Methods of making bioactive compound-loaded nanoparticles and compositions thereof

Abstract

Methods of making bioactive compound-loaded nanoparticles are provided. The methods harness naturally-occurring biopolymers to produce nanoparticles from raw plant materials. Methods include contacting plant-derived materials with alkaline solution with agitation to deprotonate the bioactive materials and biopolymers to form nanoparticles. In some forms, the methods contact the nanoparticle with an acid to re-protonate the components and more stable nanoparticles. The bioactive compounds can be extracted from raw plants and / or plant parts, including turmeric, ginger, clove, thyme, pepper, and rosemary. The bioactive compounds include curcumin, gingerols, shogaols, eugenol, thymol, carvacrol, capsaicin, and rosmarinic acid. Compositions and formulations containing bioactive-compound loaded nanoparticles are also provided.

Description

[0001] METHODS OF MAKING BIOACTIVE COMPOUND-LOADED NANOPARTICLES AND COMPOSITIONS THEREOF CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims benefit of and priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 63 / 683,130, filed August 14, 2024, which is specifically incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The disclosed invention is generally in the field of compositions and methods of making bioactive-loaded nanoparticles. The present invention also relates generally to formulations including such compounds for pharmaceutical, nutraceutical, agricultural, or food applications. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION With the ever-increasing global population (estimated at ~10 billion by 2050), one of the paramount challenges is to develop a sustainable food system to create more healthy, tasty and affordable foods (Ehrlich and Harte, “To feed the world in 2050 will require a global revolution” PNAS Opinion, 112 (48) 14743-14744 (2015)). Plant-based foods are emerging as a pivotal solution in this endeavor. Not only do plant-based foods constitute a significant portion of the daily diet through fruits and vegetables, but they also offer vital alternatives to animal-based products like dairy and meat (McClements and Grossman, “Next-generation plant-based foods: design, production, and properties”, 1stedition, Springer 2022). This shift is important in meeting nutritional needs while reducing the environmental footprint of the food supply. An example is the ongoing development of curcumin-enriched food systems by leveraging the health benefits of curcumin, such as its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer properties (Stanić, “Curcumin, a Compound from Natural Sources, a True Scientific Challenge – A Review; Curcumin—From Molecule to Biological Function”, Plant Foods for Human Nutrition”, 72:1-12, (2017)). Furthermore, incorporating turmeric or its potent compound, curcumin, not only has the potential to enhance human health but also to improve animal welfare. For instance, turmeric has been recognized as a natural substitute for antibiotics in poultry diets (Aderemi and Alabi, “Turmeric (Curcuma longa): an alternative to antibiotics in poultry nutrition”, Translational Animal Science, 7(1): txad133 (2023); Campigotto, et al., “Dog food production using curcumin as antioxidant: Effects of intake on animal growth, health and feed conservation”, Arch Anim Nutr, 74(5):397-413 (2020)). Nevertheless, fulfilling the extensive demand for curcumin-based products for both human and animal consumption necessitates a strategic approach to develop a food system that is sustainable, health-promoting, and economically viable. So far, it is not straightforward to develop curcumin-based foods due to the issues related to crystallization, low water-solubility, and chemical instability of curcumin, which potentially results in its limited oral-bioavailability (Zheng and McClements, “Formulation of More Efficacious Curcumin Delivery Systems Using Colloid Science: Enhanced Solubility, Stability, and Bioavailability”, 25: Article number 2791, (2020)). Using nanotechnology to formulate curcumin- loaded nanoparticles has been attempted, and a number of curcumin-loaded nanoparticles have been developed to increase the water solubility and chemical stability of curcumin and thus improve its oral-bioavailability (Gayathri, et al., “Nano formulation approaches for curcumin delivery-a review”, Journal of Drug Delivery Science and Technology, 82: Article number 104326, (2023), Sun, et al., “Advances in nanotechnology-based delivery systems for curcumin” Nanomedicine, 7(7):1085+ (2012); Ghalandarlaki, et al., “Nanotechnology- applied curcumin for different diseases therapy”, 2014 (Article ID 394264): 23 pages, (2014)). However, the existing techniques for producing curcumin-enriched foods are still ineffective due to low water-solubility, chemical instability of curcumin, and high production cost. Existing approaches include extracting curcumin from turmeric and then integrating it into a biopolymer- based nanocarrier system, such as those based on proteins, polysaccharides, or lipids (Rafiee, et al., “Application of different nanocarriers for encapsulation of curcumin”, Critical Reviews in Food Sciences and Nutrition, 59(21):3468-3497, 2018); Guerra, et al., “The nanotech potential of turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) in food technology: A review”, Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 60(11):1842-1854 (2019)). Although these methods produce curcumin-loaded nanoparticles, they are limited in terms of sustainability, cost-effectiveness, and convenience. For example, significant amounts of water, energy, and food resources are expended or wasted, with potential negative environmental impacts. The prevalent use of organic solvents in curcumin extraction is environmentally detrimental and could reduce consumer acceptance of the end product (Kisanthia, et al., “Impact of Conventional and Sustainable Solvents on the Yield, Selectivity, and Recovery of Curcuminoids from Turmeric”, ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng., 10(1): 104-114 (2021); Manasa, et al., “Various Extraction Techniques of Curcumin ─ A Comprehensive Review”, ACS Omega, 8(38): 34868–34878 (2023)). Moreover, the inefficiency in using turmeric leads to by- product waste, and the production of biopolymer-based nanocarriers also need new food ingredients and likely generates additional food waste (Han, et al., “Spent turmeric reduces fat mass in rats fed a high-fat diet”, Food Function, 7(4):1814-24 (2016)). Thus, these manufacturing processes consume significant resources and energy, making it challenging to produce cost-effective curcumin-loaded nanoparticles. Therefore, more effective approaches for developing a next-generation food system that can produce curcumin-enriched foods sustainably and efficiently are desperately needed. It is an object of the invention to provide improved methods of producing bioactive compound-loaded nanoparticles. It is also an object of the invention to provide improved bioactive compound-loaded nanoparticles made by the improved methods. It is a further object of the invention to provide curcumin-loaded nanoparticles made by the improved methods. Any discussion of documents, acts, materials, devices, articles or the like which has been included in the present specification is not to be taken as an admission that any or all of these matters form part of the prior art base or were common general knowledge in the field relevant to the present disclosure as it existed before the priority date of each claim of this application. Throughout this specification the word “comprise,” or variations such as “comprises” or “comprising,” will be understood to imply the inclusion of a stated element, integer or step, or group of elements, integers or steps, but not the exclusion of any other element, integer or step, or group of elements, integers or steps. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Improved methods of making bioactive compound-loaded nanoparticles are provided. The methods utilize naturally occurring biopolymers e.g., starches to produce bioactive compound- loaded nanoparticles e.g., curcumin-loaded nanoparticles (NPs). The disclosed methods typically include: (i) contacting a plant-derived powder containing the bioactive compound and one or more biopolymers with an alkaline solution to provide a first mixture, (ii) agitating the first mixture to facilitate the dissolution of plant components in the solution by forming negatively charged groups, and (iii) separating the soluble components from the first mixture, including the desirable bioactive compound and biopolymers as a potential carrier. They can self-assemble into nanoparticles due to their amphiphilic characteristics. Generally, the pKa of the compound defines the needed pH of the alkaline solution, such that the pH of the alkaline solution is generally higher than the pKa of the compound. In some forms, the alkaline solution has a pH of 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, or 14. In some forms, the alkaline solution has a pH of about 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4, 7.5, 7.6, 7.7, 7.8, 7.9, 8.0, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4, 8.5, 8.6, 8.7, 8.8, 8.9, 9.0, 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4, 9.5, 9.6, 9.7, 9.8, 9.9, 10.0, 10.1, 10.2, 10.3, 10.4, 10.5, 10.6, 10.7, 10.8, 10.9, 11.0, 11.1, 11.2, 11.3, 11.4, 11.5, 11.6., 11.7, 11.8, 11.9, 12.0, 12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5, 12.6, 12.7, 12.8, 12.9, 13.0, 13.1, 13.2, 13.3, 13.4, 13.5, 13.6, 13.7, 13.8, 13.9, or 14.0. In some forms, the alkaline solution has a pH ranging from about pH 7 to about pH 8, from about pH 7 to about pH 9, from about pH 7 to about pH 10, from about pH 7 to about pH 11, from about pH 7 to about pH 12, from about pH 7 to about pH 13, from about pH 7 to about pH 14, or from about from about pH 8 to about pH 14. In some forms, the alkaline solution has a pH of at least 7, at least 8, at least 9, at least 10, at least 11, at least 13, or pH 14. In some forms, the alkaline solution is selected from the group of sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, trisodium phosphate (Na3PO4), sodium dihydrogen phosphate (Na2HPO4), monosodium phosphate (NaH2PO4), sodium carbonate, sodium bicarbonate and calcium hydroxide. Generally, the bioactive compound includes a pH soluble functional group that is soluble at a pH above 7. In some forms, the pH soluble functional group is selected from the group containing a phenolic hydroxyl group (-OH), a carboxyl group (-COOH), a sulfate group (–SO₃H), a sulfhydryl group (–SH), and a phosphate group (–PO₄H₂). For example, the bioactive compound can include a soluble amino acid, i.e., an amino acid having a -OH or -COOH group. Therefore, in some forms, the bioactive compound includes a soluble amino acid. Suitable soluble amino acids include, e.g., aspartic acid and glutamic acid. In some forms, the bioactive compound includes a polysaccharide having one or more soluble units e.g., mannuronic acid, guluronic acid, galacturonic acid, or a sugar hydroxyl. The bioactive compounds can be extracted from raw plants and plant parts, including turmeric, ginger, clove, thyme, pepper, and rosemary, and encompass curcumin, gingerols, shogaols, eugenol, thymol, carvacrol, capsaicin, and rosmarinic acid. Typically, the biopolymer includes a pH soluble group that is charged and soluble at a pH above approximately pH 7. In some forms, the pH soluble group can be an amino acid such as a tyrosine, an aspartic acid, a glutamic acid, a lysine, an arginine, or a histidine. In some forms, the pH soluble groups can be units of a polysaccharide such as mannuronic acid, guluronic acid, galacturonic acid, or a sugar hydroxyl. The biopolymers typically contain starch polymers. Exemplary starch polymers include branched starch polymers. “Starch polymers” as used herein, refers to biopolymers composed of α-amylose and amylopectin, found in various plant sources like corn, rice, potato, and wheat. In some forms, the biopolymer includes branched amylopectin. The nanoparticles produced by the disclosed methods can also include a polysaccharide selected from the group of uronic acid and pectin. In some forms, the methods can further include one or more additional steps selected from: (iv), contacting the nanoparticle with an acid to form a second mixture; (v) agitating the second mixture, optionally wherein the agitating is carried out for a time to provide a second mixture having a lower pH (e.g., 7.0-5.0); and (vi) isolating the nanoparticle from the second mixture. In some forms, the acid is selected from citric acid, acetic acid, ascorbic acid, hydrochloric acid, phosphoric acid, and tartaric acid. Generally, the pKa of the compound defines the required pH of the acidic solution, such that the pH of the acidic solution is generally lower than the pKa of the bioactive compound. In some forms, the acidic solution has a pH of pH 7, pH 6, pH 5, pH 4, pH 3, pH 2, or pH 1. In some forms, the acidic solution has a pH of about 7.0, 6.9, 6.8, 6.7, 6.6, 6.5, 6.4, 6.3, 6.2, 6.1, 6.0, 5.9, 5.8, 5.7, 5.5, 5.4, 5.3, 5.2, 5.1, 5.0, 4.9, 4.8, 4.7, 4.6, 4.5, 4.4, 4.3, 4.2, 4.1, 3.9, 3.8, 3.7, 3.6, 3.5, 3.4, 3.3, 3.2, 3.1, 3.0, 2.9, 2.8, 2.7, 2.6, 2.5, 2.4, 2.3, 2.2, 2.1, 2.0, 1.9, 1.8, 1.7, 1.6, 1.5, 1.4, 1.3, 1.2, 1.1, or 1.0. In some forms, the acidic solution has a pH ranging from about pH 7 to about pH 6, from about pH 7 to about pH 5, from about pH 7 to about pH 4, from about pH 7 to about pH 3, from about pH 7 to about pH 2, or from about from about pH 7 to about pH 1. In some forms, the alkaline solution has a pH of less than 7, less than 6, less than5, less than 4, less than 3, less than 2, or a pH less than 1.Compositions and formulations containing nanoparticles loaded with bioactive compounds, produced using the disclosed methods, are also provided. These include compositions and formulations containing curcumin, thymol, gingerol, shogaol, carvacrol, capsaicin, eugenol, and rosmarinic acid, all of which are made according to the disclosed methods. The diameter of the nanoparticles can be affected by various factors, including but not limited to the type of bioactive compound, the method used to derive the fresh plant powder, the initial concentration of plant powder used, stirring time and strength, and separation method used. The nanoparticles produced by the disclosed methods generally have a diameter of from about 100 nm to about 1000 nm, inclusive, optionally wherein the diameter is from about 100 nm to about 900 nm, from about 100 nm to about 800 nm, from about 100 nm to about 700 nm, from about 100 nm to about 600 nm, from about 100 nm to about 500 nm, from about 100 nm to about 400 nm, from about 100 nm to about 300 nm, from about 100 nm to about 200 nm, from about 50 nm to about 200 nm, from about 70 nm to about 200 nm, from about 50 nm to about 160 nm, from about 70 nm to about 160 nm, or from about 100 nm to about 160 nm, preferably from about 100 nm to about 300 nm, or about 100 nm to about 200 nm, or about 70 nm to about 160 nm, inclusive, more preferably about 142 nm. The nanoparticles produced by the disclosed method generally have a zeta potential of about - 30 mV to about +30 mV, inclusive, optionally wherein the zeta potential is from about -20 mV to about +20 mV, inclusive. Additional advantages of the disclosed method and compositions will be set forth in part in the description which follows, and in part will be understood from the description, or can be learned by practice of the disclosed method and compositions. The advantages of the disclosed method and compositions will be realized and attained by means of the elements and combinations particularly pointed out in the appended claims. It is to be understood that both the foregoing general description and the following detailed description are exemplary and explanatory only and are not restrictive of the invention as claimed. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The accompanying drawings illustrate several embodiments of the disclosed method and compositions and together with the description, serve to explain the principles of the disclosed method and compositions. Figures 1A-1C show the formation of curcumin-loaded nanoparticles from raw turmeric. Figure 1A is a schematic of the production process of the Turmeric-pH 7 nanocomplex, where both thefiltered Turmeric- pH 13 liquid and sediment were neutralized by citric acid. Figure 1B shows the particle size distributions of Turmeric-pH 13 and Turmeric-pH 7 nanocomplexes (peaks labeled). The Z- average of Turmeric-pH 13 is 152.2 ± 3.9 nm with a PDI of 0.27 ± 0.01, which reduces to 141.3 ± 2.8 nm with a PDI of 0.20 ± 0.00 upon neutralization to Turmeric- pH 7. Insert images show the appearance of each nanocomplex solution. Figure 1C shows the zeta potential distribution of the Turmeric-pH 7 nanocomplex (peaks labeled). The averaged zeta potentials for Turmeric-pH 13 and Turmeric-pH 7 are - 23.3 ± 0.4 mV and - 23.3 ± 0.7 mV, respectively. Figures 2A to 2C show the microstructure of Turmeric-pH 7 nanocomplex. Figure 2A is an exemplary TEM image of the Turmeric-pH 7 nanocomplex. Figure 2B is a graph showing the effect of different pH conditions (pH 2 to 9) on the size and zeta potential of the Turmeric-pH 7 nanocomplex. The insert shows the proposed structure of the Turmeric-pH 7 nanocomplex. Figure 2C is an exemplary TEM image of washed Turmeric-pH 7 nanocomplexes (acidified with HCl). A magnified view of a local region is shown on the right. Particle sizes were measured in four replicates using the ImageJ program. Both scale bars are 200 nm. Figures 3A and 3B are graphs of the production efficiency of Turmeric-pH 7 nanocomplex. Figure 3A show the remaining percentage of curcumin during the production process of Turmeric- pH 7 nano-complex. The percentage was calculated relative to reference data (~7.0 wt% curcumin) obtained from an ethanol-based extraction method. “Mixed” refers to the supernatant of the unfiltered Turmeric-pH 13 solution after 5-min standing, “Filtered Liquid” represents the Turmeric- pH 13 liquid after vacuumfiltration, and “Acidified Liquid” and “Acidified Sediment” were obtained after acidification. Expected values were calculated based on collected volumes, assuming consistent curcumin concentrations and no chemical loss. Figure 3B show the partition of curcumin remaining in different phases of the samples, comparing actual and expected results. Figures 4A and 4B are graphs of the particle size analysis of different plant-derived nanoparticles. Figure 4A shows the particle size distributions of ginger-based nanocomplexes (peaks labeled). Insert images display their appearance. Figure 4B shows the Z-average particle sizes of nanoparticles derived from various plants, including turmeric, ginger, pepper (paprika), and thyme, under both conditions (pH 13 and 7). Figures 5A and 5B are graphs of the formation of curcumin-loaded nanoparticles from commercial turmeric powder (SPICE TRAIN, India). Figure 5A show the particle size distributions of Turmeric-pH13 and Turmeric-pH7 nanocomplexes (peaks labeled). The Z-average of Turmeric- pH13 is 249.5 ± 14.3 nm with a PDI of 0.27 ± 0.01, which decreases to 247.6 ± 3.3 nm with a PDI of 0.26 ± 0.01 after neutralization to Turmeric-pH7. Figure 5B shows the Zeta potential distribution of the Turmeric-pH7 nanocomplex (peaks labeled). The average zeta potentials for Turmeric-pH13 and Turmeric-pH7 are -26.6 ± 1.6 mV and -23.3 ± 0.7 mV, respectively. Figures 6A-6C show the appearance and particle size distributions of plant-derived nanoparticles from various plant powders, including thyme (Figure 6A), ginger (Figure 6B), and pepper (paprika) (Figure 6C). Figures 7A-7B show the impact of the addition of Turmeric-pH7 on the emulsions. Figure 7A shows the particle size distributions, and Figure 7B shows the zeta potentials of Tween 80- or casein-based nanoemulsions (NE). The insert pictures show the appearance of both initial and Turmeric-pH7 encapsulated nanoemulsions. Figure 8 is a schematic representation of the formulation, processing, and digestion of turmeric nanoparticles. The top panel depicts the preparation of turmeric nanoparticles and their incorporation into nanoemulsions as a food model. The bottom panel illustrates their gastrointestinal digestion using an in vitro three-phase model (oral, gastric, and small intestinal). An important analytical step involves centrifugation of the intestinal phase to evaluate the gastrointestinal bioavailability of curcumin in mixed micelles. Figure 9 is a bar graph showing the initial concentration (mg / mL) of curcumin in different formulations, including turmeric nanoparticles (TurNPs), free curcumin (Cur), turmeric nanoparticles in nanoemulsions (TurNPs-NE), and free curcumin in nanoemulsions (Cur-NE). Figures 10A and 10B are graphs showing characterization of particle size distribution and zeta potential of four curcumin formulations. Figure 10A shows the particle size distribution and Figure 10B shows zeta potential measurements, assessing the colloidal stability of the formulations. Different letters indicate significant differences (p < 0.05) among the groups. Figure 11A show particle size distribution and Figure 11B shows zeta potential analysis of curcumin-loaded coarse emulsions formulated with turmeric nanoparticles (TurNPs-CE) and free curcumin (Cur-CE). Different letters indicate significant differences between samples (p < 0.05). Figures 12A and 12B are graphs showing particle size distribution of four curcumin-loaded formulations at different stages of in vitro digestion. Figure 12A shows the size distribution of turmeric nanoparticles (TurNPs) and free curcumin (Cur) during the oral, gastric, and small intestinal phases. Figure 12B shows size distribution of nanoemulsions containing turmeric nanoparticles (TurNPs-NE) and free curcumin (Cur-NE) across the digestion phases. Figure 13 is a bar graph showing the zeta potential measurements of four curcumin-loaded formulations at different stages of in vitro digestion (oral, gastric, and small intestinal phases), indicating changes in surface charge stability throughout digestion. For each phase, different letters, uppercase (A, B) or lowercase (a, b), respectively indicate significant differences (p < 0.05) among samples without or with nanoemulsions. The average zeta potential values, from left to right, are −27.1, −17.0, −11.7, −12.3; 3.2, 3.6, 1.0, 0.1; −22.1, −21.6, −33.8, and −35.3, respectively. Figure 14 is a bar graph showing gastrointestinal tract (GIT) parameters of curcumin in four different formulations after an in vitro digestion, including stability, bioaccessibility, and gastrointestinal bioavailability. The formulations analyzed are turmeric nanoparticles (TurNPs), free curcumin (Cur), turmeric nanoparticles in nanoemulsions (TurNPs-NE), and free curcumin in nanoemulsions (Cur-NE). Different letters (A, B, C) indicate significant differences between samples (p < 0.05) for “stability”, “bioaccessibility”, or “stability × bioaccessibility”. The average values, from left to right, are 76.0, 48.1, 92.2, 48.6; 66.8, 9.0, 82.5, 15.7; 50.6, 4.3, 76.0, and 7.8, respectively. Figure 15A shows the particle size distribution and Figure 15B shows zeta potential of four curcumin-loaded formulations in mixed micelles, highlighting differences in the mixed micelle phase. Different letters indicate significant differences between samples (p < 0.05). Figure 16 is a bar graph showing curcumin distribution in mixed micelles and sediment after in vitro digestion. Percentage of curcumin recovered in mixed micelles and sediment for four different formulations are shown. Figure 17A is a schematic illustration of the processing workflow for preparing TurNPs suspensions and converting them into powders via freeze-drying or spray-drying, with key stages evaluated for production yield and overall processing efficiency. Figure 17B is a graph showing the effect of alkaline solution pH on the production yield of TurNPs, where production yield is defined as the ratio of curcumin content in the nanoparticles to that in the starting turmeric powder. Inset photographs show the filtered solutions after dissolving turmeric powder in alkaline solutions of varying pH. Figure 17C is a bar graph showing the comparison of processing efficiencies, defined as the remaining percentage of curcumin content, between freeze-drying and spray-drying for both the drying process alone and the entire process. The nanoparticle suspension step achieved a processing efficiency of 61.4% at pH 13, and the total process efficiency was calculated by multiplying this value by the efficiency of the subsequent drying step. Figure 18 is a graph showing the particle size distribution of TurNPs dispersed in water, with a Z-average diameter of 125.6 ± 13.7 nm and a zeta potential of −28.6 ± 3.4 mV. Insets show the TurNPs powder and its aqueous dispersion at a concentration of 1 mg / mL. Figures 19A and 19B are graphs showing the chemical degradation of curcumin in TurNPs compared to free curcumin under (Figure 19A) continuous LED light exposure and (Figure 19B) dark storage over time. Degradation is expressed as the percentage of curcumin lost relative to the initial concentration, with the starting UV-vis absorbance at approximately 1.0 at 425 nm. Insets show representative images of the dispersions at the initial stage and after 1 day of storage under each condition. Visual comparisons are provided for four samples (from left to right): curcumin (trial 1), curcumin (trial 2), TurNPs (trial 1), and TurNPs (trial 2), where the intensity of the yellow color reflects curcumin retention. Figures 20A-20B are graphs showing the particle size distribution of TurNPs at pH 13 and pH 7 without (Figure 20A) and with (Figure 20B) papain treatment. Insets show representative images of the nanoparticle suspensions after nano-complexation under each condition. Figures 21A and 21B are graphs showing the effect of pH on the surface charge and particle size of TurNPs. Figure 21A shows the zeta potential of TurNPs measured across a pH range of 2 to 9, indicating changes in surface charge. Figure 21B shows the Z-average particle size of TurNPs as determined by DLS at corresponding pH values. Figures 22A and 22B show characterization of pectin–curcumin nanocomplexes. Figure 22A shows the particle size distribution measured by DLS, with a Z-average diameter of 218.6 ± 37.9 nm and a zeta potential of −25.0 ± 0.9 mV. Figure 22B shows the effect of pH on the zeta potential of the nanocomplexes, showing changes in surface charge across a pH range of 2 to 9. Figure 23 are exemplary chromatographic profiles of TurNPs samples collected using size- exclusion chromatography coupled with multi-angle light scattering and refractive index detection (SEC-MALS-RI). Figures 24A and 24B are bar graphs showing the gastrointestinal transformation and bioaccessibility (Figure 24A), and absorption percentages (Figure 24B) for each of turmeric nanoparticles (TurNPs), curcumin (Cur), turmeric nanoparticle nanoemulsions (TurNPs-NE), and curcumin nanoemulsions (Cur-NE) as determined using the INFOGEST in vitro digestion model and Caco-2 cell transport assays. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The disclosed method and compositions can be understood more readily by reference to the following detailed description of particular embodiments and the Example included therein and to the Figures and their previous and following description. I. Definitions The term “nutraceutical” refers to any compound added to a dietary source (i.e., for example, a fortified food or a dietary supplement) that provides health or medical benefits in addition to its basic nutritional value. As used herein, the terms “nutraceutical agent,” and related terms, refer to natural, bioactive chemical compounds that have health promoting, disease preventing or medicinal properties. Examples of nutraceutical agents include, but are not limited to, Allium Cepa, Allium Sativum, Aloe Vera, Angelica Species, Naturally Occurring Antioxidants, Aspergillus Oryzae Enzyme Therapy, barley grass, Bromelain, Carnitine, Carotenoids and Flavonoids, Catechin, Centella Asiatica (Gotu kola), Coenzyme Q10, Chinese Prepared Medicines, Coleus Forskohlii, Commiphora Mukul, Crataegus Oxyacantha (Hawthorne), Curcuma Longa (Turmeric), Echinacea Species (Purple Coneflower), Eleutherococcus Senticosus (Siberian Ginseng), Ephedra Species, Dietary Fish Oil Consumption and Fish Oil Supplementation, Genistein, Ginkgo Biloba, Glycyrrhiza (Licorice), Hypericum Perforatum (St. John's Wort), Hydrastis (Goldenseal) and Other Berberine-Containing Plants, Lactobacillus, Lobelia (Indian Tobacco), Melaleuca Alternifolia, Mentha Piperita, NGNA, Panax Ginseng, Pancreatic Enzymes, Piper Mythisticum, Procyanidolic Oligomers, Pygeum Africanum, Quercetin, Sarsaparilla Species, Serenoa Repens (Saw palmetto, Sabal serrulata), Silybum Marianum (Milk Thistle), Rosemary / Lemon balm, Selenite, Tabebuia Avellanedae (LaPacho), Taraxacum Officinale, Tanacetum Parthenium (Feverfew), Taxol, Uva Ursi (Bearberry), Vaccinium Myrtillus (Blueberry), Valerian Officinalis, Viscum Album (Mistletoe), Vitamin A, Beta-Carotene and Other Carotenoids, and Zingiber Officinale(Ginger). The term "biocompatible" as used herein refers to one or more materials that are neither themselves toxic to the host (e.g., an animal or human), nor degrade (if the material degrades) at a rate that produces monomeric or oligomeric subunits or other byproducts at toxic concentrations in the host. The term "biodegradable" as used herein means that the materials degrade or break down into its component subunits, or digestion, e.g., by a biochemical process, of the material into smaller (e.g., non-polymeric) subunits. The terms “bioactive agent” and “bioactive compound”, as used interchangeably herein, include, without limitation, physiologically or pharmacologically active substances that act locally or systemically in the body, as well as substances which have not been demonstrated to be physiologically or pharmacologically active, but which have been theorized to provide a local or systemic benefit in the body. A bioactive agent is a substance used for the treatment (e.g., therapeutic agent), prevention (e.g., prophylactic agent), diagnosis (e.g., diagnostic agent), health- giving additive (e.g., nutraceutical), cure or mitigation of disease or illness, a substance which affects the structure or function of the body, or pro-drugs, which become biologically active or more active after they localize in a predetermined physiological environment. The term “biopolymer” as used herein refers to any naturally occurring molecule having a high number of individual monomer units. Typical examples include proteins and polysaccharides. In some forms, the biopolymer can be starch, cellulose, pentosan, chitosan, chitine, pectin, hydrocolloids (such as xanthan gum or guar gum) and mixtures of two or more thereof. Especially preferred amongst these is starch. The term “molecular weight”, as used herein, generally refers to the mass or average mass of a material. If a polymer or oligomer, the molecular weight can refer to the relative average chain length or relative chain mass of the bulk polymer. In practice, the molecular weight of polymers and oligomers can be estimated or characterized in various ways including gel permeation chromatography (GPC) or capillary viscometry. GPC molecular weights are reported as the weight-average molecular weight (Mw) as opposed to the number-average molecular weight (Mn). Capillary viscometry provides estimates of molecular weight as the inherent viscosity determined from a dilute polymer solution using a particular set of concentration, temperature, and solvent conditions. The term “small molecule”, as used herein, generally refers to an organic molecule that is less than about 2000 g / mol in molecular weight, less than about 1500 g / mol, less than about 1000 g / mol, less than about 800 g / mol, or less than about 500 g / mol. Small molecules are non-polymeric and / or non-oligomeric. The term “polymer” refers to a chemical entity with a plurality of repeating units generally bonded covalently. In some forms, a polymer has a molecular weight greater than 500 or 1,000, or more. Non-limiting exemplary polymers include polyamino acids, naturally occurring, and synthetic chemical compounds. “Hydrophilic” as used herein, refers to the property of having affinity for water. For example, hydrophilic polymers (or hydrophilic polymer segments) are polymers (or polymer segments) that are primarily soluble in aqueous solutions and / or have a tendency to absorb water. In general, the more hydrophilic a polymer is, the more that polymer tends to dissolve in, mix with, or be wetted by water. “Hydrophobic,” as used herein, refers to the property of lacking affinity for, or even repelling water. For example, the more hydrophobic a polymer (or polymer segment), the more that polymer (or polymer segment) tends to not dissolve in, not mix with, or not be wetted by water. Hydrophilicity and hydrophobicity can be spoken of in relative terms, such as, but not limited to, a spectrum of hydrophilicity / hydrophobicity within a group of polymers or polymer segments. In some embodiments wherein two or more polymers are being discussed, the term "hydrophobic polymer" can be defined based on the polymer's relative hydrophobicity when compared to another, more hydrophilic polymer. The term “lipophilic”, as used herein, refers to compounds having an affinity for lipids. The term “amphiphilic”, as used herein, refers to a molecule combining hydrophilic and lipophilic (hydrophobic) properties. The term "microspheres" is art-recognized and includes substantially spherical colloidal structures formed from biocompatible polymers having a size ranging from about one or greater up to about 1000 microns. In general, "microcapsules," also an art-recognized term, may be distinguished from microspheres, as formed of a core and shell. The term "microparticles" is also art-recognized, and includes microspheres and microcapsules, as well as structures that may not be readily placed into either of the above two categories, all with dimensions on average of less than about 1000 microns. If the structures are less than about one micron in diameter, then the corresponding art-recognized terms "nanosphere," "nanocapsule," and "nanoparticle" may be utilized. In certain embodiments, the nanospheres, nanocapsules and nanoparticles have an average diameter of about 500 nm, 200 nm, 100 nm, 50 nm, 10 nm, or 1 nm. A composition containing microparticles or nanoparticles may include particles of a range of particle sizes. In certain embodiments, the particle size distribution may be uniform, e.g., within less than about a 20% standard deviation of the mean volume diameter, and in other embodiments, still more uniform, e.g., within about 10% of the median volume diameter. “Mean particle size” as used herein, generally refers to the statistical mean particle size (diameter) of the particles in a population of particles. The diameter of an essentially spherical particle may refer to the physical or hydrodynamic diameter. The diameter of a non-spherical particle may refer preferentially to the hydrodynamic diameter. As used herein, the diameter of a non-spherical particle may refer to the largest linear distance between two points on the surface of the particle. Mean particle size can be measured using methods known in the art, such as dynamic light scattering. “About" is intended to describe values either above or below the stated value in a range of approx. + / - 10%. The ranges are intended to be made clear by context, and no further limitation is implied. The use of any and all examples, or exemplary language (e.g., "such as") provided herein, is intended merely to better illuminate the description and does not pose a limitation on the scope of the description unless otherwise claimed. The term “separating” as used herein refers to a process that is used to separate one part of a mixture from another. For example, in some forms, separation removes smaller particles from a mixture including larger particles. The term “separation threshold” as used herein refers to the maximum or minimum extent of a separation achieved by a given technique. In some forms, where the separation iscarreid out according to particle size, the separation threshold can be determined by the separation method, such as by the size of filter paper, and the centrifuge speed that is applied to achieve the separation. The term “isolated” as used herein describes a compound of interest (e.g., a desired bioactive agent) that is in an environment different from that in which the compound naturally occurs, e.g., separated from its natural milieu such as by concentrating a compound to a concentration at which it is not found in nature. “Isolated” is meant to include compounds that are within samples that are substantially enriched for the compound of interest and / or in which the compound of interest is partially or substantially purified. Isolated nucleic acids are at least 60% free, 75% free, and most preferably 90% free from other associated components. The term “enriched” as used herein refers to an increase in the proportion of a substance within a given amount of a composition, such as a mixture. In an exemplary form, a bioactive agent is enriched within a final compound relative to a starting compound when the relative amount of the bioactive agent within the final compound is greater than that within the starting compound. The term “purified” and like terms relate to the isolation of a molecule or compound in a form that is substantially free (at least 60% free, preferably 75% free, and most preferably 90% free) from other components normally associated with the molecule or compound in a native environment. The phrase "pharmaceutically acceptable" refers to compositions, polymers and other materials and / or dosage forms which are, within the scope of sound medical judgment, suitable for use in contact with the tissues of human beings and animals without excessive toxicity, irritation, allergic response, or other problem or complication, commensurate with a reasonable benefit / risk ratio. The phrase "pharmaceutically acceptable carrier" refers to pharmaceutically acceptable materials, compositions or vehicles, such as a liquid or solid filler, diluent, solvent or encapsulating material involved in carrying or transporting any subject composition, from one organ, or portion of the body, to another organ, or portion of the body. Each carrier must be "acceptable" in the sense of being compatible with the other ingredients of a subject composition and not injurious to the patient. The term "pharmaceutically acceptable salts" is art-recognized, and includes relatively non- toxic, inorganic and organic acid addition salts of compounds. Examples of pharmaceutically acceptable salts include those derived from mineral acids, such as hydrochloric acid and sulfuric acid, and those derived from organic acids, such as ethanesulfonic acid, benzenesulfonic acid, and p-toluenesulfonic acid. Examples of suitable inorganic bases for the formation of salts include the hydroxides, carbonates, and bicarbonates of ammonia, sodium, lithium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, aluminum, and zinc. Salts may also be formed with suitable organic bases, including those that are non-toxic and strong enough to form such salts. The term "treating" preventing a disease, disorder or condition from occurring in an animal which may be predisposed to the disease, disorder and / or condition but has not yet been diagnosed as having it; inhibiting the disease, disorder or condition, e.g., impeding its progress; and relieving the disease, disorder, or condition, e.g., causing regression of the disease, disorder and / or condition. Treating the disease or condition includes ameliorating at least one symptom of the particular disease or condition, even if the underlying pathophysiology is not affected, such as treating the pain of a subject by administration of an analgesic agent even though such agent does not treat the cause of the pain. The terms "incorporated" and "encapsulated" refers to incorporating, formulating, or otherwise including an active agent into and / or onto a composition that allows for release, such as sustained release, of such agent in the desired application. The terms contemplate any manner by which a therapeutic agent or other material is incorporated into a polymer matrix, including for example: attached to a monomer of such polymer (by covalent, ionic, or other binding interaction), physical admixture, enveloping the agent in a coating layer of polymer, and having such monomer be part of the polymerization to give a polymeric formulation, distributed throughout the polymeric matrix, appended to the surface of the polymeric matrix (by covalent or other binding interactions), encapsulated inside the polymeric matrix, etc. The term "co-incorporation" or "co-encapsulation" refers to-the incorporation of a therapeutic agent or other material and at least one other therapeutic agent or other material in a subject composition. More specifically, the physical form in which any therapeutic agent or other material is encapsulated in polymers may vary with the particular embodiment. For example, a therapeutic agent or other material may be first encapsulated in a microsphere and then combined with the polymer in such a way that at least a portion of the microsphere structure is maintained. Alternatively, a therapeutic agent or other material may be sufficiently immiscible in the polymer that it is dispersed as small droplets, rather than being dissolved, in the polymer. By "subject" is meant a mammal, including, but not limited to, a human or non-human mammal, such as a bovine, equine, canine, ovine, or feline. The subject is preferably a mammal in need of treatment, e.g., a subject that has been diagnosed with a disease or a predisposition thereto. The mammal is any mammal, e.g., a human, a primate, a mouse, a rat, a dog, a cat, a horse, as well as livestock or animals grown for food consumption, e.g., cattle, sheep, pigs, chickens, and goats. In a preferred form, the mammal is a human. II. Methods of Making Nanoparticles of Bioactive Compounds Methods for the rapid and simple formulation of nanoparticles containing bioactive materials extracted from raw plants or plant parts have been developed. Typically, the methods provide structured nano-scale particles of bioactive compounds from raw plant material, such as ground, dried plant root, from a single reaction alkaline pH-based reaction. In some forms, the methods provide nano-scale particles of curcumin from a starting material of ground, dried turmeric. Raw plants such as turmeric contain a variety of biopolymer-based components, including carbohydrates (~68%), proteins (~9%), and oils (~4%) (Kuttigounder D, et al., “Turmeric powder and starch: selected physical, physicochemical, and microstructural properties”, J Food Sci., 76(9):C1284-91 (2011)). As demonstrated in the Examples, innate biopolymers from the exemplary turmeric plant were directly harnessed to produce curcumin-loaded nanoparticles. Using curcumin as an exemplary bioactive compound, the Examples demonstrate a pH-based approach for the eco- friendly synthesis of curcumin-loaded nanoparticles from raw turmeric. Therefore, improved methods of producing the disclosed bioactive compound-loaded nanoparticles are provided. The disclosed methods can be considered as “a raw-to-nano strategy” for synthesizing curcumin-loaded nanoparticles directly from raw turmeric. The disclosed methods have the potential to significantly reduce food and energy wastage and mitigate environmental impact while providing nutritious options for both human and animal consumption. Compared to existing methods of extracting bioactive compounds such as curcumin, the disclosed methods provide several advantages including ease of use, rapid processing, and eco- sustainability, by reducing the high dependence of heating, organic solvents, and / or sophisticated equipment. The disclosed methods leverage the solubility and sensitivity to pH environments of both the bioactive compound e.g., curcumin, and plant-based biopolymers (such as proteins and polysaccharides such as starches). Specifically, the creation of charged residues under different pH conditions can significantly affect the water-solubility of the bioactive compounds and plant-based polymers. It is believed that that these molecules may become negatively charged and soluble in an alkaline environment due to deprotonation. Following an acidification process, protonation would occur, which in turn, results in the formation of a stable nanocomplex. The disclosed methods are suitable for extracting any bioactive compound such as those described below, from a raw plant which contains alkaline-soluble components. Generally, the bioactive compound to be extracted has a functional group that is pH soluble. Exemplary functional groups that are pH soluble and can exist in raw plant components include phenolic hydroxyl groups (–OH), carboxyl groups (–COOH), sulfate groups (–SO₃H), sulfhydryl group (–SH), and phosphate groups (–PO₄H₂). In some forms, the bioactive compound extracted from raw plant components includes the pH soluble functional groups, e.g., phenolic hydroxyl groups. In some forms, protein includes the pH soluble amino acids. Exemplary amino acid groups include but are not limited to cysteine, serine, tyrosine, aspartic acid and glutamic acid. In some forms, acidic polysaccharide include the pH soluble functional group, e.g., mannuronic acid and guluronic acid. In other forms, starch includes the pH soluble functional group, e.g., sugar hydroxyl. A. Nanoparticle Preparation The disclosed methods prepare bioactive-compound loaded nanoparticles from a starting material that is or includes a plant or part thereof that includes a bioactive agent, such as turmeric. The methods exploit the finding that alkaline treatment of plant material, such as ground, dried turmeric, solubilizes bioactive agents, such as curcumin, as well as biopolymers, such as proteins and starches from within the plant material. Processing of plant materials, for example, by one or more of drying, refining, grinding or other processing is not necessary, however starting with processed materials may increase the overall yield of the bioactive compounds that are enriched within nanoparticles formed by the methods. In some forms, the plant materials are un-processed, “raw” or “wet” plant materials obtained directly from a living pant. In other forms, the methods are carried out using processed plant materials. In some forms, the methods include one or more steps to induce a negative charge within amino acid residues of the bioactive materials and biopolymers under alkaline pH conditions to increase or induce water-solubility of these materials, for example, due to deprotonation. Therefore, in some forms, the methods contact raw, dried, plant material with an alkaline solution to deprotonate and solubilize bioactive agents and biopolymer components from the material and provide a solution of these agents and components. In some forms, the methods then re-protonate the bioactive agents and biopolymers by acidification of the solution, to induce the bioactive agents and biopolymers to form into nano-scale particles. Therefore, in some forms, the methods acidify the solubilized bioactive agents and biopolymer components, for example, by gradual addition of acidic solution to the solution. It may be that the gradual acidification of the solution drives formation of stable nanoparticles of bioactive agents and biopolymer components having a defined and ordered structure. In some forms, the methods provide nanoparticles of bioactive compounds including an internal “core” of bioactive agent, such as curcumin, encapsulated within an outer “shell” of biopolymers, such as polysaccharides and / or proteins. Therefore, in some forms, the methods provide nanoparticles including a hydrophilic shell of biopolymers and hydrophobic core of bioactive agents. In some forms, the methods include two or more of the steps of: (i) contacting a plant-derived powder or other plant-based material, e.g., a raw material containing the bioactive compound and one or more biopolymers with an alkaline solution to provide a first mixture, (ii) agitating the first mixture to facilitate the dissolution of plant components by forming negatively charged groups, and (iii) separating the small components from the first mixture to obtain the second mixture, including the desirable bioactive compound and biopolymers. Biopolymers can self-assemble into nanoparticles due to their amphiphilic characteristics. The step of contacting a plant material with an alkaline solution in Steps (i) to (iii) is important for the extraction of bioactive compound(s) and biopolymer(s) from the plant material (such as a raw or dried and / or powdered plant material). Once extracted, the bioactive compound(s) (and optionally biopolymer(s)) can form nanoparticles in a solution having an alkaline pH (i.e, from about pH 7 to about pH 13). In some forms, a bioactive compound(s) and biopolymer(s) remain separate within the alkaline solution. For example, in some forms, a bioactive compound and a biopolymer extracted into alkaline solution are highly negatively charged, and remain soluble in the alkaline solution. Therefore, in some forms, the methods include one or more steps of contacting the alkaline solution with an acid to reduce the pH of the solution. In some forms, the methods include contacting the solution with an amount or concentration of an acid to neutralize the bioactive compound. For example, in some forms, the methods contact the solubilized bioactive compound with an amount of acid to favor binding to the biopolymer, thereby driving the bioactive compound and the biopolymer to form a complex. Thus, in some forms, the disclosed methods can further include acidification of the nanoparticles, for example, including: (iv) contacting the second mixture with an acid to form a third mixture. This acidification step typically allows the charged groups of soluble components to be neutralized. They synergistically from a complex together, e.g., neutralized bioactive compound can complex with biopolymers. In some forms, acidification further includes agitating the third mixture, optionally wherein the agitating is carried out for a time to provide a third mixture having a lower pH of about 5.0 to 8.0; and (v) isolating a nanoparticle including the bioactive compound from the third mixture. Typically, the methods enrich the proportion of a bioactive compound within a certain mass of product (i.e., nanoparticles formed according to the described methods) relative to that within a similar mass of starting material, (i.e., a processed or un-processed plant material). In some forms, the methods increase the proportion of the bioactive compound(s) in one gram of nanoparticles prepared according to the described methods relative to the proportion of the same bioactive compound(s) within one gram of processed or un-processed plant material. For example, in some forms, the methods enrich the amount of a bioactive compound in one gram of nanoparticles prepared according to the described methods relative to the amount of the same bioactive compound within one gram of processed or un-processed plant material. In some forms, the proportion of the total mass of bioactive compound is increased by 1%, up to 100%, inclusive. In other forms, the mass of the bioactive compound in the resulting material is proportionally greater than that in the starting material by an amount greater than 100%, for example, 150%, 200%, 300%, 400%, 500%, up to 1,000%, inclusive. i. Contacting Plant-Derived Powder with Alkaline Solution The disclosed method first requires contacting a plant-derived powder containing the bioactive compound and one or more biopolymers with an alkaline solution to provide a first mixture. This can be accomplished for example, by mixing a pre-determined amount of a plant- derived powder containing the bioactive compound and biopolymers with a pre-determined amount of an alkaline solution. The "pre-determined amount" of the plant-derived powder and alkaline solution refers to a specific, calculated quantities of components used in the extraction process of bioactive compounds from plant-derived powders using an alkaline solution. These amounts help ensure that the reaction conditions are best for the desired chemical interactions and extraction efficiencies. Based on the Examples, one of skill in the art is capable of scaling the methods for batch processing by establishing these quantities through experimentation or theoretical calculations to achieve the best results in terms of yield of the extracted compounds. The methods extract a desired bioactive agent from a plant material in solution by increasing the pH of the material sufficiently to solubilize the bioactive agent into the solution. Generally, the pKa of the desired bioactive compound defines the pH required for extraction of the compound from the starting material into the alkaline solution, such that the pH of the alkaline solution that is added according to the methods is generally higher than the pKa of the compound. In some forms, the alkaline solution has a pH greater than 7, such as a pH of 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, or 14. In some forms, the alkaline solution has a pH of about 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4, 7.5, 7.6, 7.7, 7.8, 7.9, 8.0, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4, 8.5, 8.6, 8.7, 8.8, 8.9, 9.0, 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4, 9.5, 9.6, 9.7, 9.8, 9.9, 10.0, 10.1, 10.2, 10.3, 10.4, 10.5, 10.6, 10.7, 10.8, 10.9, 11.0, 11.1, 11.2, 11.3, 11.4, 11.5, 11.6., 11.7, 11.8, 11.9, 12.0, 12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5, 12.6, 12.7, 12.8, 12.9, 13.0, 13.1, 13.2, 13.3, 13.4, 13.5, 13.6, 13.7, 13.8, 13.9, 14.0. In some forms, the alkaline solution has a pH ranging from about pH 7 to about pH 8, from about pH 7 to about pH 9, from about pH 7 to about pH 10, from about pH 7 to about pH 11, from about pH 7 to about pH 12, from about pH 7 to about pH 13, from about pH 7 to about pH 14, or from about from about pH 8 to about pH 14. In some forms, the alkaline solution has a pH of at least 7, at least 8, at least 9, at least 10, at least 11, at least 13, or a pH of about 14. In preferred forms, the alkaline solution has a pH of about 9 or above, more preferably pH 11 or above. Any suitable alkali for extracting polyphenols can be used as the alkaline solution. Exemplary alkalis include sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, trisodium phosphate (Na3PO4), sodium dihydrogen phosphate (Na2HPO4), monosodium phosphate (NaH2PO4), sodium carbonate, sodium bicarbonate and calcium hydroxide. In preferred forms, the alkaline solution is sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide, more preferably sodium hydroxide. As demonstrated in the Examples, an exemplary procedure for Step (i) includes contacting ~200 mg of turmeric powder and ~24 mL of an alkali e.g., sodium hydroxide (NaOH) in a container, e.g., a clear packer bottle. ii. Agitating the First Mixture to Facilitate the Dissolution of Plant Components by Forming Negatively Charged Groups The method typically includes one or more steps of agitating the first mixture to facilitate the dissolution of plant components in the solution by forming negatively charged groups. wherein the bioactive compound can be soluble in alkaline solution when highly charged, and the negatively charged biopolymers can self-assemble into nanoparticles due to their amphiphilic characteristics. In some forms, the methods include agitating the first mixture to dissolve plant components. This can be accomplished by stirring the mixture of the powder and alkaline solution for a pre- determined amount of time. For example, the first mixture can be stirred for about 10 minutes at ~800 rpm, followed by 5-minutes of standing. The amount of time the first mixture is agitated depends on the type of plant-derived powder and the amount of the starting powder. For example, in some forms, the first mixture may need longer agitation time e.g., with larger amounts of starting material e.g., turmeric powder. In other forms, the first mixture may need a shorter agitation time e.g., with smaller amounts of the starting material e.g., turmeric powder. For small amounts of starting material e.g. about 200 g to about 600 g of turmeric powder, the first mixture is agitated for about 5 minutes to about 30 minutes, for about 5 minutes to about 25 minutes, or for about 5 minutes to about 20 minutes, for about 5 minutes to about 15 minutes, or for about 5 minutes to about 10 minutes. In preferred forms, the first mixture is agitated for about 5 minutes to about 10 minutes. These amounts can be scaled for batch processing of the first mixture. In some forms for batch processing, the first mixture is agitated for a time of about 5 minutes to about 10 minutes, inclusive. In some forms, when using a high pH alkali, such as pH 12 or pH 13, an agitation period of approximately 10 minutes is adequate. In these cases, agitating the mixture beyond 10 minutes may increase biopolymer extraction, potentially hindering nanoparticle formation. The relationship between the agitation rate (e.g., the stirring speed) and particle size is inversely proportional, such that the higher the stirring rate used, the smaller the particle size will be, with a biphasic behavior being observed, a significant effect between 500 rpm and 2200 rpm, inclusive (micro-to nanometer transition zone). In some forms, the agitation rate, e.g., the stirring rate ranges from about 500 rpm (revolutions per minute) to about 1200 rpm, inclusive. For example, in some forms the agitation rate ranges from about 500 rpm to about 1100 rpm, from about 500 rpm to about 1000 rpm, from about 500 rpm to about 900 rpm, from about 500 rpm to about 800 rpm, from about 500 rpm to about 700 rpm, from about 500 rpm to about 600 rpm. In some forms, the agitation rate ranges from about 600 rpm to about 900 rpm, from about 700 rpm to about 850 rpm, e.g., about 650 rpm, about 700 rpm, about 750 rpm, about 800 rpm, or about 850 rpm, preferably about 800 rpm. In some forms, the first mixture is covered to avoid the excessive exposure of air and light, which can degrade the bioactive compounds and affect the stability of the biopolymers. iii. Separating the Small Components from the First Mixture to Obtain the Second Mixture Step (iii) of the disclosed method requires separating the smaller components, e.g., biopolymer-included nanoparticles and bioactive compound(s), from the first mixture. This can be accomplished by filtering the mixture using an appropriate filtration method e.g., vacuum filtration, to obtain the turmeric-loaded nanoparticles. In some forms, following agitation, the first mixture is allowed to “stand” for a period of time. "Stand" refers to letting the first mixture remain undisturbed for a specific period of time after it has been agitated. Standing in chemical and biological processes can be important to allow the reactions within the mixture to reach completion, or to permit certain desired changes to occur, such as settling of solids, phase separation, or further interaction of components at a molecular level without external interference like stirring or additional heating. This resting phase can facilitate achieving optimal extraction and stability of the extracted compounds. Generally, the purpose of “standing” is to form a lower “sediment” layer from less soluble components of the plant material, which is below an upper-level of solution, including the solubilized bioactive compound. In some forms, when the methods include forming a sediment layer, the method collect the upper, soluble layer (including smaller particulate matter, such as nanoparticles of a bioactive compound) that is separated from the sediment by one or more steps of decanting the solution from the sediment. In some forms, the methods separate the solution from the sediment and collect the sediment for further separation. In some forms, the first mixture is allowed to stand or “settle” without agitation for a time of about 5 minutes to about 15 minutes, inclusive. In some forms, settling of a sediment is carried out at a temperature of about 25 ˚C. In other forms, settling of a sediment is carried out at a temperature below 25 ˚C, such as 20 ˚C, 15 ˚C, 10 ˚C, 5 ˚C or 4 ˚C. In some forms, additional separation is often done to exclude certain large, suspended particles, using appropriate separation methods e.g., filtration or centrifuge techniques. The type of separating method can be selected based on the specific properties of the nanoparticles and the mixture, such as particle size, stability, and the presence of other components. Appropriate filtration methods are known in the art and include vacuum filtration, ultrafiltration, microfiltration, nanofiltration, and crossflow filtration. Vacuum Filtration involves applying a vacuum to pull the mixture through a filter medium and is effective for quickly separating nanoparticles from larger particles and liquid components. Ultrafiltration uses membranes with very small pores to separate nanoparticles from smaller molecules and ions. Ultrafiltration is particularly useful for nanoparticles due to the precise pore size of the membranes, which can be selected based on the size of the nanoparticles. Microfiltration is similar to ultrafiltration but with slightly larger pore sizes, microfiltration can be used to separate larger nanoparticles from smaller particles and solvents. Nanofiltration is specifically designed for filtering out nanoparticles and is effective for both isolating nanoparticles and purifying them from other molecular species with slightly larger or smaller diameters. In crossflow filtration, the mixture flows tangentially across the filter surface, reducing the clogging of the membrane and allowing for continuous operation, which is ideal for processing large volumes of mixture containing nanoparticles. In some forms, the separation is or includes one or more steps of centrifugation. Methods for centrifugation of mixtures are known in the art. In some forms, the methods include a first step of centrifugation, followed by a second step of filtration. In some forms, the methods include centrifugal filtration. In some forms, the filtration step includes a two-part filtration process. For example, the filtration step can include first filtering the mixture by using standard filtration, e.g., standard filter papers, to remove larger particles, followed by a second filtration using finer filters e.g., a 0.45 µm pore filter paper. In some forms, the method produces a two-phase mixture. For example, the exemplary method described above can produce two different phases, a filtered turmeric liquid (see Turmeric- pH13 in the Examples), and a filtered sediment. In some forms, the filtered sediment is collected for analysis and / or for preparation of a nutraceutical formulation. Appropriate centrifuge methods are well-known in the art and include differential centrifugation and ultracentrifugation. Differential centrifugation involves sequentially increasing the centrifugal force to separate particles based on size and density. Ultracentrifugation utilizes extremely high speeds to achieve greater separation resolution, often used for separating smaller particles. iv. Contacting the Second Mixture with an Acid to Form a Third Mixture while agitating the Third Mixture To neutralize the negatively charged components, the disclosed method can further include one or more acidification steps to adjust the pH of the mixture, thereby facilitating the stabilization or precipitation of the nanoparticles containing the bioactive compound. Step (iv) includes contacting the second mixture with an acid to form a third mixture and agitating the third mixture. This can be accomplished for example by adding an acid to the filtered liquid e.g., turmeric liquid, obtained from step (iii) above. In some forms, the acid has a pH ranging from about pH 2 to about pH 5. For example, the acid can have a pH of about pH 2, about pH 3, about pH 4, or about pH 5. In preferred forms, the acid has a pH of about 4 and below, more preferably about pH 2 or pH 3. Generally, the pKa of the compound defines the required pH of the acidic solution, such that the pH of the acidic solution is generally lower than the pKa of the bioactive compound. In some forms, the acidic solution has a pH of pH 7 or less, for example, a pH of 6, pH 5, pH 4, pH 3, pH 2, or pH 1, or pH less than 1. In some forms, the acidic solution has a pH of about 7.0, 6.9, 6.8, 6.7, 6.6, 6.5, 6.4, 6.3, 6.2, 6.1, 6.0, 5.9, 5.8, 5.7, 5.5, 5.4, 5.3, 5.2, 5.1, 5.0, 4.9, 4.8, 4.7, 4.6, 4.5, 4.4, 4.3, 4.2, 4.1, 3.9, 3.8, 3.7, 3.6, 3.5, 3.4, 3.3, 3.2, 3.1, 3.0, 2.9, 2.8, 2.7, 2.6, 2.5, 2.4, 2.3, 2.2, 2.1, 2.0, 1.9, 1.8, 1.7, 1.6, 1.5, 1.4, 1.3, 1.2, 1.1, 1.0., 0.9, 0.8, 0.7, 0.6, 0.5, 0.4, 0.3, 0.2, or 0.1 In some forms, the acidic solution has a pH ranging from about pH 7 to about pH 6 inclusive, from about pH 7 to about pH 5 inclusive, from about pH 7 to about pH 4 inclusive, from about pH 7 to about pH 3 inclusive, from about pH 7 to about pH 2 inclusive, or from about from about pH 7 to about pH 1 inclusive, or from about pH 6 to about pH 5 inclusive, from about pH 5 to about pH 4 inclusive, from about pH 4 to about pH 3 inclusive, from about pH 3 to about pH 2 inclusive, from about pH 2 to about pH 1 inclusive, or from about from about pH 1 to about pH 0.1 inclusive. In some forms, the alkaline solution has a pH of less than 7, less than 6, less than 5, less than 4, less than 3, less than 2, or less than pH 1. Any suitable acid for extracting polyphenols can be used. Exemplary acids that can be used include citric acid, acetic acid, ascorbic acid, hydrochloric acid, phosphoric acid, and tartaric acid. In preferred forms, the acid is citric acid or hydrochloric acid, more preferably, citric acid. In some forms, the addition of an acid to provide a solution having a pH of greater than 7.0 (but lower than the pKa of the desired bioactive agent) is also sufficient to change the charge of the bioactive agent to facilitate self-assembly of a nanoparticle including a biopolymer coating. For example, in some forms, the final pH of the third mixture is reduced by pH 7, pH 6, pH 5, pH 4, pH 4, pH 3, pH 2 or pH 1. In some forms, the final pH of the third solution is about pH 11, about pH 10, about pH 9, about pH 8, about pH 7, about pH 6, about pH 5, or below pH 5. The concentration of the acid used for Step (iv) depends on the desired pH level, the stability of the nanoparticles, and the solubility of the bioactive compounds. In some forms, the concentration of the acid is preferably selected to achieve effective precipitation without causing degradation of the nanoparticles or the bioactive compounds. Typically, the concentration will vary depending on the buffering capacity of the mixture and the specific acid being used. For example, weaker acids like citric acid might require higher concentrations compared to stronger acids like hydrochloric acid to achieve the same pH adjustment. Thus, in some forms, the concentration of the acid ranges from about 2 weight percent to about 50 weight percent. In some forms, the acid is added to the first mixture in a dropwise manner while agitating e.g., stirring, the mixture. For example, the acid can be added to the mixture at 1 drop every 5 seconds. Rapid dropping or insufficient stirring is not advised as it may not allow enough time for nano-complexation and potentially lead to overly acidic areas. Generally, the first mixture is titrated with the acid until a third mixture is produced. The final pH value of third mixture is determined by pKa values of plant components or a practical application. In some forms, pH value is adjusted to below the pKa value of the bioactive compound(s) for neutralization and the complex with nano- sized biopolymers. In some forms, the third mixture has a pH of about 6.5, about 6.6. about 6.7, about 6.8, about 6.9, about 7.0, about 7.1, about 7.2, about 7.3, about 7.4, or about 7.5 for food applications. Agitating the third mixture helps facilitate even distribution of the acid throughout the liquid, promoting consistent interaction with all charged components. This step is important for the homogeneous acidification of the mixture, which is necessary for the effective formation of the nanoparticles. In some forms, the agitation rate, i.e., the stirring rate ranges from about 500 rpm (revolutions per minute) to about 1200 rpm. For example, the agitation rate ranges from about 500 rpm to about 1100 rpm, from about 500 rpm to about 1000 rpm, from about 500 rpm to about 900 rpm, from about 500 rpm to about 800 rpm, from about 500 rpm to about 700 rpm, from about 500 rpm to about 600 rpm. In some forms, the agitation rate ranges from about 600 rpm to about 900 rpm, from about 700 rpm to about 850 rpm, e.g., about 650 rpm, about 700 rpm, about 750 rpm, about 800 rpm, or about 850 rpm, preferably about 800 rpm. An exemplary approach for Step (iv) includes adding 3 wt% of an acid e.g., citric acid to ~3 mL of filtered Turmeric-pH13 liquid obtained from Step (iii) in a dropwise manner e.g., 1 drop every 5 seconds. v. Isolating the Nanoparticle from the Third Mixture In some forms, the method further includes isolating the nanoparticle from the third mixture. This can be accomplished by filtering the third mixture from step (iv) using an appropriate filtration method e.g., vacuum filtration, to obtain the turmeric-loaded nanoparticles. Suitable filtration techniques are described above in Step (iii). In some forms, Step (v) further includes collecting the filtered sediments into a container. In some forms, Step (v) further includes rinsing the third mixture prior to filtering. For example, the third mixture can be adjusted to have a lower pH value, such as pH 3, the nanoparticles can be participated from the third mixture, and rinsed with distilled water to remove some hazardous components, such as heavy metals from raw plants. Afterwards, the nanoparticles can be recovered by following the Step (i-iv) described above. Suitable alternatives to distilled water for rinsing include but are not limited to deionized water, buffer solutions e.g., phosphate-buffered saline buffer and ultrapure water. Therefore, in some forms, the methods include one or more steps of rinsing the isolated bioactive agents, for example, nanoparticles. In some forms, one or more rinsing step is carried out using a solution that does not solubilize or otherwise alter the structure of the bioactive compound. In some forms, one or more rinsing steps includes contacting the bioactive compound (e.g., aggregates or nanoparticles of a bioactive compound) with a suitable amount of an aqueous solution for an amount of time to solubilize one or more contaminants or waste products. It will be appreciated that rinsing may be necessary to remove contaminants such as toxins or other elements, such as heavy metal elements from the bioactive agent(s). In other forms, isolating the particles includes contacting nanoparticles of the desired bioactive compounds with an acid to reduce the pH of the solution. It will be appreciated that, while the step of contacting the bioactive agent with an acid can result in forming a solution having a pH of about 7.0 or less than 7.0, this may not be necessary to achieve the formation of a nanoparticle including the bioactive agent and a biopolymer coating. After adding acids, the charged components within the desired bioactive agent will be progressively neutralized, and they will synergistically form a nano-complex with biopolymers present within the solution. In some forms, the nanocomplex is soluble in water, and will, for example, be stabilized by electrostatic interactions, due to the presence of surface charge. In some forms, the methods do not add acid to reduce the final pH of less than a threshold value, for example, pH 3, to prevent neutralizing the surface charge of the nanoparticles that may lead to precipitation. In other forms, the methods induce aggregation of nanoparticles to enhance or facilitate separation of the aggregated particles. It will be appreciated that, in some forms, reducing the final pH of the third mixture to pH 3 or less provides a means to separate the nanoparticle aggregates from other soluble components within the third mixture. This can be used to isolate the nanoparticle aggregates. B. Sources of Starting Material for Plant-Derived Powders In some forms, the starting material for extraction of the nanoparticles according to the disclosed methods is a powder. Typically, the powder is obtained from a raw plant or plant part e.g., turmeric or ginger. An exemplary method of obtaining bioactive-containing powder from a plant or plant part includes washing and drying the plant part e.g., turmeric rhizomes, grating and drying the plant or plant part e.g., at about 40°C for about 10 hours, and grinding the grated plant or plant part to produce a fine powder e.g., dried turmeric powder. In some forms, the starting materials for extraction of the nanoparticles according to the disclosed methods can be fresh raw plants. The fresh raw plants can be thoroughly washed and cleaned to remove any dirt, debris, or contaminants. Afterwards, a wet milling process can be applied, which involves the mechanical grinding of the plant material in the presence of a liquid, e.g., alkaline solution, which helps to reduce the particle size and facilitate the extraction of desired bioactive compounds. The wet milling step facilitates the breakdown of plant cell walls, enhancing the release and subsequent extraction of bioactive compound(s) and biopolymers under alkaline solution. In some forms, the starting materials for extraction of the bioactive compounds are processed or non-processed roots, leaves, and or stems. In some forms, processed materials include dried, crushed, or pre-treated plant parts that have undergone specific preparation techniques to enhance the extractability of bioactive compounds. These processes might involve drying to reduce moisture content, grinding to increase surface area, or other pretreatments such as soaking in specific solutions to facilitate the release of active ingredients. In other forms, the starting materials for extraction of the bioactive compounds are non-processed roots, leaves, and or stems. Non- processed materials refer to fresh plant parts that are used directly in the extraction process without any preliminary treatment. When non-processed plant materials are used as the starting material, they should be washed to remove debris and other impurities. In some forms, the starting materials for extraction of the nanoparticles can be in the form of commercially available powdered or ground plant parts. For example, turmeric powders, ground rosemary, ground or powdered ginger are all commercially available. 1. Sources of Turmeric In some forms, the starting material is fresh or powdered turmeric. Turmeric can be obtained or formed from the turmeric plant Curcuma spp. Suitable species of turmeric plants that can be used to form the turmeric powder include but not limited to Curcuma longa, Curcuma aromatica, Curcuma zedoaria, Curcuma xanthorrhiza, Curcuma caesia, Curcuma amada, Curcuma kwangsiensis, Curcuma phaeocaulis, and Curcuma pierreana. In preferred forms, turmeric powder is obtained from Curcuma longa. In some forms, the turmeric is obtained from a commercial provider. For example, commercial providers of turmeric powder include but are not limited to From Great Origins, McCormick®, Simple Truth™, Naturevibe Botanicals, Simply Organic, and Spice Train. 2. Sources of Ginger In some forms, the starting material for the extraction of the nanoparticles is fresh or powdered ginger. Ginger can be obtained or formed from ginger rhizomes of the Zingiber spp. Suitable species of ginger that can be used to form ginger powder include but not limited to Zingiber officinale, Zingiber zerumbet, Zingiber mioga, Zingiber cassumunar, Zingiber montanum, Zingiber purpureum, Zingiber malaysianum, Zingiber spectabile, Zingiber aromaticum, and Zingiber kawagoii. In preferred forms, turmeric powder is obtained from Zingiber officinale. In some forms, the ginger is obtained from a commercial provider. For example, exemplary commercial providers of ginger powder include but are not limited to From Great Origins, McCormick®, Simple Truth™, Naturevibe Botanicals, Simply Organic, Badia, and Spice Train. 3. Sources of Thyme In some forms, the starting material for the extraction of the nanoparticles is fresh or powdered thyme. Thyme can be obtained or formed from Lamiaceae plants. Suitable species of Lamiaceae that can be used to form thyme powder include but are not limited to Thymus vulgaris L., Thymus zygis, Thymus glandulosus, Thymus hyemalis, and Thymus broussonetii; Monarda spp. such as Monarda fistulosa, Monarda punctata, Monarda didyma, and Monarda bradburiana, and Origanum spp. such as Origanum compactum, Origanum dictamnus, Origanum onites, Origanum vulgare; and Satureja spp. such as Satureja spicigera, Satureja intermedia, and Satureja mutica, Satureja sahendica. In some forms, the thyme is obtained from a commercial provider. For example, exemplary commercial providers of thyme powder include but are not limited to From Great Origins, McCormick®, Simple Truth™, Naturevibe Botanicals, Simply Organic, Badia, and Spice Train. 4. Sources of Clove In some forms, the starting material for the extraction of the nanoparticles is fresh or powdered clove. Clove can be obtained or formed from the genus Syzygium. Suitable species of Syzygium that can be used to form the starting material or clove powder include but are not limited to Syzygium aromaticum, Syzygium aromaticum var. zanzibaricum, Syzygium paniculatum, Syzygium aromaticum var. madaqaskarensis, Syzygium claviflorum, and Cinnamomum verum. In some forms, the clove powder is obtained from a commercial provider. For example, exemplary commercial providers of thyme powder include but are not limited to From Spice Train, True Organics, Natural Foods, and McCormick. 5. Sources of Peppers In some forms, the starting material for the extraction of the nanoparticles is fresh or powdered pepper. Suitable peppers for the starting material can be obtained or formed from the genus Capsicum. Suitable species of Capsicum that can be used to form the starting material or ground pepper powder include but are not limited to Capsicum annuum, Capsicum frutescens, Capsicum chinsens, Capsicum baccatum, Capsicum pubescens, Capsicum praetermissum, Capsicum galapagoense, Capsicum eximium, Capsicum tovarii, Capsicum cardenasii, Capsicum flexuosum, and Capsicum rhomboideum. In some forms, the pepper powder is paprika. In some forms paprika is obtained from a commercial provider. For example, exemplary commercial providers of ground pepper include but are not limited to From Spice Train, McCormick, Badia, and Microingredients. 6. Sources of Rosemary In some forms, the starting material for the extraction of the nanoparticles is fresh or powdered rosemary. Suitable rosemary plants or plant parts for the starting material can be obtained or formed from the genus Rosmarinus. Suitable species of Rosmarinus that can be used to form the starting material or rosemary powder include but are not limited to Rosmarinus officionales, Salvia rosmarinus. Rosmarinic acid can also be extracted from Perilla frutescens (Korean perilla), Ocimum basilicum (basil), Melissa officinalis (lemon balm), and Mentha spicata (spearmint). C. Exemplary Methods of Making Bioactive Compound-loaded NPs As demonstrated in the Examples, naturally-existing turmeric biopolymers can be directly harnessed to produce curcumin-loaded nanoparticles. By following similar procedures that were used for formulating curcumin-loaded nanoparticles from raw turmeric, similar bioactive compound-loaded nanoparticles can be synthesized. For example, thymol-loaded nanoparticles can be formulated from raw thyme. Exemplary bioactive compounds that can be synthesized using the disclosed methods include but are not limited to gingerols and shogaols, thymol and carvacrol, eugenol, capsaicin and rosmarinic acid. 1. Methods of Making Curcumin-loaded NPs Methods of making curcumin-loaded nanoparticles are provided. The methods generally include: (i) contacting a turmeric powder or other plant material with an alkaline solution to provide a first mixture, optionally where the contacting includes agitating the first mixture and / or filtration of the first mixture to remove particulate matter; and (ii) contacting the first mixture with an acid to form a second mixture including a curcumin nanoparticle, optionally where the contacting includes agitating the second mixture to provide a second mixture having a pH of about 7.0; and (iii) isolating the curcumin nanoparticle from the second mixture. Generally, the pKa of the compound defines the required pH of the alkaline solution, such that the pH of the alkaline solution is generally higher than the pKa of the compound. In some forms, the alkaline solution has a pH of 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, or 14. In some forms, the alkaline solution has a pH of about 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4, 7.5, 7.6, 7.7, 7.8, 7.9, 8.0, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4, 8.5, 8.6, 8.7, 8.8, 8.9, 9.0, 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4, 9.5, 9.6, 9.7, 9.8, 9.9, 10.0, 10.1, 10.2, 10.3, 10.4, 10.5, 10.6, 10.7, 10.8, 10.9, 11.0, 11.1, 11.2, 11.3, 11.4, 11.5, 11.6., 11.7, 11.8, 11.9, 12.0, 12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5, 12.6, 12.7, 12.8, 12.9, 13.0, 13.1, 13.2, 13.3, 13.4, 13.5, 13.6, 13.7, 13.8, 13.9, 14.0. In some forms, the alkaline solution has a pH ranging from about pH 7 to about pH 8, from about pH 7 to about pH 9, from about pH 7 to about pH 10, from about pH 7 to about pH 11, from about pH 7 to about pH 12, from about pH 7 to about pH 13, from about pH 7 to about pH 14, or from about from about pH 8 to about pH 14. In some forms, the alkaline solution has a pH of at least 7, at least 8, at least 9, at least 10, at least 11, at least 13, or pH 14. In preferred forms, the alkaline solution has a pH of about 9 and above, more preferably pH 11 and above. Any suitable alkali for extracting polyphenols can be used as the alkaline solution. Exemplary alkalis include sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, calcium carbonate, and calcium bicarbonate. In preferred forms, the alkaline solution is sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide, more preferably sodium hydroxide. For small amounts of starting material e.g., about 200 g to about 600 g of turmeric powder, the first mixture is agitated for about 5 minutes to about 30 minutes, for about 5 minutes to about 25 minutes, or for about 5 minutes to about 20 minutes, for about 5 minutes to about 15 minutes, or for about 5 minutes to about 10 minutes. In preferred forms, the first mixture is agitated for about 5 minutes to about 10 minutes. These amounts can be scaled for batch processing of the first mixture. In forms for batch processing, the first mixture is agitated for about 5 minutes to about 10 minutes. In some forms, the agitation rate, i.e., the stirring rate ranges from about 500 rpm (revolutions per minute) to about 1200 rpm. For example, the agitation rate ranges from about 500 rpm to about 1100 rpm, from about 500 rpm to about 1000 rpm, from about 500 rpm to about 900 rpm, from about 500 rpm to about 800 rpm, from about 500 rpm to about 700 rpm, from about 500 rpm to about 600 rpm. In some forms, the agitation rate ranges from about 600 rpm to about 900 rpm, from about 700 rpm to about 850 rpm, e.g., about 650 rpm, about 700 rpm, about 750 rpm, about 800 rpm, or about 850 rpm, preferably about 800 rpm. In some forms, the first mixture is covered to avoid the excessive exposure of air and light. In some forms, the first mixture is allowed to stand for about 5 minutes to about 15 minutes. Suitable isolation techniques e.g., filtration techniques e.g., vacuum filtration, ultrafiltration, microfiltration, nanofiltration, and crossflow filtration, are described above. In some forms, the filtration step includes a two-part filtration process. For example, the filtration step can include first filtering the mixture by using standard filtration e.g., standard filter papers, to remove larger particles, followed by a second filtration using finer filters e.g., a 0.45 µm pore filter paper. In some forms, the method produces a two-phase mixture. For example, the exemplary method described above can produce two different phases, a filtered turmeric liquid (see Turmeric- pH13 in the Examples), and a filtered sediment. In some forms, the filtered sediment is collected for analysis and / or for preparation of a nutraceutical In some forms, the acid has a pH ranging from about pH 2 to about pH 5. For example, the acid can have a pH of about pH 2, about pH 3, about pH 4, or about pH 5. In preferred forms, the acid has a pH of about 4 and below, more preferably about pH 2 or pH 3. In some forms, the acidic solution has a pH of pH 7, pH 6, pH 5, pH 4, pH 3, pH 2, or pH 1. In some forms, the acidic solution has a pH of about 7.0, 6.9, 6.8, 6.7, 6.6, 6.5, 6.4, 6.3, 6.2, 6.1, 6.0, 5.9, 5.8, 5.7, 5.5, 5.4, 5.3, 5.2, 5.1, 5.0, 4.9, 4.8, 4.7, 4.6, 4.5, 4.4, 4.3, 4.2, 4.1, 3.9, 3.8, 3.7, 3.6, 3.5, 3.4, 3.3, 3.2, 3.1, 3.0, 2.9, 2.8, 2.7, 2.6, 2.5, 2.4, 2.3, 2.2, 2.1, 2.0, 1.9, 1.8, 1.7, 1.6, 1.5, 1.4, 1.3, 1.2, 1.1, or 1.0. In some forms, the acidic solution has a pH ranging from about pH 7 to about pH 6, from about pH 7 to about pH 5, from about pH 7 to about pH 4, from about pH 7 to about pH 3, from about pH 7 to about pH 2, or from about from about pH 7 to about pH 1. In some forms, the alkaline solution has a pH of less than 7, less than 6, less than 5, less than 4, less than 3, less than 2, or pH less than 1. Any suitable acid for extracting polyphenols can be used. Exemplary acids that can be used include citric acid, acetic acid, ascorbic acid, hydrochloric acid, phosphoric acid, and tartaric acid. In preferred forms, the acid is citric acid or hydrochloric acid, more preferably, hydrochloric acid. In some forms, the acid is added to the first mixture in a dropwise manner while agitating e.g., stirring, the mixture. For example, the acid can be added to the mixture at 1 drop every 5 seconds. Generally, the first mixture is titrated with the acid until a second mixture is produced. In some forms, the second mixture has a pH of about 7.0. In some forms, the second mixture has a pH of about 6.5, about 6.6. about 6.7, about 6.8, about 6.9, about 7.0, about 7.1, about 7.2, about 7.3, about 7.4, or about 7.5. In some forms, the turmeric is prepared from turmeric rhizomes prior to step (i). An exemplary method for preparing turmeric from turmeric rhizomes include one or more of the following steps: (a) washing turmeric rhizomes; (b) grated the washed rhizomes; (c) drying the grated rhizomes; (d) grinding the dried rhizomes to form a turmeric powder; and (e) optionally sieving the powder. In some forms, the methods further include one or more steps of formulating the nanoparticle into an emulsion. For example, formulating the nanoparticle into an emulsion includes contacting the nanoparticles with an emulsifier contains casein protein or a polysorbate to form a first emulsion mixture; and contacting the first emulsion mixture with an oil. 2. Methods of Making Gingerol- and Shogaol-loaded NPs Methods of making gingerol-loaded nanoparticles and shogaol-loaded nanoparticles are provided. The methods generally include: (i) contacting a ginger powder or other plant material with an alkaline solution to provide a first mixture, optionally where the contacting includes agitating the first mixture and / or filtration of the first mixture to remove particulate matter; and (ii) contacting the first mixture with an acid to form a second mixture including a nanoparticle including gingerol or shogaol, optionally where the contacting includes agitating the second mixture to provide a second mixture having a pH of about 7.0; and (iii) isolating the gingerol or shogaol nanoparticle from the second mixture. Generally, the pKa of the compound defines the required pH of the alkaline solution, such that the pH of the alkaline solution is generally higher than the pKa of the compound. In some forms, the alkaline solution has a pH of 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, or 14. In some forms, the alkaline solution has a pH of about 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4, 7.5, 7.6, 7.7, 7.8, 7.9, 8.0, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4, 8.5, 8.6, 8.7, 8.8, 8.9, 9.0, 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4, 9.5, 9.6, 9.7, 9.8, 9.9, 10.0, 10.1, 10.2, 10.3, 10.4, 10.5, 10.6, 10.7, 10.8, 10.9, 11.0, 11.1, 11.2, 11.3, 11.4, 11.5, 11.6., 11.7, 11.8, 11.9, 12.0, 12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5, 12.6, 12.7, 12.8, 12.9, 13.0, 13.1, 13.2, 13.3, 13.4, 13.5, 13.6, 13.7, 13.8, 13.9, 14.0. In some forms, the alkaline solution has a pH ranging from about pH 7 to about pH 8, from about pH 7 to about pH 9, from about pH 7 to about pH 10, from about pH 7 to about pH 11, from about pH 7 to about pH 12, from about pH 7 to about pH 13, from about pH 7 to about pH 14, or from about from about pH 8 to about pH 14. In some forms, the alkaline solution has a pH of at least 7, at least 8, at least 9, at least 10, at least 11, at least 13, or pH 14. In preferred forms, the alkaline solution has a pH of about 9 and above, more preferably pH 11 and above. Any suitable alkali for extracting polyphenols can be used as the alkaline solution. Exemplary alkalis include sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, calcium carbonate, and calcium bicarbonate. In preferred forms, the alkaline solution is sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide, more preferably sodium hydroxide. For small amounts of starting material e.g. about 200 g to about 600 g of ginger powder, the first mixture is agitated for about 5 minutes to about 30 minutes, for about 5 minutes to about 25 minutes, or for about 5 minutes to about 20 minutes, for about 5 minutes to about 15 minutes, or for about 5 minutes to about 10 minutes. In preferred forms, the first mixture is agitated for about 5 minutes to about 10 minutes. These amounts can be scaled for batch processing of the first mixture. In forms for batch processing, the first mixture is agitated for about 5 minutes to about 10 minutes. In some forms, the agitation rate, i.e., the stirring rate ranges from about 500 rpm (revolutions per minute) to about 1200 rpm. For example, the agitation rate ranges from about 500 rpm to about 1100 rpm, from about 500 rpm to about 1000 rpm, from about 500 rpm to about 900 rpm, from about 500 rpm to about 800 rpm, from about 500 rpm to about 700 rpm, from about 500 rpm to about 600 rpm. In some forms, the agitation rate ranges from about 600 rpm to about 900 rpm, from about 700 rpm to about 850 rpm, e.g., about 650 rpm, about 700 rpm, about 750 rpm, about 800 rpm, or about 850 rpm, preferably about 800 rpm. In some forms, the first mixture is covered to avoid the excessive exposure of air and light. In some forms, the first mixture is allowed to stand for about 5 minutes to about 15 minutes. Suitable isolation techniques e.g., filtration techniques e.g., vacuum filtration, ultrafiltration, microfiltration, nanofiltration, and crossflow filtration, are described above. In some forms, the filtration step includes a two-part filtration process. For example, the filtration step can include first filtering the mixture by using standard filtration e.g., standard filter papers, to remove larger particles, followed by a second filtration using finer filters e.g., a 0.45 µm pore filter paper. In some forms, the method further includes (iv), contacting the gingerol or shogaol nanoparticle with an acid to form a second mixture while agitating the second mixture for a time to provide a second mixture having a pH of about 7.0; and (vi) isolating the gingerol or shogaol nanoparticle from the second mixture. In some forms, the acid has a pH ranging from about pH 2 to about pH 5. For example, the acid can have a pH of about pH 2, about pH 3, about pH 4, or about pH 5. In some forms, the acidic solution has a pH of pH 7, pH 6, pH 5, pH 4, pH 3, pH 2, or pH 1. In some forms, the acidic solution has a pH of about 7.0, 6.9, 6.8, 6.7, 6.6, 6.5, 6.4, 6.3, 6.2, 6.1, 6.0, 5.9, 5.8, 5.7, 5.5, 5.4, 5.3, 5.2, 5.1, 5.0, 4.9, 4.8, 4.7, 4.6, 4.5, 4.4, 4.3, 4.2, 4.1, 3.9, 3.8, 3.7, 3.6, 3.5, 3.4, 3.3, 3.2, 3.1, 3.0, 2.9, 2.8, 2.7, 2.6, 2.5, 2.4, 2.3, 2.2, 2.1, 2.0, 1.9, 1.8, 1.7, 1.6, 1.5, 1.4, 1.3, 1.2, 1.1, or 1.0. In some forms, the acidic solution has a pH ranging from about pH 7 to about pH 6, from about pH 7 to about pH 5, from about pH 7 to about pH 4, from about pH 7 to about pH 3, from about pH 7 to about pH 2, or from about from about pH 7 to about pH 1. In some forms, the acidic solution has a pH of less than 7, less than 6, less than 5, less than 4, less than 3, less than 2, or pH less than 1. In preferred forms, the acid has a pH of about 4 and below, more preferably about pH 2 or pH 3. Any suitable acid for extracting polyphenols can be used. Exemplary acids that can be used include citric acid, acetic acid, ascorbic acid, hydrochloric acid, phosphoric acid, and tartaric acid. In preferred forms, the acid is citric acid or hydrochloric acid, more preferably, hydrochloric acid. In some forms, the acid is added to the first mixture in a dropwise manner while agitating e.g., stirring, the mixture. For example, the acid can be added to the mixture at 1 drop every 5 seconds. Generally, the first mixture is titrated with the acid until a second mixture is produced. In some forms, the second mixture has a pH of about 7.0. In some forms, the second mixture has a pH of about 6.5, about 6.6. about 6.7, about 6.8, about 6.9, about 7.0, about 7.1, about 7.2, about 7.3, about 7.4, or about 7.5. In some forms, the ginger is prepared from ginger rhizomes prior to step (i). An exemplary method for preparing ginger from ginger rhizomes include one or more of the following steps: (a) washing ginger rhizomes; (b) grated the washed rhizomes; (c) drying the grated rhizomes; (d) grinding the dried rhizomes to form a ginger powder; and (e) optionally sieving the powder. In some forms, the methods further include one or more steps of formulating the nanoparticle into an emulsion. For example, formulating the nanoparticle into an emulsion includes contacting the nanoparticles with an emulsifier containing casein protein or a polysorbate to form a first emulsion mixture; and contacting the first emulsion mixture with an oil. 3. Methods of Making Thymol- or Carvacrol-loaded NPs Methods of making thymol-loaded nanoparticles and carvacrol-loaded nanoparticles are provided. The methods generally include: (i) contacting a thyme powder or other plant material with an alkaline solution to provide a first mixture, optionally where the contacting includes agitating the first mixture and / or filtration of the first mixture to remove particulate matter; and (ii) contacting the first mixture with an acid to form a second mixture including a nanoparticle including thymol or carvacrol, optionally where the contacting includes agitating the second mixture to provide a second mixture having a pH of about 7.0; and (iii) isolating the thymol or carvacrol nanoparticle from the second mixture. Generally, the pKa of the compound defines the required pH of the alkaline solution, such that the pH of the alkaline solution is generally higher than the pKa of the compound. In some forms, the alkaline solution has a pH of 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, or 14. In some forms, the alkaline solution has a pH of about 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4, 7.5, 7.6, 7.7, 7.8, 7.9, 8.0, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4, 8.5, 8.6, 8.7, 8.8, 8.9, 9.0, 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4, 9.5, 9.6, 9.7, 9.8, 9.9, 10.0, 10.1, 10.2, 10.3, 10.4, 10.5, 10.6, 10.7, 10.8, 10.9, 11.0, 11.1, 11.2, 11.3, 11.4, 11.5, 11.6., 11.7, 11.8, 11.9, 12.0, 12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5, 12.6, 12.7, 12.8, 12.9, 13.0, 13.1, 13.2, 13.3, 13.4, 13.5, 13.6, 13.7, 13.8, 13.9, 14.0. In some forms, the alkaline solution has a pH ranging from about pH 7 to about pH 8, from about pH 7 to about pH 9, from about pH 7 to about pH 10, from about pH 7 to about pH 11, from about pH 7 to about pH 12, from about pH 7 to about pH 13, from about pH 7 to about pH 14, or from about from about pH 8 to about pH 14. In some forms, the alkaline solution has a pH of at least 7, at least 8, at least 9, at least 10, at least 11, at least 13, or pH 14. In preferred forms, the alkaline solution has a pH of about 9 and above, more preferably pH 11 and above. Any suitable alkali for extracting polyphenols can be used as the alkaline solution. Exemplary alkalis include sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, calcium carbonate, and calcium bicarbonate. In preferred forms, the alkaline solution is sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide, more preferably sodium hydroxide. For small amounts of starting material e.g. about 200 g to about 600 g of thyme powder, the first mixture is agitated for about 5 minutes to about 30 minutes, for about 5 minutes to about 25 minutes, or for about 5 minutes to about 20 minutes, for about 5 minutes to about 15 minutes, or for about 5 minutes to about 10 minutes. In preferred forms, the first mixture is agitated for about 5 minutes to about 10 minutes. These amounts can be scaled for batch processing of the first mixture. In forms for batch processing, the first mixture is agitated for about 5 minutes to about 10 minutes. In some forms, the agitation rate, i.e., the stirring rate ranges from about 500 rpm (revolutions per minute) to about 1200 rpm. For example, the agitation rate ranges from about 500 rpm to about 1100 rpm, from about 500 rpm to about 1000 rpm, from about 500 rpm to about 900 rpm, from about 500 rpm to about 800 rpm, from about 500 rpm to about 700 rpm, from about 500 rpm to about 600 rpm. In some forms, the agitation rate ranges from about 600 rpm to about 900 rpm, from about 700 rpm to about 850 rpm, e.g., about 650 rpm, about 700 rpm, about 750 rpm, about 800 rpm, or about 850 rpm, preferably about 800 rpm. In some forms, the first mixture is covered to avoid the excessive exposure of air and light. In some forms, the first mixture is allowed to stand for about 5 minutes to about 15 minutes. Suitable isolation techniques e.g., filtration techniques e.g., vacuum filtration, ultrafiltration, microfiltration, nanofiltration, and crossflow filtration, are described above. In some forms, the filtration step includes a two-part filtration process. For example, the filtration step can include first filtering the mixture by using standard filtration e.g., standard filter papers, to remove larger particles, followed by a second filtration using finer filters e.g., a 0.45 µm pore filter paper. In some forms, the acid has a pH ranging from about pH 2 to about pH 5. For example, the acid can have a pH of about pH 2, about pH 3, about pH 4, or about pH 5. In some forms, the acidic solution has a pH of pH 7, pH 6, pH 5, pH 4, pH 3, pH 2, or pH 1. In some forms, the acidic solution has a pH of about 7.0, 6.9, 6.8, 6.7, 6.6, 6.5, 6.4, 6.3, 6.2, 6.1, 6.0, 5.9, 5.8, 5.7, 5.5, 5.4, 5.3, 5.2, 5.1, 5.0, 4.9, 4.8, 4.7, 4.6, 4.5, 4.4, 4.3, 4.2, 4.1, 3.9, 3.8, 3.7, 3.6, 3.5, 3.4, 3.3, 3.2, 3.1, 3.0, 2.9, 2.8, 2.7, 2.6, 2.5, 2.4, 2.3, 2.2, 2.1, 2.0, 1.9, 1.8, 1.7, 1.6, 1.5, 1.4, 1.3, 1.2, 1.1, or 1.0. In some forms, the acidic solution has a pH ranging from about pH 7 to about pH 6, from about pH 7 to about pH 5, from about pH 7 to about pH 4, from about pH 7 to about pH 3, from about pH 7 to about pH 2, or from about from about pH 7 to about pH 1. In some forms, the acidic solution has a pH of less than 7, less than 6, less than 5, less than 4, less than 3, less than 2, or pH less than 1. In preferred forms, the acid has a pH of about 4 and below, more preferably about pH 2 or pH 3. Any suitable acid for extracting polyphenols can be used. Exemplary acids that can be used include citric acid, acetic acid, ascorbic acid, hydrochloric acid, phosphoric acid, and tartaric acid. In preferred forms, the acid is citric acid or hydrochloric acid, more preferably, hydrochloric acid. In some forms, the acid is added to the first mixture in a dropwise manner while agitating e.g., stirring, the mixture. For example, the acid can be added to the mixture at 1 drop every 5 seconds. Generally, the first mixture is titrated with the acid until a second mixture is produced. In some forms, the second mixture has a pH of about 7.0. In some forms, the second mixture has a pH of about 6.5, about 6.6. about 6.7, about 6.8, about 6.9, about 7.0, about 7.1, about 7.2, about 7.3, about 7.4, or about 7.5. In some forms, the thyme is prepared from thyme plants prior to step (i). An exemplary method for preparing thyme from thyme plants include one or more of the following steps: (a) washing thyme stalks / stems with leaves; (b) drying the grated stalks / stems with leaves; (c) grinding the dried stalks to form a thyme powder; and (d optionally sieving the powder. In some forms, the methods further include one or more steps of formulating the nanoparticle into an emulsion. For example, formulating the nanoparticle into an emulsion includes contacting the nanoparticles with an emulsifier containing casein protein or a polysorbate to form a first emulsion mixture; and contacting the first emulsion mixture with an oil. 4. Methods of Making Capsaicin-loaded NPs Methods of making capsaicin-loaded nanoparticles are provided. The methods generally include: (i) contacting a pepper powder or other plant material with an alkaline solution to provide a first mixture, optionally where the contacting includes agitating the first mixture and / or filtration of the first mixture to remove particulate matter; and (ii) contacting the first mixture with an acid to form a second mixture including a nanoparticle including capsaicin, optionally where the contacting includes agitating the second mixture to provide a second mixture having a pH of about 7.0; and (iii) isolating the capsaicin nanoparticle from the second mixture. Generally, the pKa of the compound defines the required pH of the alkaline solution, such that the pH of the alkaline solution is generally higher than the pKa of the compound. In some forms, the alkaline solution has a pH of 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, or 14. In some forms, the alkaline solution has a pH of about 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4, 7.5, 7.6, 7.7, 7.8, 7.9, 8.0, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4, 8.5, 8.6, 8.7, 8.8, 8.9, 9.0, 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4, 9.5, 9.6, 9.7, 9.8, 9.9, 10.0, 10.1, 10.2, 10.3, 10.4, 10.5, 10.6, 10.7, 10.8, 10.9, 11.0, 11.1, 11.2, 11.3, 11.4, 11.5, 11.6., 11.7, 11.8, 11.9, 12.0, 12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5, 12.6, 12.7, 12.8, 12.9, 13.0, 13.1, 13.2, 13.3, 13.4, 13.5, 13.6, 13.7, 13.8, 13.9, 14.0. In some forms, the alkaline solution has a pH ranging from about pH 7 to about pH 8, from about pH 7 to about pH 9, from about pH 7 to about pH 10, from about pH 7 to about pH 11, from about pH 7 to about pH 12, from about pH 7 to about pH 13, from about pH 7 to about pH 14, or from about from about pH 8 to about pH 14. In some forms, the alkaline solution has a pH of at least 7, at least 8, at least 9, at least 10, at least 11, at least 13, or pH 14. In preferred forms, the alkaline solution has a pH of about 9 and above, more preferably pH 11 and above. Any suitable alkali for extracting polyphenols can be used as the alkaline solution. Exemplary alkalis include sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, calcium carbonate, and calcium bicarbonate. In preferred forms, the alkaline solution is sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide, more preferably sodium hydroxide. For small amounts of starting material e.g. about 200 g to about 600 g of thyme powder, the first mixture is agitated for about 5 minutes to about 30 minutes, for about 5 minutes to about 25 minutes, or for about 5 minutes to about 20 minutes, for about 5 minutes to about 15 minutes, or for about 5 minutes to about 10 minutes. In preferred forms, the first mixture is agitated for about 5 minutes to about 10 minutes. These amounts can be scaled for batch processing of the first mixture. In forms for batch processing, the first mixture is agitated for about 5 minutes to about 10 minutes. In some forms, the agitation rate, i.e., the stirring rate ranges from about 500 rpm (revolutions per minute) to about 1200 rpm. For example, the agitation rate ranges from about 500 rpm to about 1100 rpm, from about 500 rpm to about 1000 rpm, from about 500 rpm to about 900 rpm, from about 500 rpm to about 800 rpm, from about 500 rpm to about 700 rpm, from about 500 rpm to about 600 rpm. In some forms, the agitation rate ranges from about 600 rpm to about 900 rpm, from about 700 rpm to about 850 rpm, e.g., about 650 rpm, about 700 rpm, about 750 rpm, about 800 rpm, or about 850 rpm, preferably about 800 rpm. In some forms, the first mixture is covered to avoid the excessive exposure of air and light. In some forms, the first mixture is allowed to stand for about 5 minutes to about 15 minutes. Suitable isolation techniques e.g., filtration techniques e.g., vacuum filtration, ultrafiltration, microfiltration, nanofiltration, and crossflow filtration, are described above. In some forms, the filtration step includes a two-part filtration process. For example, the filtration step can include first filtering the mixture by using standard filtration e.g., standard filter papers, to remove larger particles, followed by a second filtration using finer filters e.g., a 0.45 µm pore filter paper. In some forms, the acid has a pH ranging from about pH 2 to about pH 5. For example, the acid can have a pH of about pH 2, about pH 3, about pH 4, or about pH 5. In some forms, the acidic solution has a pH of pH 7, pH 6, pH 5, pH 4, pH 3, pH 2, or pH 1. In some forms, the acidic solution has a pH of about 7.0, 6.9, 6.8, 6.7, 6.6, 6.5, 6.4, 6.3, 6.2, 6.1, 6.0, 5.9, 5.8, 5.7, 5.5, 5.4, 5.3, 5.2, 5.1, 5.0, 4.9, 4.8, 4.7, 4.6, 4.5, 4.4, 4.3, 4.2, 4.1, 3.9, 3.8, 3.7, 3.6, 3.5, 3.4, 3.3, 3.2, 3.1, 3.0, 2.9, 2.8, 2.7, 2.6, 2.5, 2.4, 2.3, 2.2, 2.1, 2.0, 1.9, 1.8, 1.7, 1.6, 1.5, 1.4, 1.3, 1.2, 1.1, or 1.0. In some forms, the acidic solution has a pH ranging from about pH 7 to about pH 6, from about pH 7 to about pH 5, from about pH 7 to about pH 4, from about pH 7 to about pH 3, from about pH 7 to about pH 2, or from about from about pH 7 to about pH 1. In some forms, the acidic solution has a pH of less than 7, less than 6, less than 5, less than 4, less than 3, less than 2, or pH less than 1. In preferred forms, the acid has a pH of about 4 and below, more preferably about pH 2 or pH 3. Any suitable acid for extracting polyphenols can be used. Exemplary acids that can be used include citric acid, acetic acid, ascorbic acid, hydrochloric acid, phosphoric acid, and tartaric acid. In preferred forms, the acid is citric acid or hydrochloric acid, more preferably, hydrochloric acid. In some forms, the acid is added to the first mixture in a dropwise manner while agitating e.g., stirring, the mixture. For example, the acid can be added to the mixture at 1 drop every 5 seconds. Generally, the first mixture is titrated with the acid until a second mixture is produced. In some forms, the second mixture has a pH of about 7.0. In some forms, the second mixture has a pH of about 6.5, about 6.6. about 6.7, about 6.8, about 6.9, about 7.0, about 7.1, about 7.2, about 7.3, about 7.4, or about 7.5. In some forms, the pepper powder is prepared from raw peppers prior to step (i). An exemplary method for preparing pepper powder from raw peppers include one or more of the following steps: (a) washing the raw peppers; (b) drying the raw peppers; (c) grinding the raw peppers to form a pepper powder; and (d) optionally sieving the powder. In some forms, the methods further include one or more steps of formulating the nanoparticle into an emulsion. For example, formulating the nanoparticle into an emulsion includes contacting the nanoparticles with an emulsifier containing casein protein or a polysorbate to form a first emulsion mixture; and contacting the first emulsion mixture with an oil. 5. Methods of Making Rosmarinic acid-loaded NPs Methods of making rosmarinic acid-loaded nanoparticles are provided. The methods generally include: (i) contacting a rosemary powder or other plant material with an alkaline solution to provide a first mixture, optionally where the contacting includes agitating the first mixture and / or filtration of the first mixture to remove particulate matter; and (ii) contacting the first mixture with an acid to form a second mixture including a nanoparticle including rosmarinic acid, optionally where the contacting includes agitating the second mixture to provide a second mixture having a pH of about 7.0; and (iii) isolating the rosmarinic acid nanoparticle from the second mixture. Generally, the pKa of the compound defines the required pH of the alkaline solution, such that the pH of the alkaline solution is generally higher than the pKa of the compound. In some forms, the alkaline solution has a pH of 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, or 14. In some forms, the alkaline solution has a pH of about 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4, 7.5, 7.6, 7.7, 7.8, 7.9, 8.0, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4, 8.5, 8.6, 8.7, 8.8, 8.9, 9.0, 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4, 9.5, 9.6, 9.7, 9.8, 9.9, 10.0, 10.1, 10.2, 10.3, 10.4, 10.5, 10.6, 10.7, 10.8, 10.9, 11.0, 11.1, 11.2, 11.3, 11.4, 11.5, 11.6., 11.7, 11.8, 11.9, 12.0, 12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5, 12.6, 12.7, 12.8, 12.9, 13.0, 13.1, 13.2, 13.3, 13.4, 13.5, 13.6, 13.7, 13.8, 13.9, 14.0. In some forms, the alkaline solution has a pH ranging from about pH 7 to about pH 8, from about pH 7 to about pH 9, from about pH 7 to about pH 10, from about pH 7 to about pH 11, from about pH 7 to about pH 12, from about pH 7 to about pH 13, from about pH 7 to about pH 14, or from about from about pH 8 to about pH 14. In some forms, the alkaline solution has a pH of at least 7, at least 8, at least 9, at least 10, at least 11, at least 13, or pH 14. In preferred forms, the alkaline solution has a pH of about 9 and above, more preferably pH 11 and above. Any suitable alkali for extracting polyphenols can be used as the alkaline solution. Exemplary alkalis include sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, calcium carbonate, and calcium bicarbonate. In preferred forms, the alkaline solution is sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide, more preferably sodium hydroxide. For small amounts of starting material e.g., about 200 g to about 600 g of thyme powder, the first mixture is agitated for about 5 minutes to about 30 minutes, for about 5 minutes to about 25 minutes, or for about 5 minutes to about 20 minutes, for about 5 minutes to about 15 minutes, or for about 5 minutes to about 10 minutes. In preferred forms, the first mixture is agitated for about 5 minutes to about 10 minutes. These amounts can be scaled for batch processing of the first mixture. In forms for batch processing, the first mixture is agitated for about 5 minutes to about 10 minutes. In some forms, the agitation rate, i.e., the stirring rate ranges from about 500 rpm (revolutions per minute) to about 1200 rpm. For example, the agitation rate ranges from about 500 rpm to about 1100 rpm, from about 500 rpm to about 1000 rpm, from about 500 rpm to about 900 rpm, from about 500 rpm to about 800 rpm, from about 500 rpm to about 700 rpm, from about 500 rpm to about 600 rpm. In some forms, the agitation rate ranges from about 600 rpm to about 900 rpm, from about 700 rpm to about 850 rpm, e.g., about 650 rpm, about 700 rpm, about 750 rpm, about 800 rpm, or about 850 rpm, preferably about 800 rpm. In some forms, the first mixture is covered to avoid the excessive exposure of air and light. In some forms, the first mixture is allowed to stand for about 5 minutes to about 15 minutes. Suitable isolation techniques e.g., filtration techniques e.g., vacuum filtration, ultrafiltration, microfiltration, nanofiltration, and crossflow filtration, are described above. In some forms, the filtration step includes a two-part filtration process. For example, the filtration step can include first filtering the mixture by using standard filtration e.g., standard filter papers, to remove larger particles, followed by a second filtration using finer filters e.g., a 0.45 µm pore filter paper. In some forms, the acid has a pH ranging from about pH 2 to about pH 5. For example, the acid can have a pH of about pH 2, about pH 3, about pH 4, or about pH 5. In some forms, the acidic solution has a pH of pH 7, pH 6, pH 5, pH 4, pH 3, pH 2, or pH 1. In some forms, the acidic solution has a pH of about 7.0, 6.9, 6.8, 6.7, 6.6, 6.5, 6.4, 6.3, 6.2, 6.1, 6.0, 5.9, 5.8, 5.7, 5.5, 5.4, 5.3, 5.2, 5.1, 5.0, 4.9, 4.8, 4.7, 4.6, 4.5, 4.4, 4.3, 4.2, 4.1, 3.9, 3.8, 3.7, 3.6, 3.5, 3.4, 3.3, 3.2, 3.1, 3.0, 2.9, 2.8, 2.7, 2.6, 2.5, 2.4, 2.3, 2.2, 2.1, 2.0, 1.9, 1.8, 1.7, 1.6, 1.5, 1.4, 1.3, 1.2, 1.1, or 1.0. In some forms, the acidic solution has a pH ranging from about pH 7 to about pH 6, from about pH 7 to about pH 5, from about pH 7 to about pH 4, from about pH 7 to about pH 3, from about pH 7 to about pH 2, or from about from about pH 7 to about pH 1. In some forms, the acidic solution has a pH of less than 7, less than 6, less than 5, less than 4, less than 3, less than 2, or pH less than 1. In preferred forms, the acid has a pH of about 4 and below, more preferably about pH 2 or pH 3. Any suitable acid for extracting polyphenols can be used. Exemplary acids that can be used include citric acid, acetic acid, ascorbic acid, hydrochloric acid, phosphoric acid, and tartaric acid. In preferred forms, the acid is citric acid or hydrochloric acid, more preferably, hydrochloric acid. In some forms, the acid is added to the first mixture in a dropwise manner while agitating e.g., stirring, the mixture. For example, the acid can be added to the mixture at 1 drop every 5 seconds. Generally, the first mixture is titrated with the acid until a second mixture is produced. In some forms, the second mixture has a pH of about 7.0. In some forms, the second mixture has a pH of about 6.5, about 6.6. about 6.7, about 6.8, about 6.9, about 7.0, about 7.1, about 7.2, about 7.3, about 7.4, or about 7.5. In some forms, the rosemary powder is prepared from rosemary plants prior to step (i). An exemplary method for preparing rosemary powder from rosemary plants include one or more of the following steps: (a) washing rosemary stalks and stems with leaves; (b) drying the stalks / stems and leaves; (c) grinding the dried stalks to form a rosemary powder; and (d) optionally sieving the powder. In some forms, the methods further include one or more steps of formulating the nanoparticle into an emulsion. For example, formulating the nanoparticle into an emulsion includes contacting the nanoparticles with an emulsifier containing casein protein or a polysorbate to form a first emulsion mixture; and contacting the first emulsion mixture with an oil. 6. Methods of Making Eugenol-loaded NPs Methods of making eugenol-loaded nanoparticles are provided. The methods generally include: (i) contacting a clove powder or other plant material with an alkaline solution to provide a first mixture, optionally where the contacting includes agitating the first mixture and / or filtration of the first mixture to remove particulate matter; and (ii) contacting the first mixture with an acid to form a second mixture including a nanoparticle including eugenol, optionally where the contacting includes agitating the second mixture to provide a second mixture having a pH of about 7.0; and (iii) isolating the eugenol nanoparticle from the second mixture. Generally, the pKa of the compound defines the required pH of the alkaline solution, such that the pH of the alkaline solution is generally higher than the pKa of the compound. In some forms, the alkaline solution has a pH of 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, or 14. In some forms, the alkaline solution has a pH of about 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4, 7.5, 7.6, 7.7, 7.8, 7.9, 8.0, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4, 8.5, 8.6, 8.7, 8.8, 8.9, 9.0, 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4, 9.5, 9.6, 9.7, 9.8, 9.9, 10.0, 10.1, 10.2, 10.3, 10.4, 10.5, 10.6, 10.7, 10.8, 10.9, 11.0, 11.1, 11.2, 11.3, 11.4, 11.5, 11.6., 11.7, 11.8, 11.9, 12.0, 12.1, 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5, 12.6, 12.7, 12.8, 12.9, 13.0, 13.1, 13.2, 13.3, 13.4, 13.5, 13.6, 13.7, 13.8, 13.9, 14.0. In some forms, the alkaline solution has a pH ranging from about pH 7 to about pH 8, from about pH 7 to about pH 9, from about pH 7 to about pH 10, from about pH 7 to about pH 11, from about pH 7 to about pH 12, from about pH 7 to about pH 13, from about pH 7 to about pH 14, or from about from about pH 8 to about pH 14. In some forms, the alkaline solution has a pH of at least 7, at least 8, at least 9, at least 10, at least 11, at least 13, or pH 14. In preferred forms, the alkaline solution has a pH of about 9 and above, more preferably pH 11 and above. Any suitable alkali for extracting polyphenols can be used as the alkaline solution. Exemplary alkalis include sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, calcium carbonate, and calcium bicarbonate. In preferred forms, the alkaline solution is sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide, more preferably sodium hydroxide. For small amounts of starting material e.g. about 200 g to about 600 g of thyme powder, the first mixture is agitated for about 5 minutes to about 30 minutes, for about 5 minutes to about 25 minutes, or for about 5 minutes to about 20 minutes, for about 5 minutes to about 15 minutes, or for about 5 minutes to about 10 minutes. In preferred forms, the first mixture is agitated for about 5 minutes to about 10 minutes. These amounts can be scaled for batch processing of the first mixture. In forms for batch processing, the first mixture is agitated for about 5 minutes to about 10 minutes. In some forms, the agitation rate, i.e., the stirring rate ranges from about 500 rpm (revolutions per minute) to about 1200 rpm. For example, the agitation rate ranges from about 500 rpm to about 1100 rpm, from about 500 rpm to about 1000 rpm, from about 500 rpm to about 900 rpm, from about 500 rpm to about 800 rpm, from about 500 rpm to about 700 rpm, from about 500 rpm to about 600 rpm. In some forms, the agitation rate ranges from about 600 rpm to about 900 rpm, from about 700 rpm to about 850 rpm, e.g., about 650 rpm, about 700 rpm, about 750 rpm, about 800 rpm, or about 850 rpm, preferably about 800 rpm. In some forms, the first mixture is covered to avoid the excessive exposure of air and light. In some forms, the first mixture is allowed to stand for about 5 minutes to about 15 minutes. Suitable isolation techniques e.g., filtration techniques e.g., vacuum filtration, ultrafiltration, microfiltration, nanofiltration, and crossflow filtration, are described above. In some forms, the filtration step includes a two-part filtration process. For example, the filtration step can include first filtering the mixture by using standard filtration e.g., standard filter papers, to remove larger particles, followed by a second filtration using finer filters e.g., a 0.45 µm pore filter paper. In some forms, the acid has a pH ranging from about pH 2 to about pH 5. For example, the acid can have a pH of about pH 2, about pH 3, about pH 4, or about pH 5. In some forms, the acidic solution has a pH of pH 7, pH 6, pH 5, pH 4, pH 3, pH 2, or pH 1. In some forms, the acidic solution has a pH of about 7.0, 6.9, 6.8, 6.7, 6.6, 6.5, 6.4, 6.3, 6.2, 6.1, 6.0, 5.9, 5.8, 5.7, 5.5, 5.4, 5.3, 5.2, 5.1, 5.0, 4.9, 4.8, 4.7, 4.6, 4.5, 4.4, 4.3, 4.2, 4.1, 3.9, 3.8, 3.7, 3.6, 3.5, 3.4, 3.3, 3.2, 3.1, 3.0, 2.9, 2.8, 2.7, 2.6, 2.5, 2.4, 2.3, 2.2, 2.1, 2.0, 1.9, 1.8, 1.7, 1.6, 1.5, 1.4, 1.3, 1.2, 1.1, or 1.0. In some forms, the acidic solution has a pH ranging from about pH 7 to about pH 6, from about pH 7 to about pH 5, from about pH 7 to about pH 4, from about pH 7 to about pH 3, from about pH 7 to about pH 2, or from about from about pH 7 to about pH 1. In some forms, the acidic solution has a pH of less than 7, less than 6, less than 5, less than 4, less than 3, less than 2, or pH less than 1. In preferred forms, the acid has a pH of about 4 and below, more preferably about pH 2 or pH 3. Any suitable acid for extracting polyphenols can be used. Exemplary acids that can be used include citric acid, acetic acid, ascorbic acid, hydrochloric acid, phosphoric acid, and tartaric acid. In preferred forms, the acid is citric acid or hydrochloric acid, more preferably, hydrochloric acid. In some forms, the acid is added to the first mixture in a dropwise manner while agitating e.g., stirring, the mixture. For example, the acid can be added to the mixture at 1 drop every 5 seconds. Generally, the first mixture is titrated with the acid until a second mixture is produced. In some forms, the second mixture has a pH of about 7.0. In some forms, the second mixture has a pH of about 6.5, about 6.6. about 6.7, about 6.8, about 6.9, about 7.0, about 7.1, about 7.2, about 7.3, about 7.4, or about 7.5. In some forms, the clove powder is prepared from raw cloves prior to step (i). An exemplary method for preparing clove powder from raw cloves include one or more of the following steps: (a) washing the raw cloves; (b) drying the raw cloves; (c) grinding the raw cloves to form a clove powder; and (d) optionally sieving the powder. In some forms, the methods further include one or more steps of formulating the nanoparticle into an emulsion. For example, formulating the nanoparticle into an emulsion includes contacting the nanoparticles with an emulsifier containing casein protein or a polysorbate to form a first emulsion mixture; and contacting the first emulsion mixture with an oil. 7. Exemplary Three-Step Methodologies In some forms, methods of formulating nanoparticles of bioactive materials include steps of (i) de-protonating the bioactive materials and biopolymers, (ii) gradually re-protonating the bioactive materials and biopolymers and (iii) isolating nanoparticles of the bioactive materials and biopolymers at neutral or near-neutral pH. In some forms, the methods are carried out within a single container. In some forms, the methods do not require changes in temperature. In some forms, the methods are automated. In some forms, the specific time and physical conditions of one or more of the steps are optimized according to the nature of the plant material and / or bioactive agent(s) and / or biopolymers present within the plant material. In a first exemplary form, the methods include: (i) contacting a turmeric powder or other plant material with an alkaline solution to provide a first mixture, optionally wherein the contacting further comprises (a) agitating the first mixture; and / or (b) removing particulate matter from the first mixture; (ii) contacting the first mixture with an acid to form a second mixture comprising a curcumin nanoparticle; and (iii) isolating the curcumin nanoparticle from the second mixture. In a second exemplary form, the methods include: (i) contacting a ginger powder or other plant material with an alkaline solution to provide a first mixture, optionally wherein the contacting further comprises (a) agitating the first mixture; and / or (b) removing particulate matter from the first mixture; (ii) contacting the first mixture with an acid to form a second mixture comprising a nanoparticle comprising gingerol and / or shogaol; and (iii) isolating the gingerol and / or shogaol nanoparticle from the second mixture. In a third exemplary form, the methods include: (i) contacting a thyme powder or other plant material with an alkaline solution to provide a first mixture, optionally wherein the contacting further comprises (a) agitating the first mixture; and / or (b) removing particulate matter from the first mixture; (ii) contacting the first mixture with an acid to form a second mixture comprising a nanoparticle comprising thymol and / or carvacrol; and (iii) isolating the thymol and / or carvacrol nanoparticle from the second mixture. In a fourth exemplary form, the methods include: (i) contacting a rosemary powder or other plant material with an alkaline solution to provide a first mixture, optionally wherein the contacting further comprises (a) agitating the first mixture; and / or (b) removing particulate matter from the first mixture; (ii) contacting the first mixture with an acid to form a second mixture comprising a nanoparticle comprising rosmarinic acid; and (iii) isolating the rosmarinic acid nanoparticle from the second mixture. In a fifth exemplary form, the methods include: (i) contacting a pepper powder or other plant material with an alkaline solution to provide a first mixture, optionally wherein the contacting further comprises (a) agitating the first mixture; and / or (b) removing particulate matter from the first mixture; (ii) contacting the first mixture with an acid to form a second mixture comprising a nanoparticle comprising capsaicin; and (iii) isolating the capsaicin nanoparticle from the second mixture. Typically, the alkaline solution comprises NaOH comprising pH of about 13, and the acid comprises citric acid comprising a pH of about 2. Generally, the acid is added dropwise to the first mixture to provide a second mixture comprising a pH of about 7.0. Any of the described methods can include one or more steps of formulating the nanoparticle into an emulsion. In some forms, formulating the nanoparticle into an emulsion includes: (a) contacting the nanoparticles with an emulsifier comprising casein protein or a polysorbate to form a first emulsion mixture; and (b) contacting the first emulsion mixture with an oil to provide an emulsion. III. Compositions of Nanoparticulate Bioactive Agents Compositions of nanoparticles loaded with bioactive compounds are provided. The disclosed nanoparticles loaded with bioactive compounds are appropriate for administering to a subject for nutraceutical purposes e.g., food supplements and dietary supplements for a myriad of nutritional and medicinal benefits e.g., boosting the immune system, anti-aging effects, supporting digestive health, anti-inflammatory effects, improving bone health, and enhancing physical endurance and recovery. The disclosed nanoparticles loaded with bioactive compounds are appropriate for the administering to a subject for agricultural purposes e.g., improving resistance to pests and diseases by delivering targeted environment-friendly pesticides or fungicides. The disclosed nanoparticles loaded with bioactive compounds are appropriate for the administering to a subject for food preserving e.g. delivering natural antimicrobial agents that inhibit the growth of spoilage microorganisms. In some forms, the composition is a nano-emulsion containing a population of particles having diameters between about 50 and about 150 nanometers (nm), optionally wherein the nano- emulsion is not contaminated by particles having diameters larger than 180 nm. In one embodiment, the particles encapsulate a compound. In one embodiment, the compound is a pharmaceutical. In one embodiment, the compound is a nutraceutical. In some forms, the bioactive compound-loaded nanoparticles have a core-shell structure. For example, as illustrated for the Turmeric-pH7 nanocomplex (see Figure 3B), the bioactive compound-loaded nanoparticle can include: (i) a core inner phase containing one or more insoluble biopolymers such as branched starches e.g., branched amylopectin, in which the bioactive compounds e.g., curcumin are trapped; and (ii) an acidic polysaccharide coating. In some forms, the nanoparticles are sized for uptake within the gut following oral administration. An exemplary way to measure the diameter of a nanoparticle is by using Dynamic light Scattering (DLS). The nanoparticle may have a diameter of between about 1,000 nm and about 10 microns, inclusive, as measured by DLS, for example, between about 100 nm and about 1 micron, inclusive, between about 50 nm and about 1000 nm, inclusive, between about 70 nm and about 500 nm, inclusive, or between about 50 nm and about 250 nm, inclusive. For example, the nanoparticle can have a diameter from about 100 nm to about 900 nm, from about 100 nm to about 800 nm, from about 100 nm to about 700 nm, from about 100 nm to about 600 nm, from 100 nm to 500 nm, from 100 nm to 400 nm, from 100 nm to 300 nm, from 100 nm to 200 nm, from 50 nm to 200 nm, from 70 nm from 200 nm, from 50 nm to 160 nm, from 70 nm to 160 nm, or from 100 nm to 160 nm. In preferred forms the nanoparticles can have a diameter less than 300 nm or less than 200 nm. The preferred range is between 100 nm and 300 nm, or 100 nm and 200 nm, or 70 nm and 160 nm, inclusive. In particular forms a nanoparticle has a diameter of about 142 nm. The particle or nanoparticle can have a zeta potential between -100 mV and +100 mV, inclusive, between -50 mV and +50 mV, inclusive, between -40 mV and +40 mV, inclusive, between -30 mV and +30 mV, inclusive, between -20 mV and +20 mV, inclusive, between -10 mV and +10mV, inclusive, or between -5mV and +5 mV, inclusive. The particle or nanoparticle can have a negative zeta potential. The particle can have a positive zeta potential. In some forms the particle has a substantially neutral zeta potential, i.e., the zeta potential is approximately 0 mV. In some forms, the particle has a zeta potential of approximately between -30 mV and +30 mV, inclusive, more preferably between -20 mV and +20 mV, inclusive. In some forms, the zeta potential is between -50 mV and -10 mV, inclusive, e.g., between -30 mV and -20 mV, inclusive. A. Bioactive Compounds The disclosed nanoparticles include a bioactive compound. The bioactive compound is generally extracted from raw plants. Raw plants contain numerous alkaline-soluble components, including proteins, starches, acidic polysaccharides, and bioactive compounds. In an alkaline solution, these components become negatively charged and highly soluble. Following filtration and acidification, they can collaboratively form nanocomplexes. In these nanocomplexes, bioactive compounds are trapped in the plant components, while proteins or acidic polysaccharides act as stabilizers through electrostatic stabilization. Therefore, the bioactive compound can be any bioactive compound extracted from a raw plant which contains alkaline-soluble components. Generally, the bioactive compound has a functional group that is pH soluble. Exemplary functional groups that are pH soluble and can exist in bioactive compounds extracted from raw plant components include phenolic hydroxyl groups (-OH), carboxyl groups (–COOH), sulfate groups (–SO₃H), sulfhydryl group (–SH), and phosphate groups (–PO₄H₂). In some forms, the bioactive compound extracted from raw plant components includes the pH soluble functional groups, e.g., phenolic hydroxyl groups. In some forms, protein includes the pH soluble amino acids. Exemplary amino acid groups include but are not limited to cysteine, serine, tyrosine, aspartic acid and glutamic acid. In some forms, acidic polysaccharide include the pH soluble functional group, e.g., mannuronic acid and guluronic acid. In other forms, starch includes the pH soluble functional group, e.g., sugar hydroxyl. As demonstrated in the Examples, turmeric biopolymer can be directly harnessed to produce curcumin-loaded nanoparticles. By following similar procedures that were used for formulating curcumin-loaded nanoparticles from raw turmeric, similar bioactive compound-loaded nanoparticles can be synthesized. For example, thymol-loaded nanoparticles can be formulated from raw thyme. Exemplary bioactive compounds that can be synthesized using the disclosed methods include but are not limited to gingerols and shogaols, thymol and carvacrol, eugenol, capsaicin and rosmarinic acid. 1. Curcumin In some forms, the bioactive compound is curcumin. Curcumin is a curcuminoid extracted from the turmeric plant and has the following structure: In some forms, the bioactive compound include other curcuminoids present in the turmeric, which have a pH-soluble function group, e.g., demethoxycurcumin, bisdemethoxycurcumin. In some forms, the curcumin-loaded nanoparticle is produced by a method which includes: (i) contacting a turmeric powder with an alkaline solution to provide a first mixture, (ii) agitating the first mixture to dissolve the plant components to obtain the second mixture, and (iii) separating the curcumin nanoparticle from the second mixture. In some forms, the curcumin-loaded nanoparticle is produced by a method, further includes (iv) contacting the second mixture with an acid to form a third mixture; (v) agitating the third mixture for a time to provide a mixture having a pH of about 7.0; and (vi) isolating the curcumin nanoparticle from the third mixture. 2. Ginger Bioactive Compounds In some forms, the bioactive compound is extracted from ginger plants (Zingiber officinale). For example, the bioactive compound can be gingerol or shogaol or analogues thereof. In some forms the bioactive compound is gingerol. Gingerols (GNs) are a group of volatile phenolic compounds responsible for the pungent taste of fresh ginger rhizome. Gingerols are classified into 4-gingerol, 6-gingerol or (5S)-5-hydroxy-1-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)decan-3- one), 8-gingerol or (5S)-5-hydroxy-1-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)dodecan-3-one), 10-gingerol or (5S)-5-hydroxy-1-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)tetradecan-3-one), or 12-gingerol, based on the length of the unbranched alkaline chain.6-Gingerol is the most abundantly available type of gingerol, while considerable amounts of 8-gingerol and 10-gingerol are also found in fresh ginger. Therefore, in some forms, the gingerol bioactive compound is 4-gingerol, 6-gingerol, 8- gingerol, 10-gingerol, or 12-gingerol. In some forms, the gingerol has a structure according to formula I: Formula I, wherein R is (CH2)4CH3, (CH2)6CH3, or (CH2)8CH3. In some forms, the gingerol is 6-gingerol: In some forms, the gingerol is 8-gingerol:

[0002] In some forms, the gingerol is 10-gingerol: In some forms, the ginger-derived bioactive compound is shogaol. Shogaols are artifacts formed during storage or through excess heat, probably created by a dehydration reaction of the gingerols. Similar to gingerols, shogaols are classified into 4-shogaol, 6-shogaol or (E)-1-(4- hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)dec-4-en-3-one), 8-shogaol or (E)-1-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)dodec- 4-en-3-one), 10-shogaol (E)-1-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)tetradec-4-en-3-one), and 12-shogaol based on the length of the unbranched alkaline chain.6-shogaol is the most common shogaol available in ginger, and 4-shogaol, 8-shogaol, 10-shogaol, and 12-shogaol are minor components. Therefore, in some forms, the shogaol bioactive compound is 4-shogaol, 6-shogaol, 8- shogaol, 10-shogaol, or 12-shogaol. In some forms, the shogaol has a structure according to formula II: Formula II, wherein R is (CH2)4CH3, (CH2)6CH3, or (CH2)8CH3. In some forms, the shogaol is 6-shogaol: 6-shogaol In some forms, the shogaol is 8-shogaol: 8-shogaol In some forms, the shogaol is 10-shogaol: 10-shogaol In some forms, the shogaol bioactive compound is a methylated shogaol, e.g., methyl [6]- shogaol and methyl [8]-shogaol. In some forms, the gingerol- and / or shogaol-loaded nanoparticle is produced by a method which includes: (i) contacting a ginger powder with an alkaline solution to provide a first mixture, (ii) agitating the first mixture to provide a nanoparticle containing gingerol and / or shogaol, and (iii) isolating the gingerol and / or shogaol nanoparticle from the first mixture. In some forms, the gingerol- and / or shogaol-loaded nanoparticle is produced by a method, further includes (iv) contacting the gingerol and / or shogaol nanoparticle with an acid to form a second mixture; (v) agitating the second mixture for a time to provide a second mixture having a pH of about 7.0; and (vi) isolating the gingerol and / or shogaol nanoparticle from the second mixture. 3. Thyme-derived Bioactive Compounds In some forms, the bioactive compound is a monoterpene phenol extracted from thyme (Thymus vulgaris L., Lamiaceae). For example, the bioactive compound can be thymol, carvacrol, or analogues thereof. Thymol is a naturally occurring monoterpene derivative of cymene, and carvacrol is its isomer. In some forms the bioactive compound is thymol. Thymol or 2‐isopropyl‐5‐methylphenol or iso‐propylmeta‐cresol; C10H14O; accounts for 10% to 64% of the monoterpenes in the thyme plant. Structure of Thymol In some forms, the bioactive compound is carvacrol or analogues thereof. Carvacrol or iso- propyl‐ortho‐cresol; accounts for 0.4% to 20.6% of the monoterpenes in the thyme plant. Structure of Carvacrol Thymol and carvacrol can be extracted from a variety of plant sources. For example, apart from the main source Thymus vulgaris L., thymol and carvacrol can also be extracted from other Lamiaceae plants, including but not limited to additional Thymus spp. such as Thymus zygis, Thymus glandulosus, Thymus hyemalis, and Thymus broussonetii; Monarda spp. such as Monarda fistulosa, Monarda punctata, Monarda didyma, and Monarda bradburiana, and Origanum spp. such as Origanum compactum, Origanum dictamnus, Origanum onites, Origanum vulgare; and Satureja spp. such as Satureja spicigera, Satureja intermedia, and Satureja mutica, Satureja sahendica. Some Satureja species, such as Satureja spicigera (35.1%), Satureja intermedia (32.3%), and Satureja mutica (26.5%), contain relatively high amounts of thymol. Nevertheless, chemical variation between populations may also occur, as shown for Satureja sahendica, whose content of thymol varies from 19.6% to 41.7%. Thymol and carvacrol can also be extracted from Zataria multiflora, another medicinal plant belonging to the Lamiaceae family of which thymol and carvacrol account for 39% and 59% respectively, of its essential oil content. In some forms, the thymol- and / or carvacrol-loaded nanoparticle is produced by a method which includes: (i) contacting a thyme powder with an alkaline solution to provide a first mixture, (ii) agitating the first mixture to provide a nanoparticle containing thymol and / or carvacrol, and (iii) isolating the thymol and / or carvacrol nanoparticle from the first mixture. In some forms, the thymol- and / or carvacrol -loaded nanoparticle is produced by a method, further includes (iv) contacting the thymol and / or carvacrol nanoparticle with an acid to form a second mixture; (v) agitating the second mixture for a time to provide a second mixture having a pH of about 7.0; and (vi) isolating the thymol and / or carvacrol nanoparticle from the second mixture. 4. Eugenol Eugenol is a phenolic component that can be obtained from a wide range of plant sources including but not limited to clove buds and oil, cinnamon bark and leaves, tulsi leaves, turmeric, pepper, ginger, oregano and thyme. Several other aromatic herbs including basil, bay, marjoram, mace and nutmeg are also claimed to have significant quantity of eugenol. Concentration of eugenol in some plants is depicted in Table 1. Among these plant sources, clove and cinnamon are considered as the prosperous provenances of eugenol containing 45–90% and 20–50% eugenol correspondingly, but the major problems linked with these sources include commercial eugenol extraction. Other cost effective and plentiful begetters include tulsi, ginger, bay, pepper and which can be used as an alternative to clove and cinnamon. Eugenol is mostly present in the aerial parts of plants such as leaves, bark and flowers because these parts contain a considerable amount of essential oils. Tulsi leaves also contain good percentage of eugenol usually in the range of 40–71%.

[0003] In some forms, the bioactive compound is eugenol or an analog thereof. Eugenol has the following structure: 5. Capsaicin Capsaicin is extracted from pepper e.g., chili pepper. Capsaicin (CAP, trans-8-methyl-N- vanillyl-6-nonenamide), the major bioactive compound in chili peppers, is biosynthesized by CAP synthase through the reactions of vanillylamine moieties and branched-chain fatty acid moieties in placental tissues of pepper fruits. Capsaicin is found in plants of the genus Capsicum. Species of Capsicum that can be used to extract capsaicin include but are not limited to Capsicum annuum, Capsicum frutescens, Capsicum chinsens, Capsicum baccatum, Capsicum pubescens, and Capsicum praetermissu In addition to CAP, many distinct naturally occurring capsaicinoids have also been found in peppers that could cause a burning sensation when consumed, including dihydrocapsaicin (8- methyl-N-vanillyl-nonanamide), nordihydrocapsaicin (7-methyl-N-vanillyl-octamide), homodihydrocapsaicin (trans-9-methyl-N-vanillyl-7-decenamide), and homocapsaicin (9-methyl-N- vanillyl-decamide. Among them, CAP and dihydrocapsaicin are considered to be the principal pungent ingredients as they account for around 80–90% of the total capsaicinoids in chili peppers, providing about twice the spiciness to the taste and nerves compared to the minor capsaicinoids. Therefore, in some forms, the capsaicin bioactive compound is capsaicin (C18H27NO3), dihydrocapsaicin (C18H29NO3), nordihydrocapsaicin (C17H27NO3), homocapsaicin (C19H29NO3), and homodiyhdrocapsaicin (C19H31NO3). In some forms, the bioactive compound is capsaicin or an analog thereof. Capsaicin has the following structure: Structure of Capsaicin In some forms, the bioactive compound is dihydrocapsaicin (C18H29NO3) or an analog thereof. Dihydrocapsaicin has the following structure: Structure of Dihydrocapsaicin In some forms, the bioactive compound is nordihydrocapsaicin (C17H27NO3). Nordihydrocapsaicin has the following structure: Structure of nordihydrocapsaicin In some forms, the bioactive compound is homocapsaicin (C19H29NO3). Homocapsaicin has the following structure: Structure of Homocapsaicin In some forms, the bioactive compound is homodihydrocapsaicin (C19H31NO3) Homodihydrocapsaicin has the following structure: Structure of Homodihydrocapsaicin In some forms, the eugenol-loaded nanoparticle is produced by a method which includes: (i) contacting a clove powder with an alkaline solution to provide a first mixture, (ii) agitating the first mixture to provide a nanoparticle containing eugenol, and (iii) isolating the eugenol nanoparticle from the first mixture. In some forms, the eugenol-loaded nanoparticle is produced by a method, further includes (iv) contacting the eugenol nanoparticle with an acid to form a second mixture; (v) agitating the second mixture for a time to provide a second mixture having a pH of about 7.0; and (vi) isolating the eugenol nanoparticle from the second mixture. 6. Rosmarinic Acid Rosmarinic acid can be obtained from the rosemary plant. Rosmarinus officinalis, also known as a rosemary, is a woody, evergreen herb with fragrant, evergreen, needle-like leaves and white, pink, purple, or blue flowers, native to the South Europe and Mediterranean area. It is a member of the mint family Lamiaceae. The fresh and dried leaves of rosemary are used in traditional Mediterranean cuisine as herbs, for their intense acrid and bitter taste in many dishes. Rosemary extracts are also used in aromatherapy to treat anxiety-related conditions and increase alertness. Rosemary is a very rich plant in iron, calcium and vitamin B6 and is also a source of fiber. The rosemary extract contains different classes of polyphenols including phenolic acids, flavonoids and phenolic terpenes. These molecules exhibit potent antioxidant activi-ties that reduce lipid peroxidation, inhibit the production of reactive oxygen species, and suppress inflammation, and containflavonoids, phenols, volatile oil and terpenoids. Rosmarinic acid (RA) is an ester of caffeic acid and 3, 4-dihydroxyphenyllactic acid. It is one of the main polyphenolic substances contained not only in rosemary, but also in other culinary plants, such as perilla (Perilla frutescens L.), sage (Salvia officinalis L.), mint (Mentha arvense L.), and basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) In some forms, the bioactive compound is rosmarinic acid or an analog thereof. Rosmarinic acid has the following structure: In some forms, the rosmarinic acid nanoparticle is produced by a method which includes: (i) contacting a rosemary powder with an alkaline solution to provide a first mixture, (ii) agitating the first mixture to provide a nanoparticle containing rosmarinic acid, and (iii) isolating the rosmarinic acid nanoparticle from the first mixture. In some forms, the rosmarinic acid nanoparticle is produced by a method, further includes (iv) contacting the rosmarinic acid nanoparticle with an acid to form a second mixture; (v) agitating the second mixture for a time to provide a second mixture having a pH of about 7.0; and (vi) isolating the rosmarinic acid nanoparticle from the second mixture. B. Biopolymers and Acidic Polysaccharides The disclosed nanoparticles typically include an insoluble biopolymer which encases and binds the bioactive compound e.g., curcumin. Biopolymer-based nanoparticles can be efficient nanocarriers to deliver curcumin and increase its oral-bioavailability (Tabanelli, et al., Pharmaceutics, 2021, 13(10): 1715)). The presence of biopolymers can interact with curcumin and other polyphenols, and potentially reduce its aggregations or degradations. For example, curcumin can be stabilized by starches, water-dispersible polysaccharides, or protein-based nanoparticles (Hung, et al., Starch, 74(1-2):2100163, 2022; Duyen, et al., International Journal of Food Science and Technology, 57(11): 6913-6924, 2022; Pan, et al., Soft Matter, 10(35):6820-6830, 2024, 2014, and U.S. Patent No.4,999,205 by Todd, Jr.). Generally, the insoluble biopolymer is extracted from the plant or plant part from which the bioactive compound e.g., curcumin is extracted. For example, the biopolymer can be a turmeric starch such as long and short branched amylopectin. In some forms, the biopolymer can be the insoluble proteins, such as zein and gliadin. The disclosed nanoparticles also include an acidic polysaccharide coating. Acidic polysaccharide coatings can be formed from uronic acids such as glucuronic acid, and pectins such as galacturonic. In some forms, the disclosed nanoparticles also include a protein coating. Generally, the coating of the nanoparticles includes a biopolymer derived from the initial compound used in their formulation. However, the coating may also be either completely or partially composed of an externally added biopolymer. For instance, the addition of "strong" emulsifying agents such as polysaccharides and proteins can be employed to enhance the stability of the nanoparticles. These emulsifiers act by forming a robust layer around the nanoparticle. Proteins should include the pH-soluble functional groups, like aspartic acid, glutamic acid, or tyrosine. 1. Bioavailability of Bioactive Compound-Loaded NPs The bioactive compound-loaded nanoparticles described for use in the pharmaceutical and nutraceutical formulations described have bioavailability, particularly oral bioavailability. In some instances, the oral bioavailability of bioactive compound-loaded nanoparticles in the formulations is at least 50% to 100% greater, or more, as well as individual values or sub-ranges contained within the aforementioned range, than the oral bioavailability of a known polyphenol nanoparticle, such as curcumin nanoparticles, when compared in otherwise equivalent formulations in use for nutraceutical applications. For example, one of the issues with curcumin's use in therapy is it's poor bioavailability. In view of the high lipophilic character of curcumin molecule, one would expect the body fat to contain a high proportion of bound curcumin. The poor absorption from intestine, coupled with the high degree of metabolism of curcumin in the liver and its rapid elimination in the bile, makes it unlikely that high concentrations of the substance would be found in the body long after ingestion. These pharmacokinetic properties of curcumin were tested using HPLC technique. Generally, the systemic bioavailability of curcumin is low, 75% being excreted in the feces and only traces appeared in the urine (Wahlstrom et al., 1978 A study on the fate of curcumin in the rat. Acta Pharmacologica et Toxicologica 43, 86-92) Thus, in some forms, the disclosed curcumin-loaded nanoparticles demonstrate improved oral bioavailability compared to existing curcumin nanoparticles. C. Nutraceutical Formulations Formulations of bioactive compound-loaded nanoparticles are also provided. The nanoparticles can be formulated for administration to a subject, for example, as a nutraceutical formulation. Therefore, nutraceutical formulations including a plurality of nanoparticles loaded with bioactive compounds, e.g., curcumin, are described. Exemplary formulations include a solution, a dry powder, a tablet, micelles, colloids, and nanodroplets. Typically, the formulation includes a determined amount of bioactive compound-loaded nanoparticles e.g., curcumin-loaded nanoparticles, in a form appropriate for a desired route of administration such as oral administration. Exemplary formulations of nanoparticles containing bioactive compounds such as curcumin include but are not limited to tablets, capsules, liquids and dry powders. In some forms, the nanoparticles include bioactive compounds in an amount from about 1% to about 90%, from about 1% to about 80%, from about 1% to about 50%, preferably from about 1% to about 70% by weight, more preferably from about 1% to about 85% by weight, most preferably from about 1% to about 70% by weight. The ranges above are inclusive of all values from 1% to 90%. 1. Liquid Formulations In some forms, the nanoparticles are formulated as a liquid. Suitable liquid carriers include, but are not limited to, distilled water, de-ionized water, pure or ultrapure water, saline, and other physiologically acceptable aqueous solutions containing salts and / or buffers, such as phosphate buffered saline (PBS), Ringer's solution, and isotonic sodium chloride, or any other aqueous solution acceptable for administration to an animal or human. Liquid formulations may include one or more suspending agents, such as cellulose derivatives, sodium alginate, polyvinylpyrrolidone, gum tragacanth, lecithin, or syrup. Liquid formulations may also include one or more preservatives, such as ethyl or n-propyl p- hydroxybenzoate. Formulations may be prepared using one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients, including diluents, preservatives, binders, lubricants, disintegrators, swelling agents, fillers, stabilizers, and combinations thereof. Liquid formulations may also contain minor amounts of polymers, surfactants, or other excipients well known to those of the art. In this context, "minor amounts" means no excipients are present that might adversely affect the delivery of the nanoparticle compositions to organs or tissues, e.g., through circulation. 2. Dry Powder Formulations and Kit In some forms, nanoparticles are formulated in dry powder forms as finely divided solid formulations. The dry powder components can be stored in separate containers or mixed at specific ratios and stored. In some forms, suitable aqueous and organic solvents are included in additional containers. In other forms, dry powder components, one or more solvents, and instructions on procedures to mix and prepare assembled nanostructures are included in a kit. Alternatively, stabilized, assembled particles, nanoparticles or bulk gel thereof are dried via vacuum-drying or freeze-drying, and suitable pharmaceutical liquid carrier can be added to rehydrate and suspend the assembled nanostructures or gel compositions upon use. Dry powder formulations are typically prepared by blending one or more gelators, stabilizing agents, or active agents with one or more pharmaceutically acceptable carriers. Nutraceutical carriers may include one or more dispersing agents. The nutraceutical carrier may also include one or more pH adjusters or buffers. Suitable buffers include organic salts prepared from organic acids and bases, such as sodium citrate or sodium ascorbate. The nutraceutical carrier may also include one or more salts, such as sodium chloride or potassium chloride. Dry powder formulations can be suspended in liquid formulations to form nanoparticle solutions and administered systemically or regionally using methods known in the art for the delivery of liquid formulations. 3. Lipid-based Nanoparticulate Compositions The disclosed compositions can be formulated into a lipid-based nanoparticle which contains an effective amount of a bioactive compound e.g., curcumin. For example, the compositions can be formulated as liposomes. The term “liposome” refers to a spherical vesicle composed of at least one bilayer of amphipathic molecules which forms a membrane separating an intravesicular medium from an external medium. The intravesicular medium constitutes the internal aqueous core of the liposome. Hydrophilic molecules or components, can be encapsulated inside the internal aqueous core of the liposome via active methods of encapsulation known in the art and described below. Hydrophobic molecules or components can be entrapped inside the membrane. An exemplary nanoparticulate delivery vehicle is a liposome. The liposomes can be, for example, multilamellar vesicles (MLV), small unilamellar liposome vesicles (SUV), large unilamellar vesicles (LUV), or cochleate vesicles. In some embodiments, the delivery composition is a micelle, or another lipid-based delivery vehicle. See, for example, Torchilin, et al., Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews, 58(14):1532-55 (2006), which is specifically incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. Liposomes and other lipid-based delivery vehicles useful for the disclosed compositions are formed from one or more lipids, which can be neutral, anionic, or cationic at physiologic pH. In some embodiments, the liposomes are formed of one or more of 1, 2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3- phosphatidylcholine (DSPC), 1, 2-distearoyl-sn¬glycero-3-phosphatidylethanolamine (DSPE), and 1, 2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3¬phosphoethanolamine–N-[poly (ethyleneglycol) 2000 (DSPE–PEG) and can include a sterol. In particular embodiments, such as those in the Examples below, the liposomes are sterically stabilized liposomes including DSPC, DSPE-PEG, and cholesterol. Other lipids and components useful in preparing the disclosed nanoparticulate compositions are known in the art. Suitable neutral and anionic lipids include, but are not limited to, sterols and lipids such as cholesterol, phospholipids, lysolipids, lysophospholipids, sphingolipids or pegylated lipids. Neutral and anionic lipids include, but are not limited to, phosphatidylcholine (PC) (such as egg PC, soy PC), including, but limited to, 1 ,2-diacyl-glycero-3-phosphocholines; phosphatidylserine (PS), phosphatidylglycerol, phosphatidylinositol (PI); glycolipids; sphingophospholipids such as sphingomyelin and sphingoglycolipids (also known as 1-ceramidyl glucosides) such as ceramide galactopyranoside, gangliosides and cerebrosides; fatty acids, sterols, containing a carboxylic acid group for example, cholesterol; 1 ,2-diacyl-sn-glycero-3- phosphoethanolamine, including, but not limited to, 1 ,2-dioleylphosphoethanolamine (DOPE), 1 ,2-dihexadecylphosphoethanolamine (DHPE), 1 ,2-distearoylphosphatidylcholine (DSPC), 1 ,2- dipalmitoyl phosphatidylcholine (DPPC), and 1 ,2-dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine (DMPC). The lipids can also include various natural (e.g., tissue derived L-α-phosphatidyl: egg yolk, heart, brain, liver, soybean) and / or synthetic (e.g., saturated and unsaturated 1,2-diacyl-sn-glycero-3- phosphocholines, 1-acyl-2-acyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholines, 1,2-diheptanoyl-SN-glycero-3- phosphocholine) derivatives of the lipids. Liposomes can be generated from a single type of lipid, or a combination of two or more lipids. The liposomes may include a sphingomyelin metabolite. Sphingomyelin metabolites used to formulate the liposomes include, without limitation, ceramide, sphingosine, or sphingosine 1- phosphate. The concentration of the sphingomyelin metabolites included in the lipids used to formulate the liposomes can range from about 0.1 mol % to about 10 mol %, or from about 2.0 mol % to about 5.0 mol %, or can be in a concentration of about 1.0 mol %. Suitable cationic lipids in the liposomes include, but are not limited to, N-[1-(2,3- dioleoyloxy)propyl]-N,N,N-trimethyl ammonium salts, also references as TAP lipids, for example methylsulfate salt. Suitable TAP lipids include, but are not limited to, DOTAP (dioleoyl-), DMTAP (dimyristoyl-), DPTAP (dipalmitoyl-), and DSTAP (distearoyl-). Suitable cationic lipids in the liposomes include, but are not limited to, dimethyldioctadecyl ammonium bromide (DDAB), 1 ,2-diacyloxy-3-trimethylammonium propanes, N-[1-(2,3-dioloyloxy)propyl]-Ν,Ν-dimethyl amine (DODAP), 1 ,2-diacyloxy-3-dimethylammonium propanes, N-[1-(2,3-dioleyloxy)propyl]-N,N,N- trimethylammonium chloride (DOTMA), 1 ,2-dialkyloxy-3-dimethylammonium propanes, dioctadecylamidoglycylspermine (DOGS), 3 -[N-(N',N'-dimethylamino- ethane)carbamoyl]cholesterol (DC-Chol); 2,3-dioleoyloxy-N-(2-(sperminecarboxamido)-ethyl)- N,N-dimethyl-1-propanaminium trifluoro-acetate (DOSPA), β-alanyl cholesterol, cetyl trimethyl ammonium bromide (CTAB), diC14-amidine, N-ferf-butyl-N'-tetradecyl-3-tetradecylamino- propionamidine, N-(alpha-trimethylammonioacetyl)didodecyl-D-glutamate chloride (TMAG), ditetradecanoyl-N-(trimethylammonio-acetyl)diethanolamine chloride, 1 ,3-dioleoyloxy-2-(6- carboxy-spermyl)-propylamide (DOSPER), and N , N , N' , N'-tetramethyl- , N'-bis(2- hydroxylethyl)-2,3-dioleoyloxy-1 ,4-butanediammonium iodide. In one embodiment, the cationic lipids can be 1-[2-(acyloxy)ethyl]2-alkyl(alkenyl)-3-(2-hydroxyethyl)-imidazolinium chloride derivatives, for example, 1-[2-(9(Z)-octadecenoyloxy)ethyl]-2-(8(Z)-heptadecenyl-3-(2- hydroxyethyl)imidazolinium chloride (DOTIM), and 1-[2-(hexadecanoyloxy)ethyl]-2-pentadecyl-3- (2-hydroxyethyl)imidazolinium chloride (DPTIM). In one embodiment, the cationic lipids can be 2,3-dialkyloxypropyl quaternary ammonium compound derivatives containing a hydroxyalkyl moiety on the quaternary amine, for example, 1 ,2-dioleoyl-3-dimethyl-hydroxyethyl ammonium bromide (DORI), 1 ,2-dioleyloxypropyl-3-dimethyl-hydroxyethyl ammonium bromide (DORIE), 1 ,2-dioleyloxypropyl-3-dimetyl-hydroxypropyl ammonium bromide (DORIE-HP), 1 ,2-dioleyl-oxy- propyl-3-dimethyl-hydroxybutyl ammonium bromide (DORIE-HB), 1 ,2-dioleyloxypropyl-3- dimethyl-hydroxypentyl ammonium bromide (DORIE-Hpe), 1 ,2-dimyristyloxypropyl-3-dimethyl- hydroxylethyl ammonium bromide (DMRIE), 1 ,2-dipalmityloxypropyl-3-dimethyl-hydroxyethyl ammonium bromide (DPRIE), and 1 ,2-disteryloxypropyl-3-dimethyl-hydroxyethyl ammonium bromide (DSRIE). The lipids can be formed from a combination of more than one lipid, for example, a charged lipid may be combined with a lipid that is non-ionic or uncharged at physiological pH. Non-ionic lipids include, but are not limited to, cholesterol and DOPE (1,2-dioleolylglyceryl phosphatidylethanolamine). A sterol component may be included to confer the liposome suitable physicochemical and biological behavior. Such a sterol component may be selected from cholesterol or its derivative e.g., ergosterol or cholesterolhemisuccinate, but it is preferably cholesterol. Cholesterol is often used in lipidic formulation of liposomes because it is generally recognized that the presence of cholesterol decreases their permeability and protects them from the destabilizing effect of plasma or serum proteins. 4. Dietary Supplements The disclosed compositions can be formulated as dietary supplements containing the bioactive compound-loaded nanoparticles e.g., curcumin-loaded nanoparticles. In some forms, the supplements include a combination of one or more bioactive compound-loaded nanoparticles, e.g., curcumin and gingerol, each provided in an effective amount. Other nutraceuticals agents may also be included in the supplement. Nutraceutical agents are natural, bioactive chemical compounds that have health promoting, disease preventing or medicinal properties. Examples of nutraceuticals include, but are not limited to, Allium cepa, Allium sativum, Aloe vera, Angelica Species, Naturally Occurring Antioxidants, Aspergillus oryzae, barley grass, Bromelain, Carnitine, carotenoids and flavonoids, Catechin, Centella asiatica (Gotu kola), Coenzyme Q10, Chinese Prepared Medicines, Coleus forskohlii, Commiphora mukul, Conjugated Linoleic Acids (CLAs), Crataegus oxyacantha (Hawthorne), Curcuma longa (Turmeric), Echinacea Species (Purple Coneflower), Eleutherococcus senticosus (Siberian Ginseng), Ephedra Species, Dietary Fish Oil, Genistein, Ginkgo biloba, Glycyrrhiza (Licorice), Hypericum perforatum (St. John's Wort), Hydrastis (Goldenseal) and other Berberine-containing plants, Lactobacillus, Lobelia (Indian Tobacco), Melaleuca alternifolia, Menaquinone, Mentha piperita, n-glycolylneuraminic acid (NGNA), Panax Ginseng, Pancreatic Enzymes, Piper mythisticum, Procyanidolic Oligomers, Pygeum africanum, Quercetin, Sarsaparilla species, Serenoa repens (Saw palmetto, Sabal serrulata), Silybum marianum (Milk Thistle), Rosemary / Lemon balm, Selenite, Tabebuia avellanedae (LaPacho), Taraxacum officinale, Tanacetum parthenium (Feverfew), Taxol, Uva ursi (Bearberry), Vaccinium myrtillus (Blueberry), Valerian officinalis, Viscum album (Mistletoe), Vitamin A, Beta-Carotene and other carotenoids, and Zingiber officinale (Ginger). Several nutraceutical agents are used in treating viral disorders (e.g., Genistein (in soy / red clover), rosemary / lemon balm, selenite, barley grass, lauric acid, Phyllanthus amarus / niruri (see, e.g., Nicolson, G. (1998) J. Medicine 1:123-128; herein incorporated by reference in its entirety). Additional anti-viral nutraceutical agents include, but are not limited to, catechins, flavonoids, especially luteolin, Echinacea, cascara, and NGNA. Preferably, NGNA is provided from sea cucumbers, e.g., an extract of sea cucumbers, or is prepared from chitin. In some embodiments, NGNA is prepared as described in WO 00 / 38967, incorporated by reference herein its entirety. For example, N-glycolylneuraminic acid can be purchased commercially from, for example, Sigma Chemical Company, St. Louis, Mo. N-glycolylneuraminic acid also can be synthesized. For example, CMP-N-acetylneuraminic acid hydroxylase can be used to synthesize N- glycolylneurarninic acid as its CMP-glycoside. See, Schlenzka et al., Glycobiolog, 1994, 4(5):675- 683. Non-enzymatic methods of synthesis include, for example, synthesis from N-acetylneuraminic acid using methanol or hydrochloric acid and benzylalcohol. Other synthesis methods are described in Choi et al., J. Org. Chem., 1996, 61:8 / 39 (from mannosamine), Faillard et al., J. Physiol. Chem.' 1965, 344:167 (from glucosamine), U.S. Pat. Nos.4,774,326 and 4,774,327, both of which are incorporated by reference herein in their entirety. Dietary supplements containing curcumin can contain for example, a daily dosage of between 0.2 g and 3.0 g of curcumin. Furthermore, the dietary supplement is preferably provided in an amount sufficient to induce the physiological response desired e.g., to reduce or alleviate cold symptoms, prevent the onset of colds, increase the energy of subjects, increase the feeling of well- being of subjects, and improve skin tone, roughness, and appearance. In some forms, the compositions are provided for use in inducing one of the foregoing responses, while in other embodiments, the compositions are provided for use in inducing two or more of the foregoing responses. Dietary supplements containing the disclosed curcumin-loaded nanoparticles can be administered in any form e.g., pill, and food product. In preferred forms, the dietary supplements are provided as a beverage, bar, powder, pill, or shake e.g., a nutritional supplement. The dietary supplements containing the disclosed curcumin- loaded nanoparticles may be taken one or more times daily. For example, the dietary supplement is administered orally one to two times daily. Frequency of administration depends on the dose per unit (capsule or tablet) and the desired level of ingestion. Dose levels / unit can be adjusted to provide the recommended levels of ingredients per day (e.g., approximately 0.6 g to about 9.0 g of curcumin-loaded nanoparticles) in a reasonable number of units (e.g., two capsules or tablets taken twice a day). In some forms, the doses add up each day to the daily intake of each ingredient. In some forms, the dietary supplements are taken with meals or before meals. In other forms, the dietary supplements are not taken with meals. Dietary supplements may be delivered in any suitable format, including, but not limited to, dermal delivery, oral delivery, or mucosal delivery. In preferred embodiments, dietary supplements are formulated for oral delivery. In preferred forms, the curcumin-loaded nanoparticles utilized for delivery is greater than about 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95% or 99% pure. The ingredients of the dietary supplement are contained in acceptable excipients and / or carriers for oral consumption. The actual form of the carrier, and thus, the dietary supplement itself, is not critical. The carrier may be a liquid, gel, gelcap, capsule, powder, solid tablet (coated or non- coated), tea, or the like. The dietary supplement is preferably in the form of a tablet or capsule and most preferably in the form of a hard gelatin capsule. Suitable excipient and / or carriers include maltodextrin, calcium carbonate, dicalcium phosphate, tricalcium phosphate, microcrystalline cellulose, dextrose, rice flour, magnesium stearate, stearic acid, croscarmellose sodium, sodium starch glycolate, crospovidone, sucrose, vegetable gums, lactose, methylcellulose, povidone, carboxymethylcellulose, corn starch, and the like (including mixtures thereof). Preferred carriers include calcium carbonate, magnesium stearate, maltodextrin, and mixtures thereof. The various ingredients and the excipient and / or carrier are mixed and formed into the desired form using conventional techniques. The tablet or capsule may be coated with an enteric coating that dissolves at a pH of about 6.0 to 7.0. A suitable enteric coating that dissolves in the small intestine but not in the stomach is cellulose acetate phthalate. Further details on techniques for formulation for and administration may be found in the latest edition of Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences (Maack Publishing Co., Easton, Pa.). In other forms, the supplement is provided as a powder or liquid suitable for adding by the consumer to a food or beverage. For example, in some embodiments, the dietary supplement can be administered to an individual in the form of a powder, for instance to be used by mixing into a beverage, or by stirring into a semi-solid food such as a pudding, topping, sauce, puree, cooked cereal, or salad dressing, for instance, or by otherwise adding to a food. The dietary supplement may comprise one or more inert ingredients, especially if it is desirable to limit the number of calories added to the diet by the dietary supplement. For example, the dietary supplement may also contain optional ingredients including, for example, herbs, vitamins, minerals, enhancers, colorants, sweeteners, flavorants, inert ingredients, and the like. For example, the dietary supplement may contain one or more of the following: ascorbate (ascorbic acid, mineral ascorbate salts, rose hips, acerola, and the like), dehydroepiandosterone (DHEA), Fo- Ti or Ho Shu Wu (herb common to traditional Asian treatments), Cat's Claw (ancient herbal ingredient), green tea (polyphenols), inositol, kelp, dulse, bioflavinoids, maltodextrin, nettles, niacin, niacinamide, rosemary, selenium, silica (silicon dioxide, silica gel, horsetail, shavegrass, and the like), spirulina, zinc, and the like. Such optional ingredients may be either naturally occurring or concentrated forms. In some forms, the dietary supplements further comprise vitamins and minerals including, but not limited to, calcium phosphate or acetate, tribasic; potassium phosphate, dibasic; magnesium sulfate or oxide; salt (sodium chloride); potassium chloride or acetate; ascorbic acid; ferric orthophosphate; niacinamide; zinc sulfate or oxide; calcium pantothenate; copper gluconate; riboflavin; beta-carotene; pyridoxine hydrochloride; thiamin mononitrate; folic acid; biotin; chromium chloride or picolonate; potassium iodide; sodium selenate; sodium molybdate; phylloquinone; vitamin D3; cyanocobalamin; sodium selenite; copper sulfate; vitamin A; vitamin C; inositol; potassium iodide. Suitable dosages for vitamins and minerals may be obtained, for example, by consulting the U.S. RDA guidelines. 5. Topical Delivery In some forms, the disclosed compositions are formulated for topical delivery and / or for use as cosmetic agents (e.g., as a lotion, cream, ointment, or gel). The amount of the bioactive compound (e.g., curcumin, gingerol, or shogaol) is about 0.001 to about 50% by mass, preferably about 0.1 to 20% by mass, more preferably about 1 to about 15% by mass and particularly preferably about 3 to about 10% by mass relative to each cosmetic, such as a lotion or a cream. A “lotion” is a low- to medium-viscosity liquid formulation. A lotion can contain finely powdered substances that are in soluble in the dispersion medium through the use of suspending agents and dispersing agents. Alternatively, lotions can have as the dispersed phase liquid substances that are immiscible with the vehicle and are usually dispersed by means of emulsifying agents or other suitable stabilizers. In one form, the lotion is in the form of an emulsion having a viscosity of between 100 and 1000 centistokes. The fluidity of lotions permits rapid and uniform application over a wide surface area. Lotions are typically intended to dry on the skin leaving a thin coat of their medicinal components on the skin’s surface. A “cream” is a viscous liquid or semi-solid emulsion of either the “oil-in-water” or “water- in-oil type”. Creams may contain emulsifying agents and / or other stabilizing agents. In one form, the formulation is in the form of a cream having a viscosity of greater than 1000 centistokes, typically in the range of 20,000-50,000 centistokes. Creams are often time preferred over ointments as they are generally easier to spread and easier to remove. The basic difference between a cream and a lotion is the viscosity, which is dependent on the amount / use of various oils and the percentage of water used to prepare the formulations. Creams are typically thicker than lotions, may have various uses and often one uses more varied oils / butters, depending upon the desired effect upon the skin. In a cream formulation, the water-base percentage is about 60-75 % and the oil-base is about 20-30 % of the total, with the other percentages being the emulsifier agent, preservatives and additives for a total of 100 %. An “ointment” is a semisolid preparation containing an ointment base and optionally one or more active agents. Examples of suitable ointment bases include hydrocarbon bases (e.g., petrolatum, white petrolatum, yellow ointment, and mineral oil); absorption bases (hydrophilic petrolatum, anhydrous lanolin, lanolin, and cold cream); water-removable bases (e.g., hydrophilic ointment), and water-soluble bases (e.g., polyethylene glycol ointments). Pastes typically differ from ointments in that they contain a larger percentage of solids. Pastes are typically more absorptive and less greasy that ointments prepared with the same components. A “gel” is a semisolid system containing dispersions of small or large molecules in a liquid vehicle that is rendered semisolid by the action of a thickening agent or polymeric material dissolved or suspended in the liquid vehicle. The liquid may include a lipophilic component, an aqueous component or both. Some emulsions may be gels or otherwise include a gel component. Some gels, however, are not emulsions because they do not contain a homogenized blend of immiscible components. Suitable gelling agents include, but are not limited to, modified celluloses, such as hydroxypropyl cellulose and hydroxyethyl cellulose; Carbopol homopolymers and copolymers; and combinations thereof. Suitable solvents in the liquid vehicle include, but are not limited to, diglycol monoethyl ether; alklene glycols, such as propylene glycol; dimethyl isosorbide; alcohols, such as isopropyl alcohol and ethanol. The solvents are typically selected for their ability to dissolve the drug. Other additives, which improve the skin feel and / or emolliency of the formulation, may also be incorporated. Examples of such additives include, but are not limited, isopropyl myristate, ethyl acetate, C12-C15 alkyl benzoates, mineral oil, squalane, cyclomethicone, capric / caprylic triglycerides, and combinations thereof. The bioactive compound-loaded nanoparticle e.g., curcumin-loaded nanoparticle may be combined in the cosmetic by dissolution in an oil-soluble base or an oil-soluble component. The method for producing the cosmetic using the defined active ingredients is not particularly limited, and the active ingredients can be dissolved in a nonionic surfactant, lower alcohol, polyvalent alcohol, or natural fat or oil such as olive oil, squalane, a fatty acid or a higher alcohol. Examples of nonionic surfactants include sorbitan fatty acid esters (e.g., sorbitan monooleate, sorbitan monoisostearate, sorbitan monolaurate, sorbitan monopalmitate, sorbitan monostearate, sorbitan sesquioleate, sorbitan trioleate, diglycerol sorbitan penta-2-ethylhexylate, diglycerol sorbitan tetra-2-ethylhexylate); glycerine / polyglycerine fatty acids (e.g., mono- cottonseed oil fatty acid glycerine, glycerine monoerucate, glycerine sesquioleate, glycerine monostearate, glycerine.alpha., .alpha.′-oleate pyroglutamate, glycerine monostearate malic acid); propylene glycol fatty acid esters (e.g., monostearic acid propylene glycol); cured castor oil derivatives; and glycerine alkyl ether. “Emollients” are an externally applied agent that softens or soothes skin and are generally known in the art and listed in compendia, such as the “Handbook of Pharmaceutical Excipients”, 4thEd., Pharmaceutical Press, 2003. These include, without limitation, almond oil, castor oil, ceratonia extract, cetostearoyl alcohol, cetyl alcohol, cetyl esters wax, cholesterol, cottonseed oil, cyclomethicone, ethylene glycol palmitostearate, glycerin, glycerin monostearate, glyceryl monooleate, isopropyl myristate, isopropyl palmitate, lanolin, lecithin, light mineral oil, medium- chain triglycerides, mineral oil and lanolin alcohols, petrolatum, petrolatum and lanolin alcohols, soybean oil, starch, stearyl alcohol, sunflower oil, xylitol and combinations thereof. In one form, the emollients are ethylhexylstearate and ethylhexyl palmitate. “Surfactants” are surface-active agents that lower surface tension and thereby increase the emulsifying, foaming, dispersing, spreading and wetting properties of a product. Suitable non-ionic surfactants include emulsifying wax, glyceryl monooleate, polyoxyethylene alkyl ethers, polyoxyethylene castor oil derivatives, polysorbate, sorbitan esters, benzyl alcohol, benzyl benzoate, cyclodextrins, glycerin monostearate, poloxamer, povidone and combinations thereof. In one form, the non-ionic surfactant is stearyl alcohol. Examples of Polyoxyethylene (“POE”)-based hydrophilic nonionic surfactants include POE-sorbitan fatty acid esters (e.g., POE-sorbitan monooleate, POE-sorbitan monostearate, POE- sorbitan monooleate, POE-sorbitan tetraoleate); POE-sorbit fatty acid esters (e.g., POE-sorbit monolaurate, POE-sorbit monooleate, POE-sorbit pentaoleate, POE-sorbit monostearate); POE- glycerine fatty acid esters (e.g., POE-glycerine monostearate, POE-glycerine monoisostearate, POE-glycerine triisostearate, POE-monooleate); POE-fatty acid esters (e.g., POE-distearate, POE- monodioleate, distearic acid ethylene glycol); POE-alkyl ethers (e.g., POE-lauryl ether, POE-oleyl ether, POE-stearyl ether, POE-behenyl ether, POE-2-octyldodecyl ether, POE-cholestanol ether); Pluronic types (e.g., Pluronic); POE / POP-alkyl ethers (e.g., POE / POP-cetyl ether, POE / POP-2- decyltetradecyl ether, POE / POP-monobutyl ether, POE / POP-hydrogenated lanoline, POE / POP- glycerine ether); tetra-POE / tetra-POP-ethylenediamine condensates (e.g., Tetronic); POE-castor oil cured castor oil derivatives (e.g., POE-castor oil, POE-cured castor oil, POE-cured castor oil monoisostearate, POE-cured castor oil triisostearate, POE-cured castor oil pyroglutamate monoisostearate diester, POE-cured castor oil maleate); POE-beeswax lanoline derivatives (e.g., POE-sorbit beeswax); alkanol amide (e.g., palm oil fatty acid diethanolamide, lauric acid monoethanolamide, fatty acid isopropanolamide); POE-propylene glycol fatty acid ester; POE- alkylamine; POE-fatty acid amide; sucrose fatty acid ester; alkylethoxydimethylamine oxide; and trioleyl phosphate. Examples of lower alcohols include ethanol, propanol, isopropanol, isobutyl alcohol and t- butyl alcohol. Examples of polyvalent alcohols include bivalent alcohols (e.g., ethylene glycol, propylene glycol, trimethylene glycol, 1,2-butylene glycol, 1,3-butylene glycol, tetramethylene glycol, 2,3- butylene glycol, pentamethylene glycol, 2-butene-1,4-diol, hexylene glycol, octylene glycol); trivalent alcohols (e.g., glycerine, trimethylolpropane); tetravalent alcohols (e.g., pentaerythritols such as 1,2,6-hexanetriol); pentavalent alcohols (e.g., xylitol); hexavalent alcohols (e.g., sorbitol, mannitol); polyvalent alcohol polymers (e.g., diethylene glycol, dipropylene glycol, triethylene glycol, polypropylene glycol, tetraethylene glycol, diglycerine, polyethylene glycol, triglycerine, tetraglycerine, polyglycerine); bivalent alcohol alkyl ethers (e.g., ethylene glycol monomethyl ether, ethylene glycol monoethyl ether, ethylene glycol monobutyl ether, ethylene glycol monophenyl ether, ethylene glycol monohexyl ether, ethylene glycol mono-2-methylhexyl ether, ethylene glycol isoamyl ether, ethylene glycol benzyl ether, ethylene glycol isopropyl ether, ethylene glycol dimethyl ether, ethylene glycol diethyl ether, ethylene glycol dibutyl ether); bivalent alcohol alkyl ethers (e.g., diethylene glycol monomethyl ether, diethylene glycol monoethyl ether, diethylene glycol monobutyl ether, diethylene glycol dimethyl ether, diethylene glycol diethyl ether, diethylene glycol butyl ether, diethylene glycol methyl ethyl ether, triethylene glycol monomethyl ether, triethylene glycol monoethyl ether, propylene glycol monomethyl ether, propylene glycol monoethyl ether, propylene glycol monobutyl ether, propylene glycol isopropyl ether, dipropylene glycol methyl ether, dipropylene glycol ethyl ether, dipropylene glycol butyl ether); bivalent alcohol ether esters (e.g., ethylene glycol monomethyl ether acetate, ethylene glycol monoethyl ether acetate, ethylene glycol monobutyl ether acetate, ethylene glycol monophenyl ether acetate, ethylene glycol diadipate, ethylene glycol disuccinate, diethylene glycol monoethyl ether acetate, diethylene glycol monobutyl ether acetate, propylene glycol monomethyl ether acetate, propylene glycol monoethyl ether acetate, propylene glycol monopropyl ether acetate, propylene glycol monophenyl ether acetate); glycerine monoalkyl ethers (e.g., chimyl alcohol, selachyl alcohol, bathyl alcohol); sugars and sugar alcohols (e.g., sorbitol, maltitol, maltotriose, mannitol, sucrose, erythritol, glucose, fructose, starch-degraded sugar, maltose, xylitose, starch-degraded sugar- reduced alcohol); glysolid; tetrahydrofurfuryl alcohol; POE-tetrahydrofurfuryl alcohol; POP-butyl ether; POP / POE-butyl ether; tripolyoxypropylene glycerine ether; POP-glycerine ether; POP- glycerine ether phosphate; POP / POE-pentaerythritol ether, and polyglycerine. Examples of oils include animal and plant oils such as avocado oil, olive oil, sesame oil, camellia oil, evening primrose oil, turtle oil, macadamia nut oil, corn oil, mink oil, rapeseed oil, egg yolk oil, parsic oil, wheat germ oil, sasanqua oil, castor oil, flaxseed oil, safflower oil, cotton seed oil, perilla oil, soybean oil, peanut oil, tea oil, kaya seed oil, rice bran oil, China wood oil, jojoba oil, cacao butter, fractionated coconut oil, horse oil, palm oil, palm kernel oil, beef tallow, mutton tallow, lard, lanoline, whale wax, beeswax, carnauba wax, vegetable wax, candelilla wax and squalane, cured oils thereof, mineral oils such as liquid paraffin and petrolatum, and synthetic triglycerines such as tripalmitate glycerine. Examples of the fatty acid include lauric acid, myristic acid, palmitic acid, oleic acid, linoleic acid, linolenic acid, stearic acid, behenic acid, 12-hydroxystearic acid, isostearic acid, undecynoic acid, tolic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid. Examples of the higher alcohol include lauryl alcohol, cetyl alcohol, stearyl alcohol, behenyl alcohol, myristyl alcohol, oleyl alcohol, cetostearyl alcohol, jojoba alcohol, lanoline alcohol, batyl alcohol, 2- decyltetradecanol, cholesterol, phytosterol and isostearyl alcohol. Examples of the synthetic ester include cetyl octanoate, octyldodecyl myristate, isopropyl myristate, myristyl myristate, isopropyl palmitate, butyl stearate, hexyl laurate, decyl oleate, dimethyloctanoic acid, cetyl lactate and myristyl lactate. Examples of the silicone include chain-shaped polysiloxanes such as dimethyl polysiloxane and methylphenyl polysiloxane, cyclic polysiloxanes such as decamethyl cyclopolysiloxane, and three-dimensional mesh structures of silicone resins. Exemplary skin care cosmetics containing the bioactive compound-loaded nanoparticles include milky lotions, beauty liquids, creams, lotions, skin care oils, cleansing oils, bath oils, or facial washes, makeup removers, shampoos and body soaps. 6. Nutritional Supplements In other forms, the disclosed bioactive-lipid nanoparticles can be formulated into nutritional supplements e.g., energy bars or meal replacement bars or beverages. The nutritional supplement may serve as meal or snack replacement and generally provide nutrient calories. Preferably, the nutritional supplements provide carbohydrates, proteins, and fats in balanced amounts. The nutritional supplement can further contain carbohydrate, simple, medium chain length, or polysaccharides, or a combination thereof. A simple sugar can be chosen for desirable organoleptic properties. Uncooked cornstarch is one example of a complex carbohydrate. If it is desired that it should maintain its high molecular weight structure, it should be included only in food formulations or portions thereof which are not cooked or heat processed since the heat will break down the complex carbohydrate into simple carbohydrates, wherein simple carbohydrates are mono- or disaccharides. The nutritional supplement contains, in one form, combinations of sources of carbohydrate of three levels of chain length (simple, medium and complex e.g., sucrose, maltodextrins, and uncooked cornstarch). Sources of protein to be incorporated into the nutritional supplement can be any suitable protein utilized in nutritional formulations and can include whey protein, whey protein concentrate, whey powder, egg, soy flour, soymilk soy protein, soy protein isolate, caseinate (e.g., sodium caseinate, sodium calcium caseinate, calcium caseinate, potassium caseinate), animal and vegetable protein and mixtures thereof. When choosing a protein source, the biological value of the protein should be considered first, with the highest biological values being found in caseinate, whey, lactalbumin, egg albumin and whole egg proteins. In a preferred embodiment, the protein is a combination of whey protein concentrate and calcium caseinate. These proteins have high biological value; that is, they have a high proportion of the essential amino acids. See Modern Nutrition in Health and Disease, eighth edition, Lea & Febiger, publishers, 1986, especially Volume 1, pages 30-32. The nutritional supplement can also contain other ingredients, such as one or a combination of other vitamins, minerals, antioxidants, fiber and other dietary supplements (e.g., protein, amino acids, choline, lecithin, omega-3 fatty acids). Selection of one or several of these ingredients is a matter of formulation, design, consumer preference and end-user. The amounts of these ingredients added to the dietary supplements are readily known to the skilled artisan. Guidance to such amounts can be provided by the U.S. RDA doses for children and adults. Further vitamins and minerals that can be added include, but are not limited to, calcium phosphate or acetate, tribasic; potassium phosphate, dibasic; magnesium sulfate or oxide; salt (sodium chloride); potassium chloride or acetate; ascorbic acid; ferric orthophosphate; niacinamide; zinc sulfate or oxide; calcium pantothenate; copper gluconate; riboflavin; beta-carotene; pyridoxine hydrochloride; thiamin mononitrate; folic acid; biotin; chromium chloride or picolonate; potassium iodide; sodium selenate; sodium molybdate; phylloquinone; vitamin D3; cyanocobalamin; sodium selenite; copper sulfate; vitamin A; vitamin C; inositol; potassium iodide. Flavors, coloring agents, spices, nuts and the like can be incorporated into the product. Flavorings can be in the form of flavored extracts, volatile oils, chocolate flavorings, peanut butter flavoring, cookie crumbs, crisp rice, vanilla or any commercially available flavoring. Examples of useful flavoring include, but are not limited to, pure anise extract, imitation banana extract, imitation cherry extract, chocolate extract, pure lemon extract, pure orange extract, pure peppermint extract, imitation pineapple extract, imitation rum extract, imitation strawberry extract, or pure vanilla extract; or volatile oils, such as balm oil, bay oil, bergamot oil, cedarwood oil, walnut oil, cherry oil, cinnamon oil, clove oil, or peppermint oil; peanut butter, chocolate flavoring, vanilla cookie crumb, butterscotch or toffee. In one embodiment, the dietary supplement contains cocoa or chocolate. Emulsifiers may be added for stability of the final product. Examples of suitable emulsifiers include, but are not limited to, lecithin (e.g., from egg or soy), and / or mono- and di-glycerides. Other emulsifiers are readily apparent to the skilled artisan and selection of suitable emulsifier(s) will depend, in part, upon the formulation and final product. Preservatives may also be added to the nutritional supplement to extend product shelf life. Preferably, preservatives such as potassium sorbate, sodium sorbate, potassium benzoate, sodium benzoate or calcium disodium EDTA are used. In addition to the carbohydrates described above, the nutritional supplement can contain natural or artificial (preferably low calorie) sweeteners, e.g., saccharides, cyclamates, aspartamine, aspartame, acesulfame K, and / or sorbitol. Such artificial sweeteners can be desirable if the nutritional supplement is intended to be consumed by an overweight or obese individual, or an individual with type II diabetes who is prone to hyperglycemia. The nutritional supplement can be provided in a variety of forms, and by a variety of production methods. In an exemplary form, the nutritional supplement is a food bar, the liquid ingredients are cooked; the dry ingredients are added with the liquid ingredients in a mixer and mixed until the dough phase is reached; the dough is put into an extruder, and extruded; the extruded dough is cut into appropriate lengths; and the product is cooled. The bars may contain other nutrients and fillers to enhance taste, in addition to the ingredients specifically listed herein. Servings of the nutritional supplement preferably contain for example, a daily dosage of between 0.2 g and 3 g of the bioactive compound e.g., curcumin. It is understood by those of skill in the art that other ingredients can be added to those described herein, for example, fillers, emulsifiers, preservatives, etc. for the processing or manufacture of a nutritional supplement. 7. Food and Food Products The disclosed bioactive compound-loaded nanoparticles e.g., curcumin-loaded nanoparticles can be formulated into functional foods, including food products, prepared food products. For example, in some forms, beverages and solid or semi-solid foods containing the curcumin-loaded nanoparticles are provided. These forms can include, but are not limited to, beverages e.g., soft drinks, milk and other dairy drinks, and diet drinks, baked goods, puddings, dairy products, confections, snack foods, protein powders e.g., whey, casein and plant-based proteins (Suhett, et al., “Effects of Curcumin supplementation on sport and physical exercise: a systematic review”, Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr., 61(6):946-958 (2021), or frozen confections or novelties e.g., ice cream, milk shakes, prepared frozen meals, candy, snack products e.g., chips, soups, spreads, sauces, salad dressings, prepared meat products, cheese, yogurt and any other fat or oil containing foods, and food ingredients (e.g., wheat flour). Servings of the food product preferably contain between 0.3 g and 3.0 g of the bioactive compound e.g., curcumin. 8. Nanoemulsions In some forms, the nanoparticles are formulated as an emulsion, such as a nanoemulsion, as a nutraceutical or for topical delivery (e.g., a cream, gel, ointment, or lotion), or. An “emulsion” is a composition containing a mixture of non-miscible components homogenously blended together. In particular forms, the non-miscible components include a lipophilic component and an aqueous component. An emulsion is a preparation of one liquid distributed in small globules throughout the body of a second liquid. The dispersed liquid is the discontinuous phase, and the dispersion medium is the continuous phase. When oil is the dispersed liquid and an aqueous solution is the continuous phase, it is known as an oil-in-water emulsion, whereas when water or aqueous solution is the dispersed phase and oil or oleaginous substance is the continuous phase, it is known as a water-in-oil emulsion. Either or both of the oil phase and the aqueous phase may contain one or more surfactants, emulsifiers, emulsion stabilizers, buffers, and other excipients. Preferred excipients include surfactants, especially non-ionic surfactants; emulsifying agents, especially emulsifying waxes; and liquid non-volatile non-aqueous materials, particularly glycols such as propylene glycol. The oil phase may contain other oily pharmaceutically approved excipients. For example, materials such as hydroxylated castor oil or sesame oil may be used in the oil phase as surfactants or emulsifiers. An emulsion is a preparation of one liquid distributed in small globules throughout the body of a second liquid. The dispersed liquid is the discontinuous phase, and the dispersion medium is the continuous phase. When oil is the dispersed liquid and an aqueous solution is the continuous phase, it is known as an oil-in-water emulsion, whereas when water or aqueous solution is the dispersed phase and oil or oleaginous substance is the continuous phase, it is known as a water-in- oil emulsion. The oil phase may consist at least in part of a propellant, such as an HFA propellant. Either or both of the oil phase and the aqueous phase may contain one or more surfactants, emulsifiers, emulsion stabilizers, buffers, and other excipients. Preferred excipients include surfactants, especially non-ionic surfactants; emulsifying agents, especially emulsifying waxes; and liquid non-volatile non-aqueous materials, particularly glycols such as propylene glycol. The oil phase may contain other oily pharmaceutically approved excipients. For example, materials such as hydroxylated castor oil or sesame oil may be used in the oil phase as surfactants or emulsifiers. A sub-set of emulsions are the self-emulsifying systems. These drug delivery systems are typically capsules (hard shell or soft shell) composed of the drug dispersed or dissolved in a mixture of surfactant(s) and lipophillic liquids such as oils or other water immiscible liquids. When the capsule is exposed to an aqueous environment and the outer gelatin shell dissolves, contact between the aqueous medium and the capsule contents instantly generates very small emulsion droplets. These typically are in the size range of micelles or nanoparticles. No mixing force is required to generate the emulsion as is typically the case in emulsion formulation processes. The two or more pharmaceutically acceptable carriers can form a water in oil emulsion, an oil in water emulsion, a water in oil in water emulsion, or an oil in water in oil emulsion. In some forms, the emulsion is an oil in water emulsion, where the oil forms oil droplets in the aqueous solution or water, i.e., the oil phase dispersed in the aqueous phase is in a form of plurality of oil droplets. In these forms, the green tea catechin derivative is encapsulated in the oil droplets. Optionally, the disclosed formulation contains one or more emulsifiers, in particular when the nanoparticles are formulated in the form of emulsions, such as nanoemulsion. Any suitable emulsifiers can be used in the disclosed formulations, such as non-ionic emulsifiers, anionic emulsifiers, cationic emulsifiers, or amphiphilic emulsifiers, or a combination thereof. Exemplary emulsifiers suitable for use in the formulation include, but are not limited to, poloxamers (such as poloxamer 407, poloxamer 101, poloxamer 105, poloxamer 108, poloxamer 122, poloxamer 123, poloxamer 124, poloxamer 181, poloxamer 182, poloxamer 183, poloxamer 184, poloxamer 185, poloxamer 188, poloxamer 212, poloxamer 215, poloxamer 217, poloxamer 231, poloxamer 234, poloxamer 235, poloxamer 237, poloxamer 238, poloxamer 282, poloxamer 284, poloxamer 288, poloxamer 331, poloxamer 333, poloxamer 334, poloxamer 335, poloxamer 338, poloxamer 401, poloxamer 402, poloxamer 403, poloxamer 407, poloxamer 105 benzoate, and poloxamer 182 dibenzoate), polysorbates (such as polysorbate 20, polysorbate 21, polysorbate 40, polysorbate 60, polysorbate 61, polysorbate 65, polysorbate 80, polysorbate 81, and polysorbate 85), Triton® X-100, nonoxynol-9, an ethoxylated surfactants (such as an alcohol ethoxylated, an alkyl phenol ethoxylated, a fatty acid ethoxylated, a monoalkaol amide ethoxylated, a sorbitan ester ethoxylated, a fatty amino ethoxylated, and an ethylene oxide-propylene oxide copolymer), bis(polyethylene glycol bis[imidazoyl carbonyl]), nonoxynol-9, bis(polyethylene glycol bis[imidazoyl carbonyl]), Brij® 35, Brij® 56, Brij® 72, Brij® 76, Brij® 92V, Brij® 97, Brij® 58P, Cremophor® EL, decaethylene glycol monododecyl ether, N-Decanoyl N-methylglucamine, n- Decyl alpha-D-glucopyranoside, decyl beta-D-maltopyranoside, n-Dodecanoyl-N methylglucamide, n-Dodecyl alpha-D-maltoside, n-dodecyl beta-D-maltoside, n-dodecyl beta-D-maltoside, heptaethylene glycol monodecyl ether, heptaethylene glycol monododecyl ether, heptaethylene glycol monotetradecyl ether, n-hexadecyl beta-D-maltoside, hexaethylene glycol monododecyl ether, hexaethylene glycol monohexadecyl ether, hexaethylene glycol monooctadecyl ether, hexaethylene glycol monotetradecyl ether, Igepal CA-630, Igepal CA-630, methyl-60-(N- heptylcarbamoyl)-alpha-D-glucopyranoside, nonaethylene glycol monododecyl ether, N-N nonanoyl-N-methylglucamine, octaethylene glycol monodecyl ether, octaethylene glycol monododecyl ether, octaethylene glycol monohexadecyl ether, octaethylene glycol monooctadecyl ether, octaethylene glycol monotetradecyl ether, octyl-beta-D-glucopyranoside, pentaethylene glycol monodecyl ether, pentaethylene glycol monododecyl ether, pentaethylene glycol monohexadecyl ether, pentaethylene glycol, polyethylene glycol ether, pentaethylene glycol monohexadecyl ether, pentaethylene glycol monohexyl ether, pentaethylene glycol monooctadecyl ether, pentaethylene glycol monooctyl ether, polyethylene glycol diglycidyl ether, polyethylene glycol ether W-1, polyoxyethylene 10 tridecyl ether, polyoxyethylene 100 stearate, polyoxyethylene 20 isohexadecyl ether, polyoxyethylene 20 oleyl ether, polyoxyethylene 40 stearate, polyoxyethylene 50 stearate, polyoxyethylene 8 stearate, polyoxyethylene bis(imidazolyl carbonyl), polyoxyethylene 25 propylene glycol stearate, saponin from Quillaja bark, Span® 20, Span® 40, Span® 60, Span® 65, Span® 80, Span® 85, Tergitol, Type 15-S-12, Tergitol, Type 15-S-30, Tergitol, Type 15-S-5, Type 15-S-7, Type 15-S-9, Type NP-10, Type NP-4, Type NP-40, Type NP- 7, Type NP-9, Type TMN-10, Type TMN-6, tetradecyl-beta-D-maltoside, tetraethylene glycol monodecyl ether, tetraethylene glycol monododecyl ether, tetraethylene glycol monotetradecyl ether, triethylene glycol monodecyl ether, triethylene glycol monododecyl ether, triethylene glycol monohexadecyl ether, triethylene glycol monooctyl ether, triethylene glycol monotetradecyl ether, Triton® CF-21, Triton® CF-32, Triton® DF-12, Triton® DF-16, Triton® GR-5M, Triton® QS-15, Triton® QS-44, Triton® X-100, Triton® X-102, Triton® X-15, Triton® X-151, Triton® X-200, Triton® X-207, Triton® X-114, Triton® X-165, Triton® X-305, Triton® X-405, Triton® X-45, Triton® X-705-70, tyloxapol, n-undecyl beta-D-glucopyranoside, semisynthetic cetylpyridimium chloride, benzalkonium chloride, benzethonium chloride, dioctadecyl dimethyl ammonium chloride, and octenidine dihydrochloride, and combinations thereof. For example, the disclosed formulation contains one or more emulsifiers, such as one or more of poloxamers, polysorbates (such as polysorbate 80), Triton® X-100, nonoxynol-9, cetylpyridimium chloride, benzalkonium chloride, benzethonium chloride, dioctadecyl dimethyl ammonium chloride, glycerin, propolene glycol, povidone, and octenidine dihydrochloride. The amount of the emulsifiers in the formulation can be in a range from about 1% (w / v) to about 20% (w / v), from about 1% (w / v) to about 15% (w / v), from about 1% (w / v) to about 10% (w / v), or from about 1% (w / v) to about 5% (w / v) of the pharmaceutical formulation. Foams consist of an emulsion in combination with a gaseous propellant. The gaseous propellant consists primarily of hydrofluoroalkanes (HFAs). Suitable propellants include HFAs such as 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane (HFA 134a) and 1,1,1,2,3,3,3-heptafluoropropane (HFA 227), but mixtures and admixtures of these and other HFAs that are currently approved or may become approved for medical use are suitable. The propellants preferably are not hydrocarbon propellant gases which can produce flammable or explosive vapors during spraying. Furthermore, the compositions preferably contain no volatile alcohols, which can produce flammable or explosive vapors during use. Buffers are used to control pH of a composition. Preferably, the buffers buffer the composition from a pH of about 4 to a pH of about 7.5, more preferably from a pH of about 4 to a pH of about 7, and most preferably from a pH of about 5 to a pH of about 7. In a preferred form, the buffer is triethanolamine. Preservatives can be used to prevent the growth of fungi and microorganisms. Suitable antifungal and antimicrobial agents include, but are not limited to, benzoic acid, butylparaben, ethyl paraben, methyl paraben, propylparaben, sodium benzoate, sodium propionate, benzalkonium chloride, benzethonium chloride, benzyl alcohol, cetylpyridinium chloride, chlorobutanol, phenol, phenylethyl alcohol, and thimerosal. Additional agents that can be added to the formulation include penetration enhancers. In some forms, the penetration enhancer increases the solubility of the drug, improves transdermal delivery of the drug across the skin, in particular across the stratum corneum, or a combination thereof. Some penetration enhancers cause dermal irritation, dermal toxicity and dermal allergies. However, the more commonly used ones include urea, (carbonyldiamide), imidurea, N, N- diethylformamide, N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone, 1-dodecal-azacyclopheptane-2-one, calcium thioglycate, 2-pyrrolidone, N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide, oleic acid and its ester derivatives, such as methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, butyl, vinyl and glycerylmonooleate, sorbitan esters, such as sorbitan monolaurate and sorbitan monooleate, other fatty acid esters such as isopropyl laurate, isopropyl myristate, isopropyl palmitate, diisopropyl adipate, propylene glycol monolaurate, propylene glycol monooleatea and non-ionic detergents such as BRIJ®76 (stearyl poly(10 oxyethylene ether), BRIJ®78 (stearyl poly(20)oxyethylene ether), BRIJ®96 (oleyl poly(10)oxyethylene ether), and BRIJ®721 (stearyl poly (21) oxyethylene ether) (ICI Americas Inc. Corp.). Chemical penetrations and methods of increasing transdermal drug delivery are described in Inayat, et al., Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research, 8(2):173-179 (2009) and Fox, et al., Molecules, 16:10507-10540 (2011). In some forms, the penetration enhancer is, or includes, an alcohol such ethanol, or others disclosed herein or known in the art. 9. Other Additives and Excipients The disclosed nutraceutical compositions can optionally include pharmaceutically acceptable diluents, preservatives, solubilizers, emulsifiers, adjuvants and / or carriers. Such compositions include diluents sterile water, buffered saline of various buffer content (e.g., Tris-HCl, acetate, phosphate), pH and ionic strength; and optionally, additives such as detergents and solubilizing agents (e.g., TWEEN® 20, TWEEN® 80 also referred to as POLYSORBATE® 20 or 80), anti-oxidants (e.g., ascorbic acid, sodium metabisulfite), and preservatives (e.g., Thimersol, benzyl alcohol) and bulking substances (e.g., lactose, mannitol). Examples of non-aqueous solvents or vehicles are propylene glycol, polyethylene glycol, vegetable oils, such as olive oil and corn oil, gelatin, and injectable organic esters such as ethyl oleate. The formulations may be lyophilized and redissolved / resuspended immediately before use. In some forms, the nutraceutical formulation can include one or more stabilizers to help prevent the degradation of the emulsion over time, maintaining the bioavailability of bioactive compounds such as curcumin, gingerol, or shogaol. Exemplary stabilizers include antioxidants such as vitamin E e.g., tocopherol which is used to prevent oxidative degradation of curcumin; ascorbic acid, and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT); polymers such as xanthan gum, carbopol (Carbomer), chitosan; proteins such as casein and soy protein; and surfactants such as polysorbate 80 (Tween 80) and lecithin. In some forms, the nutraceutical formulation can include one or more preservatives to prevent microbial growth and extend shelf life of the nutraceutical formulation. Exemplary preservatives include parabens such as methylparaben and propylparaben; potassium sorbate; benzoates such as sodium benzoate; alcohols such as ethanol, benzyl alcohol; and organic acids such as citric acids. See also, US Published Application No.2023 / 001719. D. Colorants In some forms, the described nanoparticles are prepared as colorants. For example, the described nanoparticles including curcumin exhibit a yellow coloration that is highly stable and photostable. Therefore, in some forms, the described nanoparticles including plant-derived products, such as curcumin, prepared according the described methods, are formulated as a dye to provide a color to a solution. In some instances, compositions including the described curcumin nanoparticles may provide a desired color to a composition that includes one or more additional colored or colorless components, such as aqueous, organic or non-organic solutions or mixtures. In some forms, the described nanoparticles including plant-derived products, such as curcumin, prepared according the described methods ae included merely to color a composition. In some forms, the described nanoparticles are present in an amount between 0.01% and 99.9% by weight of the total composition, such as between 0.1% and 10%, between 1% and 5%, or between 1% and 2% by weight of the total composition. Typically, the resulting color of a composition including curcumin nanoparticles is yellow, orange or brown, depending upon the amount or relative concentration of the curcumin nanoparticles. Combinations of the described curcumin nanoparticles, together with other naturally occurring and manufactured pigments / dyes blended together to create a desired shade or hue are also provided. In some instances, the combination of pigments or dyes may be chosen from water-soluble dyes, liposoluble dyes, and mixtures thereof. The term “pigments” means white or colored, mineral or organic particles, which are insoluble in an aqueous medium, and which are intended to color and / or opacify a composition. In some forms, the colored compositions including the described curcumin nanoparticles are non-toxic, for example, for coloring of foods, pharmaceutical or nutraceutical products. IV. Methods Of Using Bioactive-Loaded Nanoparticles Also provided are methods of using the compositions and formulations produced by the disclosed methods. The disclosed bioactive compound-loaded compositions e.g., curcumin-loaded nanoparticles (referred to as “nutraceutical formulations”) offer a wide range of potential health benefits due to curcumin's anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antimicrobial properties. For example, the nutraceutical formulations can be administered to a subject to provide health benefits e.g., anti-inflammatory benefits, supplement cancer prevention and treatment, supplement cardiovascular health, manage metabolic syndromes, and / or support neuroprotective health, gastrointestinal health, liver health, skin health, and or mental health. In some forms, the disclosed compositions are useful for inducing physiological responses such, decreasing body fat, increasing lean body mass, alleviating the symptoms of colds, preventing the onset of colds, increasing energy, increasing the feeling of well-being in subjects, and improving skin tone and appearance. The term “effective amount” or “therapeutically effective amount” means a dosage sufficient to treat, inhibit, or alleviate one or more symptoms of a disease state or condition being treated or to otherwise provide a desired nutraceutical and / or physiologic effect. In some forms, the effective amount refers to the amount, which is able to provide anti-inflammatory benefits, cardiovascular benefits, neuroprotective benefits, gastrointestinal benefits, liver benefits, skin health benefits, mental health benefits, manage metabolic syndromes, and / or anti-cancer benefits. The precise dosage will vary according to a variety of factors such as subject-dependent variables (e.g., injury size / type, age, joint health, immune system health, etc.), the disease or disorder, and the treatment being administered. The effective amount can be relative to a control. Such controls are known in the art and discussed herein, and can be, for example, the condition of the subject prior to or in the absence of administration of the drug. The terms “treating” or “preventing” refers to the medical management of a subject with the intent to cure, ameliorate, stabilize, or prevent a disease, pathological condition, or disorder. This term includes active treatment, that is, treatment directed specifically toward the improvement of a disease, pathological condition, or disorder, and includes causal treatment, that is, treatment directed toward removal of the cause of the associated disease, pathological condition, or disorder. In addition, this term includes palliative treatment, that is, treatment designed for the relief of symptoms rather than the curing of the disease, pathological condition, or disorder; preventative treatment, that is, treatment directed to minimizing or partially or completely inhibiting the development of the associated disease, pathological condition, or disorder; and supportive treatment, that is, treatment employed to supplement another specific therapy directed toward the improvement of the associated disease, pathological condition, or disorder. It is understood that treatment, while intended to cure, ameliorate, stabilize, or prevent a disease, pathological condition, or disorder, need not actually result in the cure, amelioration, stabilization, or prevention. The effects of treatment can be measured or assessed as described herein and as known in the art as is suitable for the disease, pathological condition, or disorder involved. Such measurements and assessments can be made in qualitative and / or quantitative terms. Thus, for example, characteristics or features of a disease, pathological condition, or disorder and / or symptoms of a disease, pathological condition, or disorder can be reduced to any effect or to any amount. Desirable effects of treatment include decreasing the rate of disease progression, ameliorating, or palliating the disease state, and remission or improved prognosis. In some forms, the compositions and methods are non-therapeutic. The terms “inhibit” or “reduce” or prevent in the context of inhibition, mean to reduce, or decrease or prevent in activity and quantity. This can be a complete inhibition or reduction in activity or quantity, or a partial inhibition or reduction or prevention. Inhibition or reduction or prevention can be compared to a control or to a standard level. Inhibition can be measured as a % value, e.g., from 1% up to 100%, such as 5%, 10, 25, 50, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 99, or 100%. For example, compositions including the bioactive agents may inhibit or reduce one or more markers of a disease or disorder in a subject by about 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 75%, 85%, 90%, 95%, or 99% from the activity and / or quantity of the same marker in subjects that did not receive or were not treated with the compositions. Inhibition can be expressed as a % as compared to a control, for example, as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64,65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, or 100% relative to a control. The terms “high,” “higher,” “increases,” “elevates,” or “elevation” refer to increases above basal levels, e.g., as compared to a control. The terms “low,” “lower,” “reduces,” or “reduction” refer to decreases below basal levels, e.g., as compared to a control. The term “dosage regime” refers to drug administration regarding formulation, route of administration, drug dose, dosing interval and treatment duration. The term “monitoring” as used herein refers to any method in the art by which an activity can be measured. The term “providing” as used herein refers to any means of adding a compound or molecule to something known in the art. Examples of providing can include the use of pipettes, pipette men, syringes, needles, tubing, guns, etc. This can be manual or automated. The term “in need of treatment” as used herein refers to a judgment made by a caregiver (e.g. physician, nurse, nurse practitioner, or individual in the case of humans; veterinarian in the case of animals, including non-human mammals) that a subject requires or will benefit from treatment. This judgment is made based on a variety of factors that are in the realm of a care giver's expertise, but that include the knowledge that the subject is ill, or will be ill, as the result of a condition that is treatable by the disclosed compounds. As used herein, “subject” includes, but is not limited to mammals including but not limited to human, horse, pig, rabbit, dog, sheep, goat, non-human primate, cow, cat, guinea pig or rodent. The term does not denote a particular age or sex. Thus, adult, and newborn subjects, as well as fetuses, whether male or female, are intended to be covered. A patient refers to a subject afflicted with a disease or disorder. The term “patient” includes human and veterinary subjects. In one aspect, the compositions described herein can be administered to a subject such as a human or an animal including, but not limited to, a mouse, dog, cat, horse, bovine or ovine and the like, that is in need of. The disclosed compositions and formulations can be used in conjunction with other drug and / or behavioral therapies. For example, the disclosed compositions and formulations can be used in combination with weight loss diet regimen e.g., exercise, and reduced calorie intake, meditation, yoga, hypnosis, and clinical therapy. This disclosed compositions and formulations can be used as environment-friendly pesticides or fungicides, such as thymol-, carvacrol- and eugenol-loaded nanoparticles. In some forms, thymol-loaded nanoparticles and compositions thereof can be formulated as fungicides and pesticides (Shcherbakova et al. “Studying the Ability of Thymol to Improve Fungicidal Effects of Tebuconazole and Difenoconazole Against Some Plant Pathogenic Fungi in Seed or Foliar Treatments”, Front. Microbiol., 12, Article 629429, 2021; Park, et al., “Insecticidal toxicities of carvacrol and thymol derived from Thymus vulgaris Lin. against Pochazia shantungensis Chou & Lu., newly recorded pest”, Nature Scientific Reports, 7, Article Number 40902 (2017)). The disclosed compositions and formulations can be used for antimicrobial applications. For example, they can be used in combination with food packaging for food preservation. They can be incorporated into creams, gels, or dressings for direct application to wounds, and promote faster and more effective wound healing by reducing inflammation and promoting tissue regeneration. For example, in some forms, curcumin loaded nanoparticles can be used in the preparation of food packaging films (Roy et al., “Curcumin and its uses in active and smart food packaging applications - a comprehensive review”, Food Chemistry, 375(1): Article 131885 (2022). In some forms, the curcumin-loaded nanoparticles and compositions thereof can be used in the preparation of antimicrobial and wound-healing formulations such as creams and dressings (Kumari et al., “Wound-Healing Effects of Curcumin and Its Nanoformulations: A Comprehensive Review”, Pharmaceutics, 14(11): 2288, 2022; Barchitta et al., “Nutrition and Wound Healing: An Overview Focusing on the Beneficial Effects of Curcumin”, Int. J. Mol. Sci.2019, 20(5), 1119). The disclosed compositions and formulations can be used as color pigment such as in dyes. For example, curcumin can be used as a yellow pigment e.g., in yellow dyes e.g., food dyes (Sowbhagya et al., “Stability of water-soluble turmeric colorant in an extruded food product during storage”, 67(3):367-371 (2005). For example, in some forms, the described nanoparticles including plant-derived products, such as curcumin, prepared according the described methods, are used as colorants. For example, methods of coloring a composition by admixture of a compound with the described nanoparticles including plant-derived products, such as curcumin are provided. In some forms, methods of using the described nanoparticles as a dye to provide a desired color to a solution include contacting a target solution with the described nanoparticles to provide a colored solution that exhibits a desired coloration that is highly stable and photostable. For example, in some form methods of using the described nanoparticles as a dye to provide a desired color to a solution include contacting a target solution with the described nanoparticles including curcumin to provide a colored solution that exhibits a yellow coloration that is highly stable and photostable. Typically, the methods include providing curcumin nanoparticles to a target solution in an amount effective to produce a color that is yellow, orange or brown, depending upon the amount or relative concentration of the curcumin nanoparticles. In some forms, the methods include providing curcumin nanoparticles to a target solution in an amount effective to produce a color that has a dominant wavelength of between about 575 nm and about 585 nm, inclusive. For example, in some forms, the methods formulate a colored solution including the described nanoparticles in an amount between 0.01% and 99.9% by weight of the total composition, such as between 0.1% and 10%, between 1% and 5%, or between 1% and 2% by weight of the total composition. In some forms, the methods further include contacting a target solution with one or more additional colored or colorless components, such as aqueous, organic or non-organic solutions or mixtures to create a desired shade or hue are also provided. It is to be understood that the disclosed method and compositions are not limited to specific synthetic methods, specific analytical techniques, or to particular reagents unless otherwise specified, and, as such, can vary. It is also to be understood that the terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only and is not intended to be limiting. The disclosed compositions and methods can be further understood through the following numbered paragraphs. 1. A method of making a nanoparticle comprising a plant-derived bioactive compound, the method comprising: (i) contacting a plant-derived composition comprising a bioactive compound and one or more biopolymers with an alkaline solution to provide a first mixture comprising a solubilized bioactive compound(s) and one or more biopolymer(s); (ii) optionally agitating the first mixture and / or removing micro-scale particulate matter from the first mixture. 2. The method of paragraph 1, further comprising (iii) isolating a nanoparticle from the first mixture, wherein the nanoparticle comprises the bioactive compound(s) and one or more biopolymer(s). 3. The method of paragraphs 1 or 2, further comprising: (iv) contacting the first mixture with an acid to form a second mixture comprising a nanoparticle, wherein the nanoparticle comprises the bioactive compound(s) and one or more biopolymer(s). 4. The method of paragraph 3, further comprising (v) isolating a nanoparticle from the second mixture. 5. The method of paragraphs 3 or 4, wherein the contacting in step (iv) further comprises agitating the second mixture and / or removing micro-scale particulate matter from the second mixture. 6. The method of any one of paragraphs 1-5, wherein the agitating the first and / or second mixture comprising stirring the mixture, optionally wherein the stirring comprises a magnetic stir bar. 7. The method of any one of paragraphs 1-6, wherein removing particulate matter comprises filtration of the first and / or second mixture. 8. The method of any one of paragraphs 1 to 7, wherein the plant-derived composition consists of a crushed or ground raw plant or part thereof. 9. The method of paragraph 8, wherein the raw plant or part thereof is selected from the genus consisting of Curcuma spp, Syzygium, Capsicum, Rosmarinus, and Zingiber spp, Lamiaceae, Monarda spp., Origanum spp., and Satureja spp. 10. The methods of any one of paragraphs 1-9, wherein the bioactive compound comprises a pH soluble functional group that is soluble at a pH above 7. 11. The method of paragraph 10, wherein the pH soluble functional group is selected from the group consisting of a phenolic or sugar hydroxyl group (–OH), a carboxyl group (–COOH), a sulfate group (–SO₃H), sulfhydryl group (–SH), and a phosphate group (–PO₄H₂).. 12. The method of any one of paragraphs 1-11, wherein the bioactive compound is selected from the group comprising curcumin, gingerol, shogaol, thymol, carvacrol, eugenol, capsaicin, rosmarinic acid, or a pH soluble analog thereof. 13. The method of any one of paragraphs 1-12, wherein the plant-derived composition consists of turmeric. 14. The method of any one of paragraphs 1-12, wherein the biopolymer comprises starch polymers, optionally wherein the starch polymers comprise branched starch polymers. 15. The method of one any of paragraphs 1-12, wherein the biopolymer comprises branched amylopectin. 16. The method of any one of paragraphs 1-12, wherein the nanoparticle comprises a polysaccharide selected from the group consisting of uronic acid and pectin. 17. The method of any one of paragraphs 1-16, wherein the alkaline solution comprises a pH of 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, or 14. 18. The method of any one of paragraphs 1-17, wherein the alkaline solution is selected from the group consisting of sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, calcium carbonate, and calcium bicarbonate. 19. The method of any one of paragraphs 3-17, wherein the acid is selected from the group consisting of citric acid, acetic acid, ascorbic acid, hydrochloric acid, phosphoric acid, and tartaric acid. 20. The method of any one of paragraphs 1-19, wherein the nanoparticle comprises a diameter of from about 100 nm to about 500 nm, inclusive, optionally wherein the diameter is from about 100 nm to about 400 nm, from about 100 nm to about 300 nm, from about 100 nm to about 200 nm, from about 50 nm to about 200 nm, from about 70 nm to about 200 nm, from about 50 nm to about 160 nm, from about 70 nm to about 160 nm, or from about 100 nm to about 160 nm, preferably from about 100 nm to about 300 nm, or about 100 nm to about 200 nm, or about 70 nm to about 160 nm, inclusive, more preferably about 142 nm. 21. The method of any one of paragraphs 1-20, wherein the nanoparticle has a zeta potential of about -30 mV to about +30 mV, inclusive, optionally wherein the zeta potential is from about -20 mV to about +20 mV, inclusive. 22. A nanoparticle produced according to the method of any one of paragraphs 1-21. 23. A pharmaceutical formulation comprising (I) a plurality of nanoparticles of claim 22, and (II) a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient. 24. A nanoparticle comprising (i) a biopolymer core, (ii) a nutraceutical agent, and (iii) an acidic polysaccharide coating, wherein the nutraceutical agent is embedded within, or contained within the biopolymer core; and wherein the biopolymer, nutraceutical agent, and acidic polysaccharide are derived from the same plant, or plant part. 25. The nanoparticle of paragraph 24, wherein the biopolymer, nutraceutical agent, and acidic polysaccharide are extracted from turmeric. 26. The nanoparticle of paragraph 24, wherein the raw plant or plant part is selected from the genus consisting of Curcuma spp, Syzygium, Capsicum, Rosmarinus, and Zingiber spp, Lamiaceae, Monarda spp., Origanum spp., and Satureja spp. 27. The nanoparticle of any one of paragraphs 24-26, wherein the nutraceutical agent comprises a pH soluble functional group that is soluble at a pH above 7. 28. The nanoparticle of paragraph 27, wherein the pH soluble functional group is selected from the group consisting of a phenolic or sugar hydroxyl group (–OH), a carboxyl group (–COOH), a sulfate group (–SO₃H), sulfhydryl group (–SH), and a phosphate group (–PO₄H₂). 29. The nanoparticle of any one of paragraphs 24-28, wherein the nutraceutical agent is selected from the group consisting of curcumin, gingerol, shogaol, thymol, carvacrol, eugenol, capsaicin, rosmarinic acid, or a pH soluble analog thereof. 30. The nanoparticle of any one of paragraphs 24-29, wherein the biopolymer comprises branched amylopectin. 31. The nanoparticle of any one of paragraphs 24-30, wherein the acidic polysaccharide coating is selected from the group consisting of uronic acid and pectin. 32. The nanoparticle of any one of paragraphs 24-31, wherein the nanoparticle comprises a diameter of from about 100 nm to about 500 nm, inclusive, optionally wherein the diameter is from about 100 nm to about 400 nm, from about 100 nm to about 300 nm, from about 100 nm to about 200 nm, from about 50 nm to about 200 nm, from about 70 nm to about 200 nm, from about 50 nm to about 160 nm, from about 70 nm to about 160 nm, or from about 100 nm to about 160 nm, preferably from about 100 nm to about 300 nm, or about 100 nm to about 200 nm, or about 70 nm to about 160 nm, inclusive, more preferably about 142 nm. 33. The nanoparticle of any one of paragraphs 24-32, wherein the nanoparticle has a zeta potential of about -30 mV to about +30 mV, inclusive, optionally wherein the zeta potential is from about -20 mV to about +20 mV, inclusive. 34. An nano-emulsion, comprising (a) the nanoparticle of any one of paragraph 24-33; (b) an oil, optionally wherein the oil comprises corn oil; and (c) an emulsifier, optionally wherein the emulsifier comprises casein and / or a polysorbate. 35. A method of making a nanoparticle comprising curcumin, the method comprising: (i) contacting a turmeric powder with an alkaline solution to provide a first mixture, optionally wherein the contacting further comprises (a) agitating the first mixture; and / or (b) removing particulate matter from the first mixture. 36. The method of paragraph 35, further comprising (ii) isolating a nanoparticle comprising curcumin from the first mixture. 37. The method of paragraph 35 or 36, further comprising (iii) contacting the first mixture with an acid to form a second mixture. 38. The method of paragraph 37, further comprising (iv) isolating a nanoparticle comprising curcumin from the second mixture. 39. The method of any one of paragraph 35-38, wherein the turmeric is prepared from turmeric rhizomes according to a method comprising, prior to step (i), one or more of: (a) washing turmeric rhizomes; (b) grating washed turmeric rhizomes; (c) drying grated turmeric rhizomes; (d) grinding dried turmeric rhizomes to form a turmeric powder; and / or (e) sieving turmeric powder. 40. The method of paragraph 39, wherein the turmeric is prepared from turmeric rhizomes according to a method comprising, prior to step (i), all of (a) washing turmeric rhizomes; (b) grating the washed turmeric rhizomes; (c) drying the grated turmeric rhizomes; (d) grinding the dried turmeric rhizomes to form a turmeric powder; and (e) sieving the turmeric powder. 41. A method of making a nanoparticle comprising gingerol and / or shogaol, the method comprising: (i) contacting a ginger powder with an alkaline solution to provide a first mixture, optionally wherein the contacting further comprises (a) agitating the first mixture; and / or (b) removing particulate matter from the first mixture. 42. The method of paragraph 41, further comprising (ii) isolating a nanoparticle comprising gingerol and / or shogaol from the first mixture. 43. The method of paragraph 41 or 42, further comprising (iii) contacting the first mixture with an acid to form a second mixture. 44. The method of paragraph 43, further comprising (iv) isolating a nanoparticle comprising gingerol and / or shogaol from the second mixture. 45. The method of any one of paragraphs 41-44, wherein the ginger powder is prepared from ginger rhizomes according to a method comprising, prior to step (i), one or more of: (a) washing ginger rhizomes; (b) grating washed ginger rhizomes; (c) drying grated ginger rhizomes; (d) grinding dried ginger rhizomes to form a ginger powder; and / or (e) sieving ginger powder. 46. The method of paragraph 45, wherein the ginger powder is prepared from ginger rhizomes according to a method comprising, prior to step (i), all of: (a) washing ginger rhizomes; (b) grating the washed ginger rhizomes; (c) drying the grated ginger rhizomes; (d) grinding the dried ginger rhizomes to form a ginger powder; and (e) optionally sieving the ginger powder. 47. A method of making a nanoparticle comprising thymol and / or carvacrol, the method comprising: (i) contacting a thyme powder with an alkaline solution to provide a first mixture, optionally wherein the contacting further comprises (a) agitating the first mixture; and / or (b) removing particulate matter from the first mixture. 48. The method of paragraph 47, further comprising (ii) isolating a nanoparticle comprising thymol and / or carvacrol from the first mixture. 49. The method of paragraph 47 or 48, further comprising (iii) contacting the first mixture with an acid to form a second mixture. 50. The method of paragraph 49, further comprising (iv) isolating a nanoparticle comprising thymol and / or carvacrol from the second mixture. 51. The method any one of paragraphs 47-50, wherein the thyme powder is prepared from thyme plants or parts thereof according to a method comprising, prior to step (i), one or more of: (a) washing thyme plants or parts thereof; (b) grating washed thyme plants or parts thereof; (c) drying grated thyme plants or parts thereof; (d) grinding dried thyme plants or parts thereof to form a thyme powder; and / or (e) sieving thyme powder. 52. The method of paragraph 51, wherein the thyme powder is prepared from thyme plants or parts thereof according to a method comprising, prior to step (i), all of: (a) washing thyme plants or parts thereof; (b) grating the washed thyme plants or parts thereof; (c) drying the grated thyme plants or parts thereof; (d) grinding the dried thyme plants or parts thereof to form a thyme powder; and (e) optionally sieving thyme powder. 53. The method of any one of paragraphs 51-52, wherein the thyme plants or parts thereof comprise thyme stalks and / or leaves. 54. A method of making a nanoparticle comprising rosmarinic acid, the method comprising: (i) contacting a rosemary powder with an alkaline solution to provide a first mixture, optionally wherein the contacting further comprises (a) agitating the first mixture; and / or (b) removing particulate matter from the first mixture. 55. The method of paragraph 54, further comprising (ii) isolating a nanoparticle comprising rosmarinic acid from the first mixture. 56. The method of paragraph 54 or 55, further comprising (iii) contacting the first mixture with an acid to form a second mixture. 57. The method of paragraph 56, further comprising (iv) isolating a nanoparticle comprising rosmarinic acid from the second mixture. 58. The method of any one of paragraphs 54-57, wherein the rosemary powder is prepared from rosemary plants or parts thereof according to a method comprising, prior to step (i), one or more of: (a) washing rosemary plants or parts thereof; (b) grating washed rosemary plants or parts thereof; (c) drying grated rosemary plants or parts thereof; (d) grinding dried rosemary plants or parts thereof to form a rosemary powder; and / or (e) sieving rosemary powder. 59. The method of paragraph 58, wherein the rosemary powder is prepared from rosemary plants or parts thereof according to a method comprising, prior to step (i), all of: (a) washing rosemary plants or parts thereof; (b) grating the washed rosemary plants or parts thereof; (c) drying the grated rosemary plants or parts thereof; (d) grinding the dried rosemary plants or parts thereof to form a rosemary powder; and (e) optionally sieving rosemary powder. 60. A method of making a nanoparticle comprising eugenol, the method comprising: (i) contacting a clove powder with an alkaline solution to provide a first mixture, optionally wherein the contacting further comprises (a) agitating the first mixture; and / or (b) removing particulate matter from the first mixture. 61. The method of paragraph 60, further comprising (ii) isolating a nanoparticle comprising eugenol from the first mixture. 62. The method of paragraph 60 or 61, further comprising (iii) contacting the first mixture with an acid to form a second mixture. 63. The method of paragraph 62, further comprising (iv) isolating a nanoparticle comprising eugenol from the second mixture. 64. The method of any one of paragraphs 60-63, wherein the clove powder is prepared from raw cloves according to a method comprising, prior to step (i), one or more of: (a) washing cloves; (b) grating cloves; (c) drying cloves; (d) grinding dried cloves to form a clove powder; and / or (e) sieving clove powder. 65. The method of paragraph 64, wherein the clove powder is prepared from raw cloves according to a method comprising, prior to step (i), all of: (a) washing cloves; (b) grating the washed cloves; (c) drying the grated cloves; (d) grinding the dried cloves to form a clove powder; and / or (e) sieving the clove powder. 66. A method of making a nanoparticle comprising capsaicin, the method comprising: (i) contacting a pepper powder with an alkaline solution to provide a first mixture, optionally wherein the contacting further comprises (a) agitating the first mixture; and / or (b) removing particulate matter from the first mixture. 67. The method of paragraph 66, further comprising (ii) isolating a nanoparticle comprising capsaicin from the first mixture. 68. The method of paragraph 66 or 67, further comprising (iii) contacting the first mixture with an acid to form a second mixture. 69. The method of paragraph 66, further comprising (iv) isolating a nanoparticle comprising capsaicin from the second mixture. 70. The method of any one of paragraphs 66-69, wherein the pepper powder is prepared from raw peppers and / or pepper seeds, according to a method comprising, prior to step (i), one or more of: (a) washing peppers and / or pepper seeds; (b) grating peppers and / or pepper seeds; (c) drying grated peppers and / or pepper seeds; (d) grinding dried peppers and / or pepper seeds to form a pepper powder; and / or (e) sieving pepper powder. 70. The method of any one of paragraphs 35-69, wherein the alkaline solution comprises NaOH comprising pH of about 13. 71. The method of any one of paragraphs 35-70, wherein the acid comprises citric acid comprising a pH of about 2. 72. The method of any one of paragraphs 35-71, wherein the acid is added dropwise to the first mixture to provide a second mixture comprising a pH of about 7.0. 73. The method of any one of paragraphs 35-72, further comprising one or more steps of formulating the nanoparticle into an emulsion. 74. The method of paragraph 73, wherein formulating the nanoparticle into an emulsion comprises (a) contacting the nanoparticles with an emulsifier comprising casein protein or a polysorbate to form a first emulsion mixture; and (b) contacting the first emulsion mixture with an oil to provide an emulsion. 75. A nutraceutical formulation in a form suitable for oral consumption comprising: (i) a plurality of curcumin-loaded nanoparticles made by the method of any one of paragraph 35-40 and (ii) a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or excipient. 76. The nutraceutical formulation of paragraph 75, wherein the nutraceutical formulation is a dietary supplement, nutritional supplement, or a food product. 77. A nutraceutical formulation in a form suitable for oral consumption comprising: (i) a plurality of gingerol and / or shogaol nanoparticles made by the method of any one of paragraph 41-46, and (ii) a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or excipient. 78. The nutraceutical formulation of paragraph 77, wherein the nutraceutical formulation is a dietary supplement, nutritional supplement, or a food product. 79. A nutraceutical formulation in a form suitable for oral consumption comprising: (i) a plurality of thymol and / or carvacrol nanoparticles made by the method of any one of paragraph 47-53, and (ii) a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or excipient. 80. The nutraceutical formulation of paragraph 79, wherein the nutraceutical formulation is a dietary supplement, nutritional supplement, or a food product. 81. A nutraceutical formulation in a form suitable for oral consumption comprising: (i) a plurality of rosmarinic acid nanoparticles made by the method of any one of paragraphs 54-59, and (ii) a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or excipient. 82. The nutraceutical formulation of paragraph 84, wherein the nutraceutical formulation is a dietary supplement, nutritional supplement, or a food product. 83. A nutraceutical formulation in a form suitable for oral consumption comprising: (i) a plurality of eugenol nanoparticles made by the method of any one of paragraph 60- 65, and (ii) a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or excipient. 84. The nutraceutical formulation of paragraph 83, wherein the nutraceutical formulation is a dietary supplement, nutritional supplement, or a food product. 85. A nutraceutical formulation in a form suitable for oral consumption comprising: (i) a plurality of capsaicin nanoparticles made by the method of any one of paragraph 66-74, and (ii) a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or excipient. 86. The nutraceutical formulation of paragraph 85, wherein the nutraceutical formulation is a dietary supplement, nutritional supplement, or a food product. 87. The nanoparticle of any one of paragraph 22 and / or paragraph 24-33, the pharmaceutical formulation of paragraph 23, or the nano-emulsion of paragraph 34, wherein the amount of bioactive compound recovered from the plant-derived powder is from about 45% to about 99%, optionally wherein the amount of the bioactive compound recovered from the plant-derived powder is from about 50% to about 99%, from about 60% to about 99%, or from about 65% to about 90%. 88. The nanoparticle of any one of paragraph 22 and / or paragraph 24-33, the pharmaceutical formulation of paragraph 23, or the nano-emulsion of paragraph 34, wherein the amount of bioactive compound recovered from the plant-derived powder is from about 45% to about 99%, optionally wherein the amount of the bioactive compound recovered from the plant-derived powder is from about 45% to about 99%, from about 50% to about 99%, from about 55% to about 99%, from about 60% to about 99%, or from about 65% to about 90%. 89. The method of any one of paragraph 35-40, wherein the amount of curcumin recovered from the turmeric powder is from about 45% to about 99%, optionally wherein the amount of the curcumin recovered from the turmeric powder is from about 45% to about 99%, from about 50% to about 99%, from about 55% to about 99%, from about 60% to about 99%, or from about 65% to about 90%. 90. The method of any one of paragraph 41-46, wherein the amount of gingerol and / or shogaol recovered from the ginger powder is from about 45% to about 99%, optionally wherein the amount of the gingerol and / or shogaol recovered from the ginger powder is from about 45% to about 99%, from about 50% to about 99%, from about 55% to about 99%, from about 60% to about 99%, or from about 65% to about 90%. 91. The method of any one of paragraph 47-53, wherein the amount of thymol and / or carvacrol recovered from the thyme powder is from about 45% to about 99%, optionally wherein the amount of the thymol and / or carvacrol recovered from the ginger powder is from about 45% to about 99%, from about 50% to about 99%, from about 55% to about 99%, from about 60% to about 99%, or from about 65% to about 90%. 92. The method of any one of paragraph 54-59, wherein the amount of rosmarinic acid recovered from the rosemary powder is from about 45% to about 99%, optionally wherein the amount of the rosmarinic acid recovered from the rosemary powder is from about 45% to about 99%, from about 50% to about 99%, from about 55% to about 99%, from about 60% to about 99%, or from about 65% to about 90%. 93. The method of any one of paragraph 60-65, wherein the amount of eugenol recovered from the clove powder is from about 45% to about 99%, optionally wherein the amount of the eugenol recovered from the clove powder is from about 45% to about 99%, from about 50% to about 99%, from about 55% to about 99%, from about 60% to about 99%, or from about 65% to about 90%. 94. The method of any one of paragraph 66-74, wherein the amount of capsaicin recovered from the pepper powder is from about 45% to about 99%, optionally wherein the amount of the capsaicin recovered from the pepper powder is from about 45% to about 99%, from about 50% to about 99%, from about 55% to about 99%, from about 60% to about 99%, or from about 65% to about 90%. 95. A method of making a nanoparticle including capsaicinoids, polyphenols and / or carotenoids the method including: (i) contacting a paprika powder with an alkaline solution to provide a first mixture, optionally wherein the contacting further includes (a) agitating the first mixture; and / or (b) removing particulate matter from the first mixture. 96. The method of paragraph 95, further including (ii) isolating a nanoparticle including capsaicinoids, polyphenols and / or carotenoids from the first mixture. 97. The method of paragraph 95 or 96, further including (iii) contacting the first mixture with an acid to form a second mixture. 98. The method of paragraph 97, further including (iv) isolating a nanoparticle including capsaicinoids, polyphenols and / or carotenoids from the second mixture. 99. The method of any one of paragraphs 95-98, wherein the paprika powder is prepared from capsicum pepper plants or parts thereof according to a method including, prior to step (i), one or more of: (a) washing capsicum pepper plants or parts thereof; (b) grating washed capsicum pepper plants or parts thereof; (c) drying grated capsicum pepper plants or parts thereof; (d) grinding dried capsicum pepper plants or parts thereof to form a paprika powder; and / or (e) sieving paprika powder. 100. The method of paragraph 99, wherein the paprika powder is prepared from capsicum pepper plants or parts thereof according to a method including, prior to step (i), all of: (a) washing capsicum pepper plants or parts thereof; (b) grating the washed capsicum pepper plants or parts thereof; (c) drying the grated capsicum pepper plants or parts thereof; (d) grinding the dried capsicum pepper plants or parts thereof to form a paprika powder; and (e) optionally sieving paprika powder. The disclosed compositions and methods can be further understood through the following working examples. EXAMPLES Example 1: Preparation of Curcumin Nanoparticles from Turmeric Materials and Methods Materials Curcumin (C2302, purity > 97.0 %) was purchased from TCI America. Corn oil (Mazola, ACH Food Company, Memphis, TN), fresh yellow turmeric rhizome (C. longa) from Fiji island, and ground plant powders (ginger, pepper (paprika), and thyme) were obtained from a local grocery store. Commercial turmeric powder (SPICE TRAIN, Indian) were purchased online. Citric acid (CAS number: 77-92-9, ≥99.5 %) was sourced from Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, MO, USA). 1.0 N hydrochloric acid solution (HCl, CAS number: 7647-01-0) and sodium hydroxide powder (NaOH) were purchased from Fisher Scientific (Hampton, NH, USA). Distilled water was used throughout the study. Making dried turmeric powder Fresh yellow turmeric rhizomes were hand-washed and pat-dried with tissue paper. The cleaned rhizomes were grated and dried at 40 ℃ for 10-hours in a tray dryer. After drying, the grated turmeric was ground using a laboratory grinder and sieved to obtain fine, dried turmeric powder. Formulation of Turmeric-pH13 and Turmeric-pH7 nanocomplexes 200 mg of turmeric powder and a magnetic stir bar were placed in a clear packer bottle, followed by addition of 24 mL of NaOH solution (pH = 13). The mixture was stirred at 800 rpm for 10-minutes, covered to minimize of air and light exposure, then allowed to stand for 5-minutes. The supernatant phase was collected as the unfiltered “Turmeric-pH13” solution. This solution was filtered using a vacuum filter (0.45 µm pore size), resulting in two different phases: filtered Turmeric-pH13 liquid and sediment. A two-layer filtration was recommended, with standard filter paper or mesh placed over a finer 0.45 µm filter, to collect the filtered “Turmeric- pH 13” solution. A two-step filtration process was also feasible; starting with a standard filter paper or mesh to remove larger particles, followed by a finer filter 0.45 µm filter. To produce Turmeric-pH7 solution, 3 mL of filtered Turmeric-pH13 liquid was acidified by dropwise addition of 3 wt% citric acid solution (pH ~ 2) at 1 drop every 5 seconds stirring at 800 rpm until reaching a pH 7. Care was taken to avoid rapid dropping or insufficient stirring, which could hinder nano-complexation and potentially lead to overly acidic areas. The final solution,“Turmeric-pH7”, was adjusted to a final volume of 10 mL with water in a 25 mL graduated cylinder before measuring curcumin concentrations. Additionally, ~90 mL of distilled water was used to rinse and collect all filtered sediments, which were neutralized with citric acid under the same stirring conditions. The volume of the acidified sediment-containing solution was measured with a 100 mL graduated cylinder. Preparation of both coarse and nano-sized emulsions, as well as Tumeric-pH7 encapsulated emulsions Initially, 2.00 g of emulsifier (Tween 80 or casein) was put in a glass beaker (250 mL), and then the distilled water was added until the weight of the total sample was 90.00 g. After the emulsifier was fully dissolved, 10.00 g of corn oil was added to obtain an initial sample with 10 wt% oil and 2 wt% emulsifier. To fabricate coarse emulsions, a general laboratory homogenizer (Omni International, Kennesaw, GA) was used to mix the sample for 5-minutes to obtain coarse emulsions. The coarse emulsions were passed through a high-pressure homogenizer (NanoGenizer, Genizer LLC, Los Angeles) three times to obtain stable nanoemulsions, where the pressure was set as 12,000 psi. To formulate the Turmeric-pH7 encapsulated nanoemulsions, 1.0 mL of Turmeric- pH7 solution was added and the 9.0 mL of Tween 80- or Casein-stabilized NE solutions, and a fast agitation was applied to mix them well. Particle size and zeta potential Both particle size and zeta potential were measured by dynamic light scattering (DLS) using a Zetasizer Pro instrument (Malvern Panalytical, Malvern, UK). The samples were mixed well before measurement to avoid dilution effects. To investigate the impact of different pH conditions (pH 2 to 9) on the Turmeric-pH7 nanocomplex, stock solutions at the target pH value were prepared using HCl (1.0 or 0.1 N) and NaOH (0.1 N) in a phosphate buffer (10 mM, pH 7). Then, 0.5 mL of Turmeric-pH7 nanocomplex was added to 10.0 mL of the stock solution, followed by a final adjustment to the target pH value. Microstructure For transmission electron microscopy (TEM) imaging of unwashed Turmeric-pH7 nanocomplex, the sample was diluted 5-fold with distilled water and placed onto a copper mesh grid. The sample-loaded grid was air-dried at room temperature and imaged using a JEM-1011 electron microscope at 110 kV. To wash the Turmer-pH7 sample, 3 mL of the nanocomplex was diluted to 10 mL using 0.1 N HCl solution to promote nanoparticle aggregation. The sample was then centrifuged at 5000 rpm for 5 min to sediment the nanoparticles, after which the liquid phase was removed. This washing step was repeated twice with 10 mL 0.1 N HCl solution. Next, 3 mL of pH 13 NaOH solution was added to neutralize the sample under the same conditions as the unwashed formulation. Finally, the washed sample was diluted 25-fold with distilled water and placed on the grid, following the same air-drying procedure. For the confocal fluorescence imaging (LSM 700, Zeiss, Germany) of Turmeric-pH7 encapsulated coarse emulsions, the sample was prepared by adding 5.0 mL of Turmeric-pH7 solution into 5.0 mL of emulsions, where the curcumin is used as not only a bioactive compound, but also a photosensitizer to visualize its location in emulsions using a 405 nm excitation light. Additionally, 10 μL of fat-soluble stain (Nile Red) and protein-soluble stain (FITC) were added to 200 μL of samples, respectively. A droplet of stained sample was then placed on a slide and observed using a 20× objective lens. Determination of curcumin concentration and production yield The UV-visible spectrophotometer (Genesys 150, Thermo Scientific, USA) was used to measure the absorbance values of the samples. A standard curve was constructure using curcumin (> 97% purity), yielding the equation, y = 6.0471x – 0.1043 (R2= 0.9998), where x represents the absorbance at 425 nm, and y represents the concentration of curcumin. All samples were dissolved in ethanol acidified with 1.0 wt% acetic acid to maintain the stability of curcumin. To determine the reference concentration of curcumin in turmeric, 20 mg of turmeric was dissolved in 200 mL of acidified ethanol and stirred for 1-hour at 800 rpm in a graduated 250 mL Erlenmeyer flask , covered with film wrap. The undissolved turmeric was centrifuged for 5-min at 5000 rpm, and the clear yellow solution was used for direct measurement. For the Turmeric complexes, 0.1 mL of sample was added into 9.9 mL of acidified ethanol for direct measurement. To qualify the remaining curcumin concentration during different production phases, 0.1 mL of unfiltered or filtered Turmeric-pH13 was added to 9.9 mL of acidified ethanol, while 1.0 mL of filtered sediment solution was added to 9.0 mL of acidified ethanol for direct measurement. To track curcumin loss during the formulation of Turmeric-pH 7 nanocomplexes, curcumin concentrations were measured at each production stage: mixed,filtered, and acidified. In thefinal acidified phase, curcumin remaining in the liquid and sediment phases was quantified, with loss percentage calculated as 1 minus their combined total. The production yield of the Turmeric-pH 7 nanocomplex was determined by the percentage of curcumin retained in the liquid phase, serving as an important indicator of nanoparticle production efficiency. Statistical Analysis All experiments were performed at least three times, and the means and standard deviations were calculated using Microsoft Excel. The standard error for each sample was determined by dividing the standard deviation by the square root of the number of replicates. Statistical differences between samples were assessed using ANOVA followed by a post-hoc Tukey HSD Test, with significance set at p < 0.05. Results Formation of turmeric nanocomplexes When the alkaline solution (e.g., NaOH, pH = 13) was used to dissolve the turmeric, the curcumin, as an active compound, can be highly deprotonated and thus negatively charged, which significantly enhances the release of curcumin molecules from turmeric into the solution (Peng, et al., “Encapsulation of Lipophilic Polyphenols into Nanoliposomes Using pH-Driven Method: Advantages and Disadvantages”, J of Agric Food Chemistry”, 67(26):7506-7511 (2019)). In addition, the turmeric biopolymers (e.g., proteins and polysaccharides) could include several alkaline-dissolved chemical residues that include the carboxyl or hydroxyl groups, which helps to increase the water solubility of turmeric biopolymers. For example, aspartic acid or glutamic acid of proteins can release a proton in alkaline conditions and become negatively charged. The acidic polysaccharides can also be negatively charged due to the presence of galacturonic or glucuronic acid. It should be noted that numerous hydroxyl groups in the starch may become more ionized and lead to the formation of water-soluble alkoxide ions, which likely destroys the hydrogen bonds of amylose or amylopectin from turmeric starch (Han and Lim, “Structural changes in corn starches during alkaline dissolution by vortexing”, Carbohydrate Polymers, 55(2): 193-199 (2004)). Therefore, alkaline conditions likely provide an excellent environment for the formation of ionized curcumin or turmeric biopolymers. Fresh turmeric was first used to formulate curcumin-loaded nanoparticles via an alkali-acid treatment (Figure 1A). After treatment, both Turmeric-pH13 (dark red) and Turmeric-pH 7 (orange) nanocomplexes were observed (Figure 1B). Surprisingly, despite the color difference, both turmeric nanocomplexes, i.e., Turmeric-pH13 and Turmeric-pH7 exhibited similar particle size distributions (Figure 1B). The Z-average of Turmeric-pH13 was 152.2 ± 3.9 nm with a polydispersity index (PDI) of 0.27 ± 0.01, and the Z-average of the Turmeric-pH7 nanocomplex was 141.3 ± 2.8 nm with a PDI of 0.20 ± 0.00. Binomial peaks were detected in the particle size distributions, particularly for Turmeric-pH7, indicating the presence of two distinct nanoparticle types. This finding aligns with the zeta potential distribution, where two different peaks (-29.0 and - 3.8 mV were present (Figure 1C). The curcumin-loaded nanoparticles were also successfully formulated using a commercial turmeric powder (Figures 5A and 5B). This indicates that nanoparticle formation is independent of turmeric species. Additionally, averaged zeta potentials of both Turmeric-pH13 and Turmeric-pH7 nanocomplexes were -23.3 ± 0.4 mV and -23.3 ± 0.7 mV, respectively, indicating that they can both be stabilized electrostatically. The zeta potential values were close to other reported curcumin- loaded starch nanoparticles having zeta potential values of-26.3 ± 1.2 mV (Li, et al., “Soluble starch formulated nanocomposite increases water solubility and stability of curcumin”, Food Hydrocolloids, 56:41-49 (2016)) starch nanoparticles after a mild alkali hydrolysis and ultra- sonication process having zeta potentials within a range of -15.3 to -41.3 mV (Ahmad, et al., “Production and characterization of starch nanoparticles by mild alkali hydrolysis and ultra- sonication process”, Scientific Reports, 10(Article number: 3533) (2020); Hasanin, “Simple, Economic, Ecofriendly Method to Extract Starch Nanoparticles from Potato Peel Waste for Biological Applications”, Starch, 73(9-10): Article number 2100055 (2021)). To evaluate whether the starch can be negatively charged under similar conditions, the highly purified soluble starch (ACS reagent) was selected. Several similar characteristics in particle size were observed. For example, two peaks were observed in either pH 13 or 7 condition, and their Z-average values were 171.5 ± 2.3 nm and 158.9 ± 0.2 nm, respectively. However, their zeta potential values were different. In the neutral condition, which were -19.0 ± 0.5 mV at pH = 13 and 6.7 ± 0.5 mV at pH = 7, respectively. This suggests that the starch-excluded component may be involved in the formation of turmeric nanocomplexes. The formulation of curcumin-loaded nanoparticles can be reproduced in diverse types of turmeric species. A commercial type of turmeric powder from India was also tested and it was observed that both Turmeric-pH13 and Turmeric-pH7 nanocomplexes had similar behaviors. For example, their average values of zeta potentials were close, in which zeta potentials of both Turmeric-pH13 and Turmeric-pH7 nanocomplexes were -23.3 ± 0.7 mV and -26.6 ± 1.6 mV, respectively. However, their average particle sizes were different, where the Turmeric-pH13 nanocomplex exhibits a Z-average of 249.5 ± 14.3 nm and a PDI of 0.27 ± 0.01. After neutralized to Turmeric-pH7, the Z-average reduced to 247.6 ± 3.3 nm with a PDI of 0.26 ± 0.01. This difference with fresh turmeric is potential due to the application of different processing conditions and different concentrations of curcumin (7.0 wt% from Fiji Island vs.4.3 wt% from the Indian brand). Therefore, the formation of curcumin-loaded nanoparticles can be insensitive to the types of turmeric species. All types of turmeric powder likely contains both curcumin and turmeric biopolymers, which can be dissolved in alkaline solutions to potentially form nanocomplexes. Electrostatic stabilization of Turmeric-pH7 nanocomplex To further determine whether the electrostatic interaction dominated, the impact of different pH values on its zeta potential and particle size was investigated. The pH values (i.e., pH2 to pH9) were tested because they cover the possible pH values for food applications. The results indicated that the electrostatic stabilization dominated, but this effect is less pronounced under the acidic conditions (i.e., pH < 5) (Figure 2B). Following storage 1-day at room temperature, aggregates were observed for samples under acidic conditions, while the samples with a pH ranging from 5 to 9 were clear. Several interesting observations were made. First, the color at pH 8 or 9 became less strong, which can be attributed to the chemical degradation of partly ionized curcumin. Curcumin molecules can have three pKa values (7.4, 9.6, and 10.9); Thus, the curcumin can be partly deprotonated in these conditions and then degraded due to the exposure to the oxygen (Martinez- Guerra, et al., “New insights on the Chemical Stability of Curcumin in Aqueous Media at Different pH: Influence of the Experimental Conditions”, International Journal of Electrochemical Science, 14(6):5373-5385, (2019)). Second, the yellow color observed under pH 5 to pH7 conditions was maintained after 1-day storage and no aggregations were observed. Potentially, the pure curcumin molecules under such conditions can be either rapidly aggregated or degraded (Peng, et al., “Encapsulation of lipophilic polyphenols into nanoliposomes using pH-driven method: Advantages and disadvantages”, J Agric Food Chem., 67(26):7506-7511, 2019). The presence of a clear Turmeric-pH7 solution indicated that the hydrophobic curcumin molecules may be trapped in its lipophilic phase of nanoparticles. It was also observed that the zeta potential of nanoparticles decreased with the decrease of pH values, potentially due to the coating of acidic polysaccharides on the nanoparticles. The negative charges from pH 4 to 6 (< 20 mV) and less positive charge (~5 mV) at pH 2 indicate that the proteins are less likely to be involved at the surface, in part because they can be neutralized due to the isoelectric point or highly positively charged due to the protonation. Instead, the trend was similar to the observations of acidic polysaccharide-coated nanoparticles, including xanthan gum and tremella polysaccharide-based ones (Zhang, et al., “Delivery of curcumin using a zein-xanthan gum nanocomplex: Fabrication, characterization, and in vitro release properties; Tremella polysaccharides-coated zein nanoparticles for enhancing stability and bio accessibility of curcumin”, Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces, 204 (Article No.111827), (2021)). Turmeric includes several types of acidic polysaccharides, which presents several acidic monosaccharide compositions such as galacturonic, glucuronic, and mannuronic acids (Zhu, et al., “Extraction, structural characterization and antioxidant activity of turmeric polysaccharides”, LWT, 154 (Article No.112805), 2022; Harsha, et al., “Modified pectic polysaccharide from turmeric (Curcuma longa): A potent dietary component against gastric ulcer”, Carbohydrate Polymers, 138:143-155 (2016)). This suggests that the acidic turmeric polysaccharides can be coated on the surface of nanoparticles, and the negatively charged carboxyl groups can be exposed to the solvent to provide repulsive electrostatic interactions at pH7. Microstructure of Turmeric-pH7 nanocomplex The microstructures of Turmeric-pH7 nanocomplexes was visualized using TEM microscopy (Figure 2A). Several types of nanoparticles were observed, with particle sizes within 200 nm, such as 100 nm to 150 nm, consistent with the size distributions from the DLS measurements (Figure 1B). Some irregular structures, likely caused by the air-drying process when preparing the samples, were also present. Additionally, small nanoparticles, circled in black, were seen in the background, likely resulting from sodium citrate formed during the acidification process with citric acid. To rule out this effect, the Turmeric-pH7 samples were washed three times with 0.1N HCl, dissolved in the NaOH solution (pH 13), and re-acidified with 0.1 N HCl. The background of the washed samples was much cleaner, confirming that the citric acids contributed to the background staining. Interestingly, the average particle size of washed samples was smaller than that of the unwashed samples, with a Z-average of 98.8 ± 16.4 nm, compared to 142.4 ± 5.4 nm for unwashed samples. The unwashed samples also exhibited a slightly more negative zeta potential (- 26.8 ± 0.2 mV vs 23.1 ± 1.6 mV, indicating that some water-soluble components were removed. However, several large aggregations were observed in the washed sample highlighted in a black circle (Figure 2C), likely due to turmeric polysaccharides coating the nanoparticles. When preparing samples for TEM measurements, the drying process increased salt concentration and could promote their aggregations. To assess whether turmeric polysaccharides coat the nanoparticles, their average zeta potential and particle size across a pH range (2 to 9) was exhibited. The absolute value of zeta potential decreased as the pH dropped (Figure 2B). At pH 7, the relatively negative charges provide electrostatic stabilization, preventing potential nanoparticle aggregation. From pH 4 to 6, the nanoparticles exhibited weak negative charges (< 20 mV), but at pH 2 to 3, the surface charges dropped significantly, approaching neutrality. This suggests that carboxyl groups play a major role on the surface due to their neutralization near the isoelectric point. This was observed in part with other acidic polysaccharide-coated nanoparticles, such as those involving xanthan gum and tremella polysaccharides (Li et al., 2022; Zhang et al., 2021). Besides, turmeric contains several acidic polysaccharides, rich in galacturonic, glucuronic, and mannuronic acids (Harsha et al., 2016; Zhu et al., 2022). These findings confirm that these acidic polysaccharides likely coat the nanoparticle surface, exposing negatively charged carboxyl groups to the solvent. This also indicates that the electrostatic interactions stabilize the nanoparticles at neutral pH but becomes less effective in acidic conditions (pH < 5). Interestingly, the inner structure of curcumin-loaded nanoparticles appeared non-uniform, possibly due to the presence of branched biopolymers irregularly trapping curcumin molecules. Based on this observation, a core-shell model was proposed for the Turmeric-pH7 nanocomplex, where the acidic polysaccharides coat the surface, while the inner phase contains insoluble biopolymers, such as branched starches, encapsulating curcumin molecules (Figure 2B, insert). Under alkaline conditions, the hydroxyl groups of starches, including amylose and amylopectin, can be ionized, forming water-soluble alkoxide ions (Han & Lim, 2004; Zhong et al., 2024). It has been reported that B-type turmeric starches contain both short and long branched amylopectin, with significantly lower water solubility compared to other B-type starches from different plants (Huang, et al., “Comparison of physicochemical properties of B-type nontraditional starches from different sources”, Int J Biol Macromol., 78:165-72 (2015)). It was proposed that turmeric starches become negatively charged in alkaline solution and insoluble after acidification, allowing them to encapsulate hydrophobic curcumin molecules inside while being coated by water-soluble acidic polysaccharides. In addition, plant-derived biopolymers can interact with curcumin, potentially reducing its aggregation and degradation, particularly when stabilized by polysaccharide- or protein- based nanoparticles (Duyen et al., 2022; Pan et al., 2014; Van Hung et al., 2022). For example, previous studies reported that curcumin can form complexes with the helical structures of linear branched molecules in debranched starch through hydrogen bonding (Duyen et al., 2022; Van Hung et al., 2022). Overall, thesefindings demonstrated the successful formation of curcumin- loaded nanoparticles using the alkali-acid treatment, indicating that alkaline conditions can effectively dissolve both curcumin and turmeric biopolymers, while acidification promotes their nano-complexation. Production Yield of Turmeric-pH7 nanocomplex The manufacturing process of Turmeric-pH7 nanocomplex offers simplicity (grinding, mixing, and filtering), eco-friendliness (organic solvent-free), and cost-effectiveness (inexpensive acids or alkalis) compared to traditional organic solvent-based methods. However, production yield remains an important factor for overall efficiency. Next, the production yield for extracting curcumin nanocomplex from raw turmeric was assessed. Existing studies have reported that curcumin is highly sensitive to alkaline environment, due to the potential chemical degradations (Price and Buescher, “Kinetics of Alkaline Degradation of the Food Pigments Curcumin and Curcuminoids”, Journal of Food Science, 62(2):267-269 (2006)). For example, curcumin can be deprotonated and ionized in alkaline, but switched back to the molecule in acidic or neutral conditions. Surprisingly, in the present study, the curcumin is even more stable and less susceptible to the oxidation with increases in pH value, which is in contrast to other types of polyphenols such as quercetin and resveratrol) (Peng, et al., “Encapsulation of lipophilic polyphenols into nanoliposomes using pH-driven method: Advantages and disadvantages”, J Agric Food Chem., 67(26):7506-7511, 2019). This unique characteristic enhances the application of the pH-based approach in the formulation of curcumin-loaded nanocomplex. The curcumin content throughout the different processing phases was monitored. After 10- min of stirring, 96.7 % of curcumin remained, with 3.3% degraded at pH 13 (Figure 3A). After filtration, the remaining curcumin percentage dropped to 75.7 %, indicating an additional 21.0 % loss, likely due to air exposure or retention in the vacuum filter and sediment. After acidification, 66.8 % of curcumin was present in the final Turmeric-pH 7 nanocomplex, while 11.2 % remained in the sediment. This indicates that 22 % of curcumin was chemically degraded during the process, compared to the expected yield (Figure 3B). This was likely attributed to chemical degradation in a highly oxygen-exposed environment, because the stability of phenolic compounds are sensitive to the alkaline solutions (Martínez-Guerra et al., 2019; Price & Buescher, 1997). This suggests that process performance can be increased by improved operating conditions, such as minimizing oxygen exposure with inert gas flushing or vacuum techniques and improving separation efficiency through multiple extraction steps, rather than the single extraction step used in this study. Turmeric-pH7 encapsulated emulsions for food applications The development of curcumin-loaded emulsions can play a role in constructing a convenient curcumin-enriched food system. For example, nanoemulsions are often included in the plant-based milks (Zheng, et al., “Nutraceutical-fortified plant-based milk analogs: Bioaccessibility of curcumin-loaded almond, cashew, coconut, and oat milks”, LWT, 147: Article 111517 (2021)). The oil-in-water emulsion system can be used as a model food system. The impact of adding Turmeric- pH7 nanocomplex on both particle size and zeta potential of nanoemulsions was investigated (Figures 7A and 7B). For either Tween-80 or casein-based nanoemulsions, little effects were observed. However, the color of both nanoemulsion systems turned yellow from white, which offers a fast recognition on the presence of curcumin in nanoemulsions. To determine whether the curcumin can be driven into the hydrophobic phase of emulsions, the Tween 80-stablized coarse emulsions were used to encapsulate the Turmeric-pH7, rather than nanoemulsions, to permit confocal fluorescence imaging to observe the distribution of curcumin in emulsions. It was clearly observed that the curcumin molecules were located in the oil droplets. This indicates that the curcumin of Turmeric-pH7 can still be driven into the hydrophobic phase of emulsions. In addition, the proteins of Turmeric-pH7 can be dispersed in the aqueous phase of emulsions, with little to no protein aggregates. This indicates that the addition of Turmeric-pH7 introduces not only the bioactive curcumin compounds, but also the turmeric proteins in nanoemulsions, which plays an important role in the development of nutritious food products. Successful generalization of plant-derived nanoparticle formulation from raw plants Other phenolic compound-containing plants were also successfully used to formulate nanoparticles using the same pH-based strategy (Table 1). For example, the same process (Fig.1A) was applied to formulate the gingerol-loaded nanoparticles from gingerol powder. As shown in Figure 4A, Ginger-pH 13 nanocomplex had a Z-average of 196.4 ± 3.6 nm and a PDI of 0.27 ± 0.01. After neutralization to Ginger-pH 7, the Z-average decreased to 180.1 ± 1.3 nm with a PDI of 0.19 ± 0.00. Not surprisingly, this strategy can be generalized to formulate nanoparticles from other plants, with average particle sizes under 200 nm (Figure 4B) and consistent size distributions (Figures 6A-6C). Similar average particle sizes, ranging from 140 to 200 nm, can be achieved due to the consistent production process. These results further demonstrate the broad applicability of this pH-based strategy for synthesizing phenolic compound-loaded nanoparticles from raw plants.

[0004] Conclusions In summary, this study developed a pH-based “raw-to-nano” strategy to formulate phenolic compound-loaded nanoparticles directly from raw plants. The simple production process can potentially allow economical and sustainable production, relying solely on inexpensive acidic and alkaline solutions. It enhances the utilization of naturally occurring plant materials and reduces the environmental impact typically associated with organic solvent extraction and additional processing steps. This strategy can potentially improve the practical production of phenolic compound-loaded nanoparticles and expand their applications across variousfields. Furthermore, this approach stands out from traditional methods by offering simplicity, environmental sustainability, and the potential for large-scale production, with minimal loss of curcumin. The nanocomplex exhibits electrostatic stabilization under near-neutral conditions and fits a core-shell model description. Direct formulation of curcumin nanocomplexes from turmeric is beneficial, because incorporating turmeric biopolymers could potentially offer protection against chemical degradation and enrich curcumin-based foods with turmeric proteins and polysaccharides. References Aderemi, et al. (2023). Translational Animal Science, 7(1). Chen, et al. (2023). Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 71(8), 3564–3582. Csuti, et al. (2023). Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 1–15. Duyen, et al. (2022). International Journal of Food Science & Technology, 57(11), 6913–6924. El-Saadony, et al. (2023). Frontiers in Nutrition, 9. Faridi Esfanjani, et al. (2016). Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces, 146, 532–543. Han, et al. (2004). Carbohydrate Polymers, 55(2), 193–199. Harsha, et al.. (2016). Carbohydrate Polymers, 138, 143–155. Hettiarachchi, et al. (2021). ACS Omega, 6(12), 8246–8252. Huang, et al. (2015). International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 78, 165–172. Lei, et al. 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Current Opinion in Food Science, 59, Article 101212 (2024). Xue, et al. Food Hydrocolloids, 120, Article 106987 (2021). Yuan, et al. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 63(22), 5724–5738 (2023). Zerazion, et al. Green Chemistry, 18(6), 1807–1818 (2016). Zhang, et al. Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces, 204, Article 111827. Zhang, J., Hamadou, et al. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 63(19), 4153–4174 (2023). Zhong, et al. Food Hydrocolloids, 151, Article 109878 (2024). Zhu, et al.. LWT, 154, Article 112805 (2022). Example 2: Exemplary Sustainably-derived Turmeric Nanoparticles Improve Gastrointestinal Bioavailability of Curcumin Materials and Methods Materials Corn oil (Mazola, ACH Food Company, Memphis, TN) and fresh turmeric rhizome (C. longa) from Fiji were obtained from local markets and Amazon, respectively. Curcumin (C2302, purity >97.0 %) was purchased from TCI America. Tween 20, Nile Red, citric acid, magnesium chloride hexahydrate, calcium chloride (anhydrous), bile bovine (B3883), porcine pepsin (P7000), porcine lipase (L3126, Type II), and porcine pancreatin (P7545) were purchased from Sigma- Aldrich (Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis, MO). Potassium chloride, sodium dihydrogen phosphate, sodium chloride hydrochloric acid solution and sodium hydroxide powder were purchased from Fisher Scientific (Hampton, NH, USA). All aqueous solutions were prepared using double distilled water. Sample Preparation Preparation of Turmeric Powder Ten pounds of fresh turmeric root were thoroughly washed with water and cut into small pieces. The turmeric pieces were then placed in an oven (Lincoln Impinger, Lincoln Foodservice Products, Fort Wayne, IN, USA) and dried at 40 °C for 24 h. The fully dried turmeric roots were ground into powder by using a nut grinder (Cuisinart, Stamford, CT, USA). The powder was sieved to ensure a uniform particle size. The fine turmeric powder was stored in a brown container under refrigeration to prevent oxidation and moisture changes. Preparation of Turmeric Nanoparticles The turmeric nanoparticles (TurNPs) were prepared using a previously reported method (Gong et al., 2025) with some modifications. Briefly, 200 mg of turmeric powder were weighed into a clear packer bottle, followed by the addition of NaOH solution (0.1 M, pH 13) until the bottle was filled. The mixture was stirred at 800 rpm for 10 min, after which the supernatant was collected and filtered by using a 0.45 μm vacuum filter. The filtered solution was acidified under stirring at 500 rpm by the dropwise addition of HCl, initially using 1.0 M and switching to 0.1 M as the pH approached ~11, until the pH reached 7. The solution sample was prepared and labeled as TurNPs. As a result, the TurNPs solution remained clear, likely due to the complexation of curcumin with turmeric-derived biopolymers, which enhances curcumin’s dispersion and solubility in the aqueous environment. Preparation of Coarse Emulsions and Nanoemulsions An oil-in-water nanoemulsion was prepared by using a microfluidizer. Tween 20 (1.0 wt%) and corn oil (10 wt%) were weighed into a beaker, combined with water, and blended by using a hand-held blender (Omni International, Kennesaw, GA) to produce a coarse emulsion. The coarse emulsion was subsequently passed through a Microfluidizer (LM20, Westwood, MA, USA) three times at 12,000 psi. The resulting nanoemulsion was collected and stored at 4 °C for further experiments. TurNPs Emulsion and Curcumin Emulsion Preparation To encapsulate TurNPs or curcumin crystals into emulsion-based systems, aqueous solutions of TurNPs or curcumin crystals were first prepared. Specifically, 15 mg of curcumin crystals were weighed and dissolved in 50 mL of double-distilled water under stirring at 600 rpm for 15 min. Then, 20 mL of TurNPs solution or 20 mL of curcumin solution (Cur) was mixed with either the nanoemulsions or coarse emulsions, followed by stirring at 700 rpm for 15 min. The nanoemulsions containing TurNPs or curcumin crystals were labeled as TurNPs-NE and Cur-NE, respectively, while the samples with coarse emulsions were designated as TurNPs-CE and Cur-CE. Curcumin crystals were not solubilized in either the solution or emulsions. Nevertheless, to facilitate a consistent comparison with TurNPs, the curcumin crystal group was included as a reference to benchmark performance. Despite their limited solubility, the amount of curcumin that became bioaccessible during the in vitro digestion process could still be quantified. In vitro Gastrointestinal Simulations The INFOGEST digestion model (Brodkorb et al., 2019) was used to assess the digestion behavior of four types of samples, including TurNPs, Cur, TurNPs-NE, and Cur-NE. The compositions of the simulated gastrointestinal fluids for each phases (mouth, stomach and small intestine) and the enzyme activity were prepared and determined according to a previously described method (Zhou et al., 2020). A brief description of each digestion phase is provided below. Oral phase: 5 mL of each previously described sample were mixed with 5 mL of simulated saliva fluid and swirled for 2 min to mimic the oral phase. The simulated saliva fluid contained essential inorganic salts. Stomach phase: 10 mL of the oral phase sample were mixed with 8.6 mL of simulated gastric fluid, acidified with HCl until the pH reached 3. Pepsin (1mL) was added to the solution after the acidification. The mixture was then rotated for 2 h to simulate gastric conditions. Inorganic salts were present in the gastric fluid, and the final pepsin activity was approximately 2,000 U / mL. Small intestine phase: The entire sample collected from the gastric phase was combined with simulated intestinal fluid, double-distilled water, bile salts solution, and CaCl2 solution. The pH of the mixture was adjusted to 7 using NaOH. Pancreatin and lipase were then added. The mixture was then rotated for 2 h to simulate the small intestine phase. Inorganic salts were added to the intestine fluid. The final bile salt concentration 10 mmol / L and the enzyme activity was approximately 2,000 U / mL. After a 2-h digestion, the sample from the small intestine phase (“digesta”) was centrifuged at 12,000 rpm and 4 °C for 50 min. The soluble solution was carefully collected as the “mixed micelle” solution. Physiochemical Properties Appearance, Particle Size, and Zeta Potential The appearance of each sample was taken by using an iPhone camera with a black background and the white LED light. The size distribution of the sample was analyzed using laser diffraction (Mastersizer 3000E, Malvern, UK), while the zeta potential was determined by dynamic light scattering (DLS) with a Zetasizer Pro (Malvern Panalytical, Malvern, UK). Prior to digestion experiments, 0.1 mL of samples (TurNPs, Cur, TurNPs-NE, Cur-NE, TurNPs-CE, or Cur-CE) were diluted with 9.9 mL of double-distilled water for particle size and zeta potential measurements. During digestion, 0.1 mL of samples (TurNPs, Cur, TurNPs-NE, and Cur-NE) were diluted with 9.9 mL of buffer solutions adjusted to appropriate pH levels (pH 7 for oral and intestinal phases; pH 3 for the gastric phase) to permit sufficient signal intensity for subsequent particle size and zeta potential measurements. Microstructure The microstructure of coarse emulsions was examined by Zeiss Confocal LSM 700 (Carl Zeiss, Jena, Germany). The microstructures of various samples from different digestion phases were examined by wide fluorescence microscopy (Nikon Eclipse Ti2, Nikon, Japan). For bright-field microscopy, samples were directly observed under the microscope. For fluorescence imaging of emulsion samples, Nile Red (1 mg / mL ethanol, 10 μL) was added to stain lipids. Curcumin molecules were visualized at an excitation wavelength of 405 nm, while oil droplets were observed at 555 nm excitation wavelength. All observations were performed using a 40× objective lens, and images were captured and analyzed using built-in software. Curcumin Concentration Determination The curcumin concentration was determined according to a previously described method (Gong et al., 2025). Curcumin crystals were dissolved in ethanol acidified with 1.0 wt% acetic acid to prepare standard solutions with varying concentrations. The absorbance of sample was measured by using UV–visible spectrophotometer (Genesys 150, Thermo Scientific, USA). The curcumin standard curve was generated by plotting absorbance values against known curcumin concentrations, yielding the equation y = 6.0471x – 0.1043 (R² = 0.9998), where x represents the absorbance at 425 nm and y denotes the curcumin concentration (µg / mL). To determine the curcumin concentration of test samples, they were directly added to the acidified ethanol and measured under the same conditions. A concern existed that using a UV-Vis spectrophotometer to measure curcumin concentration in TurNPs might not be fully accurate due to potential matrix interference. To address this, a previous study compared UV-Vis and HPLC measurements for TurNPs and found no statistically significant difference between the two methods (Suryamiharja et al., 2024). Given its efficiency and suitability for rapid analysis, UV-Vis was selected as the measurement method in this study. Gastrointestinal stability and bioaccessibility of curcumin after digestion The gastrointestinal stability, bioaccessibility, and gastrointestinal bioavailability were determined using the following equations: (Equation 1), (Equation 2), and Gastrointestinal bioavailability (%) = 100 × Stability × Bioaccessibility (Eq.3), where the Cinitial, Cdigesta, and Cmicelle are the concentration of curcumin at the initial, digesta, and micelle phases, respectively. The coefficient ‘8’ in Equation 1 accounts for the cumulative dilution that occurs as the samples pass through the three phases of in-vitro digestion, which can be derived by following the INFOGEST protocol (Brodkorb et al., 2019). Statistical Analysis Three independent experiments were conducted, and the mean and standard deviation were calculated. Error bars represent twice the standard deviation, calculated using the STDEV.P function in Excel, corresponding to a 95% confidence interval. Statistical significance (p < 0.05) was assessed by examining whether the confidence intervals overlapped with the null hypothesis reference value, where non-overlapping intervals indicate significant differences. Results and Discussion The Formulation of Turmeric Nanoparticles The formulation of turmeric nanoparticles follows a raw-to-nano strategy. As illustrated in Figure 8, the process begins with fresh turmeric rhizomes, which are dried and ground into turmeric powder. The powder is then dissolved in pH 13 NaOH solution, followed by filtration to obtain a clear solution. This solution is subsequently acidified with HCl to pH 7, leading to the formation of turmeric nanoparticles. These nanoparticles can then be incorporated into nanoemulsions, serving as a food model system to investigate the impact of the food matrix on curcumin’s gastrointestinal stability and bioaccessibility. To assess the effectiveness of turmeric nanoparticles in improving curcumin bioavailability, four different sample types were compared: (i) turmeric nanoparticles (TurNPs), (ii) curcumin crystals (Cur), (iii) turmeric nanoparticles incorporated into nanoemulsions (TurNPs-NE), and (iv) curcumin crystals incorporated into nanoemulsions (Cur-NE). These formulations allowed evaluation of the effects of both nanoparticle formation and nanoemulsion incorporation on curcumin’s stability and bioaccessibility. The bottom panel of Figure 8 illustrates how these samples underwent a standardized in vitro digestion model, simulating the oral, gastric, and intestinal phases to determine the physicochemical changes of the nanoparticles under physiological conditions. Throughout digestion, parameters such as particle size, surface charge, and curcumin concentration were monitored to understand how different formulations influenced curcumin’s gastrointestinal fate. An important step involved centrifugation of the intestinal phase, which allowed the separation of bioaccessible curcumin encapsulated in mixed micelles from the non- dissolved fraction. This step was important for determining curcumin’s bioaccessibility, revealing whether turmeric nanoparticles provided a significant advantage over traditional curcumin crystals. The findings from this comparative study offer insights into how nanoparticle formulation and food matrix incorporation influence curcumin digestion and absorption efficiency, contributing to the development of more effective curcumin delivery strategies. Physiochemical Properties of Initial Samples Appearance and Initial Curcumin Concentration The physicochemical properties of the initial curcumin formulations were evaluated based on their visual appearance and curcumin concentration, as shown in Figure 9. The differences in sample clarity, color, and potential phase separation provide insight into how curcumin behaves in different formulations (Figure 9). These observations are important for understanding curcumin’s dispersibility before undergoing gastrointestinal digestion. The TurNPs sample exhibited a clear yellowish solution, indicating that the turmeric nanoparticles are water-soluble, allowing curcumin molecules to remain stably dispersed in the aqueous phase. In contrast, the Cur sample showed a visible sediment of curcumin crystals, confirming curcumin’s low water solubility and poor dispersibility in aqueous environments. When incorporated into nanoemulsions, the TurNPs-NE sample maintained a clear yellowish appearance, indicating that curcumin remained effectively encapsulated within the nanoemulsions. However, the Cur-NE sample showed no noticeable color change compared to the Cur sample, with curcumin crystals remaining visibly undissolved, indicating that free curcumin was not effectively encapsulated in the nanoemulsion system. To The curcumin concentrations were quantified using the same UV-Vis spectrophotometric method, and the initial concentrations for each sample are now clearly presented in Figure 9. Both the Cur and TurNPs samples were prepared with similar curcumin concentrations (~0.25 mg / mL). In contrast, the nanoemulsion-based samples (TurNPs-NE and Cur-NE) exhibited slightly lower but comparable concentrations (~0.15 mg / mL), primarily due to dilution from the nanoemulsion components. Particle Size and Zeta Potential The particle size distribution and zeta potential of the four curcumin formulations were analyzed to assess their colloidal stability and dispersibility, as shown in Figures 10A and 10B. The particle size distribution provides insight into how curcumin is dispersed in different formulations, while the zeta potential measurements indicate the electrostatic stability of the formulations in aqueous systems. In Figure 10A, the TurNPs sample exhibited a narrow and well-defined particle size distribution, with a peak centered at 0.11 µm, indicating the successful formation of uniformly dispersed turmeric nanoparticles. The TurNPs-NE and Cur-NE samples displayed similar particle size distributions, both peaking at 0.23 µm, due to the structural constraints imposed by the nanoemulsion system, which controls droplet size. In contrast, the Cur sample showed a significantly larger particle size distribution, with a peak at 92.05 µm, reflecting the presence of large, undissolved curcumin crystals, which have poor aqueous solubility and tend to aggregate (Górnicka, Mika, Wróblewska, Siudem, & Paradowska, 2023). The zeta potential values in Figure 10B further support the differences in colloidal stability among the formulations. The TurNPs sample had a zeta potential of -25.7 mV, which was consistent with previous findings (Gong et al., 2025). However, the Cur sample exhibited a slightly lower zeta potential of -29.7 mV, likely due to the partial dissolution of curcumin crystals in the aqueous phase, which contributed to its more negative surface charge (Chen et al., 2024; Hyun, Yi, Hong, & Chun, 2022). However, incorporating these curcumin formulations into nanoemulsions led to a significant reduction in zeta potential, with TurNPs-NE and Cur-NE exhibiting values of -11.9 mV and -10.7 mV, respectively. The less negative zeta potential in the nanoemulsions suggests reduced electrostatic repulsion, likely due to the presence of Tween 20 surfactants coating the surface of the nanoemulsion droplets, which stabilize the system primarily through steric hindrance rather than electrostatic interactions (McClements, 2004). Curcumin in turmeric nanoparticles can be spontaneously encapsulated inside the emulsions To further determine whether curcumin from turmeric nanoparticles can be encapsulated within the lipid phase of emulsions, coarse emulsions were selected as a model system and mixed with turmeric nanoparticles. Confocal laser scanning microscopy was used to visualize the spatial distribution of curcumin molecules within the emulsion droplets, providing insights into their distributions. In the TurNPs-CE sample, the yellow fluorescence signal of curcumin is clearly colocalized with the red lipid phase, confirming that curcumin released from turmeric nanoparticles can be spontaneously encapsulated within the oil phase of the emulsions. This suggests that curcumin from turmeric nanoparticles preferentially integrates into the lipid phase rather than remaining strongly associated with the nanoparticles themselves. In contrast, the Cur-CE sample exhibits a weak or absent curcumin fluorescence signal, indicating that the curcumin molecules in crystals are not efficiently incorporated into the lipid phase. These results highlight the poor solubility and limited spontaneous solubilization of crystalline curcumin, reinforcing the advantage of using turmeric nanoparticles as a more effective curcumin delivery system. The physicochemical properties of curcumin-loaded coarse emulsions were further analyzed, as shown in Figures 11A and 11B. In Figure 11A, both TurNPs-CE and Cur-CE samples exhibited similar bimodal particle size distributions, with a smaller peak at 0.82 µm, indicating the presence of small, well-dispersed droplets, and a larger peak at 22.60 µm, representing larger emulsion droplets. The zeta potential analysis in Figure 11B shows that both TurNPs-CE and Cur- CE emulsions had similar negative surface charges, with values of -10.1 mV and -9.4 mV, respectively. However, both emulsions exhibited relatively low zeta potential values, likely due to the presence of Tween 20 surfactants coated on the surface of the emulsion droplets. These findings indicate that the addition of either TurNPs or Cur samples has minimal impact on the overall particle size and zeta potential of the emulsions, indicating that the emulsion stability is primarily governed by the surfactant layer rather than the curcumin formulation type. Gastrointestinal Digestion of Turmeric Nanoparticles Appearance The visual appearance of curcumin-loaded formulations during gastrointestinal digestion provides important insights into their color changes and stability across different digestion phases. Throughout the oral, gastric, and small intestinal phases, noticeable differences in clarity, phase separation, and emulsion stability were observed among the formulations, highlighting the impact of turmeric nanoparticles and nanoemulsions on curcumin’s dispersion and digestion behavior. During the oral phase, the samples maintained a similar appearance to their initial state, indicating that the simulated saliva fluid had a minimal impact on their color and dispersion. In the gastric phase, slight changes were observed. The TurNPs sample became less orange because of dilution. Additionally, the Cur-NE sample exhibited a slight yellow color compared to the oral phase, likely due to the solubilization and dispersion of curcumin molecules in the gastric environment. In the small intestinal phase, the samples showed pronounced transformations. The TurNPs and Cur samples became less transparent, due to the addition of bile salts. The groups containing nanoemulsions (TurNPs-NE and Cur-NE) exhibited significant color changes, indicating the progressive digestion of the lipid phase. Furthermore, sediment formation was clearly observed in the Cur, and Cur-NE samples, indicating potential curcumin aggregation or precipitation in the intestinal phase. Particle Size and Zeta Potential To better understand the structural changes of different curcumin-loaded formulations, their size distributions were monitored across the oral, gastric, and small intestinal phases, as shown in Figures 12A and 12B. These measurements provide insights into the physicochemical transformations of turmeric nanoparticles and nanoemulsions under digestive conditions. As shown in Figure 12A, the TurNPs formulation exhibited significant particle size variations throughout digestion. In the oral phase, the TurNPs sample displayed a distribution with two noticeable peaks, differing from the single peak observed in the initial phase. However, in the gastric phase, the particle size increased significantly, with a peak shift toward ~10 µm, likely due to aggregation of turmeric nanoparticles under acidic conditions (pH 3). A previous study has reported that turmeric nanoparticles tend to aggregate in acidic environments (e.g., pH 3) (Gong et al., 2025). By the small intestinal phase, a substantial number of large particles emerged, with a prominent peak around ~300 µm, indicating further structural changes. In contrast, the Cur sample exhibited consistently larger particle sizes across all phases, indicating that free curcumin crystals remained relatively unaffected by digestion conditions due to their inherent insolubility. As shown in Figure 12B, the nanoemulsion-based formulations (TurNPs-NE and Cur-NE) demonstrated greater structural stability compared to their non-emulsified counterparts. In the oral phase, both nanoemulsions exhibited a narrow and consistent particle size distribution, peaking around 0.2-0.3 µm. In the gastric phase, the particle size remained relatively stable, with only slight increases. By the small intestinal phase, a moderate size shift was observed, likely due to the presence of digestive enzymes and bile salts, yet the nanoemulsions maintained significantly smaller particle sizes compared to the non-emulsified TurNPs and Cur samples. These findings indicate that nanoemulsions provide a protective effect, preventing the presence of large aggregations and enhancing the dispersibility of curcumin throughout digestion. The surface charge stability of curcumin-loaded formulations during gastrointestinal digestion influences their colloidal behavior and dispersion, as shown in Figure 13. In the oral phase, the TurNPs sample had the most negative zeta potential (~ -27 mV), followed by Cur (~ -17 mV), while nanoemulsion-based formulations (TurNPs-NE and Cur-NE) exhibited less negative values (~ -10 mV). During the gastric phase, all formulations experienced a significant increase in zeta potential, shifting toward near-neutral values (~ -5 to 0 mV), likely due to acidic conditions (pH 3) and pepsin activity. This is consistent with our previous observations regarding other food systems (Gong et al., 2025). In the small intestinal phase, the TurNPs and Cur samples regained more negative zeta potential values (~ -22 mV), while nanoemulsions (TurNPs-NE and Cur-NE) became even more negative (~ -35 mV). This shift is likely due to lipid digestion, which releases negatively charged free fatty acids, forming mixed micelles. However, comparing TurNPs with Cur or other nanoemulsion-based formulations, their zeta potential values remained similar, indicating that the type of curcumin formulation had minimal impact on surface chemistry under gastrointestinal conditions. Microstructure The microstructure of curcumin-loaded formulations during digestion provided important insights into their dispersion and aggregation behavior. Bright-field microscopy images revealed distinct differences between TurNPs and free curcumin (Cur). The TurNPs sample initially appeared well-dispersed, but after passing through the stomach phase, a fraction of larger particles emerges. In the small intestine phase, fiber-like structures are clearly visible, aligning with the particle size distribution data showing an increase in large particles. These fibers are likely turmeric polysaccharides present in the TurNPs sample (Gong et al., 2025). In contrast, the Cur sample exhibits large, irregular crystalline structures, confirming its poor solubility and digestibility (El- Saadony et al., 2023; Scazzocchio, Minghetti, & D’Archivio, 2020). The fluorescence microscopy images provided further insight into the distribution and stability of nanoemulsion droplets during digestion. The TurNPs-NE sample exhibited a uniform fluorescence distribution in the initial and oral phases, but the signal disappears in the small intestine phase, indicating complete lipid digestion. In contrast, the Cur-NE sample initially exhibited bright fluorescent curcumin crystals, indicating that free curcumin is not effectively encapsulated within the emulsion system. As digestion progresses, lipase activity in the small intestine disrupts the emulsion structure, leading to the breakdown of the lipid phase. However, large curcumin crystals were not observed, which may be due to partial solubilization within the emulsions or incorporation into mixed micelles in the small intestine phase, demonstrated by the changes in color . These findings are consistent with the particle size distribution data, further confirming the structural transformations occurring throughout digestion. Gastrointestinal Stability and Accessibility The gastrointestinal stability and bioaccessibility of curcumin were evaluated to determine the effectiveness of different formulations in protecting curcumin during digestion and enhancing its absorption potential. As shown in Figure 14, significant differences were observed among the four formulations, highlighting the role of turmeric nanoparticles and nanoemulsions in improving curcumin’s digestive fate. Both TurNPs and TurNPs-NE exhibited the highest stability, at 76.0% and 92.2%, respectively, indicating that both formulations effectively protect curcumin from degradation throughout digestion. In contrast, free curcumin (Cur) showed poor stability (48.1%), indicating significant loss of curcumin during gastrointestinal processing. Similarly, Cur-NE exhibited low stability (48.6%), indicating that nanoemulsions alone do not provide sufficient protection for free curcumin. The bioaccessibility of curcumin, which represents the proportion available for absorption, followed a similar trend. TurNPs-NE achieved the highest bioaccessibility (82.5%), followed by TurNPs (66.8%), demonstrating that nanoemulsion-based delivery enhances curcumin solubilization and further protect the curcumin from degradation. In contrast, both Cur and Cur-NE exhibited low bioaccessibility (9.0% and 15.7%, respectively), further confirming that free curcumin has limited bioavailability and poor solubilization in the gastrointestinal tract. The gastrointestinal bioavailability, defined as the product of stability and bioaccessibility, wa...

Claims

1. CLAIMSWe claim:

1. A method of making a nanoparticle comprising a plant-derived bioactive compound, the method comprising:(i) contacting a plant-derived composition comprising a bioactive compound and one or more biopolymers with an alkaline solution to provide a first mixture comprising a solubilized bioactive compound(s) and one or more biopolymer(s);(ii) optionally agitating the first mixture and / or removing particulate matter from the first mixture.

2. The method of claim 1, further comprising(iii) isolating a nanoparticle from the first mixture, wherein the nanoparticle comprises the bioactive compound(s) and one or more biopolymer(s).

3. The method of claim 1 or 2, further comprising:(iv) contacting the first mixture with an acid to form a second mixture comprising a nanoparticle, wherein the nanoparticle comprises the bioactive compound(s) and one or more biopolymer(s).

4. The method of claim 3, wherein the contacting comprises drop-wise addition of an acidic solution to the first mixture.

5. The method of claim 3 or 4, wherein the second solution comprises a pH of from about 6.0 to about 8.0, inclusive.

6. The method of any one of claims 3-5, further comprising(v) isolating a nanoparticle from the second mixture.

7. The method of any one of claims 3-6, wherein the contacting in step (iv) further comprises agitating the second mixture and / or removing micro-scale particulate matter from the second mixture, optionally wherein the agitating comprises stirring.

8. The method of any one of claims 2-7, wherein the isolating comprises drying.

9. The method of claim 8, wherein the drying comprises freeze-drying and / or spray drying.

10. The method of any one of claims 1-9, wherein removing particulate matter in step (iii) and / or (iv) comprises filtration.

11. The method of claim 10, wherein the filtration comprises passing solution through two or more filters, optionally wherein at least one filter comprises a 0.45 pm pore size.

12. The method of any one of claims 1-11, wherein the plant-derived composition consists of a crushed or ground raw plant or part thereof.

13. The method of claim 12, wherein the raw plant or part thereof is from a genus selected from the group consisting of Curcuma spp. , Syzygium, Capsicum spp., Rosmarinus spp., Zingiber spp., Lamiaceae spp., Monarda spp., Origanum spp., and Satureja spp.

14. The method of any one of claims 1-13, wherein the bioactive compound comprises a pH soluble functional group that is soluble at a pH of 7.0 or above.

15. The method of claim 14, wherein the pH soluble functional group is selected from the group consisting of a phenolic or sugar hydroxyl group (-OH), a carboxyl group (-COOH), a sulfate group (-SChH), sulfhydryl group (-SH), and a phosphate group (-PO4H2).

16. The method of any one of claims 1-15, wherein the bioactive compound is selected from the group consisting of curcumin, gingerol, shogaol, thymol, carvacrol, eugenol, capsaicin, rosmarinic acid, or a pH soluble analog thereof.

17. The method of any one of claims 1-16, wherein the plant-derived composition is selected from the group consisting of turmeric rhizomes, paprika powder, thyme leaves or stalks, rosemary leaves or stalks, ginger rhizomes and clove flowers or buds.

18. The method of any one of claims 1-17, wherein the alkaline solution comprises a pH of 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, or 14, optionally wherein the alkaline solution comprises a pH of 13.0.

19. The method of any one of claims 1-18, wherein the alkaline solution is selected from the group consisting of sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, calcium carbonate, and calcium bicarbonate.

20. The method of any one of claims 3-19, wherein the acid is selected from the group consisting of citric acid, acetic acid, ascorbic acid, hydrochloric acid, phosphoric acid, and tartaric acid.

21. The method of any one of claims 1-20, wherein one or more step(s) is carried out under reduced oxygen conditions, optionally wherein reduced oxygen conditions comprise a vacuum.

22. A nanoparticle produced according to the method of any one of claims 1-21.

23. A pharmaceutical formulation comprising(a) a plurality of the nanoparticles of claim 22, and(b) a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient.

24. A nanoparticle comprising(a) a biopolymer core,(b) a nutraceutical agent, and(c) an acidic polysaccharide coating, wherein the nutraceutical agent is embedded within, or contained within the biopolymer core; and wherein the biopolymer, nutraceutical agent, and acidic polysaccharide are derived from the same plant, or plant part.

25. The nanoparticle of claim 24, wherein the biopolymer, nutraceutical agent, and acidic polysaccharide are extracted according to the method of any one of claims 1-21.

26. The nanoparticle of claim 24, wherein the raw plant or plant part is from a genus selected from the group consisting of Curcuma spp., Syzygium, Capsicum spp., Rosmarinus spp., Zingiber spp., Lamiaceae spp., Monarda spp., Origanum spp., and Satureja spp.

27. The nanoparticle of any one of claims 24-26, wherein the nutraceutical agent comprises a pH soluble functional group that is soluble at a pH of 7.0, or above.

28. The nanoparticle of claim 27, wherein the pH soluble functional group is selected from the group consisting of a phenolic or sugar hydroxyl group (-OH), a carboxyl group (- COOH), a sulfate group (-SO3H), sulfhydryl group (-SH), and a phosphate group (-PO4H2).

29. The nanoparticle of any one of claims 24-28, wherein the nutraceutical agent is selected from the group consisting of curcumin, gingerol, shogaol, thymol, carvacrol, eugenol, capsaicin, rosmarinic acid, or a pH soluble analog thereof.

30. The nanoparticle of any one of claims 24-29, wherein the biopolymer comprises branched amylopectin.

31. The nanoparticle of any one of claims 24-30, wherein the acidic polysaccharide coating is selected from the group consisting of uronic acid and pectin.

32. The nanoparticle of any one of claims 24-31, wherein the nanoparticle comprises a diameter of from about 100 nm to about 500 nm, inclusive, optionally wherein the diameter is from about 100 nm to about 400 nm, from about 100 nm to about 300 nm, from about 100 nm to about 200 nm, from about 50 nm to about 200 nm, from about 70 nm to about 200 nm, from about 50 nm to about 160 nm, from about 70 nm to about 160 nm, or from about 100 nm to about 160 nm, preferably from about 100 nm to about 300 nm, or about 100 nm to about 200 nm, or about 70 nm to about 160 nm, inclusive, more preferably aboutoptionally wherein the diameter is about 126 nm.

33. The nanoparticle of any one of claims 24-32, wherein the nanoparticle has a zeta potential of about -30 mV to about +30 mV, inclusive, optionally wherein the zeta potential is from about -30 mV to about +10 mV, inclusive, optionally wherein the zeta potential is from about -29 mV to about +4 mV, inclusive.

34. An nano-emulsion, comprising(a) the nanoparticle of any one of claims 22 or 24-33;(b) an aqueous solution; and(c) an oil; optionally wherein the oil comprises com oil; and(d) an emulsifier, optionally wherein the emulsifier comprises casein and / or a polysorbate.

35. A method of making a nanoparticle comprising curcumin, the method comprising:(i) contacting a plant-derived composition comprising turmeric powder with an alkaline solution to provide a first mixture, optionally wherein the contacting further comprises(a) agitating the first mixture; and / or(b) removing particulate matter from the first mixture.

36. The method of claim 35, further comprising(ii) isolating a nanoparticle comprising curcumin from the first mixture.

37. The method of claim 36, further comprising(iii) contacting the first mixture with an acid to form a second mixture.

38. The method of claim 37, further comprising(iv) isolating a nanoparticle comprising curcumin from the second mixture.

39. The method of any one of claims 35-38, wherein the turmeric is prepared from turmeric rhizomes according to a method comprising, prior to step (i), one or more of:(I) washing turmeric rhizomes;(II) grating washed turmeric rhizomes;(III) drying grated turmeric rhizomes;(IV) grinding dried turmeric rhizomes to form a turmeric powder; and / or(V) sieving turmeric powder.

40. The method of claim 39, wherein the turmeric is prepared from turmeric rhizomes according to a method comprising, prior to step (i), all of(I) washing turmeric rhizomes;(II) grating the washed turmeric rhizomes;(III) drying the grated turmeric rhizomes;(IV) grinding the dried turmeric rhizomes to form a turmeric powder; and(V) sieving the turmeric powder.

41. The method of any one of claims 1-21 or 35-40, wherein the alkaline solution comprises NaOH comprising a pH of about 13.

42. The method of any one of claims 1-21 or 35-41, wherein the acid comprises citric acid comprising a pH of about 2.

43. The method of any one of claims 1-21 or 35-42, wherein the acid is added dropwise to the first mixture to provide a second mixture comprising a pH of about 7.0.

44. A curcumin nanoparticle prepared according to the method of any one of claims 35- 43.

45. The nanoparticle of claim 44 comprising about 6% by weight of curcumin, about 7% by weight of turmeric -derived proteins, and about 22% by weight of turmeric-derived polysaccharides / carbohydrates.

46. The method of any one of claims 1-21 or 35-43, further comprising one or more steps of formulating the nanoparticle into an emulsion.

47. The method of claim 46, wherein formulating the nanoparticle into an emulsion comprises(a) contacting the nanoparticles with an emulsifier comprising casein protein or a polysorbate to form a first emulsion mixture; and(b) contacting the first emulsion mixture with an oil to provide an emulsion.

48. A nutraceutical formulation in a form suitable for oral consumption comprising:(a) a plurality of nanoparticles of any one of claims 22 or 24-33 or 44-45, and(b) a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or excipient.

49. The nutraceutical formulation of claim 48, wherein the nutraceutical formulation is a dietary supplement, nutritional supplement, or a food product.

50. A colorant comprising:(a) a plurality of nanoparticles of any one of claims 22 or 24-33 or 44-45, and(b) a carrier.

51. The colorant of claim 50, wherein the nanoparticles comprise curcumin nanoparticles and wherein the colorant exhibits a yellow color,optionally wherein the color comprises a dominant wavelength of between about 575 nm and about 585 nm, inclusive.

52. A composition comprising the colorant of claim 50 or 51 and one or more solution, powder, gel, paste or emulsion.

53. The method of any one of claims 1-21 or claims 35-43, wherein the amount of bioactive compound recovered from the plant-derived composition is from about 45% to about 99%, optionally wherein the amount of the bioactive compound recovered from the plant-derived composition is from about 50% to about 99%, from about 60% to about 99%, or from about 65% to about 90%.

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