240. However, in other embodiments, the second singlet electronic state 230 has a higher energy than the EST electronic manifold 240.

[0044] In some embodiments, at thermal equilibrium, the GST electronic state 210 is highly occupied (i.e., the electronic wave function of the GST molecule is highly biased towards the GST electronic state 210 and has a relatively equal contribution to the first triplet state 211, the second triplet state 212, and the third triplet state 213), while the first singlet electronic state 220, the second singlet electronic state 230, the first triplet state 241, the second triplet state 242, and the third triplet state 243 are not highly occupied.

[0045] In some embodiments, the GST molecule is configured to absorb electromagnetic energy and drive the population from the first triplet state 211, the second triplet state 212, or the third triplet state 213 to the first singlet electronic state 220, the second singlet electronic state 230, the first triplet state 241, the second triplet state 242, or the third triplet state 243. In some embodiments, the GST molecule is configured to relax via radiative decay back to the first triplet state 211, the second triplet state 212, or the third triplet state 213, or back to the first singlet electronic state 220 or the second singlet electronic state 230 via intersystem crossing (ISC). In some embodiments, the continuous absorption of electromagnetic energy selectively drives the population to any combination of the first triplet state 211, the second triplet state 212, and the third triplet state 213, thereby generating a non-equilibrium electron state distribution. In this manner, any combination of the first triplet state 211, the second triplet state 212, and the third triplet state 213 can be "superpolarized" as described herein.

[0046] Figure 2B shows an example of an electronic energy level diagram 250 of an EST molecule. In some embodiments, the EST molecule is used as a qubit (e.g., the qubit described herein with respect to FIGS. 1A and 1B). In the example shown, the EST molecule is associated with a ground state singlet electronic state 260, an EST electron manifold 270, and an excited state singlet electronic state 280. In some embodiments, the EST electron manifold 270 includes a first triplet state 271, a second triplet state 272, and a third triplet state 273. In some embodiments, the ground state singlet electronic state 260 represents the lowest energy electron state of the EST molecule, the first triplet state 271, the second triplet state 272, and the third triplet state 273 represent the next lowest energy electron states of the EST molecule, and the excited state singlet electronic state 280 represents the next next lowest energy electron state of the EST molecule. In some embodiments, the first triplet state 271 is denoted by |T1>, the second triplet state 272 is denoted by |T2>, and the third triplet state 273 is denoted by |T3>.

[0047] In some embodiments, at thermal equilibrium, the ground state singlet electronic state 260 is highly populated (i.e., the electron wavefunction of the EST molecule is highly biased towards the ground state singlet electronic state 260), while the first triplet state 271, the second triplet state 272, the third triplet state 273, and the excited state singlet electronic state 280 are not highly populated.

[0048] In some embodiments, the EST molecule is configured to absorb electromagnetic energy and drive the population from the ground state singlet electronic state 260 to the excited state singlet electronic state 280. In some embodiments, the EST molecule is configured to relax via radiative decay back to the ground state singlet electronic state 260 or back to any combination of the first triplet state 271, the second triplet state 272, and the third triplet state 273 via intersystem crossing (ISC). In some embodiments, continuous absorption of electromagnetic energy selectively drives the population to any combination of the first triplet state 271, the second triplet state 272, and the third triplet state 273, thereby generating a non-equilibrium electron state distribution.

[0049] Alternatively, in some embodiments, the EST molecule is configured to absorb electromagnetic energy and drive the population directly from the ground state singlet electronic state 260 to any combination of the first triplet state 271, the second triplet state 272, and the third triplet state 273, thereby generating a non-equilibrium electron state distribution. In either manner, any combination of the first triplet state 271, the second triplet state 272, and the third triplet state 273 can be "superpolarized" as described herein.

[0050] Regardless of whether the qubit includes a GST molecule or an EST molecule, in some embodiments, a linear combination of a first triplet state |T1>, a second triplet state |T2>, and a third triplet state |T3> may be utilized as the ground state of the qubit for non - classical computing. Thus, the qubit may include a ground state of a first qubit that is a first linear combination of the first triplet state |T1>, the second triplet state |T2>, and the third triplet state |T3> (e.g., with respect to a laboratory reference frame, a rotating reference frame, or another suitable time - independent or time - dependent reference frame) (e.g., the ground state of the first qubit |0>=α1|T1>+α2|T2>+α3|T3>), as well as a ground state of a second qubit that is a second linear combination of the first triplet state |T1>, the second triplet state |T2>, and the third triplet state |T3> (e.g., the ground state of the second qubit |1>=β1|T1>+β2|T2>+β3|T3>). In general, α1, α2, α3, β1, β2, and β3 may each be any complex numbers subject to the normalization conditions |α1| 2 +|α2| 2 +|α3| 2 =1 and |β1| 2 +|β2| 2 +|β3| 2 =1. Further, α1, α2, α3, β1, β2, and β3 should generally be selected such that the ground states of the first qubit and the second qubit are different from each other (e.g., orthogonal).

[0051] In some embodiments, the lifetime (e.g., coherence lifetime or relaxation lifetime) of the ground state of the first qubit or the ground state of the second qubit is at least about 100 microseconds (μs), 200 μs, 300 μs, 400 μs, 500 μs, 600 μs, 700 μs, 800 μs, 900 μs, 1 millisecond (ms), 2 ms, 3 ms, 4 ms, 5 ms, 6 ms, 7 ms, 8 ms, 9 ms, 10 ms, 15 ms, 20 ms, 25 ms, 30 ms, 35 ms, 40 ms, 45 ms, 50 ms, 55 ms, 60 ms, 65 ms, 70 ms, 75 ms, 80 ms, 85 ms, 90 ms, 95 ms, 100 ms, 125 ms, 150 ms, 175 ms, 200 ms, 225 ms, 250 ms, 275 ms, 300 ms, 325 ms, 350 ms, 375 ms, 400 ms, 425 ms, 450 ms, 475 ms, 500 ms, 525 ms, 550 ms, 575 ms, 600 ms, 625 ms, 650 ms, 675 ms, 700 ms, 725 ms, 800 ms, 825 ms, 850 ms, 875 ms, 900 ms, 925 ms, 950 ms, 975 ms, 1 second (s), 2 s, 3 s, 4 s, 5 s, 6 s, 7 s, 8 s, 9 s, 10 s, 20 s, 30 s, 40 s, 50 s, 1 minute (min), 2 min, 3 min, 4 min, 5 min, 6 min, 7 min, 8 min, 9 min, 10 min, 20 min, 30 min, 40 min, 50 min, 1 hour (h), 2 h, 3 h, 4 h, 5 h, 6 h, 7 h, 8 h, 9 h, 10 h, or more, up to about 10 h, 9 h, 8 h, 7 h, 6 h, 5 h, 4 h, 3 h, 2 h, 1 h, 50 min, 40 min, 30 min, 20 min, 10 min, 9 min, 8 min, 7 min, 6 min, 5 min, 4 min, 3 min, 2 min, 1 min, 50 s, 40 s, 30 s, 20 s, 10 s, 9 s, 8 s, 7 s, 6 s, 5 s, 4 s, 3 s, 2 s, 1 s, 975 ms, 950 ms, 925 ms, 900 ms, 875 ms, 850 ms, 825 ms, 800 ms, 775 ms, 750 ms, 725 ms, 700 ms, 675 ms, 650 ms, 625 ms, 600 ms, 575 ms, 550 ms, 525 ms, 500 ms, 475 ms, 450 ms, 425 ms, 400 ms, 375 ms,350 milliseconds, 325 milliseconds, 300 milliseconds, 275 milliseconds, 250 milliseconds, 225 milliseconds, 200 milliseconds, 175 milliseconds, 150 milliseconds, 125 milliseconds, 100 milliseconds, 95 milliseconds, 90 milliseconds, 85 milliseconds, 80 milliseconds, 75 milliseconds, 70 milliseconds, 65 milliseconds, 60 milliseconds, 55 milliseconds, 50 milliseconds, 45 milliseconds, 40 milliseconds, 35 milliseconds, 30 milliseconds, 25 milliseconds, 20 milliseconds, 15 milliseconds, 10 milliseconds, 9 milliseconds, 8 milliseconds, 7 milliseconds, 6 milliseconds, 5 milliseconds, 4 milliseconds, 3 milliseconds, 2 milliseconds, 1 millisecond, 900 μs, 800 μs, 700 μs, 600 μs, 500 μs, 400 μs, 300 μs, 200 μs, 100 μs, or less, or a lifetime within a range defined by any two of the foregoing values.

[0052] In some embodiments, the lifetime is defined as a half-life for the electronic state of the qubit to return from a superpolarized electron state distribution to a thermal equilibrium electron state distribution. In some embodiments, the lifetime is measured at an intended operating temperature of the qubit of at least about 1 K, 2 K, 3 K, 4 K, 5 K, 6 K, 7 K, 8 K, 9 K, 10 K, 15 K, 20 K, 25 K, 30 K, 35 K, 40 K, 45 K, 50 K, or more, up to about 50 K, 45 K, 40 K, 35 K, 30 K, 25 K, 20 K, 15 K, 10 K, 9 K, 8 K, 7 K, 6 K, 5 K, 4 K, 3 K, 2 K, 1 K, or less, or a temperature between any two of the foregoing values (such as about 4 K to about 20 K). In some embodiments, the bipolar coupling strength described herein with respect to FIGS. 1A and 1B (e.g., the coupling interaction 130 shown in FIGS. 1A and 1B) is greater than a multiple of the reciprocal of the lifetime. In some embodiments, the multiple is at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more, up to about 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, or less, or within a range defined by any two of the foregoing values.

[0053] Optical Superpolarization and Initialization of Qubit States In some embodiments, superpolarization enables non-classical computations to be performed with high SNR. In some embodiments, superpolarization enables initialization of non-classical computations by initializing qubits in the ground state of a first qubit or the ground state of a second qubit (or any linear combination thereof). In some embodiments, superpolarization enables coherent manipulation of the quantum state of qubits for performing non-classical computations.

[0054] In some embodiments, superpolarization enables placement of one or more qubits in a particular quantum state (e.g., the ground state of a first qubit, the ground state of a second qubit, or any linear combination thereof). In some embodiments, the qubits are initialized after such superpolarization.

[0055] In the context of GST molecules or EST molecules, in some embodiments, superpolarization describes a state where the absolute value of the difference between a population of electronic states in one state (e.g., the first singlet electronic state of a GST molecule or the singlet ground state of an EST molecule) and a population of electronic states in another state (e.g., any combination of the first triplet state |T1>, the second triplet state |T2>, and the third triplet state |T3> of a GST molecule or an EST molecule) exceeds the absolute value of the corresponding difference at thermal equilibrium.

[0056] In some embodiments, the population difference between two electronic states is the difference between the populations of the two electronic states divided by the total population of the two electronic states. The population difference can be expressed as a fractional population difference or a percentage population difference. In some embodiments, the population difference (expressed as a percentage) is at least about 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, or more, up to about 95%, 90%, 85%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 65%, 60%, 55%, 50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 9%, 8%, 7%, 6%, 5%, 4%, 3%, 2%, 1%, or less, or within a range defined by any two of the foregoing values.

[0057] As described herein, in some embodiments, a qubit (either a GST molecule or an EST molecule) is configured to absorb electromagnetic energy and drive the population to any combination of a first triplet state |T1>, a second triplet state |T2>, and a third triplet state |T3>, thereby generating superpolarization. In some embodiments, the electromagnetic energy is selected to have a central wavelength that drives the population to any combination of a first triplet state |T1>, a second triplet state |T2>, and a third triplet state |T3>. In some embodiments, the central wavelength is within the infrared (IR), visible, or ultraviolet (UV) portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. In some embodiments, the central wavelength is at least about 200 nm, 210 nm, 220 nm, 230 nm, 240 nm, 250 nm, 260 nm, 270 nm, 280 nm, 290 nm, 300 nm, 310 nm, 320 nm, 330 nm, 340 nm, 350 nm, 360 nm, 370 nm, 380 nm, 390 nm, 400 nm, 410 nm, 420 nm, 430 nm, 440 nm, 450 nm, 460 nm, 470 nm, 480 nm, 490 nm, 500 nm, 510 nm, 520 nm, 530 nm, 540 nm, 550 nm, 560 nm, 570 nm, 580 nm, 590 nm, 600 nm, 610 nm, 620 nm, 630 nm, 640 nm, 650 nm, 660 nm, 670 nm, 680 nm, 685 nm, 690 nm, 700 nm, 710 nm, 720 nm, 730 nm, 740 nm, 750 nm, 760 nm, 770 nm, 780 nm, 790 nm, 800 nm, 810 nm, 820 nm, 830 nm, 840 nm, 850 nm, 860 nm, 870 nm, 880 nm, 890 nm, 900 nm, 910 nm, 920 nm, 930 nm, 940 nm, 950 nm, 960 nm, 970 nm, 980 nm, 990 nm, 1,000 nm, or more, up to about 1,000 nm, 990 nm, 980 nm, 970 nm, 960 nm, 950 nm, 940 nm, 930 nm, 920 nm, 910 nm, 900 nm, 890 nm, 880 nm, 870 nm, 860 nm, 850 nm, 840 nm, 830 nm, 820 nm, 810 nm, 800 nm, 790 nm, 780 nm, 770 nm, 760 nm, 750 nm, 740 nm, 730 nm, 720 nm, 710 nm, 700 nm, 690 nm, 680 nm, 670 nm, 660 nm, 650 nm, 640 nm, 630 nm, 620 nm, 610 nm, 600 nm, 590 nm, 580 nm, 570 nm, 560 nm, 550 nm, 540 nm, 530 nm, 520 nm, 510 nm, 500 nm, 490 nm, 480 nm, 470 nm, 460 nm, 450 nm, 440 nm, 430 nm, 420 nm, 410 nm, 400 nm, 390 nm, 380 nm, 370 nm, 360 nm, 350 nm, 340 nm, 330 nm, 320 nm, 310 nm, 300 nm, 290 nm, 280 nm, 270 nm, 260 nm, 250 nm, 240 nm, 230 nm, 220 nm, 210 nm, 200 nm, or less, or within the range defined by any two of the foregoing values.,

[0058] Optical initialization of individual qubits Returning to the discussion of FIGS. 1A and 1B, in some embodiments, different dopant molecules 120 experience different physicochemical environments because they have different positions or orientations within the host material 110. In some embodiments, the different physicochemical environments cause the different dopant molecules 120 to have slightly different electronic energy level structures. For example, returning to the discussion of FIG. 2A, the energy difference between any two of the first triplet state 211, the second triplet state 212, the third triplet state 213, the first singlet electronic state 220, the second singlet state 230, the first triplet state 241, the second triplet state 242, and the third triplet state 243 can depend on the physicochemical environment of the associated dopant molecule and can shift the wavelength or frequency of the electromagnetic energy required to drive the transition between those two states. Similarly, returning to the discussion of FIG. 2B, the energy difference between any two of the ground state singlet electronic state 260, the first triplet state 271, the second triplet state 272, the third triplet state 273, and the excited state singlet electronic state 280 can depend on the physicochemical environment of the associated dopant molecule and can shift the wavelength or frequency of the electromagnetic energy required to drive the transition between those two states.

[0059] Returning to the discussion of FIGS. 1A and 1B, in some embodiments, the different electronic energy level structures of the dopant molecules 120 can enable individual addressing of each dopant molecule 120. For example, if the bandwidth of the optical energy used to initialize each dopant molecule is narrow enough (e.g., small compared to the difference between the wavelength required to initialize a given dopant molecule 120 and the wavelength required to initialize other dopant molecules 120), each dopant molecule 120 can be optically addressed individually.

[0060] For example, the first dopant molecule 120 and the second dopant molecule 120 may have different electronic energy level structures. Thus, in some embodiments, the first dopant molecule 120 may be configured to absorb first electromagnetic energy having a first central wavelength, and the second dopant molecule 120 may be configured to absorb second electromagnetic energy having a second central wavelength. In some embodiments, the first or second central wavelength includes any central wavelength described herein. In some embodiments, the first and second central wavelengths are different from each other.

[0061] In some embodiments, the first central wavelength is associated with a first wavelength range having a first bandwidth. In some embodiments, the first bandwidth is measured as a first full width at half maximum (FWHM). In some embodiments, the second central wavelength is associated with a second wavelength range having a second bandwidth. In some embodiments, the second bandwidth is measured as a second FWHM bandwidth. In some embodiments, the first bandwidth or the second bandwidth is at least about 1 MHz, 2 MHz, 3 MHz, 4 MHz, 5 MHz, 6 MHz, 7 MHz, 8 MHz, 9 MHz, 10 MHz, 15 MHz, 20 MHz, 25 MHz, 30 MHz, 35 MHz, 40 MHz, 45 MHz, 50 MHz, 55 MHz, 60 MHz, 65 MHz, 70 MHz, 75 MHz, 80 MHz, 85 MHz, 90 MHz, 95 MHz, 100 MHz, or more, up to about 100 MHz, 95 MHz, 90 MHz, 85 MHz, 80 MHz, 75 MHz, 70 MHz, 65 MHz, 60 MHz, 55 MHz, 50 MHz, 45 MHz, 40 MHz, 35 MHz, 30 MHz, 25 MHz, 20 MHz, 15 MHz, 10 MHz, 9 MHz, 8 MHz, 7 MHz, 6 MHz, 5 MHz, 4 MHz, 3 MHz, 2 MHz, 1 MHz, or less, or within a range defined by any two of the foregoing values.

[0062] In some embodiments, the first wavelength range and the second wavelength range are different. In some embodiments, the first wavelength range and the second wavelength range do not overlap (e.g., within the first FWHM and the second FWHM). In some embodiments, the first FWHM and the second FWHM are similar to or wider than the bandwidth of the light source directed at the first dopant molecule 120 and the second dopant molecule 120. In some embodiments, the non-overlapping nature of the first wavelength range and the second wavelength range allows the first dopant molecule 120 to absorb light energy while the second dopant molecule 120 does not absorb light energy. In some embodiments, the non-overlapping nature of the first wavelength range and the second wavelength range allows the second dopant molecule 120 to absorb light energy while the first dopant molecule 120 does not absorb light energy. This procedure may be referred to as "individual optical initialization" of the first and second dopant molecules 120. In some embodiments, the individual optical initialization of the first and second dopant molecules 120 causes different amounts of light energy to be emitted to the first and second dopant molecules 120. In some embodiments, measuring the light energy collapses the quantum state of at least one dopant molecule to the electronic energy eigenstate of at least one dopant molecule, thereby initializing the dopant molecule to the desired initial quantum state.

[0063] Although discussed in terms of two dopant molecules 120, the individual principles of optical initialization described herein may be extended to any number of dopant molecules 120. For example, individual optical initialization may be at least about 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, 1,000, 2,000, 3,000, 4,000, 5,000, 6,000, 7,000, 8,000, 9,000, 10,000, or more dopant molecules 120, up to about 10,000, 9,000, 6,000, 5,000, 4,000, 3,000, 2,000, 1,000, 900, 800, 700, 600, 500, 400, 300, 200, 100, 90, 80, 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, or 2 dopant molecules 120, or a number of dopant molecules 120 within a range defined by any two of the foregoing values.

[0064] Such individual optical initialization may be particularly useful for qubits based on dopant molecules 120. As described herein, such dopant molecules 120 may be separated from each other by a relatively small distance compared to a typical optical beam waist. For example, in some embodiments, the dopant molecules 120 are separated from each other by a distance of less than 10 nm (or any other separation distance described herein) to ensure an appropriate coupling between neighboring dopant molecules 120. In some embodiments, a typical optical beam waist may be about 500 nm such that the optical energy impinges on about 5,000 qubits. Thus, individual optical initialization may enable the manipulation of individual qubits even when the optical energy is directed at hundreds or thousands of qubits.

[0065] In some embodiments, the individual optical initialization of qubits may enable the individual initialization of qubits in the ground state of a first qubit or the ground state of a second qubit (or any linear combination thereof), thereby initializing a non - classical computation.

[0066] RF or MW operation of individual qubits In some embodiments, the first and second qubit states described herein are separated by an energy difference in the RF or MW portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. Thus, in some embodiments, the manipulation of the quantum state of each qubit can be performed using RF energy or MW energy. Further, in some embodiments, the different physicochemical environments of the different dopant molecules 120 result in a wavelength or frequency shift that is not large enough to enable individual optical initialization of each qubit. In such embodiments, the plurality of qubits may first be optically initialized simultaneously, for example using a broadband light source, as described herein. In some embodiments, the quantum state of each qubit is then individually manipulated using RF energy or MW energy.

[0067] In some embodiments, the first dopant molecule 120 may be configured to absorb first electromagnetic energy having a first center frequency, and the second dopant molecule 120 may be configured to absorb second electromagnetic energy having a second center frequency. In some embodiments, the first or second center frequency is at least about 1 MHz, 2 MHz, 3 MHz, 4 MHz, 5 MHz, 6 MHz, 7 MHz, 8 MHz, 9 MHz, 10 MHz, 20 MHz, 30 MHz, 40 MHz, 50 MHz, 60 MHz, 70 MHz, 80 MHz, 90 MHz, 100 MHz, 200 MHz, 300 MHz, 400 MHz, 500 MHz, 600 MHz, 700 MHz, 800 MHz, 900 MHz, 1 gigahertz (GHz), 2 GHz, 3 GHz, 4 GHz, 5 GHz, 6 GHz, 7 GHz, 8 GHz, 9 GHz, 10 GHz, 20 GHz, 30 GHz, 40 GHz, 50 GHz, 60 GHz, 70 GHz, 80 GHz, 90 GHz, 100 GHz, or more, up to about 100 GHz, 90 GHz, 80 GHz, 70 GHz, 60 GHz, 50 GHz, 40 GHz, 30 GHz, 20 GHz, 10 GHz, 9 GHz, 8 GHz, 7 GHz, 6 GHz, 5 GHz, 4 GHz, 3 GHz, 2 GHz, 1 GHz, 900 MHz, 800 MHz, 700 MHz, 600 MHz, 500 MHz, 400 MHz, 300 MHz, 200 MHz, 100 MHz, 90 MHz, 80 MHz, 70 MHz, 60 MHz, 50 MHz, 40 MHz, 30 MHz, 20 MHz, 10 MHz, 9 MHz, 8 MHz, 7 MHz, 6 MHz, 5 MHz, 4 MHz, 3 MHz, 2 MHz, 1 MHz, or less, or within a range defined by any two of the foregoing values. In some embodiments, the first or second center frequency is within the RF or MW portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.

[0068] In some embodiments, the first and second center frequencies are different from each other. In some embodiments, the first center frequency is associated with a first frequency range having a first bandwidth. In some embodiments, the first bandwidth is measured as a first FWHM bandwidth. In some embodiments, the second center frequency is associated with a second frequency range having a second bandwidth. In some embodiments, the second bandwidth is measured as a second FWHM bandwidth. In some embodiments, the first or second bandwidth depends on the power of RF energy or MW energy supplied to the first or second dopant molecule 120. In some embodiments, the first or second bandwidth includes the natural bandwidth of the first or second dopant molecule 120.For example, in some embodiments, the first or second bandwidth is at least about 100 Hz, 200 Hz, 300 Hz, 400 Hz, 500 Hz, 600 Hz, 700 Hz, 800 Hz, 900 Hz, 1 kHz, 2 kHz, 3 kHz, 4 kHz, 5 kHz, 6 kHz, 7 kHz, 8 kHz, 9 kHz, 10 kHz, 20 kHz, 30 kHz, 40 kHz, 50 kHz, 60 kHz, 70 kHz, 80 kHz, 90 kHz, 100 kHz, 200 kHz, 300 kHz, 400 kHz, 500 kHz, 600 kHz, 700 kHz, 800 kHz, 900 kHz, 1 MHz, 2 MHz, 3 MHz, 4 MHz, 5 MHz, 6 MHz, 7 MHz, 8 MHz, 9 MHz, 10 MHz, 20 MHz, 30 MHz, 40 MHz, 50 MHz, 60 MHz, 70 MHz, 80 MHz, 90 MHz, 100 MHz, or more, up to about 100 MHz, 90 MHz, 80 MHz, 70 MHz, 60 MHz, 50 MHz, 40 MHz, 30 MHz, 20 MHz, 10 MHz, 9 MHz, 8 MHz, 7 MHz, 6 MHz, 5 MHz, 4 MHz, 3 MHz, 2 MHz, 1 MHz, 900 kHz, 800 kHz, 700 kHz, 600 kHz, 500 kHz, 400 kHz, 300 kHz, 200 kHz, 100 kHz, 90 kHz, 80 kHz, 70 kHz, 60 kHz, 50 kHz, 40 kHz, 30 kHz, 20 kHz, 10 kHz, 9 kHz, 8 kHz, 7 kHz, 6 kHz, 5 kHz, 4 kHz, 3 kHz, 2 kHz, 1 kHz, 900 Hz, 800 Hz, 700 Hz, 600 Hz, 500 Hz, 400 Hz, 300 Hz, 200 Hz, 100 Hz, or less, or within a range defined by any two of the foregoing values.

[0069] In some embodiments, the first frequency range and the second frequency range are different. In some embodiments, the first frequency range and the second frequency range do not overlap (e.g., within the first FWHM and the second FWHM). In some embodiments, the first FWHM and the second FWHM are similar to or narrower than the bandwidth of the RF energy or MW energy directed at the first dopant molecule 120 and the second dopant molecule 120. In some embodiments, the non-overlapping nature of the first frequency range and the second frequency range allows the first dopant molecule 120 to absorb RF energy or MW energy while the second dopant molecule 120 does not absorb RF energy or MW energy. In some embodiments, the non-overlapping nature of the first frequency range and the second frequency range allows the second dopant molecule 120 to absorb RF energy or MW energy while the first dopant molecule 120 does not absorb RF energy or MW energy. This procedure may be referred to as "individual RF or MW manipulation" of the first and second dopant molecules 120.

[0070] Although discussed in terms of two dopant molecules 120, the principles of the individual RF or MW operations described herein may be extended to any number of dopant molecules 120. For example, the individual RF or MW operations may be applied to at least about 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, 1,000, 2,000, 3,000, 4,000, 5,000, 6,000, 7,000, 8,000, 9,000, 10,000, or more dopant molecules 120, up to about 10,000, 9,000, 8,000, 7,000, 6,000, 5,000, 4,000, 3,000, 2,000, 1,000, 900, 800, 700, 600, 500, 400, 300, 200, 100, 90, 80, 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, or 2 dopant molecules 120, or a number of dopant molecules 120 within a range defined by any two of the foregoing values.

[0071] Such individual RF or MW operations may be particularly useful for qubits based on dopant molecules 120. As described herein, such dopant molecules 120 may be separated from each other by a relatively small distance compared to a typical optical beam waist. For example, in some embodiments, the dopant molecules 120 are separated from each other by a distance of less than 10 nm (or any other separation distance described herein) to ensure an appropriate coupling between neighboring dopant molecules 120. In some embodiments, a typical optical beam waist may be on the order of hundreds or thousands of qubits, as described herein.

[0072] Accordingly, the individual RF or MW operations may enable individual coherent operations of the quantum state of each qubit after (individual or simultaneous) optical initialization of the qubits. In some embodiments, the coherent operations include implementation of at least one non-classical operation. In some embodiments, the non-classical operation includes any non-classical operation described herein.

[0073] Storage of Non-Classical Information in Nuclear Spin Degrees of Freedom In some embodiments, non-classical information (such as that obtained during or after the implementation of any of the non-classical operations described herein) may be transferred from the electronic state of at least one dopant molecule 120 to the nuclear spin state of at least one dopant molecule 120, or at least one nearby molecule (referred to as a “nearby host molecule”) contained within the host material 110. In some embodiments, the information may be transferred by implementing a swap gate between the electronic state and the nuclear spin state of at least one dopant molecule 120. In some embodiments, the swap gate may be implemented by applying RF energy or MW energy to at least one dopant molecule 120 and the nuclear spin state, as described herein.

[0074] In some embodiments, transferring non-classical information to a nuclear spin state provides an increase in readout fidelity, initialization fidelity, or lifetime, thereby improving the overall fidelity of non-classical computing.

[0075] In some embodiments, one or more of the dopant molecules 120 may be excited to a higher level of electronic triplet state (i.e., an electronic triplet state having higher energy than either of the states shown in FIGS. 2A or 2B) upon application of electromagnetic energy. In some embodiments, one or more of the dopant molecules 120 may then relax from the higher level of electronic triplet state at a relatively high ISC rate, enabling the electronic state of one or more of the dopant molecules 120 to rapidly relax to the singlet state. For example, the EST molecules described herein with respect to FIG. 2B may be optically pumped from the EST electron manifold 270 to a higher level of electronic triplet state and then decay to the ground state singlet electronic state 260. In some embodiments, such “reverse ISC” (RISC) procedures enable one or more dopant molecules to be selectively returned to the singlet state after transfer of non-classical information to the nuclear spin state. In some embodiments, the RISC procedure reduces the magnetic noise associated with the electron spin of the PETS molecules, thereby extending the lifetime of the PETS molecules. In some embodiments, the RISC procedure includes a “triplet shelving” procedure (as described in A.A. Demissie et al, “Triplet Shelving in Fluorescein and its Derivatives Provides delayed, Background-Free Fluorescence” J. Phys. Chem A 124(7), 1437-1443 (2020), https: / / doi.org / 10.1021 / acs.jpca.9b11040, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety for all purposes).

[0076] Optical readout of individual qubits In some embodiments, the different electronic energy level structures of the dopant molecules 120 may enable individual optical readout of the quantum states of each dopant molecule 120 after non-classical operation. For example, the quantum state of each dopant molecule 120 may be optically read out individually based on the wavelength of the light emitted by the dopant molecule 120, which may vary based on the physicochemical environment of each dopant molecule 120.

[0077] In some embodiments, each dopant molecule 120 is configured to absorb and emit light. In some embodiments, the optical properties of the light emitted by each dopant molecule 120 correlate with the quantum state of the associated dopant molecule 120. For example, in some embodiments, a dopant molecule 120 in a first qubit state absorbs and emits light having a first property, while a dopant molecule 120 in a second qubit state absorbs and emits light having a second property. In some embodiments, a dopant molecule in a linear superposition between a first qubit state and a second qubit state absorbs and emits light having a linear superposition of the first property and the second property. In some embodiments, the first property is different from the second property. Thus, in some embodiments, measuring the light emitted by the dopant molecule 120 enables determining the quantum state of the dopant molecule 120 at the time of measurement. In some embodiments, the first or second property includes the intensity of the light emitted by the dopant molecule 120. In some embodiments, the first or second property includes the polarization state of the light emitted by the dopant molecule 120. In some embodiments, the first or second property includes the wavelength of the light emitted by the dopant molecule 120. In some embodiments, the first or second property includes the frequency of the light emitted by the dopant molecule 120.

[0078] System for initializing, manipulating, and reading out the qubit state of a dopant molecule FIG. 3 shows a system 300 for performing non - classical computing using the system 100 of FIG. 1A or FIG. 1B according to various embodiments. In the illustrated example, system 300 includes at least one cryogenic unit 310. In some embodiments, cryogenic unit 310 is configured to include the system 100 described herein with respect to FIGS. 1A and 1B. In some embodiments, cryogenic unit 310 includes system 100. In some embodiments, cryogenic unit 310 does not include system 100. In some embodiments, cryogenic unit 310 is configured to cool system 100 to an operating temperature of at least about 1K, 2K, 3K, 4K, 5K, 6K, 7K, 8K, 9K, 10K, 15K, 20K, 25K, 30K, 35K, 40K, 45K, 50K, or more, up to about 50K, 45K, 40K, 35K, 30K, 25K, 20K, 15K, 10K, 9K, 8K, 7K, 6K, 5K, 4K, 3K, 2K, 1K, or less, or a temperature between any two of the foregoing values (such as about 4K to about 20K). In some embodiments, cryogenic unit 310 includes at least one helium cryocooler. In some embodiments, cryogenic unit 310 includes at least one closed - cycle helium cryocooler. In some embodiments, cryogenic unit 310 includes at least one window (not shown in FIG. 3) configured to allow electromagnetic energy (such as optical energy) to pass through it. In some embodiments, cryogenic unit 310 includes at least one electrical feed - through (not shown in FIG. 3) configured to allow electromagnetic energy (such as RF energy or MW energy) to pass through it.

[0079] In the illustrated embodiment, system 300 includes at least one initialization unit 320. In some embodiments, initialization unit 320 is configured to direct third electromagnetic energy 322 towards at least one dopant molecule (not shown in FIG. 3) of system 100. In some embodiments, third electromagnetic energy 322 is configured to initialize the quantum state of at least one dopant molecule into any linear combination of a first qubit state and a second qubit state, as described herein with respect to FIGS. 1A, 1B, 2A, and 2B. In some embodiments, third electromagnetic energy 322 includes at least one IR wavelength, visible wavelength, or UV wavelength described herein. For example, in some embodiments, third electromagnetic energy 322 includes at least one wavelength from about 200 nm to about 1,000 nm. In some embodiments, initialization unit 320 is configured to initialize the quantum state of at least one dopant molecule in any manner described herein with respect to FIGS. 1A, 1B, 2A, or 2B. In some embodiments, initialization unit 320 comprises a confocal optical system, a confocal microscope, or a wide-field microscope. In some embodiments, initialization unit 320 is configured to measure electromagnetic energy (not shown in FIG. 3) emitted by at least one dopant molecule in response to third electromagnetic energy 322. In some embodiments, the measured electromagnetic energy indicates whether the quantum state of at least one dopant molecule has been properly initialized. In some embodiments, measuring the emitted electromagnetic energy collapses the quantum state of at least one dopant molecule into an electronic energy eigenstate of at least one dopant molecule, thereby initializing the dopant molecule into a desired initial quantum state. In some embodiments, initialization unit 320 is configured to reapply third electromagnetic energy 322 in response to the measured electromagnetic energy. For example, in some embodiments, initialization unit 320 is configured to reapply third electromagnetic energy 322 to at least one dopant molecule if the measured electromagnetic energy indicates that at least one dopant molecule has not been properly initialized.

[0080] In the illustrated embodiment, system 300 includes a single initialization unit 320. However, in some embodiments, system 300 includes multiple initialization units 320. In some embodiments, system 300 includes at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, 1,000, 2,000, 3,000, 4,000, 5,000, 6,000, 7,000, 8,000, 9,000, 10,000, 20,000, 30,000, 40,000, 50,000, 60,000, 70,000, 80,000, 90,000, 100,000, or more initialization units 320, up to a maximum of about 100,000, 90,000, 80,000, 70,000, 60,000, 50,000, 40,000, 30,000, 20,000, 10,000, 9,000, 8,000, 7,000, 6,000, 5,000, 4,000, 3,000, 2,000, 1,000, 900, 800, 700, 600, 500, 400, 300, 200, 100, 90, 80, 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or 1 initialization unit 320, or a number of initialization units 320 within a range defined by any two of the foregoing values. In some embodiments, each initialization unit 320 is configured to initialize the quantum state of at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, 1,000, 2,000, 3,000, 4,000, 5,000, 6,000, 7,000, 8,000, 9,000, 10,000, or more qubits, up to a maximum of about 10,000, 9,000, 8,000, 7,000, 6,000, 5,000, 4,000, 3,000, 2,000, 1,000, 900, 800, 700, 600, 500, 400, 300, 200, 100, 90, 80, 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or 1 qubit, or a number of qubits within a range defined by any two of the foregoing values.

[0081] In the illustrated embodiment, system 300 comprises at least one non-classical operation unit 330. In some embodiments, the non-classical operation unit 330 is configured to apply a fourth electromagnetic energy 332 to at least one dopant molecule of system 100. In some embodiments, the fourth electromagnetic energy 332 is configured to perform at least one non-classical operation on at least one dopant molecule as described herein with respect to FIGS. 1A, 1B, 2A, and 2B. In some embodiments, the fourth electromagnetic energy 332 includes at least one RF frequency or MW frequency described herein. For example, in some embodiments, the fourth electromagnetic energy 332 includes at least one frequency from about 1 MHz to about 100 GHz. In some embodiments, the non-classical operation unit is configured to perform any non-classical operation described in any manner described herein with respect to FIGS. 1A, 1B, 2A, or 2B. In some embodiments, the non-classical operation unit 330 comprises at least one RF cavity, MW cavity, RF stripline, MW stripline, RF antenna, MW antenna, microscopic RF antenna, microscopic MW antenna, nanoscopic RF antenna, or nanoscopic MW antenna.

[0082] In the illustrated embodiment, system 300 comprises a single non-classical operation unit 330. However, in some embodiments, system 300 comprises a plurality of non-classical operation units 330. In some embodiments, system 300 comprises at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, 1,000, or more non-classical operation units 330, up to a maximum of about 1,000, 900, 800, 700, 600, 500, 400, 300, 200, 100, 90, 80, 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or 1 non-classical operation unit 330, or a number of non-classical operation units 330 within a range defined by any two of the foregoing values. In some embodiments, each non-classical operation unit 330 is configured to perform non-classical operations on at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, 1,000, or more qubits, up to a maximum of about 1,000, 900, 800, 700, 600, 500, 400, 300, 200, 100, 90, 80, 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or 1 qubit, or a number of qubits within a range defined by any two of the foregoing values.

[0083] In the illustrated embodiment, system 300 includes at least one storage unit 340. In some embodiments, at least one storage unit 340 is configured to apply a fifth electromagnetic energy 342 and a sixth electromagnetic energy 344 to at least one dopant molecule. In some embodiments, the fifth electromagnetic energy 342 and the sixth electromagnetic energy 344 are jointly configured to transfer information from the electronic state of at least one dopant molecule to the nuclear spin state of at least one dopant molecule as described herein with respect to FIGS. 1A, 1B, 2A, and 2B. In some embodiments, the fifth electromagnetic energy 342 and the sixth electromagnetic energy 344 are jointly configured to apply a swap gate to at least one dopant molecule as described herein with respect to FIGS. 1A, 1B, 2A, and 2B. In some embodiments, the fifth electromagnetic energy 342 includes at least one RF frequency or MW frequency described herein. For example, in some embodiments, the fifth electromagnetic energy 342 includes at least one frequency from about 1 kHz to about 100 MHz. In some embodiments, the sixth electromagnetic energy 344 includes at least one RF frequency or MW frequency described herein. For example, in some embodiments, the sixth electromagnetic energy 344 includes at least one frequency from about 1 MHz to about 100 GHz. In some embodiments, the storage unit 340 comprises at least one RF cavity, MW cavity, RF stripline, MW stripline, RF antenna, MW antenna, microscopic RF antenna, microscopic MW antenna, nanoscopic RF antenna, or nanoscopic MW antenna.

[0084] In the illustrated embodiment, system 300 comprises a single storage unit 340. However, in some embodiments, system 300 comprises multiple storage units 340. In some embodiments, system 300 comprises at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, 1,000, or more storage units 340, up to about 1,000, 900, 800, 700, 600, 500, 400, 300, 200, 100, 90, 80, 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or 1 storage unit 340, or a number of storage units 340 within a range defined by any two of the foregoing values. In some embodiments, each storage unit 340 is configured to transfer information from an electronic state to a nuclear spin state of at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, 1,000, or more qubits, up to about 1,000, 900, 800, 700, 600, 500, 400, 300, 200, 100, 90, 80, 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or 1 qubit, or a number of qubits within a range defined by any two of the foregoing values.

[0085] In some embodiments, system 300 does not comprise a storage unit 340.

[0086] In the illustrated embodiment, system 300 includes at least one detection unit 350. In some embodiments, detection unit 350 is configured to detect the electronic state of at least one dopant molecule as described herein with respect to FIGS. 1A, 1B, 2A, and 2B. In some embodiments, detection unit 350 is configured to detect the nuclear spin state of at least one dopant molecule as described herein with respect to FIGS. 1A, 1B, 2A, and 2B. In some embodiments, detection unit 350 is configured to direct a seventh electromagnetic energy 352 towards at least one dopant molecule, thereby obtaining a result of at least one non-classical operation as described herein with respect to FIGS. 1A, 1B, 2A, and 2B. In some embodiments, the seventh electromagnetic energy 352 includes at least one IR wavelength, visible wavelength, or UV wavelength described herein. For example, in some embodiments, the seventh electromagnetic energy 352 includes at least one wavelength from about 200 nm to about 1,000 nm. In some embodiments, detection unit 350 includes at least one optical detector configured to detect light emitted by at least one dopant molecule in response to the seventh electromagnetic energy 352. In some embodiments, detection unit 350 includes a confocal optics, a confocal microscope, a wide-field microscope, a spectrometer, an optical spectrometer, a fluorescence spectrometer, a UV-visible spectrometer, a polarimeter, or a polarimetric camera.

[0087] In the illustrated embodiment, system 300 includes a single detection unit 350. However, in some embodiments, system 300 includes multiple detection units 350. In some embodiments, system 300 includes at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, 1,000, 2,000, 3,000, 4,000, 5,000, 6,000, 7,000, 8,000, 9,000, 10,000, 20,000, 30,000, 40,000, 50,000, 60,000, 70,000, 80,000, 90,000, 100,000, or more detection units 350, up to about 100,000, 90,000, 80,000, 70,000, 60,000, 50,000, 40,000, 30,000, 20,000, 10,000, 9,000, 8,000, 7,000, 6,000, 5,000, 4,000, 3,000, 2,000, 1,000, 900, 800, 700, 600, 500, 400, 300, 200, 100, 90, 80, 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or 1 detection unit 350, or a number of detection units 350 within a range defined by any two of the foregoing values. In some embodiments, each detection unit 350 is configured to detect the electronic state or nuclear spin state of at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, 1,000, 2,000, 3,000, 4,000, 5,000, 6,000, 7,000, 8,000, 9,000, 10,000, or more qubits, up to about 10,000, 9,000, 8,000, 7,000, 6,000, 5,000, 4,000, 3,000, 2,000, 1,000, 900, 800, 700, 600, 500, 400, 300, 200, 100, 90, 80, 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or 1 qubit, or a number of qubits within a range defined by any two of the foregoing values.

[0088] In some embodiments, system 300 comprises at least one polarization beam splitter 360. In some embodiments, the polarization beam splitter 360 is configured to direct a third electromagnetic energy 322 from the initialization unit 320 towards the system 100. In some embodiments, the polarization beam splitter 360 is configured to direct a seventh electromagnetic energy 352 from the detection unit 350 towards the system 100 and, in response to the seventh electromagnetic energy 352, direct light emitted by at least one dopant molecule from the system 100 towards the detection unit 350.

[0089] In some embodiments, system 300 includes one or more magnetic field sources (not shown in FIG. 3). In some embodiments, the magnetic field sources are configured to generate one or more magnetic fields or magnetic field gradients near system 100. In some embodiments, each of the magnetic field sources includes a permanent magnet, an electromagnet, or a superconducting magnet. In some embodiments, the magnetic field sources include one or more solenoids, Helmholtz coils, anti-Helmholtz coils, saddle coils, Halbach arrays, and the like. In some embodiments, one or more of the magnetic field sources are included within cryogenic unit 310. In some embodiments, one or more of the magnetic field sources are configured to generate an average magnetic field strength of at least about 1 microtesla (μT), 2 μT, 3 μT, 4 μT, 5 μT, 6 μT, 7 μT, 8 μT, 9 μT, 10 μT, 20 μT, 30 μT, 40 μT, 50 μT, 60 μT, 70 μT, 80 μT, 90 μT, 100 μT, 200 μT, 300 μT, 400 μT, 500 μT, 600 μT, 700 μT, 800 μT, 900 μT, 1 millitesla (mT), 2 mT, 3 mT, 4 mT, 5 mT, 6 mT, 7 mT, 8 mT, 9 mT, 10 mT, 20 mT, 30 mT, 40 mT, 50 mT, 60 mT, 70 mT, 80 mT, 90 mT, 100 mT, 200 mT, 300 mT, 400 mT, 500 mT, 600 mT, 700 mT, 800 mT, 900 mT, 1 tesla (T), or more, up to about 1 T, 900 mT, 800 mT, 700 mT, 600 mT, 500 mT, 400 mT, 300 mT, 200 mT, 100 mT, 90 mT, 80 mT, 70 mT, 60 mT, 50 mT, 40 mT, 30 mT, 20 mT, 10 mT, 9 mT, 8 mT, 7 mT, 6 mT, 5 mT, 4 mT, 3 mT, 2 mT, 1 mT, 900 μT, 800 μT, 700 μT, 600 μT, 500 μT, 400 μT, 300 μT, 200 μT, 100 μT, 90 μT, 80 μT, 70 μT, 60 μT, 50 μT, 40 μT, 30 μT, 20 μT, 10 μT, 9 μT, 8 μT, 7 μT, 6 μT, 5 μT, 4 μT, 3 μT, 2 μT, 1 μT, or less (across system 100), or an average magnetic field strength within a range defined by any two of the foregoing values. In some embodiments, one or more of the magnetic field sources are configured to generate an average magnetic field strength of at least about 1 microtesla per meter (μTm -1 ), 2 μTm-1 、3 μT m -1 、4 μT m -1 、5 μT m -1 、6 μT m -1 、7 μT m -1 、8 μT m -1 、9 μT m -1 、10 μT m -1 、20 μT m -1 、30 μT m -1 、40 μT m -1 、50 μT m -1 、60 μT m -1 、70 μT m -1 、80 μT m -1 、90 μT m -1 、100 μT m -1 、200 μT m -1 、300 μT m -1 、400 μT m -1 、500 μT m -1 、600 μT m -1 、700 μT m -1 、800 μT m -1 、900 μT m -1 、1 microtesla per meter (mT m -1 )、2 mT m -1 、3 mT m -1 、4 mT m -1 、5 mT m -1 、6 mT m -1 、7 mT m -1 、8 mT m -1 、9 mT m -1 、10 mT m -1 、20 mT m -1 、30 mT m -1 、40 mT m -1 、50 mT m -1 、60 mT m -1 、70 mT m -1 、80 mT m -1 、90 mT m -1 、100 mT m -1 、200 mT m -1 、300 mT m -1 、400 mT m -1 、500 mT m -1 、600 mT m -1 、700 mT m -1 、800 mT m -1, 900 mTm -1 , 1,000 mTm -1 , or more, up to about 1,000 mTm -1 , 900 mTm -1 , 800 mTm -1 , 700 mTm -1 , 600 mTm -1 , 500 mTm -1 , 400 mTm -1 , 300 mTm -1 , 200 mTm -1 , 100 mTm -1 , 90 mTm -1 , 80 mTm -1 , 70 mTm -1 , 60 mTm -1 , 50 mTm -1 , 40 mTm -1 , 30 mTm -1 , 20 mTm -1 , 10 mTm -1 , 9 mTm -1 , 8 mTm -1 , 7 mTm -1 , 6 mTm -1 , 5 mTm -1 , 4 mTm -1 , 3 mTm -1 , 2 mTm -1 , 1 mTm -1 , 900 μTm -1 , 800 μTm -1 , 700 μTm -1 , 600 μTm -1 , 500 μTm -1 , 400 μTm -1 , 300 μTm -1 , 200 μTm -1 , 100 μTm -1 , 90 μTm -1 , 80 μTm -1 , 70 μTm -1 , 60 μTm -1 , 50 μTm -1 , 40 μTm -1 , 30 μTm -1 , 20 μTm -1 , 10 μTm -1 , 9 μTm -1 , 8 μTm -1 , 7 μTm -1 , 6 μTm-1 , 5 μTm -1 , 4 μTm -1 , 3 μTm -1 , 2 μTm -1 , 1 μTm -1 , or an average magnetic field gradient below that (across system 100), or an average magnetic field gradient within a range defined by any two of the aforementioned values.

[0090] Method for performing non - classical computing Figure 4 shows a flowchart depicting a method 400 for performing non - classical computing, according to various embodiments. In some embodiments, method 400 is implemented using system 100 of FIG. 1A or FIG. 1B, or system 300 of FIG. 3. At 410, a plurality of dopant molecules contained in at least one host material are obtained. In some embodiments, the plurality of dopant molecules include any of the dopant molecules described herein with respect to FIG. 1A, FIG. 1B, FIG. 2A, FIG. 2B, or FIG. 3. In some embodiments, the host material includes any of the host materials described herein with respect to FIG. 1A, FIG. 1B, FIG. 2A, FIG. 2B, or FIG. 3. In some embodiments, each dopant molecule is associated with an electronic energy level structure that includes a triplet electron manifold, as described herein with respect to FIG. 2A or FIG. 2B. In some embodiments, the triplet electron manifold includes a first triplet state, a second triplet state, and a third triplet state, as described herein with respect to FIG. 2A or FIG. 2B.

[0091] In 420, each dopant molecule is configured as a qubit having at least a first qubit state and a second qubit state as described herein with respect to FIGS. 1A, 1B, 2A, 2B, or 3. In some embodiments, the first qubit state includes a first linear combination of a first triplet state, a second triplet state, and a third triplet state as described herein. In some embodiments, the second qubit state includes a second linear combination of a first triplet state, a second triplet state, and a third triplet state, and the first qubit state is different from the second qubit state as described herein. In some embodiments, the first qubit state or the second qubit state has any lifetime described herein with respect to FIGS. 1A, 1B, 2A, 2B, or 3 at any temperature described herein with respect to FIGS. 1A, 1B, 2A, 2B, or 3. In some embodiments, at least one dopant molecule is coupled to at least one other dopant molecule by an electron dipole coupling interaction having any dipole coupling strength described herein with respect to FIGS. 1A, 1B, 2A, 2B, or 3.

[0092] In 430, non-classical calculations are performed on at least one dopant molecule. In some embodiments, performing non-classical calculations includes directing a third electromagnetic energy towards at least one dopant molecule, as described herein with respect to FIGS. 1A, 1B, 2A, 2B, or 3, thereby initializing the quantum state of at least one dopant molecule to a first qubit state or a second qubit state; applying a fourth electromagnetic energy to at least one dopant molecule, thereby performing at least one non-classical operation on at least one dopant molecule; and detecting the electronic state or the nuclear spin state of at least one dopant molecule, thereby obtaining the result of at least one non-classical operation. In some embodiments, the third electromagnetic energy includes any third electromagnetic energy described herein. In some embodiments, the fourth electromagnetic energy includes any fourth electromagnetic energy described herein. In some embodiments, the at least one non-classical operation includes any non-classical operation described herein.

[0093] In some embodiments, performing non-classical calculations further includes applying a fifth electromagnetic energy and a sixth electromagnetic energy to at least one dopant molecule prior to detecting the nuclear spin state of at least one dopant molecule, as described herein with respect to FIGS. 1A, 1B, 2A, 2B, or 3. In some embodiments, the fifth electromagnetic energy and the sixth electromagnetic energy are configured jointly to transfer information from the electronic state to the nuclear spin state of at least one dopant molecule, as described herein with respect to FIGS. 1A, 1B, 2A, 2B, or 3. In some embodiments, the fifth electromagnetic energy includes any fifth electromagnetic energy described herein. In some embodiments, the sixth electromagnetic energy includes any sixth electromagnetic energy described herein.

[0094] In some embodiments, detecting the electronic state of at least one dopant molecule or the nuclear spin state of at least one dopant molecule involves applying a seventh electromagnetic energy to at least one dopant molecule, as described herein with respect to FIGS. 1A, 1B, 2A, 2B, or 3, thereby obtaining a result of at least one non-classical operation. In some embodiments, the seventh electromagnetic energy includes any seventh electromagnetic energy described herein. In some embodiments, detecting the electronic state of at least one dopant molecule or the nuclear spin state of at least one dopant molecule further includes detecting light emitted by at least one dopant molecule in response to the seventh electromagnetic energy, as described herein with respect to FIGS. 1A, 1B, 2A, 2B, or 3.

[0095] Enumeration of Embodiments The foregoing non-limiting embodiments disclosed herein include the following.

[0096] Embodiment 1. A system for performing non-classical computing, at least one host material including at least one organic molecule, a plurality of dopant molecules contained in at least one host material, each dopant molecule including a qubit having at least a first qubit state and a second qubit state, each dopant molecule being associated with an electronic energy level structure including a triplet electron manifold, the triplet electron manifold including a first triplet state, a second triplet state, and a third triplet state, the first qubit state including a first linear combination of the first triplet state, the second triplet state, and the third triplet state, the second qubit state including a second linear combination of the first triplet state, the second triplet state, and the third triplet state, the first qubit state being different from the second qubit state, The first qubit state or the second qubit state has a lifetime of at least 25 milliseconds (ms) at a temperature of 4 Kelvin (K) to 20 K, and a system comprising a plurality of dopant molecules, wherein at least one dopant molecule is coupled to at least one other dopant molecule by an electron dipole coupling interaction having a dipole coupling strength of at least 1 kilohertz (kHz).

[0097] Embodiment 2. The system according to embodiment 1, wherein the host material comprises a crystalline host material, a single-crystalline host material, a polycrystalline host material, a liquid-crystalline host material, a powdered host material, an amorphous host material, or a frozen solution host material.

[0098] Embodiment 3. The system according to embodiment 1 or 2, wherein the host material comprises a C4 - C20 straight-chain or branched alkane; an aromatic hydrocarbon; a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon optionally substituted with a methylene, carbonyl, imine, or thiocarbonyl group; a diaryl ketone; naphthalene; anthracene; p-terphenyl; benzoic acid; fluorene; biphenyl; benzene; n-hexane; biphenylene; ortho-terphenylen; meta-terphenylen; para-terphenylen; or benzophenone.

[0099] Embodiment 4. The system according to any one of embodiments 1 to 3, wherein the host material comprises a thin film having a thickness of at most 20 nanometers (nm).

[0100] Embodiment 5. The system according to any one of embodiments 1 to 4, wherein each dopant molecule comprises an organic molecule, an organometallic molecule, or an inorganic composite molecule.

[0101] Embodiment 6. The system according to any one of embodiments 1 to 5, wherein each dopant molecule comprises an [n]acene molecule where n is 2 - 6, a xanthene dye, a thioxanthene dye, a donor-acceptor molecule, acridine, pentacene, pyrene, diazapentacene, benzophenone, or benzopyrazine.

[0102] Embodiment 7. The system according to any one of Embodiments 1 to 6, wherein a plurality of dopant molecules are arranged in a pseudo two-dimensional (pseudo 2D) layer.

[0103] Embodiment 8. The system according to Embodiment 7, wherein the pseudo 2D layer includes a self-assembled monolayer (SAM).

[0104] Embodiment 9. The system according to any one of Embodiments 1 to 8, wherein at least one dopant molecule is bonded to at most four other dopant molecules by an electron dipole binding interaction having a dipole binding strength.

[0105] Embodiment 10. The system according to any one of Embodiments 1 to 9, wherein the average distance between dopant molecules is at most 10 nm.

[0106] Embodiment 11. A plurality of dopant molecules are contained in at least one host material at a concentration of at least 10 3 dopant molecules per cubic micrometer (μm 6 ), the system according to any one of Embodiments 1 to 10.

[0107] Embodiment 12. The system according to any one of Embodiments 1 to 11, wherein a first dopant molecule of the plurality of dopant molecules is configured to absorb first electromagnetic energy having a first central wavelength or a first central frequency, a second dopant molecule of the plurality of dopant molecules is configured to absorb second electromagnetic energy having a second central wavelength or a second central frequency, the first central wavelength or the first central frequency is different from the second central wavelength or the second central frequency.

[0108] Embodiment 13. The system according to Embodiment 12, wherein the first central wavelength or the first central frequency is associated with a first wavelength range or a first frequency range having a first full width at half maximum (FWHM) bandwidth, A second central wavelength or a second central frequency is associated with a second wavelength range or a second frequency range having a second FWHM bandwidth, A system in which a first wavelength range or a first frequency range within a first FWHM bandwidth and a second wavelength range or a second frequency range within a second FWHM bandwidth do not overlap.

[0109] Embodiment 14. The system according to embodiment 13, wherein the first FWHM bandwidth or the second FWHM bandwidth is at most 100 megahertz (MHz).

[0110] Embodiment 15. The system according to any one of embodiments 12 to 14, wherein the first central wavelength or the second central wavelength is from 200 nm to 1,000 nm.

[0111] Embodiment 16. The system according to embodiment 13, wherein the first FWHM bandwidth or the second FWHM bandwidth is at most 100 gigahertz (GHz).

[0112] Embodiment 17. The system according to embodiment 16, wherein the first central frequency or the second central frequency is from 1 MHz to 100 GHz.

[0113] Embodiment 18. The system according to any one of embodiments 1 to 17, wherein the triplet electron manifold includes a triplet ground state (GST) electron manifold.

[0114] Embodiment 19. The system according to any one of embodiments 1 to 17, wherein the triplet electron manifold includes a triplet excited state electron manifold.

[0115] Embodiment 20. The system according to embodiment 19, wherein the triplet electron manifold includes a photoexcited triplet state (PETS) triplet electron manifold.

[0116] Embodiment 21. The system according to any one of embodiments 1 to 20, wherein the bipolar binding strength is greater than the reciprocal of the lifetime.

[0117] Embodiment 22. The system according to any one of Embodiments 1 to 21, further comprising at least one initialization unit configured to direct third electromagnetic energy towards at least one dopant molecule, thereby initializing the quantum state of the at least one dopant molecule to a first qubit state or a second qubit state.

[0118] Embodiment 23. The system according to Embodiment 22, wherein the third electromagnetic energy includes at least one wavelength in the range of 200 nm to 1,000 nm.

[0119] Embodiment 24. The system according to any one of Embodiments 1 to 23, further comprising at least one non-classical operation unit configured to apply fourth electromagnetic energy to at least one dopant molecule, thereby performing at least one non-classical operation on the at least one dopant molecule.

[0120] Embodiment 25. The system according to Embodiment 24, wherein the at least one non-classical operation includes at least one quantum operation, at least one quantum computing operation, at least one quantum gate operation, at least one quantum simulation operation, or at least one quantum annealing operation.

[0121] Embodiment 26. The system according to Embodiment 24 or 25, wherein the fourth electromagnetic energy includes at least one frequency in the range of 1 MHz to 100 GHz.

[0122] Embodiment 27. The system according to any one of Embodiments 24 to 26, wherein after performing the at least one non-classical operation, the result of the at least one non-classical operation correlates with the electronic state of the at least one dopant molecule.

[0123] Embodiment 28. The system according to Embodiment 27, further comprising at least one storage unit configured to apply fifth electromagnetic energy and sixth electromagnetic energy to at least one dopant molecule, wherein the fifth electromagnetic energy and the sixth electromagnetic energy are jointly configured to transmit information from the electronic state to the nuclear spin state of the at least one dopant molecule.

[0124] Embodiment 29. The system according to Embodiment 28, wherein the fifth electromagnetic energy and the sixth electromagnetic energy are jointly applied to at least one dopant molecule as a swap gate, thereby transmitting information from the electronic state to the nuclear spin state of the at least one dopant molecule.

[0125] Embodiment 30. The system according to Embodiment 28 or 29, wherein the fifth electromagnetic energy includes at least one frequency from 1 kHz to 100 MHz, and the sixth electromagnetic energy includes at least one frequency from 1 MHz to 100 GHz.

[0126] Embodiment 31. The system according to any one of Embodiments 1 to 30, further comprising at least one detection unit configured to detect the electronic state of at least one dopant molecule or the nuclear spin state of at least one dopant molecule, thereby obtaining the result of at least one non-classical operation.

[0127] Embodiment 32. The system according to Embodiment 31, wherein at least one detection unit is configured to apply seventh electromagnetic energy to at least one dopant molecule, thereby obtaining the result of at least one non-classical operation.

[0128] Embodiment 33. The system according to Embodiment 31 or 32, wherein at least one detection unit comprises at least one optical detector configured to detect light emitted by at least one dopant molecule in response to the seventh electromagnetic energy.

[0129] Embodiment 34. The system according to Embodiment 33, wherein the light emitted by at least one dopant molecule has a first optical property associated with a first qubit state and a second optical property associated with a second qubit state, and the first optical property is different from the second optical property.

[0130] Embodiment 35. The system according to Embodiment 34, wherein the first optical property or the second optical property includes the intensity, polarization, wavelength, or frequency of light.

[0131] Embodiment 36. The system according to any one of Embodiments 1 to 35, further comprising a cryogenic unit configured to include at least one host material and cool the at least one host material to a temperature of at most 20K.

[0132] Embodiment 37. The system according to Embodiment 36, wherein the cryogenic unit includes a helium cryocooler or a closed-cycle helium cryocooler.

[0133] Embodiment 38. A system, a cryogenic unit, comprising at least one host material containing at least one organic molecule, wherein the host molecule contains a plurality of dopant molecules contained therein, each dopant molecule includes a qubit having at least a first qubit state and a second qubit state, each dopant molecule is associated with an electronic energy level structure including a triplet electron manifold, the triplet electron manifold includes a first triplet state, a second triplet state, and a third triplet state, the first qubit state includes a first linear combination of the first triplet state, the second triplet state, and the third triplet state, the second qubit state includes a second linear combination of the first triplet state, the second triplet state, and the third triplet state, the first qubit state is different from the second qubit state, The first qubit state or the second qubit state has a lifetime of at least 25 milliseconds (ms), comprising at least one dopant molecule being coupled to at least one other dopant molecule by an electron dipole coupling interaction having a dipole coupling strength of at least 1 kHz, a cryogenic unit configured to cool at least one host material to a temperature of up to 20 K, at least one initialization unit configured to direct a third electromagnetic energy towards at least one dopant molecule, thereby initializing the quantum state of at least one dopant molecule to the first qubit state or the second qubit state, at least one non-classical operation unit configured to apply a fourth electromagnetic energy to at least one dopant molecule, thereby performing at least one non-classical operation on at least one dopant molecule, and at least one detection unit configured to detect the electronic state of at least one dopant molecule or the nuclear spin state of at least one dopant molecule, thereby obtaining the result of at least one non-classical operation. A system comprising.

[0134] Embodiment 39. The system according to embodiment 38, wherein the cryogenic unit comprises a helium cryocooler or a closed-cycle helium cryocooler.

[0135] Embodiment 40. The system according to embodiment 38 or 39, wherein the third electromagnetic energy includes at least one wavelength in the range of 200 nm to 1,000 nm.

[0136] Embodiment 41. The system according to any one of embodiments 38 to 40, wherein at least one non-classical operation includes at least one quantum operation, at least one quantum computing operation, at least one quantum gate operation, at least one quantum simulation operation, or at least one quantum annealing operation.

[0137] Embodiment 42. The system according to any one of Embodiments 38 to 41, wherein the fourth electromagnetic energy includes at least one frequency in the range of 1 MHz to 100 GHz.

[0138] Embodiment 43. The system according to any one of Embodiments 38 to 42, wherein after performing at least one non-classical operation, the result of the at least one non-classical operation correlates with the electronic state of at least one dopant molecule.

[0139] Embodiment 44. The system according to any one of Embodiments 38 to 43, further comprising at least one storage unit configured to apply fifth electromagnetic energy and sixth electromagnetic energy to at least one dopant molecule, wherein the fifth electromagnetic energy and the sixth electromagnetic energy are jointly configured to transmit information from the electronic state to the nuclear spin state of at least one dopant molecule.

[0140] Embodiment 45. The system according to Embodiment 44, wherein the fifth electromagnetic energy and the sixth electromagnetic energy are configured to jointly apply a swap gate to at least one dopant molecule, thereby transmitting information from the electronic state to the nuclear spin state of at least one dopant molecule.

[0141] Embodiment 46. The system according to Embodiment 44 or 45, wherein the fifth electromagnetic energy includes at least one frequency in the range of 1 kHz to 100 MHz and the sixth electromagnetic energy includes at least one frequency in the range of 1 MHz to 100 GHz.

[0142] Embodiment 47. The system according to any one of Embodiments 38 to 46, wherein at least one detection unit is configured to apply seventh electromagnetic energy to at least one dopant molecule, thereby obtaining the result of at least one non-classical operation.

[0143] Embodiment 48. The system according to any one of Embodiments 38 to 47, comprising at least one optical detector configured to detect light emitted by at least one dopant molecule in response to seventh electromagnetic energy.

[0144] Embodiment 49. The system according to Embodiment 48, wherein the light emitted by at least one dopant molecule has a first optical property associated with a first qubit state and a second optical property associated with a second qubit state, and the first optical property is different from the second optical property.

[0145] Embodiment 50. The system according to Embodiment 49, wherein the first optical property or the second optical property includes light intensity, polarization, wavelength, or frequency.

[0146] Embodiment 51. The system according to any one of Embodiments 38 to 50, wherein the host material includes a crystalline host material, a single-crystalline host material, a polycrystalline host material, a liquid-crystalline host material, a powdered host material, an amorphous host material, or a frozen solution host material.

[0147] Embodiment 52. The system according to any one of Embodiments 38 to 51, wherein the host material includes C4 - C20 linear or branched alkanes; aromatic hydrocarbons; polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons optionally substituted with methylene, carbonyl, imine, or thiocarbonyl groups; diaryl ketones; naphthalene; anthracene; p-terphenyl; benzoic acid; fluorene; biphenyl; benzene; n-hexane; biphenylene; ortho-terphenylen; meta-terphenylen; para-terphenylen; or benzophenone.

[0148] Embodiment 53. The system according to any one of Embodiments 38 to 52, wherein the host material includes a thin film having a thickness of at most 20 nanometers (nm).

[0149] Embodiment 54. The system according to any one of Embodiments 38 to 53, wherein each dopant molecule contains an organic molecule, an organometallic molecule, or an inorganic composite molecule.

[0150] Embodiment 55. The system according to any one of Embodiments 38 to 54, wherein each dopant molecule contains an [n]acene molecule where n is 2 to 6, a xanthene dye, a thioxanthene dye, a donor-acceptor molecule, an acridine, pentacene, pyrene, diazapentacene, benzophenone, or benzopyrazine.

[0151] Embodiment 56. The system according to any one of Embodiments 38 to 54, wherein a plurality of dopant molecules are arranged in a pseudo two-dimensional (pseudo-2D) layer.

[0152] Embodiment 57. The system according to Embodiment 56, wherein the pseudo-2D layer contains a self-assembled monolayer (SAM).

[0153] Embodiment 58. The system according to any one of Embodiments 38 to 57, wherein at least one dopant molecule is bonded to up to four other dopant molecules by an electron dipole bond interaction having a dipole bond strength.

[0154] Embodiment 59. The system according to any one of Embodiments 38 to 58, wherein the average distance between dopant molecules is at most 10 nm.

[0155] Embodiment 60. The system according to any one of Embodiments 38 to 59, wherein a plurality of dopant molecules are contained in at least one host material at a concentration of at least 10 3 dopant molecules per cubic micrometer (μm 6 ).

[0156] Embodiment 61. The system according to any one of Embodiments 38 to 60, wherein the triplet electron manifold contains a triplet ground state (GST) electron manifold.

[0157] Embodiment 62. The system according to any one of Embodiments 38 to 60, wherein the triplet electronic manifold includes a triplet excited state electronic manifold.

[0158] Embodiment 63. The system according to Embodiment 62, wherein the triplet electronic manifold includes a photoexcited triplet state (PETS) triplet electronic manifold.

[0159] Embodiment 64. The system according to any one of Embodiments 38 to 63, wherein the bipolar coupling strength is greater than the reciprocal of the lifetime.

[0160] Embodiment 65. A method for performing non-classical computing, comprising: obtaining a plurality of dopant molecules contained in at least one host material, each dopant molecule being associated with an electronic energy level structure including a triplet electronic manifold, the triplet electronic manifold including a first triplet state, a second triplet state, and a third triplet state; configuring each dopant molecule as a qubit having at least a first qubit state and a second qubit state, the first qubit state including a first linear combination of the first triplet state, the second triplet state, and the third triplet state, the second qubit state including a second linear combination of the first triplet state, the second triplet state, and the third triplet state, the first qubit state being different from the second qubit state, the first qubit state or the second qubit state having a lifetime of at least 25 milliseconds (ms) at a temperature of 4 Kelvin (K) to 20 K, and at least one dopant molecule being coupled to at least one other dopant molecule by an electron bipolar coupling interaction having a bipolar coupling strength of at least 1 kilohertz (kHz); performing non-classical computing on at least one dopant molecule.

[0161] Embodiment 66. Performing non-classical computing on at least one dopant molecule is Directing third electromagnetic energy towards at least one dopant molecule, thereby initializing the quantum state of at least one dopant molecule to a first qubit state or a second qubit state, and Applying fourth electromagnetic energy to at least one dopant molecule, thereby performing at least one non-classical operation on at least one dopant molecule, and Detecting the electronic state of at least one dopant molecule or the nuclear spin state of at least one dopant molecule, thereby obtaining the result of at least one non-classical operation, the method according to embodiment 65.

[0162] Embodiment 67. The method according to embodiment 66, wherein the third electromagnetic energy includes at least one wavelength from 200 nm to 1,000 nm.

[0163] Embodiment 68. The method according to embodiment 66 or 67, wherein the at least one non-classical operation includes at least one quantum operation, at least one quantum computing operation, at least one quantum gate operation, at least one quantum simulation operation, or at least one quantum annealing operation.

[0164] Embodiment 69. The method according to any one of embodiments 66 to 68, wherein the fourth electromagnetic energy includes at least one frequency from 1 MHz to 100 GHz.

[0165] Embodiment 70. Further including applying fifth electromagnetic energy and sixth electromagnetic energy to at least one dopant molecule before detecting the nuclear spin state of at least one dopant molecule, wherein the fifth electromagnetic energy and the sixth electromagnetic energy are jointly configured to transfer information from the electronic state of at least one dopant molecule to the nuclear spin state, the method according to any one of embodiments 66 to 69.

[0166] Embodiment 71. The method according to Embodiment 70, wherein the fifth electromagnetic energy and the sixth electromagnetic energy are jointly applied to at least one dopant molecule with a swap gate, thereby transmitting information from the electronic state to the nuclear spin state of the at least one dopant molecule.

[0167] Embodiment 72. The method according to Embodiment 70 or 71, wherein the fifth electromagnetic energy includes at least one frequency from 1 kHz to 100 MHz, and the sixth electromagnetic energy includes at least one frequency from 1 MHz to 100 GHz.

[0168] Embodiment 73. The method according to any one of Embodiments 66 to 72, wherein detecting the electronic state of at least one dopant molecule or the nuclear spin state of at least one dopant molecule includes applying a seventh electromagnetic energy to the at least one dopant molecule, thereby obtaining a result of at least one non-classical operation.

[0169] Embodiment 74. The method according to Embodiment 73, wherein detecting the electronic state of at least one dopant molecule or the nuclear spin state of at least one dopant molecule further includes detecting light emitted by the at least one dopant molecule in response to the seventh electromagnetic energy.

[0170] Embodiment 75. The method according to Embodiment 74, wherein the light emitted by the at least one dopant molecule has a first optical property associated with a first qubit state and a second optical property associated with a second qubit state, and the first optical property is different from the second optical property.

[0171] Embodiment 76. The method according to Embodiment 75, wherein the first optical property or the second optical property includes the intensity, polarization, wavelength, or frequency of light.

[0172] Embodiment 77. The method according to any one of Embodiments 66 to 76, further including cooling at least one host material to a temperature of up to 20 K.

[0173] Embodiment 78. The method according to any one of Embodiments 65 to 77, wherein the host material comprises a crystalline host material, a single-crystalline host material, a polycrystalline host material, a liquid-crystalline host material, a powdered host material, an amorphous host material, or a frozen solution host material.

[0174] Embodiment 79. The method according to any one of Embodiments 65 to 78, wherein the host material comprises a C4 - C20 linear or branched alkane; an aromatic hydrocarbon; a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon optionally substituted with a methylene, carbonyl, imine, or thiocarbonyl group; a diaryl ketone; naphthalene; anthracene; p-terphenyl; benzoic acid; fluorene; biphenyl; benzene; n-hexane; biphenylene; ortho-terphenylen; meta-terphenylen; para-terphenylen; or benzophenone.

[0175] Embodiment 80. The method according to any one of Embodiments 65 to 79, wherein the host material comprises a thin film having a thickness of at most 20 nanometers (nm).

[0176] Embodiment 81. The method according to any one of Embodiments 65 to 80, wherein each dopant molecule comprises an organic molecule, an organometallic molecule, or an inorganic composite molecule.

[0177] Embodiment 82. The method according to any one of Embodiments 65 to 81, wherein each dopant molecule comprises an [n]acene molecule where n is 2 - 6, a xanthene dye, a thioxanthene dye, a donor-acceptor molecule, acridine, pentacene, pyrene, diazapentacene, benzophenone, or benzopyrazine.

[0178] Embodiment 83. The method according to any one of Embodiments 65 to 82, wherein a plurality of dopant molecules are arranged in a pseudo-two-dimensional (pseudo-2D) layer.

[0179] Embodiment 84. The method according to Embodiment 83, wherein the pseudo-2D layer comprises a self-assembled monolayer (SAM).

[0180] Embodiment 85. The method according to any one of Embodiments 65 to 84, wherein at least one dopant molecule is bonded to up to four other dopant molecules by an electron dipole coupling interaction having a dipole coupling strength.

[0181] Embodiment 86. The method according to any one of Embodiments 65 to 85, wherein the average distance between dopant molecules is at most 10 nm.

[0182] Embodiment 87. A method according to any one of Embodiments 65 to 86, wherein a plurality of dopant molecules are contained in at least one host material at a concentration of at least 10 3 dopant molecules per cubic micrometer (μm 6 ).

[0183] Embodiment 88. The method according to any one of Embodiments 65 to 87, wherein the triplet electronic manifold includes a triplet ground state (GST) electronic manifold.

[0184] Embodiment 89. The method according to any one of Embodiments 65 to 88, wherein the triplet electronic manifold includes a triplet excited state electronic manifold.

[0185] Embodiment 90. The method according to Embodiment 89, wherein the triplet electronic manifold includes a photoexcited triplet state (PETS) triplet electronic manifold.

[0186] Embodiment 91. The method according to any one of Embodiments 65 to 90, wherein the dipole coupling strength is greater than the reciprocal of the lifetime.

[0187] Examples Example 1 - Formation of Pentacene:Naphthalene Crystals Naphthalene with a purity of 99% exceeding 50 grams (g) was purchased from Sigma-Aldrich and further purified by sublimation. Pentacene-d14 (pentacene having deuterium at all 14 hydrogen sites) was purchased from Sigma-Aldrich and used without further purification. To grow naphthalene single crystals doped with pentacene, the self-seeding vertical Bridgman method was used. A double-wall ampoule was used, and the inner wall had a capillary open towards the space between the walls. The ampoule filled with naphthalene and pentacene was then moved through a steep temperature gradient that included the melting temperature of naphthalene. This temperature gradient was achieved by a bath having two liquid phases heated to different temperatures. When the ampoule was lowered into the upper and warmer part of the bath, the pentacene-naphthalene mixture dissolved into a homogeneous liquid. When the bottom of the ampoule reached the phase separation of the heating bath, crystallization started in the space between the ampoule walls. Here, solidification occurred at multiple nuclei and led to a polycrystalline region within the space between the walls. By slowly moving the ampoule within that region, the number of nucleation events was minimized, resulting in a polycrystal with relatively large crystal grains. As the ampoule was further lowered, the capillary on the inner wall contacted the polycrystal. Ideally, a crystal orientation of only one single crystal grain was formed within the capillary. Such a self-seeding process supported the emergence of single crystals within the inner wall of the ampoule.

[0188] The foregoing description has been presented for purposes of illustration. It is not exhaustive and is not limited to the precise forms or embodiments disclosed. Modifications and adaptations of the embodiments will be apparent from the specification of the disclosed embodiments and the consideration of practice. For example, although the described implementation includes hardware, the systems and methods consistent with the present disclosure can be implemented using hardware and software. Further, although specific components are described as being coupled to each other, such components may be integrated with each other or distributed in any suitable manner.

[0189] Furthermore, exemplary embodiments are described herein, but the scope includes any and all embodiments having equivalent elements, modifications, omissions, combinations (e.g., of aspects across various embodiments), adaptations, or alterations based on the present disclosure. The elements of the claims should be construed broadly based on the language used in the claims and are not limited to the examples described herein or the examples described during the prosecution of the application, which examples are to be construed as non-exclusive. Further, the steps of the methods of the present disclosure can be changed in any manner including rearrangement of steps, or insertion or deletion of steps.

[0190] The features and advantages of the present disclosure are apparent from the detailed description, and thus the appended claims are intended to cover all systems and methods within the true spirit and scope of the present disclosure. As used herein, the indefinite articles “a” and “an” mean “one or more.” Similarly, the use of plural terms does not necessarily mean plural unless it is ambiguous in a given context. Further, since numerous changes and modifications can readily occur from the study of the present disclosure, it is not desired to limit the present disclosure to the exact structures and operations illustrated and described. Accordingly, all suitable changes and equivalents can be utilized to fall within the scope of the present disclosure.

[0191] As used herein, unless otherwise specifically stated, the term “or” includes all possible combinations except where mutually exclusive. For example, if an element is described as including A or B, then unless otherwise specifically stated or not practicable, the element can include A, or B, or both A and B. As a second example, if an element is described as including A, B, or C, then unless otherwise specifically stated or not practicable, the element can include A, or B, or C, or both A and B, or both A and C, or both B and C, or all of A, B, and C.

[0192] Other embodiments will be apparent from the specification and practice of the embodiments disclosed herein. The specification and examples are intended to be considered only as examples, having the true scope and spirit of the disclosed embodiments as set forth by the following claims.

Claims

**Claim 1** A system for performing non-classical calculations, comprising: at least one host material comprising at least one organic molecule; a plurality of dopant molecules contained in the at least one host material, each dopant molecule comprising a qubit having at least a first qubit state and a second qubit state; each dopant molecule being associated with an electronic energy level structure including a triplet electron manifold; the triplet electron manifold including a first triplet state, a second triplet state, and a third triplet state; the first qubit state including a first linear combination of the first triplet state, the second triplet state, and the third triplet state; the second qubit state including a second linear combination of the first triplet state, the second triplet state, and the third triplet state; the first qubit state being different from the second qubit state; the first qubit state or the second qubit state having a lifetime of at least 25 milliseconds (ms) at a temperature of 4 Kelvin (K) to 20 K; a plurality of dopant molecules, wherein at least one dopant molecule is coupled to at least one other dopant molecule by an electron dipole coupling interaction having a dipole coupling strength of at least 1 kilohertz (kHz). **Claim 2** The system of claim 1, wherein the host material comprises a crystalline host material, a single crystal host material, a polycrystalline host material, a liquid crystal host material, a powder host material, an amorphous host material, or a frozen solution host material. **Claim 3** The system of claim 1, wherein the host material comprises a C4-C20 straight or branched alkane; an aromatic hydrocarbon; a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon optionally substituted with a methylene, carbonyl, imine, or thiocarbonyl group; a diaryl ketone; naphthalene; anthracene; p-terphenyl; benzoic acid; fluorene; biphenyl; benzene; n-hexane; biphenylene; ortho-terphenyl; meta-terphenyl; para-terphenyl; or benzophenone. **Claim 4** The system of claim 1, wherein the host material comprises a thin film having a thickness of at most 20 nanometers (nm). **Claim 5** The system of claim 1, wherein each dopant molecule comprises an organic molecule, an organometallic molecule, or an inorganic composite molecule.

6. The system according to claim 1, wherein each dopant molecule comprises an [n]acene molecule where n is from 2 to 6, a xanthene dye, a thioxanthene dye, a donor-acceptor molecule, an acridine, a pentacene, a pyrene, a diazapentacene, a benzophenone, or a benzopyrazine.

7. The system according to claim 1, wherein the plurality of dopant molecules are arranged in a quasi-two-dimensional (quasi-2D) layer.

8. The system according to claim 1, wherein the at least one dopant molecule is bonded to up to four other dopant molecules by the electron bipolar bond interaction having the bipolar bond strength.

9. The system according to claim 1, wherein the average distance between the dopant molecules is at most 10 nm.

10. The plurality of dopant molecules have a concentration of at least 10 dopant molecules per cubic micrometer (μm ３ ), and are contained in the at least one host material. The system according to claim 1. ６ ​

11. The first dopant molecule of the plurality of dopant molecules is configured to absorb first electromagnetic energy having a first central wavelength or a first central frequency, the second dopant molecule of the plurality of dopant molecules is configured to absorb second electromagnetic energy having a second central wavelength or a second central frequency, The system according to claim 1, wherein the first central wavelength or the first central frequency is different from the second central wavelength or the second central frequency.

12. The first central wavelength or the first central frequency is associated with a first wavelength range or a first frequency range having a first full width at half maximum (FWHM) bandwidth, the second central wavelength or the second central frequency is associated with a second wavelength range or a second frequency range having a second FWHM bandwidth, The system according to claim 11, wherein the first wavelength range or the first frequency range within the first FWHM bandwidth and the second wavelength range or the second frequency range within the second FWHM bandwidth do not overlap.

13. The system according to claim 12, wherein the first FWHM bandwidth or the second FWHM bandwidth is at most 100 megahertz (MHz), and the first central wavelength or the second central wavelength is from 200 nm to 1,000 nm.

14. The system according to claim 11, wherein the first FWHM bandwidth or the second FWHM bandwidth is at most 100 gigahertz (GHz), and the first central frequency or the second central frequency is from 1 MHz to 100 GHz.

15. The system according to claim 1, wherein the triplet electron manifold includes a triplet excited state electron manifold.

16. The system according to claim 15, wherein the triplet electron manifold includes a photoexcited triplet state (PETS) triplet electron manifold.

17. The system according to claim 1, wherein the bipolar binding strength is greater than the reciprocal of the lifetime.

18. The system according to claim 1, further comprising at least one initialization unit configured to direct third electromagnetic energy towards at least one dopant molecule, thereby initializing the quantum state of the at least one dopant molecule to the first qubit state or the second qubit state.

19. The system according to claim 18, wherein the third electromagnetic energy includes at least one wavelength in the range of 200 nm to 1,000 nm.

20. The system according to claim 1, further comprising at least one non-classical operation unit configured to apply fourth electromagnetic energy to at least one dopant molecule, thereby performing at least one non-classical operation on the at least one dopant molecule, wherein the at least one non-classical operation includes at least one quantum operation, at least one quantum computing operation, at least one quantum gate operation, at least one quantum simulation operation, or at least one quantum annealing operation.

21. The system according to claim 20, wherein the fourth electromagnetic energy includes at least one frequency in the range of 1 MHz to 100 GHz.

22. The system according to claim 20, wherein after performing the at least one non-classical operation, the result of the at least one non-classical operation correlates with the electronic state of the at least one dopant molecule.

23. The system according to claim 22, further comprising at least one storage unit configured to apply fifth electromagnetic energy and sixth electromagnetic energy to the at least one dopant molecule, wherein the fifth electromagnetic energy and the sixth electromagnetic energy are jointly configured to transfer information from the electronic state of the at least one dopant molecule to a nuclear spin state.

24. The system according to claim 23, wherein the fifth electromagnetic energy and the sixth electromagnetic energy are configured to jointly apply a swap gate to the at least one dopant molecule, thereby transferring the information from the electronic state to the nuclear spin state of the at least one dopant molecule.

25. The system according to claim 23, wherein the fifth electromagnetic energy includes at least one frequency from 1 kHz to 100 MHz, and the sixth electromagnetic energy includes at least one frequency from 1 MHz to 100 GHz.

26. The system according to claim 1, further comprising at least one detection unit configured to detect the electronic state of the at least one dopant molecule or the nuclear spin state of the at least one dopant molecule, thereby obtaining a result of at least one non-classical operation.

27. The system according to claim 26, wherein the at least one detection unit is configured to apply a seventh electromagnetic energy to the at least one dopant molecule to thereby obtain the result of the at least one non-classical operation, and to detect light emitted by the at least one dopant molecule in response to the seventh electromagnetic energy.

28. The system according to claim 27, wherein the light emitted by the at least one dopant molecule has a first optical property associated with the first qubit state and a second optical property associated with the second qubit state, and the first optical property is different from the second optical property.

29. The system according to claim 28, wherein the first optical property or the second optical property includes the intensity, polarization, wavelength, or frequency of the light.

30. The system according to claim 1, further comprising a cryogenic unit configured to include the at least one host material and cool the at least one host material to a temperature of up to 20 K.

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