Fuel composition

Abstract

This invention provides a fuel composition comprising 5 wt% to 50 wt% alcohol and 50 wt% to 95 wt% of renewable cycloparaffinic gasoline, wherein the renewable cycloparaffinic gasoline comprises at least 40 wt% cycloparaffins, from 15 wt% to 25 wt% of aromatics, and from 20 wt% to 30 wt% of paraffins, by weight of the cycloparaffinic gasoline. The gasoline fuel composition of the present invention exhibits reduced particulate exhaust emissions from a vehicle operated by a spark ignition internal combustion engine.

Description

[0001]SP3105 - 1 - Field of the Invention This invention relates to a fuel composition, preferably a gasoline fuel composition, comprising renewable cycloparaffinic gasoline. In particular, the 5 present invention relates to a gasoline fuel composition comprising a renewable cycloparaffinic gasoline which is preferably derived from hydroprocessing of solid biomass. Background of the invention Conventional gasoline fuels are prepared in a 10 refinery from a crude mineral oil source. Typically, the crude mineral oil is separated by means of distillation into a gasoline fraction boiling in the gasoline fuel range. If required, these fractions are subjected to hydroprocessing to reduce sulfur, oxygen and nitrogen 15 levels. The increased demand for petroleum-based fuels such as gasoline and diesel has resulted in a higher production of greenhouse gases. Due to the projected increasing demand for fuel, there is a need to explore methods to 20 increase environmentally-friendly fuel sources while meeting fuel specifications. Perhaps more tangible than the global impact of greenhouse gases is the impact of local emissions from vehicles. Emissions in cities have a direct impact on the 25 air composition and therefore have been linked with poor local air quality, which can be further linked to impacts on human health. Particulates and oxides of sulfur and nitrogen are considered to be the main contributors to poor local air quality. Thus, local air quality is seen30 as an integral element in the pursuit of environment- friendly fuels. As reported in Künzi, Lisa, et al. "Toxicity of aged gasoline exhaust particles to normal and diseased airway epithelia." Scientific reports 5.1 (2015): 11801, particulates of diameter size 2.5 microns or less, often referred to as ‘PM2.5’ are of particular concern 5 because of the high level of respiratory system toxicity as this particle size is easily lifted as aerosol and transported deep into the lungs. It would therefore be desirable to formulate a gasoline fuel composition comprising environmentally- 10 friendly fuel components, but which still meet the requirements of the various fuel specifications. It would also be desirable to formulate an environmentally-friendly gasoline fuel composition which provides reduced particulate exhaust emissions. 15 It would also be desirable to reduce NOx and total hydrocarbon (THC) emissions at the same time as reducing particulate exhaust emissions. Summary of the Invention The present invention provides a fuel composition, 20 preferably a gasoline fuel composition, comprising 5 wt% to 50 wt% alcohol and 50 wt% to 95 wt% of renewable cycloparaffinic gasoline, wherein the renewable cycloparaffinic gasoline comprises at least 40 wt% cycloparaffins, from 15 wt% to 25 wt% of aromatics, from 25 20 wt% to 30 wt% of paraffins, by weight of the cycloparaffinic gasoline. The present invention further provides a process for producing a gasoline fuel composition comprising (i) generating a renewable cycloparaffinic gasoline from 30 hydropyrolysis and hydroconversion of a solid biomass containing lignocellulose, (ii) providing an alcohol; and (iii) blending the renewable cycloparaffinic gasoline with the alcohol to produce a fuel composition. The present invention further provides the use of the fuel composition described herein for decreasing particulate exhaust emissions from a vehicle operated by a spark ignition internal combustion engine. 5 The present invention further provides a method for reducing particulate exhaust emissions from a vehicle operated by a spark ignition internal combustion engine, wherein the method comprises the step of fuelling the spark ignition internal combustion engine with the fuel 10 composition described herein, and combusting the fuel within the spark ignition internal combustion engine. It has been surprisingly found that the gasoline fuel composition of the present invention provides an environmentally-friendly gasoline fuel containing high 15 levels of cycloparaffins and low levels of aromatics while providing an unexpected reduction in particulate exhaust emissions, such as particulate mass (PM) and particulate number (PN) emissions. It has also surprisingly been found that the gasoline 20 fuel composition of the present invention can provide reduced NOx and reduced total hydrocarbon (THC) emissions, in addition to reduced particulate exhaust emissions. Advantageously, a decrease in particulate emissions leads to a decrease in Low-Speed Pre-Ignition (LSPI). 25 Hence, the use of the gasoline fuel composition of the present invention can improve the combustion process of a spark ignition internal combustion engine by reducing Low Speed Pre-Ignition (LSPI) events. Preferably, the gasoline fuel composition of the 30 present invention meets the ASTM D4814 fuel specification. Detailed Description of the Invention Definitions As used herein, the term ‘paraffins’ means acyclic, saturated hydrocarbons. The term ‘paraffins’ includes both linear paraffins (or normal paraffins) and non-linear paraffins (or iso-paraffins). The term ‘linear paraffins’ 5 (or normal paraffins) as used herein are intended to denote long straight chain saturated hydrocarbons, such as, for example, normal hexadecane (n-C16). The term ‘non-linear paraffins’ (or iso-paraffins) as used herein is intended to denote saturated branched hydrocarbons such 10 as, for example, mono-, di- and tri-branched paraffins, such as, for example, iso-hexadecane (i-C16). As used herein, the term ‘cycloparaffins’ means a class of hydrocarbons having a cyclic, non-aromatic structure, such as, for example cyclohexane and 15 cyclopentane. Renewable cycloparaffinic gasoline A first essential component of the gasoline fuel composition herein is a renewable cycloparaffinic gasoline. The renewable cycloparaffinic gasoline used 20 herein is generated from hydropyrolysis and hydroconversion of a solid biomass containing lignocellulose. The renewable cycloparaffinic gasoline comprises at least 40 wt% cycloparaffins, preferably from 40 wt% to 60 wt% cycloparaffins, more preferably from 40 25 wt% to 50 wt% cycloparaffins, by weight of the renewable cycloparaffinic gasoline (as measured by ASTM D2425). The cycloparaffinic gasoline contains lower levels of aromatics, i.e. less than 25 wt% aromatics, preferably from 17 wt% to 24 wt% aromatics, more preferably from 18 30 wt% to 21 wt% aromatics, by weight of the renewable cycloparaffinic gasoline (as measured by ASTM D6379). By contrast, an E0 fossil-derived gasoline generally comprises from 25 wt% to 35 wt%, typically greater than 30 wt% of aromatics, and 3 wt% to 13 wt% of cycloparaffins. The renewable cycloparaffinic gasoline preferably comprises from 0.1 wt% to 3 wt% olefins, by weight of the renewable cycloparaffinic gasoline. The cycloparaffinic gasoline is present in the 5 gasoline fuel composition at a level from 50 wt% to 95 wt%, more preferably from 60 wt% to 90 wt%, even more preferably from 80 wt% to 90 wt%, based on the total gasoline fuel composition. In a preferred embodiment herein, the cycloparaffinic 10 gasoline is generated by a hydroprocess comprising the steps of (a) feeding a solid feedstock and hydrogen to a first stage hydropyrolysis reactor, wherein the first stage hydropyrolysis reactor comprises one or more 15 deoxygenation catalyst, and wherein the solid feedstock comprises biomass containing lignocellulose; (b) hydropyrolysing the solid feedstock in the first stage hydropyrolysis reactor to generate a product stream comprising a partially deoxygenated hydropyrolysis 20 product, H2O, H2, CO2, CO, C1-C3 gases, char and catalyst fines; (c) feeding at least a portion of the product stream to a second stage hydroconversion reactor comprising one or more hydroconversion catalyst; 25 (d) hydroconverting the partially deoxygenated hydropyrolysis product in the product stream to generate a vapour phase product comprising substantially fully deoxygenated hydrocarbon product, H2O, CO, CO2 and C1-C3 gases; and 30 (e) condensing the vapour phase product to generate a deoxygenated hydrocarbon liquid comprising the substantially fully deoxygenated hydrocarbon product, wherein the substantially deoxygenated hydrocarbon product comprises the cycloparaffinic gasoline. With the foregoing in mind, FIG. 1 is a block diagram of an embodiment of a system 10 that may be used for hydroprocessing solid feedstocks (e.g., biomass and / or 5 waste plastics / oils) to generate one or more hydrocarbon products (e.g., GO / diesel, gasoline, kerosene, etc.) which can be used as the cycloparaffinic gasoline herein. As should be appreciated, the solid feedstock-derived hydrocarbon products disclosed herein may be generated by 10 any suitable hydroprocessing technique such as those disclosed in U.S. Patent No. 9,447,328, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. In the illustrated embodiment, the system 10 includes a hydropyrolysis reactor 14 and a hydroconversion reactor 15 16. As discussed in further detail below, the reactors 14, 16 are used to convert a solid feedstock into an intermediate hydrocarbon fuel fraction (e.g., a cycloparaffinic gasoline fraction) that may be used in combination with an alcohol, to generate a gasoline fuel 20 composition. As illustrated, the reactors 14, 16 are disposed within one of two stages. For example, the system 10 includes a first stage 18 and a second stage 20. The first stage 18 includes the hydropyrolysis reactor 14, and the second stage 20 includes the hydroconversion 25 reactor 16. The reaction pressure in the first stage 18 and the second stage 20 may be varied to tailor the boiling point distribution and composition of the resultant hydrocarbon product(s) generated by the second stage 18. The ability to tailor the boiling point 30 distribution and / or composition of the resultant hydrocarbon product by varying the reaction pressure may provide an efficient process for generating commercially viable hydrocarbon biofuels that meet the different requirements set forth by the location and / or market in which the hydrocarbon biofuel will be used. First Stage In the illustrated embodiment, a solid feedstock 24 5 having biomass (e.g., lignocellulose) and / or waste plastics and molecular hydrogen (H2) 28 are introduced into the hydropyrolysis reactor 14. The hydropyrolysis reactor 14 contains a deoxygenation catalyst that facilitates partial deoxygenation of the solid feedstock 24. For 10 example, in the hydropyrolysis reactor 14, the solid feedstock 24 undergoes hydropyrolysis, producing an output 30 having char, partially deoxygenated products of hydropyrolysis, light gases (C1- C3gases, carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), and H2), water (H2O) vapor and 15 catalyst fines. The hydropyrolysis reactor 14 may be a fluidized bed reactor (e.g., a fluidized bubbling bed reactor), fixed-bed reactor, or any other suitable reactor. In embodiments in which the hydropyrolysis reactor 14 is a fluidized bed reactor, the fluidization 20 velocity, catalyst particle size and bulk density and solid feedstock particle size and bulk density are selected such that the deoxygenation catalyst remains in the bubbling fluidized bed, while the char produced is entrained with the partially deoxygenated products (e.g., 25 the output 30) exiting the hydropyrolysis reactor 14. The hydropyrolysis step in the first stage 18 employs a rapid heat up of the solid feedstock 24 such that a residence time of the pyrolysis vapors in the hydropyrolysis reactor 14 is preferably less than approximately 1 minute, more 30 preferably less than approximately 30 seconds and most preferably less than approximately 10 seconds. The solid feedstock 24 used in the disclosed process may include a residual waste feedstock and / or a biomass feedstock containing lignin, lignocellulosic, cellulosic, hemicellulosic material, or any combination thereof. 5 Lignocellulosic material may include a mixture of lignin, cellulose and hemicelluloses in any proportion and also contains ash and moisture. Such material is more difficult to convert into fungible liquid hydrocarbon products than cellulosic and hemicellulosic material. It 10 is an advantage of the present process that it can be used for lignocellulose-containing biomass. Therefore, the solid feedstock 24 used in the disclosed process preferably contains lignocellulosic material. Suitable lignocellulose-containing biomass includes woody biomass 15 and agricultural and forestry products and residues (whole harvest energy crops, round wood, forest slash, bamboo, sawdust, bagasse, sugarcane tops and trash, cotton stalks, corn stover, corn cobs, castor stalks, Jatropha whole harvest, Jatropha trimmings, de-oiled cakes of palm, 20 castor and Jatropha, coconut shells, residues derived from edible nut production and mixtures thereof), and municipal solid wastes containing lignocellulosic material. The municipal solid waste may include any combination of lignocellulosic material (yard trimmings, pressure-treated 25 wood such as fence posts, plywood), discarded paper and cardboard and waste plastics, along with refractories such as glass, metal. Prior to use in the process disclosed herein, municipal solid waste may be optionally converted into pellet or briquette form. The pellets or briquettes 30 are commonly referred to as Refuse Derived Fuel in the industry. Certain feedstocks (such as algae and lemna) may also contain protein and lipids in addition to lignocellulose. Residual waste feedstocks are those having mainly waste plastics. In a preferred embodiment of the process disclosed herein, woody biomass, preferably wood, is used as the source of the biomass. The solid feedstock 24 may be provided to the hydropyrolysis reactor 14 in the form of loose biomass 5 particles having a majority of particles preferably less than about 3.5 millimeters (mm) in size or in the form of a biomass / liquid slurry. However, as appreciated by those skilled in the art, the solid feedstock 24 may be pre- treated or otherwise processed in a manner such that 10 larger particle sizes may be accommodated. Suitable means for introducing the solid feedstock 24 into the hydropyrolysis reactor 14 include, but are not limited to, an auger, fast-moving (greater than about 5 minutes (m) / second (sec)) stream of carrier gas (such as inert 15 gases and H2), and constant-displacement pumps, impellers, turbine pumps or the like. In an embodiment of the present disclosure, a double-screw system having a slow screw for metering the solid feedstock 24 followed by a fast screw to push the solid feedstock 24 into the reactor 20 without causing torrefaction in the screw housing is used for dosing. An inert gas or hydrogen flow is maintained over the fast screw to further reduce the residence time of the solid feedstock 24 in the fast screw housing. The hydropyrolysis step is carried out in the 25 hydropyrolysis reactor 14 at a temperature in the range of from approximately 350 Celsius (°C) to approximately 600 °C and a pressure in the range of from approximately 0.1 megapascal (MPa) to approximately 0.6 MPa (approximately 1-6 bar). As should be noted, pressures higher than 0.6 30 MPa may be used to tailor the boiling point distribution and composition of the resultant hydrocarbon product based on the desired specifications of the hydrocarbon fuel produced by the hydroprocessing. The heating rate of the solid feedstock 24 is preferably greater than about 100 watts / meter2(W / m2). The weight hourly space velocity (WHSV) in grams (g) biomass / g catalyst / hour (h) for the hydropyrolysis step is in the range of from approximately 5 0.2 h-1to approximately 10 h-1, preferably in the range of from approximately 0.3 h-1to 3 h-1. The hydropyrolysis step may operate at a temperature between approximately 300 °C and 650 °C. The temperatures used in hydropyrolysis rapidly devolatilize the solid 10 feedstock 24. Thus, in a preferred embodiment, the hydropyrolysis step includes the use of an active catalyst (e.g., a deoxygenation catalyst) to stabilize the hydropyrolysis vapors. The activity of the catalyst used herein remains high and stable over a long period of time 15 such that it does not rapidly coke. Catalyst particle sizes, for use in the hydropyrolysis reactor 14, are preferably in the range of from approximately 0.3 millimeter (mm) to approximately 4.0 mm, more preferably in the range of from approximately 0.6 mm to approximately 20 3.0 mm, and most preferably in the range of from approximately 1 mm to approximately 2.4 mm. Any deoxygenation catalyst suitable for use in the temperature range of the hydropyrolysis process may be used. Preferably, the deoxygenation catalyst is selected 25 from sulfided catalysts having one or more metals from the group consisting of nickel (Ni), cobalt (Co), molybdenum (Mo) or tungsten (W) supported on a metal oxide. Suitable metal combinations include sulfided NiMo, sulfided CoMo, sulfided NiW, sulfided CoW and sulfided ternary metal 30 systems having any 3 metals from the family consisting of Ni, Co, Mo and W. Monometallic catalysts such as sulfided Mo, sulfided Ni and sulfided W are also suitable for use. Metal combinations for the deoxygenation catalyst used in accordance with certain embodiments of the present disclosure include sulfided NiMo and sulfided CoMo. Supports for the sulfided metal catalysts include metal oxides such as, but not limited to, alumina, silica, 5 titania, ceria and zirconia. Binary oxides such as silica-alumina, silica-titania and ceria-zirconia may also be used. Preferably, the supports include alumina, silica and titania. In certain embodiments, the support contains recycled, regenerated and revitalized fines of spent 10 hydrotreating catalysts (e.g., fines of CoMo on oxidic supports, NiMo on oxidic supports and fines of hydrocracking catalysts containing NiW on a mixture of oxidic carriers and zeolites). Total metal loadings on the deoxygenation catalyst are preferably in the range of 15 from approximately 1.5 weight percent (wt%) to approximately 50 wt% expressed as a weight percentage of calcined deoxygenation catalyst in oxidic form (e.g., weight percentage of Ni (as NiO) and Mo (as MoO3) on calcined oxidized NiMo on alumina support). Additional 20 elements such as phosphorous (P) may be incorporated into the deoxygenation catalyst to improve the dispersion of the metal. The first stage of the process disclosed herein produces the output 30 having a partially deoxygenated 25 hydropyrolysis product. The term “partially deoxygenated” as used herein denotes a material in which at least 30 weight % (wt%), preferably at least 50 wt%, more preferably at least 70 wt% of the oxygen present in the original solid feedstock 24 (e.g., lignocelluloses- 30 containing biomass) has been removed. The extent of oxygen removal refers to the percentage of the oxygen in the solid feedstock 24 (e.g., biomass), excluding that contained in the free moisture in the solid feedstock 24. This oxygen is removed in the form of water (H2O), carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2) in the hydropyrolysis step. Although it is possible that nearly 100 wt% of the oxygen present in the solid feedstock 24 is removed, generally at most 99 wt%, suitably at most 95 wt% will be removed in the hydropyrolysis step. Char Removal As discussed above, the output 30 produced from the hydropyrolysis step in the hydropyrolysis reactor 14 includes a mixed solid and vapor product that includes char, ash, catalyst fines, partially deoxygenated hydropyrolysis product, light gases (C1 - C3 gases, CO, CO2, hydrogen sulfide (H2S), ammonia (NH3) and H2), H2O vapor, vapors of C4+ hydrocarbons and oxygenated hydrocarbons. Char, ash and catalyst fines are entrained with the vapor phase product. Therefore, between the hydropyrolysis and hydroconversion steps, the first stage 18 and the second stage 20, respectively, char and catalyst fines are removed from the vapor phase product (e.g., the partially deoxygenated hydropyrolysis product). Any ash present may also be removed at this stage. In certain embodiments, the hydropyrolysis reactor 14 may include solid separation equipment (e.g., cyclones), for example above a dense bed phase, to mitigate the entrainment of solid particles above a certain particle size. In addition, or alternatively, the solid separation equipment may be positioned downstream from the hydropyrolysis reactor 14 that removes the char and other solids in the output 30 to generate a vapor phase product 34. For example, as illustrated in FIG. 1, the output 30 is fed to a solid separator 36 that separates / removes the solids (e.g., char, ash and catalyst fines 38) from the output 30. The char and catalyst fines 38 may be removed from the output 30 by cyclone separation, filtering, electrostatic precipitation, inertial separation, magnetic separation, or any other 5 suitable solid separation technique and combinations thereof. In one embodiment, the solid separator 36 includes one or more cyclones. For example, char may be removed by filtration from the vapor stream (e.g., the output 30) or by way of filtering from a wash step- 10 ebullated bed. Back pulsing may be employed in removing char and other solids from the filters as long as hydrogen used in the disclosed process sufficiently reduces the reactivity of the pyrolysis vapors and renders the char free-flowing. 15 In other embodiments, the solid separator 36 includes one or more filters or a combination of cyclones, filters and other suitable solid separation equipment to remove the entrained solids from the output 30. For example, the char 38 and other solids may be removed by 20 cyclone separation followed by hot gas filtration. The hot gas filtration removes fines not removed in the cyclones. In this embodiment, the dust cake caught on the filters is more easily cleaned compared to the char removed in the hot filtration of the aerosols produced in 25 conventional fast pyrolysis because the hydrogen from the hydropyrolysis step stabilizes the free radicals and saturated the olefins. In accordance with another embodiment of the present disclosure, cyclone separation followed by trapping the char and catalyst fines 38 in a 30 high-porosity solid adsorbent bed is used to remove the char and catalyst fines 38 from the output 30. By way of non-limiting example, high-porosity solid adsorbents suitable for trapping the char and catalyst fines 38 include alumina silicate materials. Inert graded bed and / or filter materials may also be used to remove the char and catalyst fines 38 from the output 30 to generate the vapour phase product 34. 5 The char and catalyst fines 38 may also be removed by bubbling the first stage product gas (e.g., the output 30) through a re-circulating liquid. The re-circulated liquid includes a high boiling point portion of a finished oil from this process (e.g., from the second stage 20) and 10 is thus a fully saturated (hydrogenated), stabilized oil having a boiling point above approximately 370 °C. In certain embodiments, the finished oil may be a heavy oil generated in a separate process. The char or catalyst fines 38 from the first stage 18 are captured in this 15 liquid. A portion of the liquid may be filtered to remove the fines 38 and a portion may be re-circulated back to the hydropyrolysis reactor 14. By using a re-circulating liquid, the temperature of the char-laden process vapors from the first stage 18 is lowered to a temperature 20 suitable for the hydroconversion step in the second stage 20, while also removing fine particulates of char and catalyst. Additionally, employing liquid filtration avoids the use of hot gas filtration. In accordance with another embodiment of the present 25 disclosure, large-size NiMo or CoMo catalysts, deployed in an ebullated bed, are used for char removal to provide further deoxygenation simultaneous with the removal of fine particulates. Particles of this catalyst should be large, preferably in the range of from 15 to 30 mm in 30 size, thereby rendering them easily separable from the fine char carried over from the hydropyrolysis reactor 14, which is generally less than 200 mesh (smaller than 70 micrometers (µm). Second Stage Following removal of the char and catalyst fines 38, the vapor phase product 34 (e.g., the partially deoxygenated hydropyrolysis product) together with the H2, 5 CO, CO2, H2O, and C1- C3gases from the hydropyrolysis step (e.g., the first stage 18) are fed into the hydroconversion reactor 16 in the second stage 20 and subjected to a hydroconversion step. The hydroconversion step is carried out at a temperature in the range of from 10 approximately 300 °C to approximately 600 °C and a pressure in the range of from approximately 0.1 MPa to approximately 0.6 MPa. As should be noted, pressures higher than 0.6 MPa may be used to tailor the boiling point distribution and composition of the resultant 15 hydrocarbon product based on the desired specifications of the hydrocarbon fuel produced by the hydroprocessing. The weight hourly space velocity (WHSV) for this step is in the range of approximately 0.1 h-1to approximately 2 h-1. The hydroconversion reactor 16 is a fixed bed reactor. 20 However, in certain embodiments, the hydroconversion reactor 16 may be a fluidized bed reactor. The vapor phase product 34 undergoes hydroconversion in the presence of a hydroconversion catalyst to generate a fully deoxygenated hydrocarbon product 42. The term “fully 25 deoxygenated” as used herein denotes a material in which at least 98 wt%, preferably at least 99 wt%, more preferably at least 99.9 wt% of the oxygen present in the original solid feedstock 24 (e.g., lignocelluloses- containing biomass) has been removed. The hydrocarbon 30 product 42 contains light gaseous hydrocarbons, such as methane, ethane, ethylene, propane and propylene, naphtha range hydrocarbons, middle-distillate range hydrocarbons, hydrocarbons boiling above 370 °C (based on ASTM D86), hydrogen and by-products of the hydroconversion reactions such as H2O, H2S, NH3, CO and CO2. The solid feedstock 24 used in the disclosed processes may contain metals such as, but not limited to, 5 sodium (Na), potassium (K), calcium (Ca) and phosphorus (P). These metals may poison the hydroconversion catalyst used in the second stage 20. However, these metals may be removed with the char and ash products (e.g., the char and catalyst fines 38) in the first stage 18. Accordingly, 10 the hydroconversion catalyst used in the hydroconversion step is protected from Na, K, Ca, P, and other metals present in the solid feedstock 24 which may otherwise poison the hydroconversion catalyst. Moreover, by hydropyrolysis of the solid feedstock 24 in the first 15 stage 18, the hydroconversion catalyst is advantageously protected from olefins and free radicals. The conditions under which hydropyrolysis occurs in the first stage 18 stabilize free radicals generated during high temperature devolatilization of the solid feedstock 24 (e.g., biomass) 20 by the presence of hydrogen and catalyst, thereby generating stable hydrocarbon molecules that are less prone to, for example, coke formation reactions which may deactivate the catalyst. The hydroconversion catalyst used in the 25 hydroconversion step includes any suitable hydroconversion catalyst having a desired activity in the temperature range of the disclosed hydroconversion process. For example, the hydroconversion catalyst is selected from sulfided catalysts having one or more metals from the 30 group consisting of Ni, Co, Mo or W supported on a metal oxide. Suitable metal combinations include sulfided NiMo, sulfided CoMo, sulfided NiW, sulfided CoW and sulfided ternary metal systems having any three metals from the family consisting of Ni, Co, Mo and W. Catalysts such as sulfided Mo, sulfided Ni and sulfided W are also suitable for use. The metal oxide supports for the sulfided metal catalysts include, but are not limited to, alumina, 5 silica, titania, ceria, zirconia, as well as binary oxides such as silica-alumina, silica-titania and ceria-zirconia. Preferred supports include alumina, silica and titania. The support may optionally contain regenerated and revitalized fines of spent hydrotreating catalysts (e.g., 10 fines of CoMo on oxidic supports, NiMo on oxidic supports and fines of hydrocracking catalysts containing NiW on a mixture of oxidic carriers and zeolites). Total metal loadings on the catalyst are in the range of from approximately 5 wt% to approximately 35 wt% (expressed as 15 a weight percentage of calcined catalyst in oxidic form, e.g., weight percentage of nickel (as NiO) and molybdenum (as MoO3) on calcined oxidized NiMo on alumina catalyst). Additional elements such as phosphorous (P) may be incorporated into the catalyst to improve the dispersion 20 of the metal. Metals can be introduced on the support by impregnation or co-mulling or a combination of both techniques. The hydroconversion catalyst used in the hydroconversion step may be, in composition, the same as or different to the deoxygenation catalyst used in the 25 hydropyrolysis step (e.g., first stage 18). In one embodiment of the present disclosure, the hydropyrolysis catalyst includes sulfided CoMo on alumina support and the hydroconversion catalyst includes sulfided NiMo on alumina support. 30 Following the hydroconversion step, the fully deoxygenated hydrocarbon product 42 is fed to one or more condensers that condenses the hydrocarbon product 42. The condensed hydrocarbon product 42 is fed to a gas-liquid separator 50 to provide a liquid phase product 52 having substantially fully deoxygenated C4+ hydrocarbon liquid and aqueous material. The term “substantially fully deoxygenated” is used herein to denote a material in which at least 90 wt% to 99 wt% of the oxygen present in the original lignocellulose containing biomass (e.g., the solid feedstock 24) has been removed. Accordingly, the resulting liquid phase product 52 (e.g., the substantially fully deoxygenated hydrocarbon C4+ liquid) contains less than 2 wt%, preferably less than 1 wt%, and most preferably less than 0.1 wt% oxygen. The substantially fully deoxygenated C4+ hydrocarbon liquid is compositionally different from bio-oil that is generated using other low pressure hydroprocesses. For example, the oxygen content of bio-oil is greater (e.g., between approximately 5 wt% to 15 wt%) compared to the liquid phase product 52 (e.g., less than 2 wt%). Therefore, due, in part, to the lower oxygen content of the liquid phase product 52, an amount of acid components (as measured by total acid number) and polar compounds is decreased compared to the bio-oil. By way of non-limiting example, the acid components include carboxylic acids, phenols and mixtures thereof. The liquid phase product 52 undergoes a separation process in the gas-liquid separator 50 that separates and removes the aqueous material from the substantially fully deoxygenated C4+ hydrocarbon liquid. Any suitable phase separation technique may be used to separate and remove the aqueous material from the substantially fully deoxygenated C4+ hydrocarbon liquid, thereby generating the liquid phase product 52 having the substantially fully deoxygenated C4+ hydrocarbon and non-condensable gases 54. The non-condensable gases 54 includes mainly H2, CO, CO2 and light hydrocarbon gases (typically C1to C3and may also contain some C4+ hydrocarbons). In certain embodiments, the non-condensable gases 54 are fed to a gas clean-up system 58. The gas clean-up system 58 removes H2S, NH3and trace amounts of organic sulfur-containing compounds, if present, as by-products of the process, thereby generating a hydrocarbon stream 60 having CO, CO2, H2 and the light hydrocarbon gases. The gas clean-up system 58 includes one or more process units that remove H2S 62 and NH3 64 from the non-condensable gases 54 as by-products of the process. The hydrocarbon stream 60 may be sent to a separation, reforming and water-gas shift section 68 where hydrogen 28 is produced from the light hydrocarbon gases in the hydrocarbon stream 60 and renewable CO2 70 is discharged as a by-product of the process. A fuel gas stream may be recovered as a by- product of this process. The produced hydrogen 28 may be re-used in the process. For example, the hydrogen 28 may be recycled to the hydropyrolysis reactor 14 in the first stage 18. Sufficient hydrogen is produced for use in the entire process disclosed herein. That is, the quantity of the hydrogen 28 produced by the separation, reforming and water-gas shift section 68 is equal to or greater than the hydrogen required to maintain fluidization and sustain chemical consumption of hydrogen in the process. The liquid phase product 52 recovered from the gas- liquid separator 50 is fed to a product recovery section 72. In the product recovery section 72, aqueous product 74 is removed from the liquid phase product 52 to generate an intermediate liquid phase product 80. The intermediate liquid phase product 80 may be added directly to the crude feed slate to the refinery “crude distillation unit” or CDU and co-processed with the fossil-derived crude feed. The intermediate liquid phase product 80 contribution to product slates out of the refinery may be tracked and quantified by various13C / 14C ratio methods being developed in the industry for the purpose. Alternatively, the 5 intermediate liquid phase product 80 may be processed as described below. The intermediate liquid phase product 80 may undergo distillation to separate the substantially fully deoxygenated C4+ hydrocarbon liquid into fractions according to ranges of the boiling points of the liquid 10 products contained in the intermediate liquid phase product 80. For example, the substantially fully deoxygenated C4+ hydrocarbon liquid in the intermediate liquid phase product 80 includes naphtha range hydrocarbons (gasoline), middle distillate range 15 hydrocarbons (e.g., gasoil, diesel), vacuum gasoil (VGO) range hydrocarbons and kerosene. For the purpose of clarity, “kerosenes’ as used herein are hydrocarbons or oxygenated hydrocarbons recovered by distillation between an atmospheric- 20 equivalent initial boiling point (IBP) and a final boiling point (FBP) measured according to standard ASTM distillation methods. ASTM D86 initial boiling point of kerosenes may vary from between approximately 130 °C to approximately 210 °C. Final boiling point of kerosenes, 25 according to ASTM D86 distillation, may vary from between approximately 240 °C to approximately 315 °C. The term “middle distillates” as used herein are hydrocarbons or oxygenated hydrocarbons recovered by distillation between an atmospheric-equivalent initial 30 boiling point (IBP) and a final boiling point (FBP) measured according to standard ASTM distillation methods. ASTM D86 initial boiling point of middle distillates may vary from between approximately 150 °C to approximately 220 °C. Final boiling point of middle distillates, according to ASTM D86 distillation, may vary from between approximately 350 °C to approximately 380 °C. “Naphtha” as used herein is one or more hydrocarbons 5 or oxygenated hydrocarbons having four or more carbon atoms and having an atmospheric-equivalent final boiling point that is greater than approximately 90 °C but less than approximately 200 °C. A small amount of hydrocarbons produced in the process (approximately less than 3 wt% of 10 total C4+ hydrocarbons, and preferably less than 1 wt% of total C4+hydrocarbons) boil at temperatures higher than those for the middle distillates as defined above. That is, these hydrocarbons have a boiling range similar to vacuum-gasoil produced by distillation of petroleum. 15 Gasoline is predominantly naphtha-range hydrocarbons and is used in spark-ignition internal combustion engines. In the United States, ASTM D4814 standard establishes the requirements of gasoline for ground vehicles with spark- ignition internal combustion engines. Gasoil (GO) / diesel 20 is predominantly middle-distillate range hydrocarbons and is used in compression-ignition internal combustion engines. In the United States, ASTM D975 standard covers the requirements of several grades of diesel fuel suitable for various types of diesel engines. 25 Accordingly, in the illustrated embodiment, the intermediate liquid product 80 is fed to a distillation unit 82 to recover a gasoline product 84 (which is used in the gasoline fuel composition of the present invention), a distillate / diesel product 86 (e.g., a middle distillate) 30 and a kerosene / jet fuel 88. The gasoline product 84 is substantially fully free from oxygen, sulfur and nitrogen. In certain embodiments, the oxygen content of the gasoline product 84 is less than approximately 1.50 wt %. For example, the oxygen content may be approximately 1.40 wt %, 1.25 wt %, 0.50 wt %, 0.25 wt %, or 0.10 wt % or less. In one embodiment, the sulfur 5 content is less than 100 ppmw. For example, the sulfur content may be approximately 75 ppmw, 50 ppmw, 25 ppmw, 10 ppmw, 5 ppmw, 1 ppmw or less. Regarding the nitrogen content, in certain embodiments, the nitrogen content of the substantially fully deoxygenated C4+ hydrocarbon liquid 10 is less than 1000 ppmw. For example, the nitrogen content may be approximately 750 ppmw, 500 ppmw, 250 ppmw, 100 ppmw, 75 ppmw, 50 ppmw, 25 ppmw, 10 ppmw, or 1 ppmw or less. The hydrocarbon liquid products such as the gasoline 15 product 84 generated from hydroprocessing of solid biomass feedstock (e.g., the solid feedstock 24) may need additional processing to upgrade and improve certain product properties such as density, sulfur and / or nitrogen content, aromatics content, among others, and facilitate 20 tailoring the overall hydrocarbon product to certain location and market specifications, among other benefits. However, the additional processing to upgrade the gasoline product 84 introduces complexity to the process, while also increasing the overall cost of producing commercially 25 viable gasoline fuel compositions having the desired specifications set forth by various fuel regulations. However, it has been recognized that by blending the gasoline product 84 with an alcohol, the product properties of the resulting gasoline fuel composition 30 (e.g., reduced particulate mass) are improved without requiring additional processing to upgrade the gasoline product 84. Therefore, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure, the gasoline product 84 is mixed with an alcohol 90 to yield a commercially viable gasoline fuel composition 92 that does not require further upgrading via complex and costly processing. Alcohol 5 A second essential component of the gasoline fuel compositions of the present invention is an alcohol. The alcohol is present in an amount from 5 wt% to 50 wt%, preferably from 5 wt% to 20 wt%, more preferably from 10 wt% to 15 wt%, by weight of the gasoline fuel composition. 10 In one embodiment, the alcohol is present at a level of 10 wt%, by weight of the gasoline fuel composition. In another embodiment, the alcohol is present at a level of 15 wt%, by weight of the gasoline fuel composition. Suitable alcohols for use herein include methanol,15 ethanol, propanol, 2-propanol, butanol, tert-butanol, iso- butanol, 2-butanol and mixtures thereof. A preferred alcohol for use herein is ethanol. The alcohol for use in the present invention can be derived from any suitable source as long as it is suitable 20 for use in a gasoline fuel composition. Preferably the alcohol is derived from renewable sources, e.g. bio- ethanol. When the alcohol is derived from renewable sources, this enables a fully renewable fuel composition to be formulated (100% renewable). 25 Gasoline fuel composition The gasoline fuel composition of the present invention can be prepared by a process which comprises mixing the cycloparaffinic gasoline, preferably derived from hydropyrolysis and hydroconversion of a biomass 30 containing lignocellulose, with the alcohol. The mixing is carried out using standard blending techniques known to a person skilled in the art. The gasoline fuel compositions of the present invention preferably meet most or all of the requirements of the ASTM D4814 gasoline fuel specification. The gasoline fuel composition of the present 5 invention preferably has a boiling point in the range from 35°C to 180°C at atmospheric pressure, a density at 15°C from 0.74 to 0.77 kg / m3, more preferably from 0.75 kg / m3to 0.76 kg / m3. The fuel composition of the present invention has an 10 aromatics content of from 15 wt% to 25 wt%, more preferably from 17 wt% to 24 wt%, even more preferably from 18 wt% to 21 wt%, by weight of the fuel composition. The level of aromatics can be measured according to ASTM D6379. As optional components, it is possible to include 15 fossil-derived gasoline in the gasoline fuel composition of the present invention. However, in a particularly preferred embodiment herein, the gasoline fuel composition comprises 100% renewable fuel components. As further optional components, the fuel compositions 20 of the present invention can include performance additives, either as separate components or as part of a performance additive package. Examples of suitable performance additives include detergents, friction modifiers, anti- antioxidants, anti-rust additives, anti-wear additives, and 25 the like. Such additives are well known to those skilled in the art. It has surprisingly been found that the gasoline fuel composition of the present invention provides improved performance properties, in particular reduced particulate 30 exhaust emissions, such as particulate mass (PM) and / or particulate number (PN) emissions, from a vehicle operated by a spark ignition internal combustion engine. Hence according to a further aspect of the present invention there is also provided a use of a gasoline fuel composition as described hereinabove for providing a reduction in particulate exhaust emissions from a vehicle 5 operated by an internal combustion engine, preferably a spark ignition internal combustion engine. Preferably, decrease in particulate exhaust emissions is measured by a reduction in Particulate Number (PN) exhaust emissions or a reduction in Particulate Mass (PM) exhaust emissions, or 10 both. As discussed above, particulates of a diameter size of 2.5 microns or less are of particular concern, and therefore a decrease in exhaust emissions is preferably measured by a reduction in the ‘PM2.5’ exhaust emissions. According to a further aspect of the present 15 invention there is provided a method for reducing particulate exhaust emissions from a vehicle operated by a spark ignition internal combustion engine, wherein the method comprises the step of fuelling the spark ignition internal combustion engine with a fuel composition as 20 described hereinabove and combusting the fuel composition within the spark ignition internal combustion engine. The PM emissions and PN emissions can be measured by any suitable method known to those skilled in the art. For example, the engine PM (particulate matter) emissions 25 can be measured according to 40 CFR Part 86 (US Code of Federal Regulations) and 40 CFR Part 1066 Subpart B – Equipment, Measurement Instruments, Fuel, and Analytical Gas Specifications, as specified by U.S. Environmental Protection Agency in Vehicle Testing Regulations section 30 (this method was used for measuring PM emissions in the Examples section below). The engine PN (particulate number) measured the total number of solid particles larger than 23nm and can be measured according to the European Union (EU) Particle Measurement Programme (PMP) procedure developed by United Nations Economic Commission for Europe Engine, as specified in EU emission standards for passenger cars (this method was used for measuring PN emissions in the Examples section below). 5 A suitable test method for measuring PM emissions is provided in Sardar, Satya, et al. “Evaluation of PM measurement precision and the equivalency of the single and three filter sampling methods for LEV III FTP standards”, SAE International Journal of Engines 9.1 10 (2016):342-354. A suitable test method for measuring PN emissions is provided in Catapano, Francesco, et al. “Measurement of Sub-23 nm Particles Emitted from PFI / DI SI Engine Fueled with Oxygenated Fuels: A Comparison between Conventional 15 and Novel Methodologies” Energies 15.6 (2022): 2021”. In particular, the fuel composition of the present invention has been found to decrease particulate number (PN) and particulate mass (PM) exhaust emissions in vehicles equipped with aftertreatment systems compared to 20 fossil-derived gasoline. In addition to reducing particulate emissions, the fuel compositions of the present invention have been found to reduce total hydrocarbon and NOx emissions. In particular, the fuel compositions of the present invention 25 can decrease PM, PN, total hydrocarbon, and NOxemissions in pre-aftertreatment exhaust compared to fossil-based gasoline. This has the advantage of being able to significantly reduce emissions of vehicles where the aftertreatment systems are defective or not available, and 30 makes it feasible to simplify the aftertreatment systems and reduce cost. Hence, in one embodiment of the uses and methods herein, the spark ignition internal combustion engine does not include any aftertreatment system. Diesel fuel compositions The renewable cycloparaffinic diesel / distillate product generated from the hydropyrolysis and hydroconversion of a solid biomass containing 5 lignocellulose, as described above, can also be used to reduce particulate exhaust emissions. Hence according to the another aspect of the present invention there is provide the use of a renewable cycloparaffinic diesel product generated from the hydropyrolysis and 10 hydroconversion of a solid biomass containing lignocellulose for decreasing particulate exhaust emissions from a vehicle operated by an internal combustion engine. The invention will now be further illustrated by 15 reference to the following non-limiting examples. Example 1 A renewable, bio-derived cycloparaffinic gasoline was produced from the naphtha fraction resulting from hydropyrolysis and hydroconversion of pinewood chips 20 according to the process discussed above with reference to FIG. 1. The resulting renewable, bio-derived cycloparaffinic gasoline component was used to prepare a gasoline fuel composition (Example 1) comprising 10 vol% ethanol and 90 vol% of the renewable, bio-derived 25 cycloparaffinic. The fuel composition had an AKI of 87, corresponding to North America Regular gasoline grade. The fuel composition was prepared by blending the constituents by hand mixing under ambient conditions. The gasoline fuel composition was subjected to 30 emissions testing on a 2017 2.5 L Toyota Camry. A standard E0 gasoline fuel (referred to as Ref. Fuel in the tables below) was also subjected to the same emissions testing, by way of comparison. The primary goal of the testing was to determine if the gasoline fuel composition could meet the emissions standards required for registration with the government of the U.S. as per the Code of Federal Regulation (CFR) Title 40, Part 1066 Vehicle Testing Procedures. Emissions testing for the characterization of combustion emissions was conducted both with the aftertreatment system intact and with the aftertreatment system rendered non-functional. After the vehicle selection was made, the entire vehicle aftertreatment system was removed and configured with a hollow tube in accordance with the US EPA 211(b) methodology for testing the vehicle without the catalyst. The purpose of this step was to simulate a ‘worst case’ condition, when the catalyst has melted. The emissions tested included total hydrocarbons (THC), non-methane hydrocarbons (NMHC), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), total particulate mass (PM), and total particulate number (PN). More specific for particulate emissions, a Solid Particle Number System (SPNS) measures particles larger than 23 nm in accordance with the European Union (EU). An Engine Exhaust Particle Sizer (EEPS) measures particles in the size range between 5.6 nm and 560 nm that include both total PN and solid PN measurements. The results are set out in Tables 1-3 below. Each result is an average of at least three runs. Table 1 shows the emissions without the aftertreatment system. Table 2 shows the emissions with the aftertreatment system. Table 3 is a summary of the emissions with and without the aftertreatment system. Table 1 Emissions without aftertreatment system. Emission Ref. Fuel Example 1 Difference % Difference (LS Mean) (LS Mean) (Example 1 – US E0 gasoline) CO2(g / mi) 268.74 264.92 -3.82 -1.4% CO (g / mi) 12.76 13.50 0.74 +6% THC (g / mi) 1.6 1.48 -0.19 -12% NOx (g / mi) 3.35 2.97 -0.38 -11% NMHC 1.62 1.43 -0.19 -12% (g / mi) Fuel 30.37 29.84 -0.53 -1.7% Economy (mpg) PM (g / mi) 0.00102 0.00074 -0.00028 -28% EU Solid 2.75 x 10111.44 x 1011-1.31 x 1011-48% PN (# / mi) EEPS Solid 1.91 x 10127.25 x 1011-1.19 x 1012-62% PN (# / mi) EEPS 1.01 x 10136.09 x 1012-4.01 x 1012-40% Soluble PN (# / mi) EEPS Total 1.20 x 10136.82 x 1012-5.20 x 1012-43% PN (# / mi) Table 2 Emissions with aftertreatment system. Emission Ref. Fuel Example 1 Difference % Difference (LS Mean) (LS Mean) (Example 1 – Ref. Fuel) CO2291.75 290.75 -1.00 -0.3% (g / mi) CO 0.164 0.189 +0.025 +15% (g / mi) THC 0.0240 0.0219 -0.0021 -9% (g / mi) NOx 0.0239 0.0276 +0.0036 +15% (g / mi) NMHC 0.0201 0.0187 -0.0014 -7.0% (g / mi) Fuel 30.59 29.79 -0.80 -2.6% Economy (mpg) PM 0.000266 0.000242 -0.0000024 -9% (g / mi) EU Solid 1.39*10^11 8.81*10^10 -5.06*10^10 -36% PN (# / mi) EEPS 3.15*10^11 2.17*10^11 -9.83*10^10 -31% Solid PN (# / mi) EEPS 0.77*10^11 0.70*10^11 -7*10^9 -10% Soluble PN (# / mi) EEPS 3.92*10^11 2.87*10^11 -1.05*10^11 -27% Total PN (# / mi) Table 3 Summary of emissions with and without aftertreatment systems Average of Composites Results, g / ml Fuel THC NMHC CO NOx CO2 PMEcon- omy mpg Ref. Fuel 0.024 0.020 0.164 0.024 291.8 0.0003 30.6 with after- treatment Eg 1 with 0.022 0.019 0.189 0.028 290.8 0.0002 29.8 after- treatment % Differ- -8.7% -5.1% +14.2% +15.4% -0.34% -40% -2.6% ence Federal NS 0.075 3.4 0.05 NS 0.01 NS Standard (BIN 5) Ref. Fuel 1.671 1.621 12.762 3.35 268.7 0.0009 30.4 without after- treatment Eg 1 1.476 1.433 13.502 2.97 264.9 0.0007 29.8 without after- treatment % Differ- -12.4% -12.3% +5.6% -12.0% -1.4% -25% -1.8% ence NS = not specified Example 2 A renewable, bio-derived cycloparaffinic diesel product was produced from hydropyrolysis and hydroconversion of pinewood chips according to the process discussed above with reference to FIG. 1. Emissions testing was performed on a heavy duty diesel engine to screen the renewable cycloparaffinic diesel product (Renewable Diesel) as well as a fossil-derived diesel. Generation, collection and analysis of regulated emissions from a 2015 Ford 6.7 L engine were performed for each of the fuels during two test campaigns. The testing measured engine-out emissions. Emissions testing used a test sequence of a cold start + three hot starts on each fuel. Samples were collected and analysed for regulated emissions including total hydrocarbons (THC), non-methane hydrocarbons (NMHC), carbon monoxide (CO), oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and total particulate matter (PM). Carbon dioxide was measured for calculation of fuel economy by carbon balance. In addition to regulated emissions, total particulate number (PN) and particle size distribution were measured. The results of the emissions testing are shown in Table 4 below and shows that the renewable diesel reduces particulate emissions compared with fossil diesel. Table 4 Emissions without aftertreatment system of diesel samples Emission Renewable Fossil Difference % Diesel Diesel (Fossil Difference (LS Mean) (LS Diesel – (Fossil Mean) Renewable Diesel – Diesel) Renewable Diesel) CO2(g / hp- 570.35 579.69 +9.33 +1.6% hr) CO (g / hp- 3.510 3.492 -0.018 -0.5% hr) THC (g / hp- 0.359 0.342 -0.19 -12% hr) CH4 (g / hp- 0.00785 0.00674 -0.00111 -14.1% hr) NOx(g / hp- 0.917 0.993 +0.077 +8.4% hr) NMHC 0.351 0.337 -0.015 -4.3% (g / hp-hr) NOx + NMHC 1.268 1.330 +0.062 +4.9% (g / hp-hr) BSFC 0.405 0.408 +0.003 +0.7% (ib / hp-hr) PM (g / hp- 0.300 0.316 +0.016 +5.3% hr) EU Solid 0.916 x 0.948 x +0.032 +3.5% PN (# / kw- 10151015hr) EEPS Solid 1.560 x 1.621 x +0.061 +3.9% PN (# / kw- 10151015hr) EEPS Total 1.5 1586 x 1.6 155 x +0.069 +4.4% PN ((# / kw- 10 105hr) Discussion The gasoline fuel composition of the present invention has been found to decrease particulate number (PN) and particulate mass (PM) exhaust emissions in vehicles equipped with an aftertreatment system compared to a conventional fossil-based gasoline. The gasoline fuel composition of the present invention has also been found to decrease PM, PN, total hydrocarbon and NOx emissions in pre-aftertreatment exhaust compared to fossil-based gasoline. This has the advantage of being able to significantly reduce emissions of vehicles where the aftertreatment systems are defective or not available, 5 and makes it feasible to simplify the aftertreatment systems and reduce cost. The diesel fuel compositions tested herein have been found to decrease PM, PN, and NOx emissions in pre- aftertreatment exhaust compared to fossil-based diesel. 10 This has the advantage of being able to significantly reduce emissions of vehicles where the aftertreatment systems are defective or not available. 15

Claims

SP3105 - 33 - A I M S 1. A fuel composition comprising 5 wt% to 50 wt% alcohol and 50 wt% to 95 wt% of renewable cycloparaffinic gasoline, wherein the renewable cycloparaffinic gasoline comprises at least 40 wt% cycloparaffins, from 15 wt% to 5 25 wt% of aromatics, and from 20 wt% to 30 wt% of paraffins, by weight of the cycloparaffinic gasoline.

2. A fuel composition according to Claim 1 wherein the renewable cycloparaffinic gasoline comprises from 40 wt% to 60 wt% of cycloparaffins, by weight of the renewable 10 cycloparaffinic gasoline.

3. A fuel composition according to Claim 1 or 2 wherein wherein the renewable cycloparaffinic gasoline comprises from 40 wt% to 50 wt% of cycloparaffins, by weight of the renewable cycloparaffinic gasoline. 15 4. A fuel composition according to any of Claims 1 to 3 wherein the renewable cycloparaffinic gasoline comprises from 0.1 wt% to 3 wt% of olefins, by weight of the renewable cycloparaffinic gasoline.

5. A fuel composition according to any of Claims 1 to 4 20 wherein the fuel composition comprises from 5 wt% to 20 wt% of alcohol, by weight of the fuel composition.

6. A fuel composition according to any of Claims 1 to 5 wherein the fuel composition comprises from 10 wt% to 15 wt% alcohol, by weight of the fuel composition. 25 7. A fuel composition according to any of Claims 1 to 6 wherein the alcohol is ethanol.

8. A fuel composition according to any of Claims 1 to 7 wherein the fuel composition has a RON of greater than 90.

9. A fuel composition according to any of Claims 1 to 8 30 wherein the fuel composition has a MON of greater than 83.

10. A fuel composition according to any of Claims 1 to 9 wherein the renewable cycloparaffinic gasoline is generated from hydropyrolysis and hydroconversion of a solid biomass containing lignocellulose. 5 11. A fuel composition according to any of Claims 1 to 10 wherein the renewable cycloparaffinic gasoline is generated by a hydroprocess comprising: feeding a solid feedstock and hydrogen to a first stage hydropyrolysis reactor, wherein the first stage 10 hydropyrolysis reactor comprises one or more deoxygenation catalyst, and wherein the solid feedstock comprises biomass containing lignocellulose; hydropyrolysing a solid feedstock in a first stage hydropyrolysis reactor to generate a product stream 15 comprising partially deoxygenated hydropyrolysis product, H2O, H2, CO2, CO, C1 - C3 gases, char and catalyst fines; feeding at least a portion of the product stream to a second stage hydroconversion reactor comprising one or more hydroconversion catalyst; and 20 hydroconverting the partially deoxygenated hydropyrolysis product in the product stream to generate a vapor phase product comprising substantially fully deoxygenated hydrocarbon product, H2O, CO, CO2, and C1– C3gases; condensing the vapor phase product to generate a 25 deoxygenated hydrocarbon liquid comprising the substantially fully deoxygenated hydrocarbon product, wherein the substantially fully deoxygenated hydrocarbon product comprises the renewable cycloparaffinic gasoline.

12. A process for producing the fuel composition 30 according to any of Claims 1 to 10 comprising (i) generating a renewable cycloparaffinic gasoline from hydropyrolysis and hydroconversion of a solid biomasscontaining lignocellulose, (ii) providing an alcohol; and (iii) blending the renewable cycloparaffinic gasoline with the alcohol to produce a fuel composition.

13. Use of a fuel composition according to any of Claims 1 5 to 10 for decreasing particulate exhaust emissions from a vehicle operated by a spark ignition internal combustion engine.

14. Use according to Claim 13 wherein the decrease in particulate exhaust emissions is measured by a reduction 10 in Particulate Number (PN).

15. Use according to Claim 13 or 14 wherein the spark ignition internal combustion engine does not include any aftertreatment system.

16. Use according to any of Claims 13 to 15 wherein the 15 decrease in particulate emissions leads to a decrease in low-speed pre-ignition (LSPI).

17. Method for reducing particulate exhaust emissions from a vehicle operated by a spark ignition internal combustion engine, wherein the method comprises the step 20 of fuelling the spark ignition internal combustion engine with a fuel composition according to any of Claims 1 to 11 and combusting the fuel within the spark ignition internal combustion engine.

18. Use of a renewable cycloparaffinic diesel product 25 generated from the hydropyrolysis and hydroconversion of a solid biomass containing lignocellulose for decreasing particulate exhaust emissions from a vehicle operated by an internal combustion engine.

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