Sulfone-based hydrocarbon membranes with decentralized ion-transport channels and carbon coating for a polysulfide-based redox flow battery
Sulfone-based hydrocarbon membranes with decentralized ion transport channels and carbon coating address the polysulfide crossover issue in redox flow batteries, enhancing cycle life and efficiency.
Patent Information
- Application Number
- PCT/CN2024/132675
- Authority / Receiving Office
- WO · WO
- Patent Type
- Applications
- Current Assignee / Owner
- Priority Date
- 2023-12-18
- Filing Date
- 2024-11-18
- Publication Date
- 2025-05-22
AI Technical Summary
Polysulfide-based redox flow batteries suffer from polysulfide crossover, leading to irreversible capacity loss and electrode/membrane passivation, resulting in poor cycle life and inhibiting practical application.
Development of sulfone-based hydrocarbon membranes with decentralized ion transport channels and a carbon coating to mitigate polysulfide crossover while maintaining high ionic conductivity.
The sulfone-based membranes exhibit superior performance in polysulfide-ferrocyanide redox flow batteries, achieving high coulombic efficiency (>99.6%), low capacity decay rate (0.0034% per day), and stable cycling over 1600 cycles.
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Figure CN2024132675_22052025_PF_FP_ABST
Abstract
Description
SULFONE-BASED HYDROCARBON MEMBRANES WITH DECENTRALIZED ION-TRANSPORT CHANNELS AND CARBON COATING FOR A POLYSULFIDE-BASED REDOX FLOW BATTERY
[0001] CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION
[0002] The present application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application Serial No. 63 / 599,593, filed November 16, 2023; and U.S. Provisional Application Serial No. 63 / 611,263, filed December 18, 2023, the disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
[0003] Developing grid-scale energy storage systems is imperative to achieving massive deployment of renewable energies. 1, 2. Aqueous redox flow batteries (ARFBs) are one of the most promising technologies for large-scale grid storage owing to their intrinsic safety, flexible design and long lifespan3, 4, 5. Vanadium redox flow batteries (VRFBs) are the most well-developed ARFBs, however, the high cost (US$89.4 kAh–1) . and limited resources of vanadium limit its widespread deployments. Polysulfide-based redox flow batteries (PSFBs) 6, 7, 8 are particularly attractive emerging flow battery systems owing to the ultra-low-cost of polysulfide (US$0.15 kAh–1) and large abundance (54 x106 tons per year) . The major challenge of PSFBs is polysulfide crossover, leading to irreversible capacity loss, and electrode / membrane passivation resulting from polysulfide oxidation to insulating solid sulfur. These root causes lead to poor cycle life (<50 cycles) and inhibit practical application of PSFBs9, 10, 11. A modified commercial perfluorosulfonic acid-based membrane (NafionTM, e.g., Nafion117 or N117, The Chemours Company, Wilmington, DE, USA) has been shown to effectively mitigated the crossover of polysulfide12 (Li, Z. & Lu, Y. -C. Nature Energy 2021, 6, 517-528) . However, the high cost of fluorinated NafionTM membrane ($800 - $3500 m–2) remains a strong inhibitory factor for commercial applications.
[0004] Ion-exchange membranes, playing a vital role on ion transport and ion selection between posolyte and negolyte, are expected to provide high ionic conductivity while restraining crossover of active species13. When the polymer molecules stack and self-assemble to construct a polymer matrix, microphase separation is presented14. For instance, the formation mechanism of ion-transport channels in Nafion is shown in FIG. 1A. Hydrophobic perfluorinated backbone and hydrophilic sulfonic acid groups tend to be separated and create a hydrophobic domain and a hydrophilic domain. These hydrophilic domains among a polymer matrix connect with each other and build continuous water channels for ion transport across the membrane. Such centralized cluster-network leads to oversized ion transport channels in the Nafion membrane, leading to high ionic conductivity but poor ion selectivity15.
[0005] BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
[0006] Embodiments provide a series of novel and advantageous sulfone-based hydrocarbon membranes with decentralized ion transport channels and carbon coating to obtain “small but many” ion-transport channels to mitigate polysulfide crossover without sacrificing ionic conductivity. In certain embodiments the size and distribution of ion-transport channels can be tuned via microphase separation in the polymer matrix by controlling the co-monomers and degree of sulfonation. Thanks to hydrophilic sulfonic acid groups (-SO3H) and sulfone groups (-SO2-) and a rigid aromatic backbone, the sulfone-based membranes exhibit high water absorption (e.g., high ionic conductivity) with a strong structural stability (e.g., low swelling ratio) . Small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) and atomic force microscopy (AFM) have been used to characterize the size and distribution of ion transport channels of the provided membranes according to certain embodiments of the subject invention. The developed low-cost sulfone-based membrane (e.g., 12 $ m–2) show a much superior flow battery performance compared to the commercial fluorinated Nafion (e.g., 800-3500 $ m–2) 16, enabling stable cycling a full polysulfide-ferrocyanide (S-Fe) redox flow battery (RFB) with a high coulombic efficiency (e.g., >99.6%) and low capacity decay rate (e.g., 0.0034%per day) at 20 mA cm–2 over 1600 cycles (e.g., > 6 months) .
[0007] An embodiment is to a polysulfide-based redox flow battery employing a sulfonated sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane having many decentralized ion transport channels. The sulfonated sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane can incorporate at least one polysulfone selected from the group consisting of sulfonated poly (ether sulfone) (SPES) , sulfonated poly (sulfone) (SPSF) , sulfonated poly (phenylene sulfone) (SPPSU) , sulfonated poly (arylene sulfide sulfone) (SPSS) , and sulfonated poly (arylene ether sulfone) (SPAES) . The polysulfone has a rigid hydrophobic aromatic polymer backbone with a plurality of aromatic rings, each ring comprising a plurality of hydrogens, where one or more hydrogens is substituted by a sulfonate or sulfonic acid group. The degree of sulfonation can be at least 10%, at least 30%or at least 50%. The sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane can have a thickness less than 190 μm. The sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane has a surface modification effective to control swelling of the sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane. The surface modification can be a carbon coating layer.
[0008] In embodiments a sulfonated sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane useful in a redox flow battery has a plurality of decentralized ion transport channels having a water channels density of about 0.85 g cm-3 and exhibiting an average of about 3 hydrophilic domains per nm2 and where the sulfonated poly (ether sulfone) (SPES) has a sulfonation degree of about 30%and a thickness of about 150 μm with a diameter of a water cluster in the membrane being about 1.65 nm. This sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane has a water / electrolye absorption of about 14%in water, about 13%in 1M KOH, and about 12%in KCl aqueous solution with a swelling ratio of about 23%in water, about 19%in KOH, and about 19%in 1M KCl aqueous solution, a tensile strength of about 32 MPa, and an elongation at break of about 200%. This sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane can have a coating formed from a slurry comprising about 50 mg KB, about 6 mg PTFE, and (IPA: water) in a volume ratio of about 7: 3 to have a coating layer with a thickness of about 10 μm on each side of the membrane with a KB loading of about 0.23 mg cm-2.
[0009] In an embodiment, a polysulfide-ferrocyanide redox flow battery includes a posolyte of 0.5M K4 [Fe (CN) 6] and 1M KCl supporting electrolyte, a negolyte of 1M K2S4 in 1M KOH solution with 50mM FMN-Na as a molecular catalysts, a sulfonated poly (ether sulfone) (SPES) membrane exhibiting a coulombic efficiency (CE) of at least about 99.4%, an energy efficiency (EE) of at least about 83.1%at a current density of about 20 mA cm-2, with a cycle life greater than 1000 hours and a capacity decay rate of less than about 0.0004%per cycle or less than about 0.0034%per day. The polysulfide-ferrocyanide redox flow battery can have a sulfonated poly (ether sulfone) (SPES) membrane with a carbon coating layer to exhibit a CE of at least about 99.9%, an EE of at least about 82.2%at a current density of about 20 mA cm-2, a cycle life greater than about 6 months, and a capacity decay rate of less than about 0.0004%per cycle, or of less than about 0.0032%per day.
[0010] An embodiment is directed to a method for making a sulfonated sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane useful in a redox flow battery where a sulfonated poly (ether sulfone) (SPES) polymer powder is dried at about 50℃ for about 6 hours to make a dried SPES powder and dissolved in DMAC (N, N-Dimethylacetamide) to form a 30 wt. %SPES casting solution at a temperature of about 25, where the SPES casting solution is deposited and spread with a doctor blade on a glass plate to form a wet film with a thickness of about 800 μm, followed by drying at about 80℃ for at least about 8 hours to form an SPES film, and peeled from the membrane having a thickness of about 150 μm that is soaked in deionized (DI) water. The sulfonated sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane can then be further process by soaking the SPES membrane in 5 wt. %H2SO4 aqueous solution for at least 1 hour at about 80℃, cooling the SPES membrane to about 25℃, washing the SPES membrane with DI water followed by soaking in DI water for at least 1 hour at about 25℃, soaking the SPES membrane in 1M aqueous KOH for at least 2 hours at about 80℃, cooling the SPES membrane to about 25℃, and washing the SPES membrane with DI water followed by soaking in DI water for at least 1 hour at about 25℃ to produce the SPES membrane having a final thickness between about 150 to about 155 μm. The SPES membrane can then be further processed by wiping the SPES membrane to remove excess liquid, sandwiching the SPES membrane between two PTFE gaskets, creating a slurry comprising 50 mg KB, 0.15 ml 5%PTFE dispersion solution, 3.5 ml IPA and 1.5 ml DI water and applying the slurry on each side of the SPES membrane as a coating of about 110 μL, followed by heating and drying the SPES membrane, gaskets and slurry in an oven at about 80℃ for at least 12 hours, and storing the SPES membrane in DI water for at least 24 hours prior to usage.BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
[0011] The patent or application file contains at least one drawing executed in color. Copies of this patent or patent application publication with color drawing (s) will be provided by the Office upon request and payment of the necessary fee.
[0012] FIG. 1A illustrates phase separation behavior used to form ion transport channels, according to an embodiment showing polymeric self-assembling centralized ion transport channels of a Nafion membrane.
[0013] FIG. 1B illustrates a decentralized ion transport channels adjusted by co-monomer for a sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane, according to embodiments.
[0014] FIG. 1C illustrates of co-monomers for inclusion in the sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane of FIG. 1B, according to embodiments.
[0015] FIG. 1D shows structures a decentralized ion transport channels, according to embodiments, depending on the co-monomer of FIG. 1C for a sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane, according to embodiments.
[0016] FIG. 2A illustrates comparison of water / electrolyte uptake in three different aqueous solutions for three ion selective membranes according to embodiments and N117.
[0017] FIG. 2B illustrates swelling ratio of three ion selective membranes according to embodiments and N117 in three different aqueous solutions.
[0018] FIG. 2C illustrates water channels density of polymer matrix for three ion selective membranes according to embodiments and N117.
[0019] FIG. 2D illustrates small-angle X-ray scattering profiles of three ion selective membranes according to embodiments and N117, where the indicated measurement, d, represented the Bragg spacing.
[0020] FIG. 2E illustrates AFM tapping mode phase images of N117 and S30, where the dark regions presented hydrophilic domains of polymer matrix.
[0021] FIG. 2F illustrates area specific resistance (ASR) of three ion selective membranes according to embodiments and N117 measured in two different electrolyte solutions.
[0022] FIG. 2G illustrates permeability of polysulfide ions across three ion selective membranes according to embodiments and N117, where the diffusion rate was tested at room temperature.
[0023] FIG. 2H illustrates mechanical properties of three ion selective membranes according to embodiments and N117 including tensile strength and elongation.
[0024] FIG. 3A illustrates open circuit voltage curves of S30, according to an embodiment, and N117 membranes.
[0025] FIG. 3B illustrate voltage profiles of S30, according to an embodiment, during a charge-discharge cycling test at current density of 20 mA cm-2.
[0026] FIG. 3C illustrate voltage profiles of N117 during a charge-discharge cycling test at current density of 20 mA cm-2.
[0027] FIG. 3D illustrates cell performance of S30, according to an embodiment, (red, >1100 hours) and N117 (blue, ~250 hours) membrane for long-term cycling measurement.
[0028] FIG. 4A schematically illustrates an aqueous polysulfide-ferrocyanide redox flow battery according to an embodiment.
[0029] FIG. 4B illustrates galvanostatic voltage profiles of a modified Nafion-based membrane.
[0030] FIG. 4C illustrates galvanostatic voltage profiles of a modified SPES-based membrane, according to an embodiment.
[0031] FIG. 4D illustrates a comparison of voltage profiles of modified Nafion-based (N117-C) and SPES-based membrane (S30-C) , according to an embodiment, at current density of 20 mA cm-2 (solid lines) and 50 mA cm-2 (dotted lines) .
[0032] FIG. 4E shows an optical photograph of an aqueous polysulfide-ferrocyanide redox flow battery according to an embodiment, as schematically illustrated in 4A.
[0033] FIG. 4F illustrates cell performance of a modified SPES-based membrane according to an embodiment with energy efficiency recovery procedure for 180 days at current density of 20 mA cm-2.
[0034] FIG. 5 illustrates a comparison of ion exchange capacity (IEC) of Nafion resin and various sulfonated sulfone-based hydrocarbon polymers according to embodiments.
[0035] FIG. 6A illustrate water / electrolyte uptake in membranes according to embodiments and that of an N117 membrane.
[0036] FIG. 6B illustrates the swelling ratio of Nafion117 and sulfonated polyethersulfone (SPES) , according to embodiments, with different degree of sulfonation.
[0037] FIG. 6C illustrates a comparison of water / electrolyte uptake of membranes, according to an embodiment, and N117 with and without modification.
[0038] FIG. 6D illustrates a comparison of the swelling ratio for membranes, according to an embodiment, and N117 with and without modification.
[0039] FIG. 7A is a digital image of cell components for testing with membranes according to embodiments.
[0040] FIG. 7B is a digital image of an assembled cell, according to embodiments, for electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) testing.
[0041] FIG. 7C is an equivalent circuit model for fitting the Nyquist plots17 for cell as illustrated in FIG. 7B.
[0042] FIG. 7D illustrates a Nyquist plot of a cell including a S10 membrane, according to an embodiment.
[0043] FIG. 8A illustrate differences in the area specific resistance (ASR) for membranes with different co-monomer, according to embodiments, and N117.
[0044] FIG. 8B illustrate differences in ASR for membranes with different degree of sulfonation (DS) according to embodiments, and N117.
[0045] FIG. 8C illustrate differences in ASR for modified membranes, according to embodiments, and N117.
[0046] FIG. 8D illustrate differences in ionic conductivity for membranes with different co-monomer, according to embodiments, and N117.
[0047] FIG. 8E illustrates differences in ionic conductivity for membranes with different degree of sulfonation (DS) according to embodiments, and N117.
[0048] FIG. 8F illustrates differences in ionic conductivity for modified membranes, according to embodiments, and N117.
[0049] FIG. 9A illustrates standard UV-visible spectra of aqueous K2S2 in 1.0 M KOH solutions.
[0050] FIG. 9B is a linear fitting curve of absorbance at 300 nm for the concentration of K2S2 in 1.0 M KOH aqueous solution.
[0051] FIG. 9C illustrates standard UV-visible spectra of aqueous K2S4 in 1.0 M KOH solutions.
[0052] FIG. 9D is a linear fitting curve of absorbance at 300 nm for the concentration K2S4 in 1.0 M KOH aqueous solution.
[0053] FIG. 10A illustrates standard UV-visible spectra of aqueous K4 [Fe (CN) 6] in 1.0 M KOH solutions18.
[0054] FIG. 10B is a linear fitting curve of absorbance at 300 nm for the concentration K4 [Fe (CN) 6] in 1.0 M KOH aqueous solution18.
[0055] FIG. 10C illustrates standard UV-visible spectra of aqueous K3 [Fe (CN) 6] in 1.0 M KOH solutions18.
[0056] FIG. 10D is a linear fitting curve of absorbance at 300 nm for the concentration K3 [Fe (CN) 6] in 1.0 M KOH aqueous solution18.
[0057] FIG. 11A illustrates the permeability of S22-ion of sulfone-based membranes with different degree of sulfonation, according to embodiments, and N117.
[0058] FIG. 11B illustrates the permeability of S22-ion of sulfone-based membranes with and without surface modification, according to embodiments, and N117.
[0059] FIG. 12A illustrates a SEM image of the surface of S30 membrane, according to an embodiment, before soaking in a aqueous solution.
[0060] FIG. 12B illustrates a SEM image of the surface of S30 membrane, according to an embodiment, after soaking in 1M K2S2─1M KOH for 40 days.
[0061] FIG. 12C illustrates a SEM image of the surface of S30 membrane, according to an embodiment, after soaking in 1M K2S4─1M KOH for 40 days.
[0062] FIG. 12D illustrates a SEM image of the surface of S30 membrane, according to an embodiment, after soaking in 0.5M K4 [Fe (CN) 6] ─1M KCl for 40 days.
[0063] FIG. 12E illustrates a SEM image of the surface of S30 membrane, according to an embodiment, after soaking in 0.5M K3 [Fe (CN) 6] ─1M KCl for 40 days.
[0064] FIG. 12F illustrates a SEM image of the surface of S30 membrane, according to an embodiment, after soaking in 50mM riboflavin sodium phosphate (FMN-Na) for 40 days.
[0065] FIG. 13 illustrates FTIR spectra of S30 membrane, according to an embodiment, before and after contact with K2S2, K2S4, K4 [Fe (CN) 6] , and K3 [Fe (CN) 6] solutions.
[0066] FIG. 14A illustrate an SEM images of the surface of a S30-C membrane, according to an embodiment, at a relatively low magnification.
[0067] FIG. 14B illustrate an SEM images of the surface of a S30-C membrane, according to an embodiment, at a higher magnification than FIG. 14A.
[0068] FIG. 14C illustrate an SEM images of the surface of a S30-C membrane, according to an embodiment, at a relatively high magnification.
[0069] FIG. 14D illustrate an SEM images of the surface of a N117-C membrane at a relatively low magnification.
[0070] FIG. 14E illustrate an SEM images of the surface of a N117-C membrane at a higher magnification than FIG. 14D.
[0071] FIG. 14F illustrate an SEM images of the surface of a N117-C membrane at a relatively high magnification.
[0072] FIG. 15A illustrate an SEM images of a cross-section of a S30-C membrane, according to an embodiment, at a relatively low magnification.
[0073] FIG. 15B illustrate an SEM images of a cross-section of a S30-C membrane, according to an embodiment, at a higher magnification than FIG. 15A.
[0074] FIG. 15C illustrate an SEM images of a cross-section of a S30-C membrane, according to an embodiment, at a relatively high magnification.
[0075] FIG. 15D illustrate an SEM images of a cross-section of a N117-C membrane at a relatively low magnification.
[0076] FIG. 15E illustrate an SEM images of a cross-section of a N117-C membrane at a higher magnification than FIG. 15D.
[0077] FIG. 15F illustrate an SEM images of a cross-section of a N117-C membrane at a relatively high magnification.
[0078] FIG. 16A illustrate an energy dispersive spectrometer (EDS) image of the cross-section of S30-C membrane according to certain embodiments of the subject invention.
[0079] FIG. 16B illustrate a portion of the energy dispersive spectrometer (EDS) image FIG. 16A at a greater magnification.
[0080] FIG. 17A illustrates cell performance of sulfone-based membrane for with different co-monomer compositions, according to embodiments, and N117, where the coulombic efficiency (CE) and the energy efficiency (EE) of membranes are plotted at different current densities.
[0081] FIG. 17B illustrates the voltage profile of N117 and sulfone-based membrane, according to embodiments, at a current density of 20 mA cm-2.
[0082] FIG. 17C illustrates Nyquist plots for cells assembled with various membranes, according to embodiments, and N117.
[0083] FIG. 18A illustrate coulombic efficiency (CE) and energy efficiency (EE) of cell with membranes having different degree of sulfonation, according to embodiments, and N117 at different current densities.
[0084] FIG. 18B illustrate coulombic efficiency (CE) and energy efficiency (EE) of cell with a membrane, according to embodiments, and N117 having surface modification at different current densities.
[0085] FIG. 19 illustrates a SEM for a plicated or folded structure polymer matrix membrane structure associated with low Ra (e.g., less than 7) according to an embodiment where the ionic permeability of S22-of membrane is larger than 2 ×10-8 cm2 min-1.
[0086] FIG. 20A illustrates a coating layer, according to an embodiment, with defects associated with high Ra (e.g., large than 17) with a loading of carbon powder of less than 0.1 g cm-2 after flushing by water.
[0087] FIG. 20B illustrates a coating layer, according to an embodiment, without defects associated with high Ra (e.g., large than 17) with a loading of carbon powder of less than 0.1 g cm-2 after flushing by water.
[0088] DETAILED DISCLOSURE OF THE INVENTION
[0089] Embodiments of the subject invention provide a series of sulfone-based hydrocarbon membranes with decentralized ion transport channels and carbon coating to obtain many small ion-transport channels to mitigate polysulfide crossover without sacrificing ionic conductivity. In embodiments, sulfone-based hydrocarbon membranes comprise hydrophilic sulfonic acid groups and co-monomers that form a hydrophobic backbone and hydrophilic side chain. Viable hydrophilic sulfone monomers in embodiments include, but are not limited to: sulfone, 3, 3’-diphenyl-4, 4’-diphenyl sulfone, 3, 3’, 5, 5’-tetraphenyl-4, 4’-difluorodiphenyl sulfone and dibenzo [b, d] thiophene sulfone. Viable hydrophobic sulfone monomers of the backbones for use with embodiments of the subject invention can include, but is not limited to, those that result in a: poly (sulfone) (PSF) , poly (ether sulfone) (PES) , poly (phenylene sulfone) (PPSU) , poly (arylene sulfide sulfone) (PSS) , and poly (arylene ether sulfone) (PAES) . Copolymers with the sulfonated sulfone are indicated as SPPSU, SPSF, and SPES in FIG. 1D, are represented herein as ‘P’, ‘F’ and ‘S’ , respectively throughout the figures where numbers after the letter represented the degree of sulfonation of polymer. Viable co-monomers for use with embodiments can include, but are not limited to monomers with functionality including: sulfone, bisphenol, hexafluoro bisphenol A, ether, ketone, imidazole, imide and ester.
[0090] Degrees of sulfonation in the membranes can be, but are not limited to, between 10%and 50%. The number of sulfonic acid groups in a side chain, degree of sulfonation (DS) , influences the properties of membrane. Membranes with a DS of 10%, 30%and 50%were experimentally examined, though embodiments include those with a DS less than 10%, a DS greater than 50%, and any DS within the range between 10%and 50%can be employed. For example, DS can be from 29%to 31%, from 25%to 35%, from 20%to 40%, or from 1%to 99%, including increments, combinations, and ranges of any of the foregoing.
[0091] Decentralized ion transport channels are observed with: (a) sulfonated poly (ether sulfone) , sulfonation degree = 30%, membrane thickness = 160 μm; (b) sulfonated poly (sulfone) , sulfonation degree = 35%, membrane thickness = 180 μm; (c) sulfonated poly (phenylene sulfone) , sulfonation degree = 25%, membrane thickness = 145 μm; (d) sulfonated poly (arylene sulfide sulfone) , sulfonation degree = 33%, membrane thickness = 195 μm; and (e) sulfonated poly (arylene sulfide sulfone) , sulfonation degree = 20%, membrane thickness = 125 μm. The membranes can be carbon coated with the coating can be carried out with coating compositions including carbon powder, solvent, and binder, where: carbon can be, but is not limited to, KB (Ketjen black) , CNT (carbon nano tube) , or AC (active carbon) ; solvent can be, but is not limited to, NMP (1-Methyl-2-pyrrolidinone) , DMF (N, N-Dimethylformamide) , DMAC (N, N-Dimethylacetamide) , IPA (2-Propanol) , Ethanol, Acetone, Water, or any combination thereof; and binder can be, but is not limited to, PVDF (Polyvinylidene Fluoride) , PVDF-HFP (Polyvinylidene Fluoride-co-hexafluoropropylene) , PVA (Polyvinyl alcohol) and PTFE (Polytetrafluoroethylene) . The carbon coating layer can be, but s not limited to, about 5-10 μm on one or both side of membrane surface. The carbon powder loading can be, but is not limited to, about 0.23mg cm-2 and the weight ratio of carbon powder to binder can be, but is not limited to, about 8: 1. Smooth and uniform exemplary coatings have been produced using: a co-solvent of water and ethanol = 3: 7 (volume ratio) , carbon powder of KB, and binder of PTFE; water and NMP = 5: 5, carbon powder of CNT, and binder of PVDF; (c) solvent of acetone, carbon powder of AC, and binder of PVDF-HFP; and (d) co-solvent of DMF and IPA = 1: 9, carbon powder of KB, and binder of PTFE. (e) co-solvent of ethanol and IPA = 4: 6, carbon powder of CNT, and binder of PVA. The surface of these membranes are smooth and uniform, as shown in FIGs. 15A-15C.
[0092] In embodiments many small ion-transport channels are formed where the diameter of water clusters is smaller than 1.7 nm. The water channels density, defined as the ratio of weight change to volume change of membrane hydrated in pure water, is larger than 0.5 g cm-3, which mitigates polysulfide crossover without sacrificing ionic conductivity. The size and distribution of ion-transport channels formed via microphase separation in the polymer matrix can be tuned by controlling the co-monomers and degree of sulfonation of the polymers used to form the membranes. Exemplary co-monomers, FIG. 1C, were used to form various sulfone-based hydrocarbon polymer with controlled ratios of sulfonated monomers and non-sulfonated monomers, where, for example, with a value of x in FIG. 1B of 0.3, the degree of sulfonation is considered to be 30%for this tuned sulfonation degree. The range of the sulfonation degree was also tuned to be 10%and 50%, but the sulfonation degree is not limited to these values. The sulfonation degree can be measured by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and related by the ion exchange capacity (IEC) . The size and distribution of ion-transport channels can be characterized via small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) and atomic force microscopy (AFM) . Membrane are readily fabricated using, but are not limited to, solution casting methods.
[0093] Hydrophilic sulfonic acid and / or sulfonate groups and sulfone groups with a rigid aromatic backbone in embodiments, result in sulfone-based membranes exhibit high water absorption and high ionic conductivity, for example, but not limited to, water absorption of 7%to 36%and ionic conductivity of 0.1 to 20 mS cm-1 in 1M KOH aqueous solution. Where in exemplary membrane compositions, 10%to 15%water absorbance with ion conductivities 4 to 10 mS cm-1 were advantageous for polysulfide-based redox flow battery. As indicated in FIG. 1D, using the co-monomers of FIG. 1C, the following exemplary membranes displayed advantageous water absorption and ion conductivities, including: SPES (degree of sulfonation = 30%) , water absorption: 14.2%, ionic conductivity: 6.3 mS cm-1; SPSF (degree of sulfonation = 30%) , water absorption: 12.4%, ionic conductivity: 5.3 mS cm-1; SPPSU (degree of sulfonation = 30%) , water absorption: 10.7%, ionic conductivity: 5.2 mS cm-1, SPSS (degree of sulfonation = 25%) , water absorption: 9.4%, ionic conductivity: 4.9 mS cm-1; and SPAES (degree of sulfonation = 35%) , water absorption: 15.6%, ionic conductivity: 6.7 mS cm-1; These membranes displayed strong structural stability with low swelling ratio 3%to 40%, with 12%to 22%being advantageous in certain embodiments, for example: SPES (degree of sulfonation = 30%) , has a swelling ratio of 22.9%in pure water, 19.4%in 1M KOH aqueous solution, and 18.7%in 1M KCl aqueous solution; SPSF (degree of sulfonation = 30%) has a swelling ratio of 21.6%in pure water, 19.4%in 1M KOH aqueous solution, and 18.1%in 1M KCl aqueous solution; and SPES (degree of sulfonation = 10%) has a swelling ratio of 13.1%in pure water, 10.3%in 1M KOH aqueous solution, and 9.7%in 1M KCl aqueous solution.
[0094] Small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) and atomic force microscopy (AFM) of these exemplary membranes demonstrated diameters of water cluster: 1.20 nm to 1.70 nm. For example: SPPSU (degree of sulfonation = 30%) : 1.57 nm; SPSF (degree of sulfonation = 30%) : 1.62 nm; SPES (degree of sulfonation = 30%) : 1.65 nm, SPSS (degree of sulfonation = 25%) : 1.42 nm, and SPAES (degree of sulfonation = 35%) : 1.70 nm. These exemplary membranes display a distribution of 1-5 hydrophilic domains in 1 nm2 of their AFM image. For example, SPES (degree of sulfonation = 30%) has 3 hydrophilic domains in 1 nm2; SPSF (degree of sulfonation = 30%) has 2 hydrophilic domains in 1 nm2; and SPPSU (degree of sulfonation = 30%) has 1 hydrophilic domains in 1 nm2. These ion transport channels in these membranes provide the advantageous high ionic conductivity and low crossover of active species.
[0095] These sulfone-based membrane are low cost, at approximately $12 m–2, yet show superior flow battery performance compared to the commercial fluorinated Nafion that cost $800-3500 m–2. The membranes, according to embodiments, enable stable cycling a full polysulfide-ferrocyanide (S-Fe) redox flow battery (RFB) with a high coulombic efficiency (e.g., >99.9%) and low capacity decay rate (e.g., 0.0034%per day) at 20 mA cm–2 over 1600 cycles (e.g., > 6 months) . Their costs and performances, with comparisons to state of the art N117 membranes, are presented in Table 1 and Table 2, respectively, below.
[0096] These membranes can be included in other applications including, but not limited to: iron-chromium RFB systems; alkaline zinc-iron RFB systems; zinc-manganese RFB systems; tin-based RFB systems; lead-based RFB systems; alkaline quinone-based RFB systems, non-aqueous RFB systems (where redox active species are non-oxidizing and non-corrosive) ; proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) ; nitrate reduction process; water electrolysis; and gas separation.
[0097] Table 1: Cost comparison
[0098] Table 2: Performance Comparison
[0099] FIGs. 1A-1D show different phase separation behaviors used to form ion transport channels. FIG. 1A illustrates polymeric self-assembling centralized ion transport channels of a Nafion membrane. Commercial Nafion membrane provides a hydrophobic backbone (-CF2-) and hydrophilic sulfonic acid groups (-SO3H) . Microphase separation can lead to centralized ion transport channels among polymer chains. FIGs. 1B-1D illustrate decentralized ion transport channels adjusted by sulfonate or sulfonic acid portions of the sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane according to certain embodiments of the subject invention. Hydrophilic sulfone group (-SO2-) decrease the degree of microphase separation, leading to decentralized ion transport channels.
[0100] FIGs. 2A-2H illustrate certain properties and characterizations of ion selective membranes according to embodiments. FIG. 2A illustrates comparison of water / electrolyte uptake in three different aqueous solutions, as pure water, 1M KOH aqueous solution and 1M KCl aqueous solution (e.g., the water uptake of SPES30 is 14.2%, while that of commercial Nafion N117 is 10.7%) . FIG. 2B illustrates swelling ratio of membranes in pure water, 1M KOH and 1M KCl aqueous solutions. Embodiments comprising sulfone-based hydrocarbon membranes show lower swelling ratio than N117. FIG. 2C illustrates water channels density of polymer matrix. (e.g., the water channels density of SPES30, SPSF30 and SPPSU30 is 0.85, 0.76 and 0.73 g cm-3, respectively, while that of N117 is 0.70 g cm-3) . FIG. 2D illustrates small-angle X-ray scattering profiles of membranes, where the indicated measurement, d, represented the Bragg spacing in each respective case. FIG. 2E illustrates AFM tapping mode phase images of N117 and S30. The dark regions presented hydrophilic domains of polymer matrix. FIG. 2F illustrates area specific resistance (ASR) of membrane measured in two different electrolyte solutions (1M KOH and 1M KCl aqueous solutions) . (e.g., S30 (2.39 Ω cm2 in 1M KOH) is comparable with N117 (2.33 Ω cm2 in 1M KOH) ) FIG. 2G illustrates permeability of polysulfide ions across each respective membrane. The diffusion rate was tested at room temperature. FIG. 2H illustrates mechanical properties of each respective membrane including tensile strength and elongation at break. Embodiments comprising sulfone-based hydrocarbon membranes possess higher tensile strength than Nafion N117. (e.g., the tensile strength of N117 and S30 is 18.8 and 32.2 MPa, respectively) .
[0101] FIGS. 3A-3D show electrochemical measurement and cell performance of membranes according to embodiments. FIG. 3A gives open circuit voltage vs time curves of S30 and N117 membranes. FIGs. 3B-3C are voltage profiles of S30 and N117 membranes, respectively, during charge-discharge cycling test at current density of 20 mA cm-2. The N117 membrane shows increasing overpotential and fast capacity fading within less than 100 cycles, while S30 membrane showed high cycling stability with negligible changes on the voltage profile. FIG. 3D illustrates cell performance of a S30 membrane through 1100 hours and a N117 membrane until degradation at 250 hours membrane for long-term cycling measurement.
[0102] FIGs. 4A-4F indicate how surface modification enhances cycling stability, according to embodiments. FIG. 4A schematically illustrates an aqueous polysulfide-ferrocyanide redox flow battery, according to an embodiment. FIGs. 4B-4D illustrate voltage profiles of modified membranes for varied current densities from 10 to 50 mA cm-2. FIG. 4B illustrates galvanostatic voltage profiles of a modified Nafion-based membrane. FIG. 4C illustrates galvanostatic voltage profiles of modified SPES-based membrane. FIG. 4D illustrates a comparison of voltage profiles of modified Nafion-based (N117-C) and SPES-based membrane (S30-C) at current density of 20 mA cm-2 (solid lines) and 50 mA cm-2 (dotted lines) . FIG. 4E shows an optical photograph of an aqueous polysulfide-ferrocyanide redox flow battery according to an embodiment that is organize as schematically illustrated in FIG. 4A. FIG. 4F plots cell performance of a modified SPES-based membrane according to an embodiment with energy efficiency recovery procedure for 180 days at current density of 20 mA cm-2.
[0103] FIG. 5 compares the ion exchange capacity (IEC) of Nafion resin and various sulfonated sulfone-based hydrocarbon polymers according to embodiments.
[0104] FIGs. 6A-6D are bar charts of the water / electrolyte uptake and swelling ratio of membranes according to certain embodiments of the subject invention relative to N117. FIG. 6A shows the difference in water / electrolyte uptake with membrane composition while FIG. 6B gives the swelling ratios of Nafion117 and sulfonated polyethersulfone (SPES) of different degree of sulfonation. FIG. 6C compares water / electrolyte uptake and FIG. 6D swelling ratio of Nafion117, S30, and surface modified membranes.
[0105] FIGs. 7A-7B shows digital photographic images of cell components and the resulting assembled cell for EIS testing with the cell’s equivalent circuit model for fitting the Nyquist plots of FIG. 7D for an S10 membrane.
[0106] FIGs. 8A-8F are bar charts for area specific resistance (ASR) and ionic conductivity in membranes according to embodiments, where: 8A shows ASR of membranes with different co-monomers; 8B shows membranes with different degree of sulfonation (DS) ; 8C shows modified membranes; 8D shows ionic conductivities of membranes with different co-monomers; 8E shows membranes with different DS; and 8F shows ionic conductivities of membranes that are surface modified.
[0107] FIG. 9A shows a composite plot of standard UV-visible spectra of aqueous K2S2 in 1.0 M KOH solution of increasing concentration for employment is RFBs prepared according to embodiments where absorbances at 300 nm of these spectra are linear fitted to concentration. In like manner, FIGs. 9C-9D show UV-visible absorption spectra for K2S4 with different concentrations in 1.0 M KOH aqueous solution and the linear fitting curve of absorbance at 300 nm, respectively. In like manner, FIGs. 10A-10D show spectra and plots at 323.4 nm and 420.9 nm for aqueous K4 [Fe (CN) 6] ·and K3 [Fe (CN) 6] in 1.0 M KCl solution. according to certain embodiments of the subject invention. UV-visible absorption spectrum of (10A) K4 [Fe (CN) 6] and (10C) K3 [Fe (CN) 6] , respectively.
[0108] FIGs. 11A-11B are plots of the difference in permeability of S22-ion for sulfone-based membrane with different degree of sulfonation and like membranes with and without surface modification. respectively.
[0109] FIGs. 12A-12F show SEM images of surface of S30 membrane before (12A) and after 40 day soaking in 1M K2S2─1M KOH (12B) , 1M K2S4─1M KOH (12C) , 0.5M K4 [Fe (CN) 6] ─1M KCl (12D) , 0.5M K3 [Fe (CN) 6] ─1M KCl (12E) and 50mM FMN-Na (12F) .
[0110] FIG. 13 illustrates a composite FTIR spectra of a S30 membrane alone and in the negolyte and posolytes.
[0111] FIGs. 14A-14C are SEM images of surface of a S30-C membrane with different magnifications and FIGs. 14D-14F are SEM images of surface of a N117-C membrane with different magnifications. Likewise, FIGs. 15A-15C are SEM images of cross-section of S30-C membrane with different magnifications and FIGs. 15D-15F are SEM images of cross-section of N117-C membrane with different magnifications. FIGS. 16A-16B show SEM images and the energy dispersive spectrometer (EDS) images of cross-section of a S30-C membrane at one magnification and a greater magnification, respectively.
[0112] FIG. 17A is a composite plot of coulombic efficiency (CE) and a composite plot of energy efficiency (EE) of membranes with various comonomers. FIG. 17B shows a voltage profile of N117 and various sulfone-based membranes at current density of 20 mA cm-2, where an insert is a magnification of the plots . FIG. 17C is a comparison of the Nyquist plot of cell assembled with, from left to right, N117, S30, F30, and P30.
[0113] FIGs. 18A-18B are plots of cell performance of coulombic efficiency (CE) and energy efficiency (EE) vs current density for N117 and membranes according to embodiments at different degrees of sulfonation and when surface modified, respectively.
[0114] FIG. 19 shows and SEM of a plicated or folded structure polymer matrix membrane structure associated with low Ra (below 7) according to an embodiment of the subject invention. The ionic permeability of S22-of the membrane of low Ra is larger than 2 ×10-8 cm2 min-1.
[0115] FIGs. 20A-20B are digital photographs of membranes with coating layers with and without defects, respectively, that are associated with high Ra (larger than 17) according to embodiments. The loading of carbon powder is less than 0.1 g cm-2 after flushing by water.
[0116] MATERIALS AND METHODS
[0117] All patents, patent applications, provisional applications, and publications referred to or cited herein are incorporated by reference in their entirety, including all figures and tables, to the extent they are not inconsistent with the explicit teachings of this specification.
[0118] Following are examples that illustrate procedures for practicing the invention. These examples should not be construed as limiting. All percentages are by weight and all solvent mixture proportions are by volume unless otherwise noted.
[0119] EXAMPLE 1 -Decentralized ion transport channel design
[0120] To systematically illustrate the critical role of the polymer building blocks and how they affect the connectivity of hydrophilic regions in sulfone-based membranes, three different co-monomers have been investigated, including bisphenol, hexafluoro bisphenol A, and diphenyl sulfone. Because of π-π stacking19 or the development of charge-transfer complexes20, the sulfonated polyphenylenesulfone (SPPSU) exhibited a tight arrangement of molecular chains (e.g., the density of dry SPPSU is 1.42 g cm-3) , which resulted in the smallest hydrophilic domain (e.g., as illustrated by SAXS which is shown in FIG. 2D, the diameter of water cluster of SPPSU (P30) , denoted as "d" , is 1.57 nm) among the polymers. The hexafluoro bisphenol A ( “-C (CH3) -” ) of sulfonated polysulfone (SPSF) and diphenyl sulfone ( “-SO2-” ) of sulfonated polyethersulfone (SPES) possessed extra electron-rich co-monomers (the group solubility parameter of dispersion component (Fdi) of hexafluoro bisphenol A and diphenyl sulfone is 770 and 590 J1 / 2 cm2 / 3 mol-1, respectively) and performed active π flip motions of phenyl rings (increased free volume) 21, leading to relatively loose structures and confinement of water molecules22. Notably, two sulfone groups in a monomer of SPES enhanced the probability of interaction between polymer backbone and sulfonic acid group, which promoted more ion transport channels in the polymer matrix (the water channel density of SPES (degree of sulfonation = 30%) membrane is 0.85 g cm-3, while that of SPSF and SPPSU (degree of sulfonation = 30%) is 0.76 and 0.73 g cm-3, respectively) . As shown in FIG. 1C, the co-monomer of SPPSU (FIG. 1C-1) is bisphenol, while the co-monomer of SPSF and SPES are bisphenol A (FIG. 1C-2) and diphenyl sulfone (FIG. 1C-3) where -C (CH3) 2-of SPSF and -SO2-of SPES provide an electron-rich co-monomer.
[0121] As shown in FIG. 1D, SPES possesses two ion transport channels among two molecules, due to more sulfone groups, while SPSF and SPPSU just have one. The water channels density of membranes are shown in FIG. 2C for membrane with like dimensional sizes. Water channels density is the water uptake per volume increase, where S30 with more ion transport channels in the polymer matrix shows the highest value.
[0122] In addition to the co-monomer composition in the main chain, the number of sulfonic acid groups along the chain, the degree of sulfonation, is crucial for establishment of ion transport channels. When the degree of sulfonation of sulfonated hydrocarbon polymer is low, with sulfonation degrees less than 10%, the ion exchange capacity (IEC) as indicated by the polymers in FIG. 5. Hydrophilic domains among polymer matrix are independent and construct dead end water channels or water islands15, which are less likely to contribute to ion transport through the ion selective membrane. Conversely, large numbers of sulfonic acid groups (e.g., sulfonation degree > 50%) , many of small channels contributed to a large tube, which enhance ion transport but weakened ion selection.
[0123] Large number of sulfonic acid groups have high sulfonation degree, in this embodiment, for example, above 50%, where, as shown in FIG. 5, S50 has the highest IEC. Lots of small channels means the decentralized ion transport channels in the polymer matrix. Small channels connect and contribute to a large channel, which increases the ion transport (ionic conductivity) as shown in FIG. 8E. When ion transport channels are large, polysulfide ions more easily crossover, as shown in FIG. 11A, where S50 with the highest sulfonation degree with large ion transport channels that allow severe ionic permeability.
[0124] To optimize the size and distribution of channels, small-angle X-ray scattering indicates the diameter of water cluster is smaller than 1.65 nm, water channels density test illustrates the water channels density is 0.7-0.9 g cm-3, and AFM illustrates the 1-3 ion transport channels in 1 nm2 image) of decentralized ion transport channels. The size and distribution of decentralized ion transport channels via small angle X-ray scattering and atomic force microscopy, establish structure-property-performance relationships of various sulfonated sulfone-based hydrocarbon polymer with different co-monomers and degree of sulfonation. Details of membrane fabrication and abbreviations are provided in the Methods section and Table 3.
[0125] Table 3 | abbreviation and corresponding composition of membrane samples.
[0126] Table 3 Notes: *The thickness represented the thickness of wet membrane sample of K+-type. a SPES: sulfonated poly (ether sulfone) . b SPSF: sulfonated poly (sulfone) . c SPPSU: sulfonated poly (phenylene sulfone) . d DS: degree of sulfonation. e DMAC: N, N-Dimethylacetamide.
[0127] EXAMPLE 2 -Assessment and characterization of membrane
[0128] The ion selective membrane absorbed water to construct narrow and interconnected channels for ion transport, resulting in membrane swelling. Thanks to the hydrophilic sulfonate or sulfonic acid groups and sulfone groups and the rigid aromatic polymer backbone, sulfone-based membranes presented higher water / electrolyte uptake, as shown in FIG. 2A, but lower swelling ratio, as shown in FIG. 2B, than N117 membrane. In pure water, the water uptake of S30 and N117 was 14.2%and 10.7%, respectively. However, S30 preformed lower swelling ratio of 22.8%than that of N117 (33.3%) . Sulfone-based membranes have reduced phase separation by hydrogen bonding with water molecules, leading to smaller volume expansion, while, rigid phenyl groups restricted the free volume of molecular chains, increasing the dimensional stability of membranes according to certain embodiments23. Additionally, the different behaviors of water / electrolyte uptake and swelling ratio (water > 1M KOH > 1M KCl) depend on the degree of phase separation of polymer membranes in aqueous electrolyte solutions24. The water activity in electrolyte solution is restrained and water molecules are needed to overcome energy barriers to enter inside the polymer membrane18. As a result, sulfone-based membranes possessed higher water channels density than N117, as indicated in FIG. 2C, which increased the probability of ion transport channels construction.
[0129] The size and distribution of ion transport channels of membranes were probed via small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) and tapping mode atomic force microscope (AFM) . According to the Bragg equation25, the size of hydrophilic clusters was 3.00 nm for N117 and 1.65 nm for S30 membrane, as shown in FIG. 2D. Particularly, F30 and P30 membrane presented smaller diameter of hydrophilic clusters than S30 membrane. The reason was that S30 possessed more hydrophilic domains among polymer matrixes. These domains connected with each other to form a large region which presented larger diameter of hydrophilic clusters in the membrane. Tapping mode AFM phase images, as shown in FIG. 2E, illustrate the distribution of ion transport channels of the membrane26. N117 exhibited large and centralized hydrophilic domains, while in S30 membrane, the hydrophilic domains were decentralized and small.
[0130] The ion selectivity of the membrane is influenced by properties and bulk morphology of ion transport channels27. S30 membrane possess comparable area specific resistance (ASR) to N117, for example in 1M KOH solution, the ASR of S30 and N117 was 2.39 Ω cm2 and 2.33 Ω cm2, respectively, as shown in FIG. 2F. F30 and P30 membrane showed increased ASR due to the low water channels density. Benefiting from the decentralized ion transport channels, S30 membranes display much lower permeability than N117, as shown in FIG. 2G, where the permeability of S42-across N117 was 2.14 × 10-8 cm2 min-1, while that permeability was not detectable in sulfone-based membranes. Although the S30 and N117 had the comparable ability to conducting K+ ions across the membrane, S30 possessed much higher ion selectivity than N117, thanks to the more numerous but smaller ion transport channels.
[0131] K2S2 and K2S4 data were collected from two different tests with different solutions. The concentration of polysulfide ions is fixed at 1mol / L, as 1M K2S2 in 1M KOH and 1M K2S4 in 1M KOH. The other side of membrane is 1M KOH aqueous solution. and the volume of solution is 7 ml on each respective side. The concentration is measured by UV-vis spectrophotometer. At low concentration, the absorption and concentration of ions is linear. Because the permeation of ions is related to the osmotic pressure due to the difference of concentration, the concentration of S2 ions on the received side is expected to maintain stable or slow as the osmotic pressure decreases.
[0132] The mechanical properties of membranes have been assessed for flow battery application, as indicated in FIG. 2H. The tensile strength of N117 is 18.8 MPa, while S30 membrane display superior tensile strength, as high as 32.2 MPa, and are more ductile strength than F30 and P30. In addition, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) confirmed the chemical and thermal stability of sulfone-based hydrocarbon polymers, as shown in FIG. 13. Considering the performance indicators for ion selective membranes for RFB applications28, sulfone-based ion selective membranes possessed high ion selectivity, stability and mechanical strength needed for polysulfide-based RFBs.
[0133] EXAMPLE 3 -Evaluation of cell performance in flow battery
[0134] The application of sulfone-based hydrocarbon membranes with decentralized ion transport channels is exemplified using polysulfide-ferrocyanide (S-Fe) RFB. The cell voltage of S-Fe RFB using N117 membrane, with centralized ion transport channels by phase separation, rapidly decreases to 0.2 V, within 150.2 h, as indicated in FIG. 3A. S30 membranes exhibit much lower self-discharge rate by inhibiting ions crossover via decentralized ion transport channels. Furthermore, cell performance of membrane for charge-discharge testing at various current density, as shown in FIGs. 17A-17C, indicate sulfone-based membranes perform at a much higher coulombic efficiency (CE > 99.5%) than that of N117 membrane (CE: 97.1%-99.2%) . Specifically, S30 membrane possess superior energy efficiency than F30 and P30, which are comparable to N117.
[0135] The long-term cycling stability of flow cell was measured via charge-discharge testing at current density of 20 mA cm-2. N117 membranes show increased overpotential and fast capacity fading accumulated with cycle numbers, as shown in FIG. 3C. In contrast, S30 membrane performed excellent cycle stability with no change of voltage profile observed, as indicated in FIG. 3B. As a result, S30 membranes show CE’s as high as 99.6%, which is superior to that of N117 membranes (98.8%) . Moreover, the cycle life of flow cell is extended by using S30 membrane, as indicated in FIG. 3D. The cell assembled with a S30 membrane has an extremely low capacity decay rate of 0.0004%per cycle and 0.0034%per day after 1100h long cycle operation.
[0136] EXAMPLE 4 -Application of membranes to prolong the cycle life of polysulfide-based redox flow batteries
[0137] Long-term cycling stability is the most critical bottleneck in the polysulfide-based RFB system for practical application. This is related to the crossover of polysulfide ions. On one hand, redox active species go through the membrane leading to irreversible capacity decay29, while on the other hand, polysulfide ions would be oxidized to sulfur element in the posolyte. These insoluble substances deposited inside the ion selective membrane or on the electrode result in increased internal resistance of a battery. S30 membranes present low polysulfide ions permeability due to decentralized ion transport channels. However, diffusion of ions remains, and energy efficiency losses accumulate. Surface modification enhance cycling stability of membrane. In these embodiments, a swelling-controlling surface modification changes the morphology and distribution of internal ion transport channels of membrane, as in Example 5, below. As a result, S30-C membrane preformed much lower overpotential than that of N117-C membrane, as indicated in FIGs. 4B-4C. The overpotential in flow cell assembled with S30-C membrane was 171.8 mV at current density of 20 mA cm-2, while that of N117-C was 248 mV.
[0138] Performance recovery procedures have been well-studied for increasing the lifetime of RFB systems. For example, vanadium redox flow battery (VRFB) recover capacity loss and energy efficiency fading via electrolyte rebalancing30. Such energy efficiency (EE) recovery procedure has been introduced for polysulfide-based RFB system. The energy efficiency of cells decrease from 80.2%to 72.9%after 90 days and restored to 78.2%with an EE recovery procedure using original electrolytes. Consequently, S-Fe flow cell assembled with S30-C membrane present ultralong cycle life (over 180 days) and average efficiency as high as 75.2%.
[0139] EXAMPLE 5 -Design of swelling-control method for surface
[0140] Solvents dropped on the membrane surface, swell the polymer and destroy the surface structure of membrane. Furthermore, the binder (hydrophobic species) infiltrates into the polymer matrix with solvent. When solvent evaporates, hydrophobic binders inhibit the formation of water channels in the polymer matrix, leading to a shrinkage of size of ion transport channels. Not only is the surface structure of membrane destroyed, but the morphology of ion transport channels change resulting in a difference in ion selectivity and a lower ion conductivity.
[0141] A swelling-control method for surface modification that optimizes solvent possessing, uses solvents with appropriate polarity to ensure homogeneous distribution of carbon powder in the slurry without severely swelling the polymer and destroying the membrane structure. The coating layer is about 5 to 10 μm on one side and about 10 to 20 μm in total. The swelling-control method is based on Hansen solubility parameters (HSP) , which considers the energy of polymer swelling by solvent, while both polymer (SPES30) and solvent (DMF, DMAC, NMP, Acetone, IPA, ethanol and water, or 2 / 3 in their combination where one beneficial recipe is IPA: water =7: 3) have cohesive energies, which can be broken into three component of dispersion, polar and hydrogen-bonding. The HSP derived (Ra) between polymer and solvent is determined by using the HSPs and the following equation: Ra2=4 (δD1-δD2) 2+ (δP1-δP2) 2+ (δH1-δH2) 2
[0142] Where, δD, δP and δH represent the parameter of dispersion, polar and hydrogen-bonding of molecule, respectively. The smaller the Ra between polymer and solvent, the more likely the polymer swells.
[0143] The range of Ra should be 7-17. Too small a Ra (e.g., less than 7) can promote membrane / polymer swelling and destroy the membrane structure. Too large a Ra (e.g., larger than 17) , the coating layer can be less uniform and flushed off by water.
[0144] High-performance and low-cost sulfone-based hydrocarbon membranes with decentralized ion transport channels and carbon coating result in polysulfide-based redox flow battery. The construction of ion transport channels is finely controlled via the design of polymer molecules. Water channels density, as demonstrated small-angle X-ray scattering, and atomic force microscopy, resulted in the formation and size of ion transport channels. The use of sulfone-based membranes in polysulfide-ferrocyanide redox flow battery allows stable cycle performance of high coulombic efficiency (>99.6%) and low capacity decay rate (0.0034%per day) . An energy efficiency recovery procedure improves performance of flow battery over 1600 cycles for 180 days.
[0145] EXAMPLE 6 -Chemicals
[0146] All the chemicals were used as received. Potassium (poly) sulfide (K2Sx, ≥42%K2S basis, x is determined to be ~2.0) 31, sulfur powder (purified by sublimation, ~100 mesh particle size) , N, N-Dimethylacetamide (DMAC, ≥99%) , 2-Propanol (IPA, anhydrous, ≥99.5%) , 1-Methyl-2-pyrrolidinone (NMP, anhydrous, 99.5%) , sulfuric acid (H2SO4, 95%–98%) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2, 30 wt%in H2O) were received from Sigma-Aldrich. Potassium ferrocyanide (K4 [Fe (CN) 6] ·3H2O, ≥99.5%) , potassium ferricyanide (K3 [Fe (CN) 6] , ≥99.5%) , potassium hydroxide (KOH, 95%) , sodium hydroxide (NaOH, 99.7%) , potassium chloride (KCl, 99.8%) , sodium chloride (NaCl, 99.9%) , riboflavin sodium phosphate (FMN-Na, 93%) , polytetrafluoroethylene preparation (PTFE, 60 wt%dispersion in H2O) and phenolphthalein (PH indicator) were received from Dieckmann. Sulfonated sulfone-based polymer with different degree of sulfonation, including sulfonated polyethersulfone (SPES) , sulfonated polysulfone (SPSF) and sulfonated polyphenylenesulfone (SPPSU) were received from Dechi Technology. Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF, HSV900) was received from Arkema. Nafion membrane (N117, Dupont) was received from H2FLOW (Shanghai) Advanced Materials International Trade Co., Ltd. Carbon felts (GFD 4.6EA) were received from SGL Carbon SE. Ketjen black (KB, ECP-600JD) was received from Lion Corporation (Japan) .
[0147] EXAMPLE 7 -Membrane preparation
[0148] All the polymer powders were stored in a dry box. The membrane was manufactured by a thermal-induced phase inversion method. First, polymers were dissolved in DMAC to form a homogeneous solution, following by defoaming overnight. The concentration of casting solution was 30 wt%. The polymer solution was poured onto a clean glass plate and cast by a doctor blade at a speed of 0.12 m min-1, followed by drying at 80℃ in a casting coater for 8 hours. Afterwards, the membrane was peeled off the plate and changed to K-type by immersing in 1M KOH aqueous solution. Finally, the membrane was rinsed and stored in deionized water. The thickness of the wet membrane was ~150 μm. Nafion membrane was treated with 5.0%H2O2, 5.0%H2SO4 and 1M KOH sequentially32.
[0149] The surface modified membrane was prepared by drop coating. For sulfonated hydrocarbon membrane, carbon powder, binder (the weight ratio of carbon powder and binder fixed at 8: 1) , and solvent (4 mL) were mixed and sonicated for 20 minutes to form the uniform slurry. The mass loading of carbon powder was about 0.23 mg cm-2 on each respective side of the membrane. The membrane was heated and dried at 80℃ in an oven for 12 hours and soaked in deionized water for usage. The Nafion-based modified membrane was prepared by methods known in the art and published in previous work32.
[0150] EXAMPLE 8 -Characterization of polymer and membrane
[0151] Ex. 8.1 -Ion exchange capacity
[0152] The ion exchange capacity (IEC) was determined by using titration method33. First, the H-type dry membrane was suspended in saturated NaCl aqueous solution for 24 hours to liberate the H+ ions. The solution was titrated with 0.1M NaOH solution by using phenolphthalein as the pH indicator. The IEC of polymer was calculated by the following equation:
[0153] where VNaOH is the volume (μL) of NaOH solution when phenolphthalein turns red; Wdry is the weight (mg) of dry membrane.
[0154] Ex. 8.2 -Water / electrolyte uptake and swelling ratio
[0155] The K-type sample membrane was fully dried in a vacuum oven at 80℃ for 24h, to form a dehydrated membrane. The dehydrated membrane was immersed into DI water or salt aqueous solution under room temperature for 24h, to form a hydrated membrane. The water / electrolyte uptake (ω) was determined as the mass change to weight of dehydrated membrane:
[0156] where mh and md are the weight of hydrated and dehydrated membrane, respectively.
[0157] The swelling ratio was calculated as the volume change to the volume of dehydrated membrane:
[0158] where Vh and Vd are the weight of hydrated and dehydrated membrane, respectively. The length, width and thickness of membrane were measured by a micrometer screw.
[0159] The water channels density (ρ) was defined as the mass change to volume change of membrane in pure water:
[0160] Ex. 8.3 -Mechanical properties
[0161] The mechanical properties of the K-type wet membrane were tested on an electro-mechanical universal testing machine (INSTRON 3367) . The size of sample membrane was 1cm × 3cm. The tensile strength and elongation of membrane were obtained by stress-strain curve, respectively.
[0162] Ex. 8.4 -Morphology
[0163] The scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images were observed by Quanta 400F. The membranes were frozen and broken in liquid nitrogen for cross-section observation. The samples were spray coated with platinum powder for 60s in advance. Tapping mode atomic force microscopy (AFM) images were conducted by Bruker Dimension Icon. The scan range was 400 × 400 nm.
[0164] Ex. 8.5 -SAXS and contact angle
[0165] Small angle X-ray scattering was tested on Xenocs Xeuss 2.0 with the detector (Pilatus 3R 300K) and X-ray wavelength of The sample detector distance was fixed at 538 mm. The water cluster size was calculated by based on Bragg’s law24. The water contact angle was measured by Dataphysics OCA to analysis the hydrophilic of membrane surface.
[0166] Ex. 8.6 -Area specific resistance and permeability
[0167] The resistances were measured by performing electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) of a static cell assembled with the sample membranes. The frequency range was from 0.2 MHz to 0.1 Hz. The area specific resistance (ASR) was calculated by equations as followed: ASR=A× (Rw-Ro) , where A is the active area of membrane, Rw and Ro are the resistance of cell with or without membrane, respectively. The membrane samples were immersed in testing solution for 24h in advance.
[0168] Ionic permeability was tested by H-cell sandwiching the membrane sample. For polysulfide ions, the feed side was 1M K2S2 or K2S4 in 1M KOH solution, while the permeate side was filled with 1M KOH. For ferrocyanide and ferricyanide ions, the feed and permeate side were 0.5M K4 [Fe (CN) 6] or K3 [Fe (CN) 6] in 1M KCl and 1M KCl, respectively. The volume of solution was fixed at 8ml in both side of half cells. The absorbance of different ions was collected by a UV-vis Spectrophotometer (ASL SEC2020) under room temperature. The permeability coefficient (D) was calculated as following equation:
[0169] where cf and cp (t) are the concentrations of ions in the feed and permeate side, respectively; Vp is the volume of solution in permeate side; A and L is the effective area and thickness of membrane sample.
[0170] Ex. 8.7 -Chemical stability
[0171] The K-type membrane samples were stored in the electrolyte solution for 40 days under room temperature34, 35, following by washing out the electrolyte with deionized water and dried at 80℃ for 24h. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR, ThermoFisher) was performed to assess the chemical stability of membrane at the range of 500-4000 cm-1.
[0172] Ex. 8.8 -Cell assembly and testing
[0173] The flow cell consisted of membrane, pretreated graphite felts (geometric area of 2×2 cm2) 36, poly (ether ketone) (PEEK) frames, graphite plates with flow fields and current collectors. For the base membrane, a porous glass fiber was sandwiched between positive electrode and membrane. The posolyte was prepared by 0.5M K4 [Fe (CN) 6] with 1M KCl as supporting electrolyte, while the negolyte was prepared by 1M K2S4 in 1M KOH solution with 50mM FMN-Na as molecular catalysts. All the electrolytes were dissolved in deoxygenated deionized water under argon protection and the volume of solution was 10mL. The flow cell was tested in atmospheric environment with the flow rate of 50 ml min-1.
[0174] Charge-discharge measurements were collected by LAND Battery Testing System. Cut voltage was set as 1.3V (10-30 mA cm-2) , 1.4V (40 mA cm-2) or 1.5V (50 mA cm-2) for charging procedure, and 0.2V for discharging procedure. Long cycle testing was conducted with current density of 20 mA cm-2 and cut voltage of 1.3-0.2V (1.2-0.2V after 3000h) .
[0175] For energy efficiency (EE) recovery procedure37, the posolyte and negolyte were collected and stored in the glove box. The posolyte tank was replaced with 10mL of 1M K2S2 in 1M KOH and circulated by peristaltic pumps for 3h. Afterwards, the positive electrode was flushed by 50mL deionized water to remove the electrolyte. During the process, the cell was not disassembled. The cycling test using the original electrolytes was measured after the recovery procedure.
[0176] It should be understood that the examples and embodiments described herein are for illustrative purposes only and that various modifications or changes in light thereof will be suggested to persons skilled in the art and are to be included within the spirit and purview of this application and the scope of the appended claims. In addition, any elements or limitations of any invention or embodiment thereof disclosed herein can be combined with any and / or all other elements or limitations (individually or in any combination) or any other invention or embodiment thereof disclosed herein, and all such combinations are contemplated with the scope of the invention without limitation thereto.
[0177] The transitional term “comprising, ” “comprises, ” or “comprise” is inclusive or open-ended and does not exclude additional, unrecited elements or method steps. By contrast, the transitional phrase “consisting of” excludes any element, step, or ingredient not specified in the claim. The phrases “consisting essentially of” or “consists essentially of” indicate that the claim encompasses embodiments containing the specified materials or steps and those that do not materially affect the basic and novel characteristic (s) of the claim. Use of the term “comprising” contemplates other embodiments that “consist of” or “consisting essentially of” the recited component (s) .
[0178] When ranges are used herein, such as for dose ranges, combinations and subcombinations of ranges (e.g., subranges within the disclosed range) , specific embodiments therein are intended to be explicitly included. When the term “about” is used herein, in conjunction with a numerical value, it is understood that the value can be in a range of 95%of the value to 105%of the value, i.e., the value can be + / -5%of the stated value. For example, “about 1 kg” means from 0.95 kg to 1.05 kg.
[0179] EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS
[0180] Embodiment 1. A polysulfide-based redox flow battery comprising a sulfonated sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane comprising a plurality of decentralized ion transport channels.
[0181] Embodiment 2. The battery according to embodiment 1, wherein the sulfonated sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane comprises at least one polysulfone selected from the group consisting of sulfonated poly (ether sulfone) (SPES) , sulfonated poly (sulfone) (SPSF) , sulfonated poly (phenylene sulfone) (SPPSU) , sulfonated poly (arylene sulfide sulfone) (SPSS) , and sulfonated poly (arylene ether sulfone) (SPAES) .
[0182] Embodiment 3. The battery according to embodiment 2, wherein the polysulfone has a rigid hydrophobic aromatic polymer backbone, the backbone comprising a plurality of aromatic rings, each ring comprising a plurality of hydrogens.
[0183] Embodiment 4. The battery according to embodiment 3, wherein the at least one sulfonate or sulfonic acid group is substituted for any hydrogen in any aromatic ring of the rigid hydrophobic aromatic polymer backbone.
[0184] Embodiment 5. The battery according to embodiment 2, wherein the at least one polysulfone is sulfonated to a degree of at least about 10%.
[0185] Embodiment 6. The battery according to embodiment 2, wherein the at least one polysulfone is sulfonated to a degree of at least about 30%.
[0186] Embodiment 7. The battery according to embodiment 2, wherein the at least one polysulfone is sulfonated to a degree of at least about 50%.
[0187] Embodiment 8. The battery according to embodiment 1, wherein the sulfonated sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane comprises a surface modification effective to control swelling of the sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane.
[0188] Embodiment 9. The battery according to embodiment 8, wherein the surface modification comprises a carbon coating layer.
[0189] Embodiment 10. The battery according to embodiment 1, wherein the sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane has a thickness less than 190 μm.
[0190] Embodiment 11. A sulfonated sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane useful in a redox flow battery, the membrane comprising:
[0191] a sulfonated poly (ether sulfone) (SPES) having a sulfonation degree of about 30%and a thickness of about 150 μm, wherein the sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane comprises a plurality of decentralized ion transport channels having a water channels density of about 0.85 g cm-3, with an average of about 3 hydrophilic domain ion transport channels per nm2 and a water cluster diameter of about 1.65 nm, whereby the wherein the sulfonated sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane exhibits: a water / electrolye absorption of about 14%in water, about 13%in 1M KOH, and about 12%in KCl aqueous solution; a swelling of about 23%in water, about 19%in KOH, and about 19%in 1M KCl aqueous solution, a tensile strength of about 32 MPa, and an elongation at break of about 200%.
[0192] Embodiment 12. The sulfonated sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane according to embodiment 11, further comprising a carbon coating layer of about 10 μm thickness and about 0.23 mg cm-2 carbon on each side of the membrane, formed from a slurry comprising about 50 mg carbon (KB) , about 6 mg PTFE, and (isopropanol (IPA) : water) in a volume ratio of about 7: 3 to form.
[0193] Embodiment 13. A polysulfide-ferrocyanide redox flow battery comprising:
[0194] a sulfonated poly (ether sulfone) (SPES) membrane according to embodiment 11;
[0195] a posolyte comprising 0.5M K4 [Fe (CN) 6] with 1M KCl as a supporting electrolyte; and
[0196] a negolyte comprising 1M K2S4 in 1M KOH solution with 50mM FMN-Na as a molecular catalyst; whereby the polysulfide-ferrocyanide redox flow battery displays:
[0197] a CE (coulombic efficiency) of at least about 99.4%,
[0198] an EE (energy efficiency) of at least about 83.1%at a current density of about 20 mA cm-2;
[0199] a cycle life greater than 1000 hours; and
[0200] a capacity decay rate of less than about 0.0004%per cycle or less than about 0.0034%per day.
[0201] Embodiment 14. The polysulfide-ferrocyanide redox flow battery according to embodiment 13, wherein the sulfonated poly (ether sulfone) (SPES) membrane further comprises a carbon coating layer of about 10 μm thickness and about 0.23 mg cm-2 carbon on each side of the membrane, wherein the battery exhibits:
[0202] a CE (coulombic efficiency) of at least about 99.9%;
[0203] an EE (energy efficiency) of at least about 82.2%at a current density of about 20 mA cm-2;
[0204] a cycle life greater than about 6 months; and
[0205] a capacity decay rate of less than about 0.0004%per cycle, or of less than about 0.0032%per day.
[0206] Embodiment 15. A method for making a sulfonated sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane useful in a redox flow battery, the method comprising:
[0207] drying a sulfonated poly (ether sulfone) (SPES) polymer powder at about 50℃to make a dried SPES powder;
[0208] dissolving the dried SPES polymer powder in N, N-Dimethylacetamide to form a 30 wt. %SPES casting solution at a temperature of about 25℃;
[0209] defoaming the SPES casting solution;
[0210] pouring the SPES casting solution on a plate at a temperature of about 25℃, and a relative humidity of less than 25%;
[0211] casting with a doctor blade at a speed of about 0.12 m min–1 to form a wet film having a thickness of about 800 μm;
[0212] drying the wet film at about 80℃ for at least about 8 hours to form a dried sulfonated sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane having a thickness of about 150 μm;
[0213] peeling the dried sulfonated sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane from the plate; and
[0214] soaking the dried sulfonated sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane in deionized (DI) water to form a wet sulfonated sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane.
[0215] Embodiment 16. The method according to embodiment 15, further comprising:
[0216] soaking the wet sulfonated sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane in 5 wt. %H2SO4 aqueous solution for at least 1 hour at about 80℃;
[0217] cooling the sulfonated sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane to about 25℃;
[0218] washing the sulfonated sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane with DI water followed by soaking in DI water for at least 1 hour at about 25℃;
[0219] soaking the sulfonated sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane in 1M aqueous KOH for at least 2 hours at about 80℃;
[0220] cooling the sulfonated sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane a second time to about 25℃;
[0221] additionally washing the sulfonated sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane with DI water followed by soaking in DI water for at least 1 hour at about 25℃ to produce the sulfonated sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane having a final thickness between about 150 to about 155 μm; and
[0222] soaking the sulfonated sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane in DI water prior to usage.
[0223] Embodiment 17. The method according to embodiment 19, further comprising:
[0224] wiping the sulfonated sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane to remove excess liquid;
[0225] sandwiching the sulfonated sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane between two PTFE gaskets;
[0226] providing a carbon comprising slurry having 0.15 ml 5%PTFE dispersion solution, 3.5 ml IPA and 1.5 ml DI water per 50 mg carbon (KB) ;
[0227] mixing the carbon comprising slurry by and sonicating, for at least about 20 minutes while cooled with ice water;
[0228] applying the carbon comprising slurry on each side of the sulfonated sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane;
[0229] heating and drying the sulfonated sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane, gaskets, and slurry in an oven at about 80℃ for at least 12 hours; and
[0230] soaking the sulfonated sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane in DI water for at least 24 hours.
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Claims
1.A polysulfide-based redox flow battery comprising a sulfonated sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane comprising a plurality of decentralized ion transport channels.2.The battery according to claim 1, wherein the sulfonated sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane comprises at least one polysulfone selected from the group consisting of sulfonated poly (ether sulfone) (SPES) , sulfonated poly (sulfone) (SPSF) , sulfonated poly (phenylene sulfone) (SPPSU) , sulfonated poly (arylene sulfide sulfone) (SPSS) , and sulfonated poly (arylene ether sulfone) (SPAES) .3.The battery according to claim 2, wherein the polysulfone has a rigid hydrophobic aromatic polymer backbone, the backbone comprising a plurality of aromatic rings, each ring comprising a plurality of hydrogens.4.The battery according to claim 3, wherein at least one sulfonate or sulfonic acid group is substituted for any hydrogen in any aromatic ring of the rigid hydrophobic aromatic polymer backbone.5.The battery according to claim 2, wherein the at least one polysulfone is sulfonated to a degree of at least about 10%.6.The battery according to claim 2, wherein the at least one polysulfone is sulfonated to a degree of at least about 30%.7.The battery according to claim 2, wherein the at least one polysulfone is sulfonated to a degree of at least about 50%.8.The battery according to claim 1, wherein the sulfonated sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane comprises a surface modification effective to control swelling of the sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane.9.The battery according to claim 8, wherein the surface modification comprises a carbon coating layer.10.The battery according to claim 1, wherein the sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane has a thickness less than 190 μm.11.A sulfonated sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane useful in a redox flow battery, the membrane comprising:a sulfonated poly (ether sulfone) (SPES) having a sulfonation degree of about 30%and a thickness of about 150 μm, wherein the sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane comprises a plurality of decentralized ion transport channels having a water channels density of about 0.85 g cm-3, with an average of about 3 hydrophilic domain ion transport channels per nm2 and a water cluster diameter of about 1.65 nm, whereby the wherein the sulfonated sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane exhibits: a water / electrolye absorption of about 14%in water, about 13%in 1M KOH, and about 12%in KCl aqueous solution; a swelling of about 23%in water, about 19%in KOH, and about 19%in 1M KCl aqueous solution, a tensile strength of about 32 MPa, and an elongation at break of about 200%.12.The sulfonated sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane according to claim 11, further comprising a carbon coating layer of about 10 μm thickness and about 0.23 mg cm-2 carbon on each side of the membrane, formed from a slurry comprising about 50 mg carbon (KB) , about 6 mg PTFE, and (isopropanol (IPA) : water) in a volume ratio of about 7: 3 to form.13.A polysulfide-ferrocyanide redox flow battery comprising:a sulfonated poly (ether sulfone) (SPES) membrane according to claim 11;a posolyte comprising 0.5M K4 [Fe (CN) 6] with 1M KCl as a supporting electrolyte; anda negolyte comprising 1M K2S4 in 1M KOH solution with 50mM FMN-Na as a molecular catalysts; whereby the polysulfide-ferrocyanide redox flow battery displays:a CE (coulombic efficiency) of at least about 99.4%,an EE (energy efficiency) of at least about 83.1%at a current density of about 20 mA cm-2;a cycle life greater than 1000 hours; anda capacity decay rate of less than about 0.0004%per cycle or less than about 0.0034%per day.14.The polysulfide-ferrocyanide redox flow battery according to claim 13, wherein the sulfonated poly (ether sulfone) (SPES) membrane further comprises a carbon coating layer of about 10 μm thickness and about 0.23 mg cm-2 carbon on each side of the membrane, wherein the battery exhibits:a CE (coulombic efficiency) of at least about 99.9%;an EE (energy efficiency) of at least about 82.2%at a current density of about 20 mA cm-2;a cycle life greater than about 6 months; anda capacity decay rate of less than about 0.0004%per cycle, or of less than about 0.0032%per day.15.A method for making a sulfonated sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane useful in a redox flow battery, the method comprising:drying a sulfonated poly (ether sulfone) (SPES) polymer powder at about 50℃to make a dried SPES powder;dissolving the dried SPES polymer powder in N, N-Dimethylacetamide to form a 30 wt. %SPES casting solution at a temperature of about 25℃;defoaming the SPES casting solution;pouring the SPES casting solution on a plate at a temperature of about 25℃, and a relative humidity of less than 25%;casting with a doctor blade at a speed of about 0.12 m min–1 to form a wet film having a thickness of about 800 μm;drying the wet film at about 80℃ for at least about 8 hours to form a dried sulfonated sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane having a thickness of about 150 μm;peeling the dried sulfonated sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane from the plate; andsoaking the dried sulfonated sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane in deionized (DI) water to form a wet sulfonated sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane.16.The method according to claim 15, further comprising:soaking the wet sulfonated sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane in 5 wt. %H2SO4 aqueous solution for at least 1 hour at about 80℃;cooling the sulfonated sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane to about 25℃;washing the sulfonated sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane with DI water followed by soaking in DI water for at least 1 hour at about 25℃;soaking the sulfonated sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane in 1M aqueous KOH for at least 2 hours at about 80℃;cooling the sulfonated sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane a second time to about 25℃;additionally washing the sulfonated sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane with DI water followed by soaking in DI water for at least 1 hour at about 25℃ to produce the sulfonated sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane having a final thickness between about 150 to about 155 μm; andsoaking the sulfonated sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane in DI water prior to usage.17.The method according to claim 15, further comprising:wiping the sulfonated sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane to remove excess liquid;sandwiching the sulfonated sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane between two PTFE gaskets;providing a carbon comprising slurry having 0.15 ml 5%PTFE dispersion solution, 3.5 ml IPA and 1.5 ml DI water per 50 mg carbon (KB) ;mixing the carbon comprising slurry by and sonicating, for at least about 20 minutes while cooled with ice water;applying the carbon comprising slurry on each side of the sulfonated sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane;heating and drying the sulfonated sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane, gaskets, and slurry in an oven at about 80℃ for at least 12 hours; andsoaking the sulfonated sulfone-based hydrocarbon membrane in DI water for at least 24 hours.
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