Monomer polymerization with sulfur and carbon nanotubes

Abstract

A method for producing sulfurizcd-carbon cathode materials for electrochemical cells involves mixing carbon nanofibers, sulfur, and a monomer (e.g., acrylonitrile) to form a mixture, polymerizing the monomer to encapsulate the nanofibers and sulfur within a polymer matrix (e.g., polyacrylonitrile), and pyrolyzing the matrix to chemically bond carbon from the polymer to the nanofibers and sulfur, yielding sulfurized-carbon particles fused to the nanofibers. The pyrolyzed material forms a fluffy powder that is compressed into a free-standing dry film, wherein the nanofibers and longer nanofiber yarns create a three-dimensional conductive network enhancing mechanical stability and electrical conductivity. The film is laminated to a current collector to form a cathode. Optional pore- loading with molecular sulfur improves capacity and cycle life, achieving >70% sulfur utilization without wet processing solvents.

Description

MONOMER POLYMERIZATION WITH SULFUR AND CARBON NANOTUBESRodrigo Villegas SalvaticrraCROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

[0001] This application is related to U.S. Patent 11,605,817 entitled "Sulfurized Carbon Cathodes" which issued 14 March 2023 to Tour et al., and PCT application PCT / US / 2024 / 037961 entitled “Sulfur-Based Electrodes Mechanically Stabilized by Long Carbon Nanotube Filaments, filed 24 July 2024, both of which are incorporated herein by reference.BACKGROUND

[0002] An electric battery includes one or more electrochemical cells. Each cell includes a positive electrode (cathode) and a negative electrode (anode) physically separated by an ion conductor (electrolyte). When a cell discharges to power an external circuit, the anode supplies negative charge carriers (electrons) to the cathode via the external circuit and positive charge carriers (cations) to the cathode via the internal electrolyte. During charging, an external power source drives electrons from the cathode to the anode and cations from the cathode through the electrolyte and to the anode.

[0003] Electrodes commonly combine active and passive materials, active material being what reacts chemically to store and produce electrical energy when the cell charges and discharges. The passive material binds the active material and can contribute to thermal and electrical conductivity. Active and passive materials can be combined using wet- or dryelectrode processes. Wet processes deposit electrode materials as a slurry that must then be treated and dried. Managing solvents and the area and time required for drying are disadvantageous. Dry-electrode processes avoid these issues.

[0004] In typical dry-electrode processing, a mixture of an active material, a conductive additive, and a polymeric binder are processed to the point of forming a powder. The powder can then be compressed and laminated over a conductive surface, such as a current collector of a metal foil.BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0005] The present invention is illustrated by way of example, and not by way of limitation, in the figures of the accompanying drawings and in which like references refer to similar elements and in which:

[0006] Figure 1A is a flowchart 100 depicting a dry-electrode process for creating a cathode of an electrochemical cell in accordance with one embodiment.

[0007] Figure IB is a flowchart 150 depicting a method of making sulfurized-carbon cathode materials using monomer precursors.

[0008] Figure 2 is a SEM image of a 590 x 512-micron area of a free-standing SC film 200 in accordance with one embodiment.

[0009] Figure 3 is a bar chart 300 in which each bar relates a number of yams 220 of a range of lengths in the image of Figure 2.

[0010] Figure 4 is a SEM image 400 of SC film 200 of Figure 2 under higher magnification.

[0011] Figure 5 is a SEM image 500 of SC film 200 of Figures 2 and 4 under still higher magnification.

[0012] Figure 6 is a SEM image 600 of SC film 200 of Figures 2, 4, and 5 under still higher magnification.

[0013] Figure 7 is a SEM image 700 of SC film 200 of Figures 2, 4, 5, and 6 under still higher magnification.

[0014] Figure 8 includes a diagram 800 illustrating sulfurized-carbon structures 805 with covalently bonded sulfur 810, an illustrative sulfur molecule 815 trapped in a pore 817 of the sulfurized carbon, and a thermogravimetric analysis 820 characterizing sulfurized carbon material with bonded and trapped sulfur.DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0015] Figure 1A is a flowchart 100 depicting a dry-electrode process for creating a cathode of an electrochemical cell in accordance with one embodiment. First, at step 105, powders containing >60% sulfur, a polymer precursor, and bundles of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are mixed. The CNTs can be in the form of yarns or bundles, with lengths in the order of hundreds or thousands of microns. In addition to the hundreds or thousands of microns in length, these CNT yarns can be interconnected, forming a macroscopic web-like structure. CNT yams can consist of CNTs that are bundled in parallel and can ramify into multiple branches, contributingto the web-like structure. CNTs can include species with lengths between fifty and one hundred microns and widths between five and one hundred nanometers.

[0016] In one example of step 105, powders of sulfur, a polymer, carbon nanomaterials including CNTs, and CNT yams are mixed in a mass ratio of e.g. 22:11:5:5. The sulfur powder is mixed with a powder of poly(acrylonitrile-co-vinyl acid), or PAN, with an average molecular weight of 150,000 Dalton; CNTs between fifty and one hundred microns long and between five and one hundred nanometers wide; and CNT yarns hundreds or thousands of microns long. The mixing yields a fluffy powder comprising the CNT yams. The mixing of CNTs with CNT yams and other components can be conducted with an impeller or methods such as ball or jet milling. The mixing yields a fluffy powder comprising the CNT yarns and agglomerates of the multiwall CNTs intermixed with sulfur and polymer.

[0017] The fluffy powder is pyrolyzed (at step 110) in a furnace at temperatures between 300 and 500°C. Pyrolyzation carbonizes the polymer precursor by driving off constituent hydrogen and nitrogen and incorporating sulfur. In some preparations, a polymer precursor is from the family of polyacrylonitrile. The filaments — multi-wall CNTs and CNT yarns — tend to fuse to the resulting sulfurized-carbon (SC) particles and agglomerates. The bulk of the smaller CNTs is entrapped within and between the SC powder particles, whereas the bulk of the CNT yams are outside the agglomerates. The CNT yarns can ramify during mixing and the resultant CNT branches and fragments can be entrapped within the agglomerates with the other smaller CNTs. Some of the smaller CNTs trapped within SC particles have anchor segments that extend beyond their particles, and some of those form crosses, hooks, loops, kinks, and elbows that interlace with anchor segments from adjacent particles.

[0018] Next, in step 115, the pyrolyzed material is mixed using a high-shear mixer. The mixing loosens the agglomerates and exposes CNTs and yarn extensions that are fused to the particles and agglomerates. The resultant “fuzz” on and between the SC particles and what remains of the agglomerates gives the resultant powder a fluffy, clumpy consistency and a high angle of repose. This fluffy powder can be further ground and sieved to select agglomerates and collections of agglomerates of a pre-determined size or sizes. The mixing process of step 115 can add a polymer binder, carbon additives, or both, that accounts for between one and ten percent of the total mass of the fluffy powder. In one embodiment, the mixing step of 115 adds three weightpercent of a polymer binder, such as polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF). The concentration of the polymer binder can be less than one weight percent or can be omitted entirely.

[0019] In other methods of preparation, the mixing step of 115 can add additional active material, such as a solid electrolyte powder or powders. The solid electrolyte can be at least one of garnet-type oxides, lithium-based NASICON solids, LISICON solids, Li-containing antiperovskite, lithium thiophosphates, lithium phosphate oxynitrides, glassy sulfide compounds, and compounds thereof. The electrolyte powder can be 20wt% to 60wt% of the total mass.

[0020] The pyrolyzed powder is compressed (120) between parallel rollers to produce a self- supporting SC film in which the CNT yams form an electrically conductive, three-dimensional network that aids mechanical stability. The SC film can be free-standing. The yarn fragments range from hundreds to thousands of microns in length and lack well-defined aspect ratios. Some films include yam fragments that extend entirely through the thickness of the film. The smaller CNTs have relatively well-defined aspect ratios and tend to extend within individual SC agglomerates, sometimes bridging agglomerates, providing connectivity that is short ranged in comparison to the network of CNT yarn.

[0021] In another embodiment, the fluffy SC powder is conveyed into a roll nip and pressed between two parallel rollers operating at different rotational speeds. A dry film of interconnected agglomerates is formed on the faster rotating roll. The film can be transferred from this faster roll to a target substrate by lamination. A suitable dry-electrode process is described in B. Schumm and S. Kaskel, "Dry battery electrode processing, what's next?", Next Energy, https: / / doi.Org / 10.1016 / j.nxener.2023.100009, which is incorporated herein by reference.

[0022] The free-standing film can be stacked or rolled for later use, or can be immediately transferred to a substrate, such as a current collector for an electrochemical cell. For example, the free-standing film can be laminated on one or both sides of an aluminum current collector to form a cathode (125). The resulting laminate is then compacted, smoothed, and finished by calendaring (130). CNT anchor segments that extend beyond their particles to form entangled loops and kinks in the powder appeal' as superimposed crossing filaments in the calendared cathode material.

[0023] Forming the film prior to lamination and calendaring allows the compression, lamination, and calendaring steps to be optimized separately. For example, compaction at a pressure optimized for high cathode density may be too high for effective lamination. Otherembodiments combine one or more of steps 120, 1 5, and 130. The laminated and calendared cathode material is cut into electrodes (135) and combined with other cell components during cell assembly (140).

[0024] Most of the sulfur atoms in the SC cathode material are bonded to an adjacent carbon atom via a relatively strong, covalent, carbon-sulfur bond. In some embodiments, essentially all of the sulfur atoms in the agglomerates are bonded to carbon either directly or via chains of covalently bonded sulfur atoms, though some may be unbonded during cycling (i.e., moving charge earners into and out of the cathode).

[0025] The pyrolyzed powder from step 110 can also be used in a wet process. For example, the pyrolyzed powder can be mixed with a powdered carbon, such as acetylene black, a polymer binder, and an organic solvent or water to form a slurry. The binder and carbon additive can compose from 5 to 20% of the weight of the solid mass. The slurry is then spread over one or both sides of e.g. an aluminum foil that will serve as a current collector. The slurry-coated foil is then dried and compressed.

[0026] Figure IB is a flowchart 150 depicting a method of making sulfurized-carbon cathode materials using monomer precursors. This method can be used with or in place of steps 105 and 110 of Figure 1 A. Monomers serve as building blocks for polymers and copolymers. For example, PAN is formed from the monomer acrylonitrile (AN) in industrial settings using specialized equipment and safety protocols due to the toxic and flammable nature of AN.

[0027] First, at step 155, carbon and sulfur powders are mixed with a solvent and a monomer. The carbon can be a blend of CNTs and other carbon species, such as graphene, carbon black, and mixtures thereof. The monomer can be AN and the solvent water, though other monomers and solvents can be used with or instead of AN. The sulfur can be elemental sulfur, sulfur co-polymers with sulfur content > 90wt%, other chalcogens and particles containing metals. The sulfur can include metals, such as nickel, vanadium, and iron, which are found in sulfur extracted in processing petrochemicals. Various metal oxides and mineral particles may also be present.

[0028] The mixture from step 155 includes suspended CNTs and sulfur particles. Alternatively, the sulfur may be dissolved in the solution rather than suspended. Suspension or dissolution may occur by a rational choice of solvents that can assist in the solubility of sulfurwhile not compromising AN polymerization. Sulfur dissolved in the solution might lead to small particles of sulfur in a PAN matrix subsequently formed.

[0029] A polymerization initiator (radical initiator) is added to the mixture, triggering the AN polymerization over the CNTs and sulfur particles (160). The initiator triggers the formation of free radicals, which react with monomers to form polymer chains and a polymer network. Polymerization converts the AN to a PAN matrix with embedded sulfur particles and CNTs. Polymerization is complete when the AN is consumed, forming PAN. The mass of the polymer formed from AN is from fifty to seventy-five percent of the mass of the sulfur.

[0030] Next, in step 165, the PAN matrix with embedded sulfur and CNTs is removed from the solution, washed, and dried to form a powder. The particles of the powder can be selected. The dried material is then transferred to a furnace. Air is evacuated from the furnace and replaced with an inert gas (e.g. argon or nitrogen). The material is then heated to a reaction temperature. In one method, the material is heated to 450°C for 6 hours under the inert gas in a quartz tube using a split-tube furnace (170). This heat treatment, above the glass-transition temperature and below the decomposition temperature of the polymer, pyrolyzes the polymer to chemically bond carbon from the polymer to the nanofibers and the sulfur, thus forming amorphous carbon- sulfur chemically bonded to the nanofibers. The heating additionally drives off constituent hydrogen and nitrogen, though some hydrogen and nitrogen can remain after the process. The material is then cooled for e.g. 1 hour with the aid of a fan (step 175).

[0031] The shape of the resultant SC particles depends on the morphology of the polymer formed over the sulfur and the CNTs, which is distinct from the morphology of SC particles produced using PAN in powder form. In one embodiment, the one-pot method yields monolithic particles when converted to SC, whereas PAN-powder derived SC yields particles that are agglomerates of smaller particles. The monolithic SC particle size is dependent on the synthesis conditions such as the ratio of generated PAN to sulfur in the synthesis. The monolithic SC presents enhanced kinetics compared to agglomerates of smaller SC particles. The cooled SC particles are then treated to the process of flowchart 100 of Figure 1 A, beginning with the mixing of step 115.

[0032] Figure 2 is a SEM image of a 590 x 512-micron area of a free-standing SC film 200 in accordance with one embodiment. The material is a compacted solid in which much of the internal structure is obscured by compacted SC agglomerates 205. CNT filaments 210, notabledue to their relatively small and uniform cross sections, are exposed in some areas 215. Larger CNT yarns 220 arc highlighted using dashed lines that roughly trace their paths. CNT yams 220 are longer, wider, and less uniform than CNT filaments 210. The CNT filaments and yams extend both in the plane of the film, as shown, and normal to the plane, collectively forming a conductive, three-dimensional framework of nanofibers in physical and electrical contact with SC particles formed into agglomerates 205.

[0033] In the example of SC film 200, CNT yams 220 have a maximum width of at least three microns, with some being considerably larger. The distributions of CNT filaments and yams are spread out in the 3D space of film 200 with vertical filaments, yarns, and sections of filaments and yams obscured. Yarns 220 of CNT filaments can range from hundreds to thousands of microns in length and have no defined aspect ratio. Yarns 220 extend between more local networks of CNT filaments 210. The bulk of CNT filaments 210 are intra-agglomerate filaments, whereas the bulk of CNT yams 220 are extra- agglomerate filaments that extend past and are fused to multiple agglomerates.

[0034] The dimensions of the particles, agglomerates, intra-agglomerate filaments, and extraagglomerate filaments can be specified relative to one another. The intra-agglomerate filaments are within the agglomerates and thus have an average intra-agglomerate-filament width less than the average agglomerate size, less than the average particle size in some embodiments. The extra- agglomerate filaments have an average extra- agglomerate-filament width greater than the average intra-agglomerate-filament width and an average extra- agglomerate length greater than the average agglomerate size. The average extra- agglomerate-filament length is greater than five times the average agglomerate size in some embodiments.

[0035] Figure 3 is a bar chart 300 in which each bar relates a number of yams 220 of a range of lengths in the image of Figure 2. The 590 x 512-micron sample area gives a sense of the relative proportions of yam lengths in film 200. Most yams 220 are between fifty and one hundred fifty microns. Many are considerably longer than the CNT precursors used in the method of Figure 1 to form film 200.

[0036] Figure 4 is a SEM image 400 of SC film 200 of Figure 2 under higher magnification. Agglomerates 205 of particles are seen with CNTs 210 within and between the agglomerates. Segments of the larger CNT yams 220 tend to extend far longer than the average size of agglomerates 205, physically and electrically connecting the agglomerates and their constituentSC particles and CNTs. In the context of particles and agglomerates, "size" refers to the largest dimension.

[0037] Figure 5 is a SEM image 500 of SC film 200 of Figures 2 and 4 under still higher magnification. A collection of CNTs 210 encircled at lower right extends from agglomerates 205. The bulk of the CNT filaments are embedded within agglomerates 205, whereas the bulk of CNT yarns 220 are threaded between them. Electrically, CNTs 210 serve as feeder lines, short- range conductors that connect SC particles within agglomerates 205 to CNT yarns 220. The CNT yams, in turn, serve as trunk lines, long-range conductors that connect the feeder lines to a current collector (e.g. a metal film). The resultant three-dimensional conductive framework binds the SC particles and agglomerates while providing low-resistance electrical connectivity between the SC particles and the current collector. The three-dimensional framework also mechanically supports the electrode structure.

[0038] Figure 6 is a SEM image 600 of SC film 200 of Figures 2, 4, and 5 under still higher magnification. SC particles 605 are easily discernable constituents of agglomerates 205. CNTs extend through particles 605 generally but are not visible. The widths of CNT yam fragments 220 are greater than the average size of particles 605 and are on the order of the average size of agglomerates 205. CNTs 210, on the order of ten nanometers in diameter in the depicted sample, are difficult to image and thus hidden from view. Yarn fragments 220 can partially disentangle during mixing 115 leaving smaller fragments that get incorporated into agglomerates 205 with CNTs 210. However, the bulk of the material introduced as yams in mixing 105 remains outside the agglomerates. Some of the yams can be seen to comprise carbon filaments that branch and recombine at joints.

[0039] The conductive filaments have bimodal distributions of lengths and widths selected in proportion to the sizes of agglomerates 205 and particles 605. The CNTs are relatively thin so that mixing and milling tend to combine the CNTs with SC particles 605 to form agglomerates 205. Yams 220 are much thicker than the CNTs and tend to remain outside of particles 605 and agglomerates 205 during mixing and milling.

[0040] Figure 7 is a SEM image 700 of SC film 200 of Figures 2, 4, 5, and 6 under still higher magnification. SC particles 605 are easily discernable constituents of an agglomerate 205. A CNT yam fragment 220 extends past agglomerate 205. A graphic 750 at bottom highlights SC particles 605 and CNTs 210.

[0041] The conductive filaments are multi-wall CNTs and CNT yams in the forgoing embodiments. Other embodiments can include more or different combinations of conductive filaments, including e.g. SC fibers. Conductive additives of e.g. graphene, graphite, nanoplatelets, nanorods, and nanoribbons can be used with or instead of CNTs and / or CNT yams. Selenium can be used with or instead of sulfur to produce particles and agglomerates of sulfurized / selenized carbon or selenized carbon.

[0042] Sulfur-based cathodes can be limited in use by the depletion of active material from the cathode electrode, known as the shuttle effect. The shuttle of active materials happens because specific products of discharge, lithium polysulfides (LiPS), present solubility in the battery electrolyte thus leaching out from the physical stmeture of the cathode. This effect is enhanced by the poor adsorption of sulfur crystals over a conductive matrix, typically of carbon. In the above-described sulfurized-carbon synthesis, sulfur molecules react with decomposing carbon-based materials, forming new bonds between sulfur molecules and the derived carbon material. The resulting sulfurized carbon presents excellent stability even in carbonate-based electrolytes, which are not compatible with elemental sulfur-based cathodes because of their inherent reactivity.

[0043] Sulfurized carbon materials are limited by the number of active sites available to bind with sulfur. Under pyrolysis, carbon-based precursors can convert to either a mixture of graphitic or amorphous carbon materials. Localized sp2 carbon crystalline domains can be present in both materials. From the point of view of sulfur loading, the growth of sp2 crystals in lateral size can limit the active sites to bind with sulfur, and thus the gravimetric capacity of such sulfurized carbon cathodes.

[0044] Some embodiments extend the lithium storage capacity of sulfurized-carbon cathodes with enhanced porosity and molecular sulfur trapped within the pores. The resultant electrode material has two distinct forms of sulfur with different chemical structure, bonding, and physical properties. The first form of sulfur occurs as the sulfur atoms in the micro- and mesoporous sulfurized carbon, sulfur atoms that are covalently bonded to the carbonaceous matrix either directly or via other sulfur atoms. This bonded sulfur can be incorporated into the carbon structure in several forms, including thiophene-like structures (where sulfur atoms are part of carbon rings), as polysulfides (chains of sulfur atoms bonded to carbon), or as terminal groups attached to the carbon lattice. The second form of sulfur occurs as molecular sulfur, commonlyas a ring of eight sulfur atoms (Ss), though other allotropes exist predominantly from S2 to S20. These sulfur molecules arc adsorbed to the sulfurized carbon and trapped within the pores. The capture and adsorption of this elemental trapped sulfur slow the diffusion of soluble LiPS and thus enhance the cycle life of sulfur-based electrochemical cells that incorporate these electrodes. Sulfur beyond what can be trapped in the pore volume tends to deposit on external surfaces of the carbon materials and so does not benefit from the stabilizing effects of pore constraints.

[0045] Some embodiments modify the method of Figure 1 to create sulfurized-carbon materials rich in micro- and mesopores for storing trapped sulfur. Addition of molecules to the polymer precursor, which might include variants of polyacrylonitrile, and synthesis process conditions, which includes mixing methods and treatment of the mixture precursors, induce the resulting sulfurized carbon material includes micro- and mesopores. The formation of micro- and mesopores can be facilitated in sulfurized carbon by modifying precursor polymers with comonomers (molecules that are added to the chemical structure of the polymer). Chemicals, such as salts and solvents, can also be added to precursor polymers to expand cathode material and increase pore volume.

[0046] Sulfur can be loaded into the pores of sulfurized carbon in the heating program used for the precursor pyrolysis. By adjusting the temperature of the synthesis, sulfur vapors rich in smaller molecules (S2 to S4) can facilitate the loading of sulfur species in the newly formed pores of the sulfurized carbon. Pressure can further assist in the sulfur loading. After loading, the sulfur atoms covalently bonded to carbon atoms make up from twenty to fifty percent of the mass of the conductive framework and the SC particles, while the sulfur molecules are from six to thirty percent of this mass. Sulfur can also be added electrochemically using additives, such as lithium polysulfides, present in an electrolyte.

[0047] Sulfur utilization is important for understanding the efficiency, capacity, and overall performance of sulfur-based cathodes. Sulfur utilization refers to the fraction of sulfur that is actively participating in electrochemical reactions during cell discharge. The fraction of sulfur that participates in the reaction undergoes the following reaction: S + 2Li — > Li2S. High sulfur utilization is desirable as it indicates that a larger amount of the sulfur is being used to store and deliver energy, leading to higher specific capacities. Sulfur utilization can be measured indirectly as a function of the specific capacity of a cell that incorporates the cathode. The specific capacity, typically in milliamp-hours per gram, is compared to the theoretical capacity of sulfurto determine the utilization rate. In some embodiments, more than 70% of the sulfur, from both the sulfurized carbon and the trapped molecules, is utilized.

[0048] Figure 8 includes a diagram 800 illustrating sulfurized-carbon structures 805 with covalently bonded sulfur 810 and an illustrative sulfur molecule 815 trapped in a pore 817 of the sulfurized carbon. Nitrogen is included in structures 805 as heteroatoms at a concentration of between five and twenty percent of the mass of the carbon atoms.

[0049] Figure 8 also includes a thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) 820 characterizing sulfurized carbon material with bonded and trapped sulfur. TGA 820 includes separate curves 825 and 830 showing respective sulfur mass loss for trapped molecular sulfur and sulfur bonded to the carbon framework. These data were taken and averaged over more than ten batches. Cathode materials in some embodiments have about 40% bonded sulfur and 8-10% trapped sulfur molecules by weight. Other embodiments include 45% bonded and 25% trapped, 40% bonded and 30% trapped, and 40% bonded and 40% trapped.

[0050] The foregoing discussion focuses on electrochemical cells that employ lithium ions as charge carriers. Other alkali metals (e.g. sodium and potassium) can also be used. Other variations of these embodiments will be obvious to those of ordinary skill in the art. Therefore, the spirit and scope of the appended claims should not be limited to the foregoing description. Only those claims specifically reciting “means for” or “step for” should be construed in the manner required under the sixth paragraph of 35 U.S.C. § 112.

Claims

CLAIMSWhat is claimed is:

1. A method comprising: mixing nanofibers with sulfur and a monomer to produce a mixture of nanofibers, sulfur, and the monomer; polymerizing the monomer to form a polymer around the nanofibers and the sulfur; and heating the polymer, the nanofibers, and the sulfur to pyrolyze the polymer and chemically bond carbon from the pyrolyzed polymer to the nanofibers and the sulfur.

2. The method of claim 1, wherein the monomer comprises acrylonitrile.

3. The method of claim 2, wherein the polymer comprises polyacrylonitrile.

4. The method of claim 3, wherein the monomer has a mass of fifty to seventy-five percent of the mass of the sulfur.

5. The method of claim 1 , further comprising mixing a solvent with the nanofibers, the sulfur, and the monomers to make a mixture.

6. The method of claim 1, wherein the polymerizing comprises adding a polymerization initiator to the mixture.

7. A method of manufacturing an electrode for an electrochemical cell, the method comprising: producing a mixture by mixing sulfur with a monomer, conductive filaments having an average filament length and an average filament width, and conductive yarns having an average yam length greater than the average filament length and an average yam width greater than the average filament width; polymerizing the monomer to form a polymer around the conductive filaments, the conductive yarns, and the sulfur; and pyrolyzing the polymerized mixture to react the sulfur with the polymer to form particles of sulfurized-carbon fused to the filaments and the yarns.

8. The method of claim 7, wherein the average filament width is less than the size of the particles and the average yam width is greater than the size of the particles.

9. The method of claim 7, further comprising mixing the pyrolyzed mixture with a solid electrolyte.

10. The method of claim 7, further comprising compressing the pyrolyzed mixture into a dry film.

11. The method of claim 10, further comprising laminating the dry film to a current collector.

12. The method of claim 7, wherein the pyrolyzed mixture includes pores, the method further comprising exposing the pyrolyzed mixture to sulfur vapors to load the pores with second sulfur.

13. The method of claim 7, wherein the monomer has a mass of fifty to seventy-five percent of the mass of the sulfur.

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