Systems and methods for optimizing fuel production from behind-the-meter solar power

Abstract

Provided are methods and systems for renewable power optimization for production of a reduced carbon product from a gaseous CO2 source (such as the atmosphere).

Description

Attorney Docket No.56520-710601 SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR OPTIMIZING FUEL PRODUCTION FROM BEHIND-THE-METER SOLAR POWER CROSS-REFERENCE

[0001] This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional No. 63 / 632,456, (AttorneyDocket No.56520-709.101), filed April 10, 2024, and of U.S. Provisional No.63 / 632,465, (Attorney Docket No.56520-710.101), filed April 10, 2024, the entire content of which is incorporated herein. BACKGROUND

[0002] There is an increasing level of carbon-containing compounds, such as carbonmonoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2), in the atmosphere. Such increase in the level of carbon-containing compounds may be adversely impacting the global temperature, leading to global warming. INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE

[0003] All publications, patents, and patent applications mentioned in this specificationare herein incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each individual publication, patent, or patent application was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference. SUMMARY

[0004] Recognized herein is a need for systems and methods that directly utilize variablerenewable energy, such as solar power, to drive electrochemical fuel production. The present disclosure addresses this need by providing systems and methods for producing one or more reduced carbon products through electrochemical reactions powered by a direct current (DC) output from renewable energy sources. Unlike some systems that rely on power conversion electronics, the systems described herein may operate without power conversion electronics (e.g., inverters, transformers, or DC-DC converters), thereby maximizing energy utilization for electrochemical reactions and increasing the production of reduced carbon products per electrolyzer unit. In some embodiments, these systems and methods adjust one or more power parameters. In some cases, this adjustment of one or more power parameters is performed dynamically in real-time. This may involve real-time measurement in some instances, or predictive measurement in other instances. In some cases, the systems may utilize specific operating modes (e.g., supercharged and reduced-power configurations).Attorney Docket No.56520-710601

[0005] In an aspect, provided herein are systems for producing one or more reducedcarbon products, comprising: (a) a plurality of renewable energy units configured to convert one or more renewable power sources into a direct current (DC) power output; and (b) a plurality of electrochemical units configured to use at least a portion of the DC power output to electrochemically reduce carbon dioxide (CO₂) into the one or more reduced carbon products. In some cases, the CO₂ is supplied from a gaseous CO₂ source comprising up to about 90% CO₂ by volume. In some instances, the DC power output is supplied to the plurality of electrochemical units without being converted to alternating current (AC) power.

[0006] In some embodiments, the gaseous CO₂ source comprises up to about 80% CO₂ byvolume.

[0007] In some embodiments, the gaseous CO₂ source comprises up to about 50% CO₂ byvolume.

[0008] In some embodiments, the gaseous CO₂ source comprises up to about 10% CO₂ byvolume.

[0009] In some embodiments, the gaseous CO₂ source comprises up to about 1% CO₂ byvolume.

[0010] In some embodiments, the gaseous CO₂ source comprises, at least in part,atmospheric air.

[0011] In some embodiments, the system further comprises a direct air capture unitconfigured to extract carbon dioxide from atmospheric air and supply it to the gaseous CO₂ source.

[0012] In some embodiments, the system further comprises an electrolyte solutionconfigured to capture at least a subset of the CO₂ from the gaseous CO₂ source stream into the electrolyte solution, thereby forming one or more carbonate or bicarbonate ions.

[0013] In some embodiments, a concentration of the one or more carbonate orbicarbonate ions in the electrolyte solution is at least about 0.05 M.

[0014] In some embodiments, a concentration of the one or more carbonate orbicarbonate ions in the electrolyte solution is at least about 1.5 M.

[0015] In some embodiments, at least one of the plurality of electrochemical unitscomprises an alkaline electrolyzer.

[0016] In some embodiments, at least one of the plurality of electrochemical unitscomprises an electrochemical stack including an anode and a cathode.Attorney Docket No.56520-710601

[0017] In some embodiments, the cathode is configured to operate at a current density ofat least 100 mA / cm².

[0018] In some embodiments, the electrochemical stack further comprises a membranepositioned between the anode and the cathode.

[0019] In some embodiments, the membrane comprises an anion exchange membrane, acation exchange membrane, a bipolar membrane, a polymer electrolyte membrane, a ceramic or solid oxide membrane, a graphene-based membrane, a carbon nanotube-based membrane, a micro-structured membrane, or a nano-structured membrane.

[0020] In some embodiments, the membrane has a thickness of no more than about 200µm.

[0021] In some embodiments, the reduced carbon product comprises one or morealcohols, hydrocarbons, aldehydes, ketones, ethers, or carboxylic acids.

[0022] In some embodiments, the reduced carbon product comprises one or more carbon-based fuels produced from electrochemically reduced carbon dioxide and configured to result in net-zero carbon emissions upon utilization.

[0023] In some embodiments, at least one power parameter associated with the pluralityof electrochemical units is adjusted based on the direct current (DC) power output from the plurality of renewable energy units.

[0024] In some embodiments, the power parameter comprises an input current and / or aninput voltage associated with at least two electrochemical units of the plurality of electrochemical units.

[0025] In some embodiments, the power parameter comprises a resistance associatedwith at least two electrochemical units of the plurality of electrochemical units.

[0026] In some embodiments, the power parameter comprises operation of at least twoelectrochemical units of the plurality of electrochemical units at a level that utilizes a portion of the direct current (DC) power output exceeding a nominal rated capacity of each of the at least two electrochemical units.

[0027] In some embodiments, at least two electrochemical units of the plurality ofelectrochemical units are configured to be dynamically reconfigured in series and / or parallel using a switch network, wherein the configuration is determined at least in part based on the direct current (DC) power output from the plurality of renewable energy units.

[0028] In some embodiments, the dynamic reconfiguration is performed to adjust thepower parameter of at least two electrochemical units of the plurality of electrochemical unitsAttorney Docket No.56520-710601 in response to variations in the direct current (DC) power output from the plurality of renewable energy units.

[0029] In some embodiments, the operational voltage across the plurality ofelectrochemical units is dynamically maintained below a maximum power point voltage of at least one of the plurality of renewable energy units by adjusting resistance in real time to optimize power extraction and prevent overloading.

[0030] In some embodiments, the maximum power point voltage is determined based atleast in part on one or more of real-time sensor data, historical efficiency trends, or predictive system modeling.

[0031] In some embodiments, the maximum power point voltage is estimated based atleast in part on a temperature measurement of at least one of the plurality of renewable energy units.

[0032] In some embodiments, the system further comprises a processor configured toestimate a maximum available direct current (DC) power output of the plurality of renewable energy units at a future time point based on forecasted environmental data.

[0033] In some embodiments, the forecasted environmental data comprises one or moreof satellite-derived data, weather station measurements, or real-time sensor readings related to environmental conditions affecting renewable energy generation.

[0034] In some embodiments, the processor is further configured to execute aconfiguration selection model to determine a configuration of the electrochemical units that modulates current draw under a constraint on total available electrochemical cell count.

[0035] In some embodiments, the plurality of electrochemical units are configured tooperate in at least one of: (a) a continuous operation mode, (b) a pulsed operation mode, and (c) a variable current density operation mode.

[0036] In some embodiments, the system further comprises a load prioritization moduleconfigured to selectively activate or deactivate individual electrochemical units based on real- time power availability, wherein the module dynamically ranks activation priority based on measured or forecasted energy input.

[0037] In some embodiments, the plurality of electrochemical units are operated such thatoverall system performance is optimized based on maximizing total current consumption rather than total power consumption.

[0038] In some embodiments, operation to maximize current results in a powerconversion efficiency that remains within a defined percentage of a maximum achievable power conversion efficiency, optionally within about 5% to about 25% of the maximum.Attorney Docket No.56520-710601

[0039] In some embodiments, the plurality of electrochemical units are configured tooperate in a flexible turndown mode in which one or more units operate at reduced current density to maintain energy efficiency during periods of low renewable power availability.

[0040] In some embodiments, a subset of the plurality of electrochemical units operatesin a supercharged mode while one or more remaining units operate in a higher-efficiency normal mode, such that production is maximized while maintaining overall system energy efficiency above a predefined threshold.

[0041] In some embodiments, one or more reaction conditions associated with theplurality of electrochemical units are adjusted based on the direct current (DC) power output from the plurality of renewable energy units, the reaction conditions comprising one or more of temperature, electrolyte concentration, pH, or pressure.

[0042] In some embodiments, a reaction rate or production rate of the one or morereduced carbon products is adjusted based on the direct current (DC) power output from the plurality of renewable energy units.

[0043] In some embodiments, the reaction rate or production rate is increased when aninput current to at least one of the plurality of electrochemical units exceeds a predefined threshold.

[0044] In some embodiments, the predefined threshold corresponds to a nominal ratedcurrent, and the increased input current results in a supercharged operating mode that increases production rate while decreasing energy efficiency.

[0045] In some embodiments, the system is further configured to revert from thesupercharged operating mode to a normal operating mode when the input current falls below the predefined threshold for a specified time period.

[0046] In some embodiments, the system comprises a thermal management subsystemconfigured to monitor temperature and limit or disable the supercharged operating mode when a temperature threshold is exceeded.

[0047] In some embodiments, the system operates without requiring power conversionelectronics, such that the direct current (DC) power output is delivered to the plurality of electrochemical units without the use of any inverter, transformer, or DC-DC converter.

[0048] In some embodiments, the system is further configured to match the operatingvoltage and current characteristics of the plurality of renewable energy units and the plurality of electrochemical units, thereby eliminating the need for active voltage or current regulation circuitry.Attorney Docket No.56520-710601

[0049] In some embodiments, the system comprises a direct electrical connectionbetween the plurality of renewable energy units and the plurality of electrochemical units, and is configured to dynamically adjust electrochemical unit operation (including activation, sequencing, or configuration) based on the unregulated DC power output.

[0050] In an aspect, provided herein are methods for producing one or more reducedcarbon products, comprising: (a) converting one or more renewable power sources into a direct current (DC) power output using a plurality of renewable energy units; (b) supplying the DC power output to a plurality of electrochemical units without converting the DC power output to alternating current (AC) power; and (c) electrochemically reducing carbon dioxide (CO₂), supplied from a gaseous CO₂ source comprising up to about 90% CO₂ by volume, into the one or more reduced carbon products using the plurality of electrochemical units.

[0051] In some embodiments, the gaseous CO₂ source comprises up to about 80% CO₂ byvolume.

[0052] In some embodiments, the gaseous CO₂ source comprises up to about 50% CO₂ byvolume.

[0053] In some embodiments, the gaseous CO₂ source comprises up to about 10% CO₂ byvolume.

[0054] In some embodiments, the gaseous CO₂ source comprises up to about 1% CO₂ byvolume.

[0055] In some embodiments, the gaseous CO₂ source comprises, at least in part,atmospheric air.

[0056] In some embodiments, the method further comprises extracting carbon dioxidefrom atmospheric air using a direct air capture unit and supplying it to the gaseous CO₂ source.

[0057] In some embodiments, the method further comprises capturing at least a portion ofthe CO₂ into an electrolyte solution to form one or more carbonate or bicarbonate ions.

[0058] In some embodiments, a concentration of the one or more carbonate orbicarbonate ions in the electrolyte solution is at least about 0.05 M.

[0059] In some embodiments, the concentration is at least about 1.5 M.

[0060] In some embodiments, at least one of the electrochemical units comprises analkaline electrolyzer.

[0061] In some embodiments, at least one of the electrochemical units comprises anelectrochemical stack comprising an anode and a cathode.Attorney Docket No.56520-710601

[0062] In some embodiments, the cathode is operated at a current density of at least 100mA / cm².

[0063] In some embodiments, the method further comprises using a membrane positionedbetween the anode and the cathode.

[0064] In some embodiments, the membrane comprises an anion exchange membrane, acation exchange membrane, a bipolar membrane, a polymer electrolyte membrane, a ceramic or solid oxide membrane, a graphene-based membrane, a carbon nanotube-based membrane, a micro-structured membrane, or a nano-structured membrane.

[0065] In some embodiments, the membrane has a thickness of no more than about 200µm.

[0066] In some embodiments, the one or more reduced carbon products comprise one ormore alcohols, hydrocarbons, aldehydes, ketones, ethers, or carboxylic acids.

[0067] In some embodiments, the one or more reduced carbon products comprise one ormore carbon-based fuels configured to result in net-zero carbon emissions upon utilization.

[0068] In some embodiments, the method further comprises adjusting one or more powerparameters of the electrochemical units based on the DC power output.

[0069] In some embodiments, the power parameter comprises input current and / or inputvoltage to at least two of the electrochemical units.

[0070] In some embodiments, the power parameter comprises an electrical resistanceassociated with the electrochemical units.

[0071] In some embodiments, the method further comprises operating theelectrochemical units at input current levels that exceed a nominal rated capacity during periods of high DC power availability.

[0072] In some embodiments, the method further comprises dynamically reconfiguringthe electrochemical units in series and / or parallel using a switch network based on the DC power output.

[0073] In some embodiments, the dynamic reconfiguration adjusts impedance or branchconfiguration in response to real-time power availability.

[0074] In some embodiments, the method further comprises maintaining the operatingvoltage of the electrochemical units below a maximum power point voltage of at least one of the renewable energy units.

[0075] In some embodiments, the maximum power point voltage is determined based onone or more of sensor data, historical trends, or predictive modeling.Attorney Docket No.56520-710601

[0076] In some embodiments, the maximum power point voltage is estimated based on atemperature measurement of the renewable energy units.

[0077] In some embodiments, the method further comprises estimating a future DCpower availability using environmental forecast data.

[0078] In some embodiments, the forecasted data comprises satellite-derived irradiance,weather station data, or real-time irradiance sensors.

[0079] In some embodiments, the method further comprises executing a configurationselection model to determine a configuration of the electrochemical units that modulates current draw under a constraint on available electrochemical cell count.

[0080] In some embodiments, the method further comprises operating theelectrochemical units in at least one of: (a) a continuous operation mode, (b) a pulsed operation mode, or (c) a variable current density mode.

[0081] In some embodiments, the method further comprises selectively activating ordeactivating individual electrochemical units based on power availability and load prioritization logic.

[0082] In some embodiments, the system is operated to maximize total currentconsumption rather than total power consumption.

[0083] In some embodiments, operation to maximize current results in a powerconversion efficiency within about 5% to about 25% of a peak power conversion efficiency.

[0084] In some embodiments, the method further comprises operating at least oneelectrochemical unit in a flexible turndown mode during low power availability.

[0085] In some embodiments, the method further comprises operating a subset ofelectrochemical units in a supercharged mode and one or more others in a higher-efficiency normal mode.

[0086] In some embodiments, the method further comprises adjusting one or more oftemperature, pressure, pH, or electrolyte concentration based on the DC power output.

[0087] In some embodiments, the method further comprises adjusting a reaction rate orproduct output rate based on the DC power output.

[0088] In some embodiments, the reaction rate is increased when input current exceeds athreshold defining a supercharged operation.

[0089] In some embodiments, the method further comprises reverting from thesupercharged mode to a normal mode when the input current drops below the threshold for a predefined period.Attorney Docket No.56520-710601

[0090] In some embodiments, the method further comprises monitoring systemtemperature and disabling the supercharged mode if a thermal threshold is exceeded.

[0091] In some embodiments, the method is performed without converting the DC powerusing inverters, transformers, or DC-DC converters.

[0092] In some embodiments, the method further comprises matching voltage and currentcharacteristics of the renewable energy units and the electrochemical units to eliminate active regulation circuitry.

[0093] In some embodiments, the method further comprises directly connecting therenewable energy units and the electrochemical units and dynamically adjusting operation of the electrochemical units based on the unregulated DC power.

[0094] In an aspect, provided herein are methods for producing one or more reducedcarbon products, comprising: (a) converting one or more renewable power sources into a direct current (DC) power output using a plurality of renewable energy units; (b) supplying the DC power output directly to a plurality of electrochemical units without converting the DC power to alternating current (AC) power; (c) electrochemically reducing carbon dioxide, supplied from a gaseous CO₂ source, into the one or more reduced carbon products using the plurality of electrochemical units; and (d) adjusting one or more power parameters associated with the plurality of electrochemical units based on the DC power output.

[0095] In an aspect, provided herein are methods for producing and utilizing a carbonproduct, comprising: (a) at a first location, providing (i) a contactor configured for direct air capture, (ii) an electrochemical stack comprising an anode and a cathode, and (iii) one or more renewable energy units; (b) in the contactor, contacting an air stream comprising carbon dioxide (CO₂) with an electrolyte solution to capture at least a portion of the CO₂ from the air stream into the electrolyte solution, thereby forming carbonate and / or bicarbonate ions therein; (c) directing the electrolyte solution comprising the carbonate and / or bicarbonate ions to the electrochemical stack; (d) supplying a direct current (DC) power output from the one or more renewable energy units to the electrochemical stack; (e) electrochemically reducing the carbonate and / or bicarbonate ions in the electrolyte solution at the cathode to generate the carbon product, while applying a voltage between the cathode and the anode using the DC power output; (f) transporting the carbon product from the first location to a second location distinct from the first location; and (g) generating electricity from the carbon product at the second location.

[0096] In some embodiments, the electrolyte solution used in the contactor is a high pHaqueous electrolyte.Attorney Docket No.56520-710601

[0097] In some embodiments, (e) further comprises regenerating hydroxide ions in theelectrolyte solution, thereby increasing the pH of the electrolyte solution.

[0098] In some embodiments, the method further comprises recycling at least a portion ofthe electrolyte solution from the electrochemical stack back to the contactor.

[0099] In some embodiments, the carbon product comprises e-ethanol.

[0100] In some embodiments, the carbon product comprises e-ethylene.

[0101] In some embodiments, the method further comprises separating the carbonproduct from the electrolyte solution using a separation membrane after in (e) and before in (f).

[0102] In some embodiments, the separation membrane comprises a carbon nanotube(CNT) membrane.

[0103] In some embodiments, transporting the carbon product in (f) comprises using apipeline, rail, or truck.

[0104] In some embodiments, generating electricity in (g) comprises using a gas turbineor a reciprocating engine.

[0105] In some embodiments, the electricity generated at the second location is used topower a data center.

[0106] In some embodiments, the DC power output is supplied to the electrochemicalstack without conversion to alternating current (AC) power.

[0107] In an aspect, provided herein are systems for producing and utilizing a carbonproduct, comprising: (a) at a first location: (i) one or more renewable energy units configured to generate a direct current (DC) power output; (ii) a contactor configured to contact an air stream comprising carbon dioxide (CO₂) with an electrolyte solution to capture at least a portion of the CO₂ into the electrolyte solution; and (iii) an electrochemical stack comprising an anode and a cathode, the stack configured to receive the electrolyte solution from the contactor and the DC power output from the renewable energy units, and further configured to electrochemically reduce the captured CO₂ in the electrolyte solution to generate the carbon product; (b) means for transporting the carbon product from the first location to a second location distinct from the first location; and (c) an electricity generator at the second location configured to generate electricity from the carbon product.

[0108] In some embodiments, the contactor is configured to utilize a high pH aqueouselectrolyte.

[0109] In some embodiments, the electrochemical stack is configured to regeneratehydroxide ions in the electrolyte solution during operation.Attorney Docket No.56520-710601

[0110] In some embodiments, the system further comprises a fluid connection configuredto recycle at least a portion of the electrolyte solution from the electrochemical stack back to the contactor.

[0111] In some embodiments, the carbon product comprises e-ethanol or e-ethylene.

[0112] In some embodiments, the system further comprises a separation unit positioneddownstream of the electrochemical stack and upstream of the means for transporting, the separation unit comprising a membrane configured to separate the carbon product from the electrolyte solution.

[0113] In some embodiments, the membrane comprises a carbon nanotube (CNT)membrane.

[0114] In some embodiments, the means for transporting comprises a pipeline, a rail car,or a truck.

[0115] In some embodiments, the electricity generator comprises a gas turbine or areciprocating engine.

[0116] In some embodiments, the second location comprises a data center configured tobe powered, at least in part, by the electricity generator.

[0117] In some embodiments, the system lacks power conversion electronics configuredto convert the DC power output from the renewable energy units to alternating current (AC) power before supply to the electrochemical stack.

[0118] In some embodiments, the regeneration of hydroxide ions increases the pH of theelectrolyte solution, thereby regenerating the CO₂ absorption capacity of the electrolyte solution directed back to the contactor in accordance with claim 94.

[0119] In some embodiments, the regenerated hydroxide ions enhance the CO₂ absorptioncapacity of the recycled electrolyte solution via the fluid connection.

[0120] In some embodiments, the transporting in (f) and the generating electricity in (g)are performed without requiring connection to an electrical transmission grid between the first location and the second location.

[0121] In some embodiments, the means for transporting and the electricity generator areconfigured to operate independently of an electrical transmission grid connection between the first location and the second location.

[0122] In some embodiments, the carbon product generated in (e) comprises a Δ¹³C valuegreater than -25 parts per thousand (‰).

[0123] In some embodiments, the carbon product comprises a Δ¹³C value of about -5‰ toabout -10‰.Attorney Docket No.56520-710601

[0124] In some embodiments, the carbon product generated by the electrochemical stackcomprises a Δ¹³C value greater than -25 parts per thousand (‰).

[0125] In some embodiments, the carbon product transported in (f) is chemically stablefor long-term storage at the second location prior to in (g).

[0126] In some embodiments, the system further comprises storage tanks at the secondlocation configured to store the chemically stable carbon product for long durations before use by the electricity generator.

[0127] Additional aspects and advantages of the present disclosure will become readilyapparent to those skilled in this art from the following detailed description, wherein only illustrative embodiments of the present disclosure are shown and described. As will be realized, the present disclosure is capable of other and different embodiments, and its several details are capable of modifications in various obvious respects, all without departing from the disclosure. Accordingly, the drawings and description are to be regarded as illustrative in nature, and not as restrictive. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0128] The novel features of the invention are set forth with particularity in the appendedclaims. A better understanding of the features and advantages of the present invention will be obtained by reference to the following detailed description that sets forth illustrative embodiments, in which the principles of the invention are utilized, and the accompanying drawings (also “Figure” and “FIG.” herein) of which:

[0129] FIG. 1 shows a non-limiting example of a utility-scale solar energy systemconfigured for grid export, in accordance with one or more embodiments herein.

[0130] FIG. 2 shows a non-limiting example of a system producing reduced carbonproducts using behind-the-meter renewable energy directly coupled to electrochemical units via a switch network, in accordance with one or more embodiments herein.

[0131] FIG. 3 shows non-limiting examples of photovoltaic system configurationsillustrating impacts of series and parallel connections on current-voltage and power characteristics, in accordance with one or more embodiments herein.

[0132] FIG. 4 shows a non-limiting example of aspects of a power regulation systemmanaging solar-to-inverter energy transfer, illustrating DC:AC ratio effects and clipping, in accordance with one or more embodiments herein.Attorney Docket No.56520-710601

[0133] FIG. 5 shows a non-limiting example of managing time-based energy deliveryfrom solar to an inverter, depicting performance variations and clipping across different conditions, in accordance with one or more embodiments herein.

[0134] FIG. 6 shows non-limiting examples of electrolyzer current-voltagecharacteristics demonstrating temperature dependence and electrochemical regions, in accordance with one or more embodiments herein.

[0135] FIG. 7 shows non-limiting examples of voltage-current responses for electrolyzerconfigurations with varying numbers of series and parallel connections, in accordance with one or more embodiments herein.

[0136] FIG. 8 shows a non-limiting example of an impedance-shifting power regulationscheme using a reconfigurable electrolyzer array and coordinated switching, in accordance with one or more embodiments herein.

[0137] FIG. 9 shows a non-limiting example of the reconfigurable electrolyzer systemfrom FIG.8, operating in a normal mode configuration, in accordance with one or more embodiments herein.

[0138] FIG. 10 shows a non-limiting example of the reconfigurable electrolyzer systemfrom FIG.8, operating in a supercharge mode configuration, in accordance with one or more embodiments herein.

[0139] FIG. 11 shows non-limiting examples of electrochemical unit operation relative tovarying solar current-voltage characteristics within different operating modes, in accordance with one or more embodiments herein.

[0140] FIG. 12 shows non-limiting examples of photovoltaic system performanceevaluation comparing power transfer efficiency and energy efficiency across different operational modes, in accordance with one or more embodiments herein.

[0141] FIG. 13 shows a non-limiting example of regulating electrolyzer current deliveryin relation to solar voltage output, highlighting different operating points, in accordance with one or more embodiments herein.

[0142] FIG. 14 shows non-limiting examples of production optimization characteristicsincluding source IV curves and electrolyzer load lines for different configurations, in accordance with one or more embodiments herein.

[0143] FIG. 15 shows a non-limiting example of a production enhancement processflowchart, in accordance with one or more embodiments herein.Attorney Docket No.56520-710601

[0144] FIG. 16 shows a non-limiting example of a configuration-determination processflowchart involving solar generation modeling, power parameter evaluation, and feasibility assessment, in accordance with one or more embodiments herein.

[0145] FIG. 17 shows a non-limiting example of a heatmap representing annual ACenergy production by hour and day, in accordance with one or more embodiments herein.

[0146] FIG. 18 shows a non-limiting example of a histogram and cumulative distributionfunction chart for annual solar power generation, in accordance with one or more embodiments herein.

[0147] FIG. 19 shows a non-limiting example graph illustrating efficiency metrics versustotal electrolyzer cell count, in accordance with one or more embodiments herein.

[0148] FIG. 20 shows a non-limiting example of a modular electrochemical systemconfiguration including direct air capture and CNT membrane separation, in accordance with one or more embodiments herein.

[0149] FIG. 21 shows a non-limiting example of a modular electrochemical systemconfiguration featuring a catalyst-coated porous separator and CNT membrane separation, in accordance with one or more embodiments herein.

[0150] FIG. 22 shows a non-limiting example of a modular electrochemical systemconfiguration utilizing a bipolar membrane assembly, in accordance with one or more embodiments herein.

[0151] FIG. 23 shows a non-limiting example of a modular electrochemical systemconfiguration utilizing a CNT membrane configured to block fuel crossover, in accordance with one or more embodiments herein.

[0152] FIG. 24 shows a non-limiting example of a modular electrochemical system withintegrated direct air capture and a CNT membrane for lateral fuel transport, in accordance with one or more embodiments herein.

[0153] FIG. 25 shows a non-limiting example of operating points for differentelectrolyzer configurations relative to a solar IV curve, in accordance with one or more embodiments herein.

[0154] FIG. 26 shows a non-limiting example histogram and CDF chart for solargeneration with a fixed, unifacial module setup, in accordance with one or more embodiments herein.

[0155] FIG. 27 shows a non-limiting example histogram and CDF chart for solargeneration with a one-axis tracking, unifacial module setup, in accordance with one or more embodiments herein.Attorney Docket No.56520-710601

[0156] FIG. 28 shows a non-limiting example histogram and CDF chart highlighting theeffect of tracking on power output distribution, in accordance with one or more embodiments herein.

[0157] FIG. 29 shows a non-limiting example of a direct-DC coupled electrochemicalsystem with distinct operating modes for different electrolyzer stacks controlled via a switch network, in accordance with one or more embodiments herein.

[0158] FIG. 30 shows a non-limiting example of a system configuration utilizing aplurality of renewable energy sources, including solar and wind power, connected to power an electrolyzer and capture unit, in accordance with one or more embodiments herein.

[0159] FIG. 31 shows a non-limiting example schematic of a system integrating direct-DC solar power, direct air capture, a dynamically reconfigurable electrolyzer with enhanced control, fuel separation, storage, and electrolyte recirculation, in accordance with one or more embodiments herein DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0160] While various embodiments of the invention have been shown and describedherein, it will be obvious to those skilled in the art that such embodiments are provided by way of example only. Numerous variations, changes, and substitutions may occur to those skilled in the art without departing from the invention. It may be understood that various alternatives to the embodiments of the invention described herein may be employed.

[0161] Whenever the term “at least.” “greater than,” or “greater than or equal to”precedes the first numerical value in a series of two or more numerical values, the term “at least,” “greater than” or “greater than or equal to” applies to each of the numerical values in that series of numerical values. For example, greater than or equal to 1, 2, or 3 is equivalent to greater than or equal to 1, greater than or equal to 2, or greater than or equal to 3.

[0162] Whenever the term “no more than,” “less than,” or “less than or equal to”precedes the first numerical value in a series of two or more numerical values, the term “no more than,” “less than,” or “less than or equal to” applies to each of the numerical values in that series of numerical values. For example, less than or equal to 3, 2, or 1 is equivalent to less than or equal to 3, less than or equal to 2, or less than or equal to 1.

[0163] The terms “C1+” and “C1+ compound,” as used herein, generally refer to acompound comprising one or more carbon atoms, such as one carbon atom (C1), two carbon atoms (C2), etc. C1+ compounds include, without limitation, alkanes (e.g., methane, CH4), alkenes (e.g., ethylene, C2H4), alkynes and aromatics containing two or more carbon atoms.Attorney Docket No.56520-710601 In some cases, C1+ compounds include aldehydes, ketones, esters and carboxylic acids. Examples of C1+ compounds include, without limitation, methane, ethane, ethylene, acetylene, propane, propene, butane, butylene, etc.

[0164] The term “unit,” as used herein, generally refers to a unit operation, which is abasic operation in a process. Unit operations may involve a physical change or chemical transformation, such as, for example, separation, crystallization, evaporation, filtration, polymerization, isomerization, transformation, and other reactions. A given process may require one or a plurality of unit operations to obtain the desired product(s) from a starting material(s), or feedstock(s).

[0165] The term “carbon-containing material,” as used herein, generally refers to anymaterial comprising at least one carbon atom. In some example, a carbon-containing material is carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), or a mixture of CO and CO2. The carbon- containing material may be a material derived from CO and / or CO2, such as bicarbonate or bicarbonate ions.

[0166] Provided herein are systems and methods for producing various chemicalproducts, including hydrocarbon fuels, from a source comprising a carbon-containing material, such as carbon monoxide (CO) and / or carbon dioxide (CO2). The source may be a gas source or a liquid source. In some instances, the gas source comprising CO or CO2 may be air drawn directly from the atmosphere. In other instances, the gas source comprising CO or CO2may be an effluent gas such as flue gas from a combustion process. In some cases, a gas stream comprising CO or CO2may be drawn into an electrochemical reduction system that converts CO or CO2 into hydrocarbons. The described systems may include one or more additional chemical conversion processes that permit the conversion of the CO- or CO2- derived hydrocarbons into other preferred chemical products.

[0167] Also provided herein are various configurations for an electrochemical reductionsystem that converts CO or CO2 into hydrocarbons. In some instances, the electrochemical reduction system may operate at an ambient temperature. The electrochemical reduction system may comprise one or more membranes that comprise a micro- or nanostructured material such as carbon nanotubes (CNTs) or graphene.

[0168] Microstructured material may have dimensions on the order of 1 micrometer to1000 micrometers, or 1 micrometer to 100 micrometers, or 1 micrometer to 10 micrometers. Nanostructured material may have dimensions on the order of 1 nanometer to 1000 nanometers, 1 nanometer to 100 nanometers, or 1 nanometer to 10 nanometers.Attorney Docket No.56520-710601

[0169] Microstructured material may have dimensions less than or equal to 1000micrometers, 100 micrometers, 10 micrometers, 1 micrometer, or less. Nanostructured material may have dimensions less than or equal to 1000 nanometers, 100 nanometers, 10 nanometers, 1 nanometers, or less.

[0170] In some instances, the micro- or nanostructured membranes selectively separatingCO or CO2 from a mixed gas stream. In other instances, the micro- or nanostructured membranes selectively separating certain hydrocarbons from a liquid or gaseous medium. Also provided herein are micro- or nanostructured membranes that comprise catalysts for the conversion of CO or CO2 into hydrocarbons. In some instances, the micro- or nanostructured membrane may be configured to comprise an anode or cathode in an electrochemical reduction system.

[0171] Provided herein are various products that may be produced by the systems andmethods described herein. The electrochemical reduction systems may produce alkanes, alkenes, alcohols, or other organic molecules of varying chain lengths. The products of the described electrochemical reduction systems may be further processed into other fuel and chemical products, such as polymers. The selectivity of the micro- or nanostructured membranes utilized in the electrochemical reduction systems may permit chemical products to be produced with tailored molecular weight ranges and increased purity from processing byproducts (e.g. metals, salts and other undesired inputs or products).

[0172] Also provided herein are systems of varying scale for producing chemicals from agas stream comprising CO or CO2. In some instances, chemicals may be produced from a chemical plant that comprises one or more CO or CO2 electrochemical reduction systems. In other instances, chemicals may be produced from CO or CO2 as a subsystem of a larger facility, for example as a scrubber on a power-generation facility. In other instances, chemicals may be produced using small-scale or even micro-scale devices. In some instances, an electrochemical reduction system utilizing a gas source comprising CO or CO2 may be coupled with a renewable electrical generation sources (e.g. photovoltaics) to create a fully sustainable method of chemical production. In some instances, the system and methods described herein may be net carbon negative (e.g., they sequester more carbon than they produce). In some instances, the systems described herein may decrease the energy input of a chemical production process by at least about 50%.Attorney Docket No.56520-710601 Chemical Products

[0173] Described herein are various chemical products and reaction mixtures generatedvia the electrochemical reduction of CO or CO2 derived from a gas source. Chemical products may include any process streams that is exported from a chemical processing system or any process stream that undergoes no further reactive processes. A reaction mixture may include any process mixture, reagent, or compound within the confines of a chemical reactor, reactor system, or in a process stream between chemical reactors or reactor systems. The chemical products and reaction mixtures described herein may include organic molecules where one or more of the constituent carbon atoms are derived from CO or CO2. In some instances a chemical product or reaction mixture may contain primarily or only carbon atoms derived from CO or CO2. In other instances, a chemical product may contain carbon atoms derived from CO or CO2 and carbon atoms derived from other sources (e.g. fossil fuels). In some instances, chemical products may have a distinct carbon isotope signature that is consistent with the carbon isotope signature of CO or CO2derived from the atmosphere. In some instances, chemical products and reaction mixtures may have a distinct carbon isotope signature that is consistent with the carbon isotope signature of CO or CO2 derived from a non-atmospheric source such as the combustion of fossil fuels. The carbon isotope signature of a chemical product or reaction mixture may be measured by an isotopic ratio of14C:12C or13C:12C. In some instances the isotopic signature of a chemical product or reaction mixture may be measured as a percent difference between the natural isotopic ratio of carbon and the measured isotopic ratio. A per-mille difference between the natural isotopic ratio of carbon and the measured isotopic ratio for14C, Δ14C, may be calculated as:

[0174] A per-mille difference between the natural isotopic ratio of carbon and themeasured isotopic ratio for13C, Δ13C, may be calculated as:Attorney Docket No.56520-710601

[0175] A chemical product or reaction mixture may have a Δ14C of about −100‰, −10‰,0‰, 5‰, 10‰, 20‰, 30‰, 40‰, 45‰, 50‰ or about 100‰. A chemical product or reaction mixture may have a Δ13C of about −40‰, −35‰, −30‰, −28‰, −26‰, −24‰, −22‰, −20‰, −15‰, −10‰, −8‰, or about −5‰.

[0176] A chemical product or reaction mixture may include gaseous, liquid, or solidsubstances. Chemical products and reaction mixtures may include one or more organic compounds. Chemical products and reaction mixtures may be miscible or immiscible in water. Chemical products and reaction mixtures may be polar or nonpolar. Chemical products and reaction mixtures may be acidic, basic, or neutral. Organic compounds may include alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, cycloalkanes, cycloalkenes, cycloalkynes, substituted alkanes, substituted alkenes, substituted alkynes, alcohols, esters, carboxylic acids, ethers, amines, amides, aromatics, heteroaromatics, sulfides, sulfones, sulfates, thiols, aldehydes, ketones, amides, and halogenated compounds. Chemical products and reaction mixtures may include branched or linear compounds. Chemical products and reaction mixtures may comprise oxygen, methane, ethane, ethylene, propane, butane, hexanes, octanes, decanes, carbon monoxide, methanol, ethanol, propanol, butanol, hexanol, octanol, and formate. Chemical products and reaction mixtures may include organometallic compounds. Chemical products and reaction mixtures of the present disclosure may include compounds intended for consumer use or industrial use, such as fuels, solvents, additives, polymers, food additives, food supplements, pharmaceuticals, fertilizers, agricultural chemicals, coatings, lubricants, and building materials. Chemical products and reaction mixtures of the present disclosure may comprise a precursor, component, substituent, or substrate for a product produced by further processing.

[0177] An organic compound of the present disclosure may comprise one or more carbonatoms. In some instances, an organic compound may comprise about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, or about 70 carbon atoms. In some instances, an organic compound may comprise at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, or about 70 or more carbon atoms. In some instances, an organic compound may comprise no more than about 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 29, 28, 27, 26, 25, 24, 23, 22, 21, 20, 19, 18, 17, 16, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2 or less carbon atoms. An organic compound of the present disclosure may comprise one or more carbon atoms derived from CO or CO2. In some instances, an organic compound may comprise about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22,Attorney Docket No.56520-710601 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, or about 70 carbon atoms that are derived from CO or CO2. In some instances, an organic compound may comprise at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, or about 70 or more carbon atoms that are derived from CO or CO2. In some instances, an organic compound may comprise no more than about 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 29, 28, 27, 26, 25, 24, 23, 22, 21, 20, 19, 18, 17, 16, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2 or less carbon atoms that are derived from CO or CO2.

[0178] A chemical product or reaction mixture of the present disclosure may comprisemore than one chemical species. A chemical product or reaction mixture may be a mixture of about 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95 or about 100 detectable chemical compounds. A chemical product or reaction mixture may be a mixture of at least about 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95 or about 100 or more detectable chemical compounds. A chemical product or reaction mixture may be a mixture of no more than about 100, 95, 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 29, 28, 27, 26, 25, 24, 23, 22, 21, 20, 19, 18, 17, 16, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, or no more than about 3 or less detectable chemical compounds.

[0179] A chemical product or reaction mixture of the present disclosure may comprise aparticular compound at a particular weight percentage or molar percentage of the total chemical product or reaction mixture. For example, a particular chemical product may include at least about 50 wt % ethanol. In another example, a particular chemical product may include no more than about 1 wt % water. In some instances, at least about 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99% or more of a chemical product or reaction mixture may be a specific chemical compound on a weight or molar basis. In some instances, no more than about 99%, 98%, 97%, 96%, 95%, 90%, 85%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 65%, 60%, 55%, 50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, or no more than about 10% or less of a chemical product or reaction mixture be a specific chemical compound on a weight or molar basis.

[0180] A chemical product or reaction mixture of the present disclosure may includecompounds within a particular range of molecular weights or carbon numbers. In some instances, at least about 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99% or more of a chemical product or reaction mixture may include compounds within a particular molecular weight range orAttorney Docket No.56520-710601 carbon number range. In some instances, no more than about 99%, 98%, 97%, 96%, 95%, 90%, 85%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 65%, 60%, 55%, 50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, or no more than about 10% or less of a chemical product or reaction mixture may include compounds within a particular molecular weight range or carbon number range. A chemical product or reaction mixture may include compounds within a molecular weight range from about 15 g / mol to about 30 g / mol, about 15 g / mol to about 60 g / mol, about 15 g / mol to about 100 g / mol, about 15 g / mol to about 200 g / mol, about 15 g / mol to about 400 g / mol, about 15 g / mol to about 600 g / mol, about 15 g / mol to about 1000 g / mol, about 30 g / mol to about 60 g / mol, about 30 g / mol to about 100 g / mol, about 30 g / mol to about 200 g / mol, about 30 g / mol to about 400 g / mol, about 30 g / mol to about 600 g / mol, about 30 g / mol to about 1000 g / mol, about 60 g / mol to about 100 g / mol, about 60 g / mol to about 200 g / mol, about 60 g / mol to about 400 g / mol, about 60 g / mol to about 600 g / mol, about 60 g / mol to about 1000 g / mol, about 100 g / mol to about 200 g / mol, about 100 g / mol to about 400 g / mol, about 100 g / mol to about 600 g / mol, about 100 g / mol to about 1000 g / mol, about 200 g / mol to about 400 g / mol, about 200 g / mol to about 600 g / mol, about 200 g / mol to about 1000 g / mol, about 400 g / mol to about 600 g / mol, about 30 g / mol to about 1000 g / mol, about 30 g / mol to about 100 g / mol, about 30 g / mol to about 200 g / mol, about 30 g / mol to about 400 g / mol, about 30 g / mol to about 600 g / mol, about 400 g / mol to about 1000 g / mol, or about 600 g / mol to about 1000 g / mol. A chemical product or reaction mixture may include compounds within a carbon number range from about C1 to about C2, about C1 to about C3, about C1 to about C4, about C1 to about C5, about C1 to about C6, about C1 to about C8, about C1 to about C10, about C1 to about C20, about C1 to about C30, about C1 to about C40, about C2 to about C3, about C2 to about C4, about C2 to about C5, about C2 to about C6, about C2 to about C8, about C2 to about C10, about C2 to about C20, about C2 to about C30, about C2 to about C40, about C3 to about C4, about C3 to about C5, about C3 to about C6, about C3 to about C8, about C3 to about C10, about C3 to about C20, about C3 to about C30, about C3 to about C40, about C4 to about C5, about C4 to about C6, about C4 to about C8, about C4 to about C10), about C4 to about C20, about C4 to about C30, about C4 to about C40, about C5 to about C6, about C5 to about C8, about C5 to about C10, about C5 to about C20, about C5 to about C30, about C5 to about C40, about C6 to about C8, about C6 to about C10, about C6 to about C20, about C6 to about C30, about C6 to about C40), about C8 to about C10, about C8 to about C20, about C8 to about C30, about C8 to about C40, about C10 to about C20, about C10 to about C30, about C10 to about C40, about C20 to about C30, about C20 to about C40, or about C30 to about C40.Attorney Docket No.56520-710601

[0181] A chemical product or reaction mixture of the present disclosure may compriseone or more impurities. Impurities may derive from reactant streams, reactor contaminants, breakdown or decomposition products of produced organic compounds, catalyst compounds, or side reactions in the electrochemical reduction system or other chemical conversion systems described herein. A chemical product or reaction mixture may comprise one or more organic impurities such as formate or higher molecular weight alcohols. A chemical product or reaction mixture may include carbon or non-carbon nanomaterial impurities. A chemical product or reaction mixture may comprise one or more inorganic impurities derived from sources such as catalyst degradation or leaching and corrosion of processing equipment. An inorganic impurity may comprise sodium, magnesium, potassium, calcium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, aluminum, silicon, yttrium, zirconium, niobium, molybdenum, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, silver, cadmium, indium, tin, antimony, tantalum, tungsten, osmium, platinum, gold, mercury, and lead. Inorganic impurities may be present in oxidized or reduced oxidation states. Inorganic impurities may be present in the form of organometallic complexes. An impurity in a chemical product or reaction mixture may be detectable by any common analysis technique such as gas or liquid chromatography, mass spectrometry, IR or UV-Vis spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, or other methods. One or more impurities may be detectable at an amount of at least about 1 part per billion (ppb), 5 ppb, 10 ppb, 50 ppb, 100 ppb, 250 ppb, 500 ppb, 750 ppb, 1 part per million (ppm), 5 ppm, 10 ppm, 50 ppm, 100 ppm or more. One or more impurities may be detectable at an amount of no more than about 100 ppm, 50 ppm, 10 ppm, 5 ppm, 1 ppm, 750 ppb, 500 ppb, 250 ppb, 100 ppb, 50 ppb, 10 ppb, 5 ppb, or no more than about 1 ppb or less.

[0182] A chemical product may have a particular level of purity. In some instances, achemical product may have sufficient purity to achieve a particular grade or standard. A chemical product may be ACS grade, reagent grade, USP grade, NF grade, laboratory grade, purified grade or technical grade. A chemical product may have a purity that exceeds an azeotropic composition, e.g. >95% ethanol. A gaseous chemical product may have a purity rating of about N1.0, N2.0, N3.0, N4.0, N5.0, N6.0 or greater. A chemical product may achieve a purity level according to a defined international standard. E.g. the ASTM D- 1152 / 97 standard for methanol purity.

[0183] In some instances a chemical product or reaction mixture from an electrochemicalreduction system may have no detectable amount of certain impurities. In some instances, a chemical product or reaction mixture may have no detectable amount of biological moleculesAttorney Docket No.56520-710601 or derivatives thereof. A chemical product or reaction mixture may contain no detectable amount of lipids, saccharides, proteins, nucleic acids, amino acids, spores, bacteria, viruses, protozoa, fungi, animal or plant cells, or any component thereof. Chemical Feeds

[0184] The electrochemical conversion systems and related systems may require one ormore feed streams. Feed streams may comprise solids, liquids or gases. Feed streams may comprise slurries, pastes, powders, particles, or bed materials. In some instances, a feed stream may comprise one or more chemical reactants. In other instances, a feed stream may comprise a catalyst, a co-catalyst, an activator, an inhibitor, a buffer, or a reactive scavenger. In some instances, a feed stream may comprise an inert species.

[0185] A feed stream may comprise a gas or a mixture of gases. In some instances, a gasstream may comprise CO, CO2, nitrogen, a nitrogen oxide, oxygen, ozone, argon, hydrogen, helium, methane, ethane, ethylene, propane, propylene, hydrogen sulfide, a sulfur oxide, silanes, aromatics, chlorine, hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, nitric acid, water vapor, and other gases. In some instances, a gas stream may comprise air drawn directly from the atmosphere. In other instances, a gas stream may comprise effluent gases from an industrial or other source. In some instances, a gas stream may comprise suspended particulates such as soot, pollen, spores, dust, and mineral matter or ash. A gas stream may comprise an aerosol. A gas stream may be filtered or scrubbed to remove particulates or byproduct chemical species. A gas stream may be subjected to one or more operations before entering a chemical conversion process or other process to alter its composition or otherwise prepare the gas stream for utilization. A gas stream may be separated or purified to enrich for a particular component (e.g. CO2) or remove an impurity (e.g. hydrogen sulfide).

[0186] A feed stream may comprise a liquid or a mixture of liquids. In some instances, aliquid stream may comprise a chemical reactant. In other instances, a liquid stream may comprise a solvent carrying a chemical reactant. A liquid stream may comprise a buffered solution, e.g. bicarbonate solution. A liquid stream may comprise one or more of alkanes, alkenes, alkynes, cycloalkanes, cycloalkenes, cycloalkynes, substituted alkanes, substituted alkenes, substituted alkynes, alcohols, esters, carboxylic acids, ethers, amines, amides, aromatics, heteroaromatics, sulfides, sulfones, sulfates, thiols, aldehydes, ketones, amides, and halogenated compounds.

[0187] A liquid feed stream may comprise an aqueous solution. An aqueous solution maybe buffered to maintain a particular pH. A feed stream may have a pH of about 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,Attorney Docket No.56520-710601 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, or about 14. A feed stream may have a pH of at least about 0), 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 or more. A feed stream may have a pH of no more than about 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0) or less.

[0188] A feed stream may be a multi-phase stream. A feed stream may comprise gasentrained in a liquid or a solid entrained in a liquid, such as a slurry. A feed stream may exist in a phase equilibrium between solid and liquid, liquid and gas, or solid and gas.

[0189] A feed stream may comprise one or more impurities or tracer compounds.Impurities in a feed stream may arise from the processes that produced them or transportation methods used to convey the feed stream matter from production to the systems of the present disclosure. Impurities may include organic or inorganic chemical species, particulates (e.g. dirt, dust, rust, or ash), and biological materials. An impurity may be detrimental to the performance of an electrochemical reduction system or related system. An inorganic impurity may comprise sodium, magnesium, potassium, calcium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, aluminum, silicon, yttrium, zirconium, niobium, molybdenum, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, silver, cadmium, indium, tin, antimony, tantalum, tungsten, osmium, platinum, gold, mercury, and lead. Inorganic impurities may be present in oxidized or reduced oxidation states. Inorganic impurities may be present in the form of organometallic complexes. A feed stream may be purified before use to remove one or more impurities before utilization in an electrochemical reduction system or a related system. A tracer compound may comprise a chemical species that exists at a low but detectable level within a feed stream. A tracer compound may be come in a particular feed stream reagent or may be added to a feed stream prior to the feed stream entering a conversion or other process. A tracer compound may be an inert species. A tracer compound may be a compound that is selectively converted, separated, or otherwise altered in certain processes and is unaffected by other processes. An impurity or a tracer compound may have a measured concentration in a feed stream. An impurity or a tracer compound in a chemical product may be detectable by any common analysis technique such as gas or liquid chromatography, mass spectrometry, IR or UV-Vis spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, X- ray photoelectron spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, or other methods. One or more impurities or tracer compounds may be detectable at an amount of at least about 1 ppb, 5 ppb, 10 ppb, 50 ppb, 100 ppb, 250 ppb, 500 ppb, 750 ppb, 1 ppm, 5 ppm, 10 ppm, 50 ppm, 100 ppm or more. One or more impurities or tracer compounds may be detectable at an amount of no more than about 100 ppm, 50 ppm, 10 ppm, 5 ppm, 1 ppm, 750 ppb, 500 ppb, 250 ppb, 100 ppb, 50 ppb, 10 ppb, 5 ppb, or no more than about 1 ppb or less.Attorney Docket No.56520-710601

[0190] In some embodiments, the carbon containing source comprises a CO2concentration between about 0.04 % by volume to about 1 % by volume. In some embodiments, the carbon containing source comprises a CO2 concentration between about 0.04 % by volume to about 0.1 % by volume, about 0.04 % by volume to about 0.15 % by volume, about 0.04 % by volume to about 0.2 % by volume, about 0.04 % by volume to about 0.25 % by volume, about 0.04 % by volume to about 0.3 % by volume, about 0.04 % by volume to about 0.35 % by volume, about 0.04 % by volume to about 0.4 % by volume, about 0.04 % by volume to about 0.5 % by volume, about 0.04 % by volume to about 0.6 % by volume, about 0.04 % by volume to about 0.8 % by volume, about 0.04 % by volume to about 1 % by volume, about 0.1 % by volume to about 0.15 % by volume, about 0.1 % by volume to about 0.2 % by volume, about 0.1 % by volume to about 0.25 % by volume, about 0.1 % by volume to about 0.3 % by volume, about 0.1 % by volume to about 0.35 % by volume, about 0.1 % by volume to about 0.4 % by volume, about 0.1 % by volume to about 0.5 % by volume, about 0.1 % by volume to about 0.6 % by volume, about 0.1 % by volume to about 0.8 % by volume, about 0.1 % by volume to about 1 % by volume, about 0.15 % by volume to about 0.2 % by volume, about 0.15 % by volume to about 0.25 % by volume, about 0.15 % by volume to about 0.3 % by volume, about 0.15 % by volume to about 0.35 % by volume, about 0.15 % by volume to about 0.4 % by volume, about 0.15 % by volume to about 0.5 % by volume, about 0.15 % by volume to about 0.6 % by volume, about 0.15 % by volume to about 0.8 % by volume, about 0.15 % by volume to about 1 % by volume, about 0.2 % by volume to about 0.25 % by volume, about 0.2 % by volume to about 0.3 % by volume, about 0.2 % by volume to about 0.35 % by volume, about 0.2 % by volume to about 0.4 % by volume, about 0.2 % by volume to about 0.5 % by volume, about 0.2 % by volume to about 0.6 % by volume, about 0.2 % by volume to about 0.8 % by volume, about 0.2 % by volume to about 1 % by volume, about 0.25 % by volume to about 0.3 % by volume, about 0.25 % by volume to about 0.35 % by volume, about 0.25 % by volume to about 0.4 % by volume, about 0.25 % by volume to about 0.5 % by volume, about 0.25 % by volume to about 0.6 % by volume, about 0.25 % by volume to about 0.8 % by volume, about 0.25 % by volume to about 1 % by volume, about 0.3 % by volume to about 0.35 % by volume, about 0.3 % by volume to about 0.4 % by volume, about 0.3 % by volume to about 0.5 % by volume, about 0.3 % by volume to about 0.6 % by volume, about 0.3 % by volume to about 0.8 % by volume, about 0.3 % by volume to about 1 % by volume, about 0.35 % by volume to about 0.4 % by volume, about 0.35 % by volume to about 0.5 % by volume, about 0.35 % by volume to about 0.6 % by volume, about 0.35 % by volume to about 0.8 % by volume,Attorney Docket No.56520-710601 about 0.35 % by volume to about 1 % by volume, about 0.4 % by volume to about 0.5 % by volume, about 0.4 % by volume to about 0.6 % by volume, about 0.4 % by volume to about 0.8 % by volume, about 0.4 % by volume to about 1 % by volume, about 0.5 % by volume to about 0.6 % by volume, about 0.5 % by volume to about 0.8 % by volume, about 0.5 % by volume to about 1 % by volume, about 0.6 % by volume to about 0.8 % by volume, about 0.6 % by volume to about 1 % by volume, or about 0.8 % by volume to about 1 % by volume. In some embodiments, the carbon containing source comprises a CO2 concentration between about 0.04 % by volume, about 0.1 % by volume, about 0.15 % by volume, about 0.2 % by volume, about 0.25 % by volume, about 0.3 % by volume, about 0.35 % by volume, about 0.4 % by volume, about 0.5 % by volume, about 0.6 % by volume, about 0.8 % by volume, or about 1 % by volume. In some embodiments, the carbon containing source comprises a CO2 concentration between at least about 0.04 % by volume, about 0.1 % by volume, about 0.15 % by volume, about 0.2 % by volume, about 0.25 % by volume, about 0.3 % by volume, about 0.35 % by volume, about 0.4 % by volume, about 0.5 % by volume, about 0.6 % by volume, or about 0.8 % by volume. In some embodiments, the carbon containing source comprises a CO2 concentration between at most about 0.1 % by volume, about 0.15 % by volume, about 0.2 % by volume, about 0.25 % by volume, about 0.3 % by volume, about 0.35 % by volume, about 0.4 % by volume, about 0.5 % by volume, about 0.6 % by volume, about 0.8 % by volume, or about 1 % by volume.

[0191] In some embodiments, the carbon containing source comprises a CO2concentration between about 1 % by volume to about 30 % by volume. In some embodiments, the carbon containing source comprises a CO2 concentration between about 1 % by volume to about 2 % by volume, about 1 % by volume to about 3 % by volume, about 1 % by volume to about 4 % by volume, about 1 % by volume to about 5 % by volume, about 1 % by volume to about 6 % by volume, about 1 % by volume to about 7 % by volume, about 1 % by volume to about 8 % by volume, about 1 % by volume to about 9 % by volume, about 1 % by volume to about 10 % by volume, about 1 % by volume to about 20 % by volume, about 1 % by volume to about 30 % by volume, about 2 % by volume to about 3 % by volume, about 2 % by volume to about 4 % by volume, about 2 % by volume to about 5 % by volume, about 2 % by volume to about 6 % by volume, about 2 % by volume to about 7 % by volume, about 2 % by volume to about 8 % by volume, about 2 % by volume to about 9 % by volume, about 2 % by volume to about 10 % by volume, about 2 % by volume to about 20 % by volume, about 2 % by volume to about 30 % by volume, about 3 % by volume to about 4 % by volume, about 3 % by volume to about 5 % by volume, about 3 % by volume to about 6Attorney Docket No.56520-710601 % by volume, about 3 % by volume to about 7 % by volume, about 3 % by volume to about 8 % by volume, about 3 % by volume to about 9 % by volume, about 3 % by volume to about 10 % by volume, about 3 % by volume to about 20 % by volume, about 3 % by volume to about 30 % by volume, about 4 % by volume to about 5 % by volume, about 4 % by volume to about 6 % by volume, about 4 % by volume to about 7 % by volume, about 4 % by volume to about 8 % by volume, about 4 % by volume to about 9 % by volume, about 4 % by volume to about 10 % by volume, about 4 % by volume to about 20 % by volume, about 4 % by volume to about 30 % by volume, about 5 % by volume to about 6 % by volume, about 5 % by volume to about 7 % by volume, about 5 % by volume to about 8 % by volume, about 5 % by volume to about 9 % by volume, about 5 % by volume to about 10 % by volume, about 5 % by volume to about 20 % by volume, about 5 % by volume to about 30 % by volume, about 6 % by volume to about 7 % by volume, about 6 % by volume to about 8 % by volume, about 6 % by volume to about 9 % by volume, about 6 % by volume to about 10 % by volume, about 6 % by volume to about 20 % by volume, about 6 % by volume to about 30 % by volume, about 7 % by volume to about 8 % by volume, about 7 % by volume to about 9 % by volume, about 7 % by volume to about 10 % by volume, about 7 % by volume to about 20 % by volume, about 7 % by volume to about 30 % by volume, about 8 % by volume to about 9 % by volume, about 8 % by volume to about 10 % by volume, about 8 % by volume to about 20 % by volume, about 8 % by volume to about 30 % by volume, about 9 % by volume to about 10 % by volume, about 9 % by volume to about 20 % by volume, about 9 % by volume to about 30 % by volume, about 10 % by volume to about 20 % by volume, about 10 % by volume to about 30 % by volume, or about 20 % by volume to about 30 % by volume. In some embodiments, the carbon containing source comprises a CO2 concentration between about 1 % by volume, about 2 % by volume, about 3 % by volume, about 4 % by volume, about 5 % by volume, about 6 % by volume, about 7 % by volume, about 8 % by volume, about 9 % by volume, about 10 % by volume, about 20 % by volume, or about 30 % by volume. In some embodiments, the carbon containing source comprises a CO2 concentration between at least about 1 % by volume, about 2 % by volume, about 3 % by volume, about 4 % by volume, about 5 % by volume, about 6 % by volume, about 7 % by volume, about 8 % by volume, about 9 % by volume, about 10 % by volume, or about 20 % by volume. In some embodiments, the carbon containing source comprises a CO2 concentration between at most about 2 % by volume, about 3 % by volume, about 4 % by volume, about 5 % by volume, about 6 % by volume, about 7 % by volume, about 8 % by volume, about 9 % by volume, about 10 % by volume, about 20 % by volume, or about 30 % by volume.Attorney Docket No.56520-710601

[0192] In some embodiments, the carbon containing source comprises a CO2concentration between about 30 % by volume to about 90 % by volume. In some embodiments, the carbon containing source comprises a CO2 concentration between about 30 % by volume to about 50 % by volume, about 30 % by volume to about 60 % by volume, about 30 % by volume to about 70 % by volume, about 30 % by volume to about 75 % by volume, about 30 % by volume to about 80 % by volume, about 30 % by volume to about 82 % by volume, about 30 % by volume to about 84 % by volume, about 30 % by volume to about 86 % by volume, about 30 % by volume to about 88 % by volume, about 30 % by volume to about 89 % by volume, about 30 % by volume to about 90 % by volume, about 50 % by volume to about 60 % by volume, about 50 % by volume to about 70 % by volume, about 50 % by volume to about 75 % by volume, about 50 % by volume to about 80 % by volume, about 50 % by volume to about 82 % by volume, about 50 % by volume to about 84 % by volume, about 50 % by volume to about 86 % by volume, about 50 % by volume to about 88 % by volume, about 50 % by volume to about 89 % by volume, about 50 % by volume to about 90 % by volume, about 60 % by volume to about 70 % by volume, about 60 % by volume to about 75 % by volume, about 60 % by volume to about 80 % by volume, about 60 % by volume to about 82 % by volume, about 60 % by volume to about 84 % by volume, about 60 % by volume to about 86 % by volume, about 60 % by volume to about 88 % by volume, about 60 % by volume to about 89 % by volume, about 60 % by volume to about 90 % by volume, about 70 % by volume to about 75 % by volume, about 70 % by volume to about 80 % by volume, about 70 % by volume to about 82 % by volume, about 70 % by volume to about 84 % by volume, about 70 % by volume to about 86 % by volume, about 70 % by volume to about 88 % by volume, about 70 % by volume to about 89 % by volume, about 70 % by volume to about 90 % by volume, about 75 % by volume to about 80 % by volume, about 75 % by volume to about 82 % by volume, about 75 % by volume to about 84 % by volume, about 75 % by volume to about 86 % by volume, about 75 % by volume to about 88 % by volume, about 75 % by volume to about 89 % by volume, about 75 % by volume to about 90 % by volume, about 80 % by volume to about 82 % by volume, about 80 % by volume to about 84 % by volume, about 80 % by volume to about 86 % by volume, about 80 % by volume to about 88 % by volume, about 80 % by volume to about 89 % by volume, about 80 % by volume to about 90 % by volume, about 82 % by volume to about 84 % by volume, about 82 % by volume to about 86 % by volume, about 82 % by volume to about 88 % by volume, about 82 % by volume to about 89 % by volume, about 82 % by volume to about 90 % by volume, about 84 % by volume to about 86 % by volume,Attorney Docket No.56520-710601 about 84 % by volume to about 88 % by volume, about 84 % by volume to about 89 % by volume, about 84 % by volume to about 90 % by volume, about 86 % by volume to about 88 % by volume, about 86 % by volume to about 89 % by volume, about 86 % by volume to about 90 % by volume, about 88 % by volume to about 89 % by volume, about 88 % by volume to about 90 % by volume, or about 89 % by volume to about 90 % by volume. In some embodiments, the carbon containing source comprises a CO2 concentration between about 30 % by volume, about 50 % by volume, about 60 % by volume, about 70 % by volume, about 75 % by volume, about 80 % by volume, about 82 % by volume, about 84 % by volume, about 86 % by volume, about 88 % by volume, about 89 % by volume, or about 90 % by volume. In some embodiments, the carbon containing source comprises a CO2 concentration between at least about 30 % by volume, about 50 % by volume, about 60 % by volume, about 70 % by volume, about 75 % by volume, about 80 % by volume, about 82 % by volume, about 84 % by volume, about 86 % by volume, about 88 % by volume, or about 89 % by volume. In some embodiments, the carbon containing source comprises a CO2 concentration between at most about 50 % by volume, about 60 % by volume, about 70 % by volume, about 75 % by volume, about 80 % by volume, about 82 % by volume, about 84 % by volume, about 86 % by volume, about 88 % by volume, about 89 % by volume, or about 90 % by volume.

[0193] In some embodiments, the carbon containing source comprises a CO2concentration between about 0.04 % by volume to about 100 % by volume. In some embodiments, the carbon containing source comprises a CO2 concentration between about 0.04 % by volume to about 1 % by volume, about 0.04 % by volume to about 10 % by volume, about 0.04 % by volume to about 20 % by volume, about 0.04 % by volume to about 40 % by volume, about 0.04 % by volume to about 60 % by volume, about 0.04 % by volume to about 80 % by volume, about 0.04 % by volume to about 85 % by volume, about 0.04 % by volume to about 90 % by volume, about 0.04 % by volume to about 95 % by volume, about 0.04 % by volume to about 99 % by volume, about 0.04 % by volume to about 100 % by volume, about 1 % by volume to about 10 % by volume, about 1 % by volume to about 20 % by volume, about 1 % by volume to about 40 % by volume, about 1 % by volume to about 60 % by volume, about 1 % by volume to about 80 % by volume, about 1 % by volume to about 85 % by volume, about 1 % by volume to about 90 % by volume, about 1 % by volume to about 95 % by volume, about 1 % by volume to about 99 % by volume, about 1 % by volume to about 100 % by volume, about 10 % by volume to about 20 % by volume, about 10 % by volume to about 40 % by volume, about 10 % by volume to about 60 % by volume,Attorney Docket No.56520-710601 about 10 % by volume to about 80 % by volume, about 10 % by volume to about 85 % by volume, about 10 % by volume to about 90 % by volume, about 10 % by volume to about 95 % by volume, about 10 % by volume to about 99 % by volume, about 10 % by volume to about 100 % by volume, about 20 % by volume to about 40 % by volume, about 20 % by volume to about 60 % by volume, about 20 % by volume to about 80 % by volume, about 20 % by volume to about 85 % by volume, about 20 % by volume to about 90 % by volume, about 20 % by volume to about 95 % by volume, about 20 % by volume to about 99 % by volume, about 20 % by volume to about 100 % by volume, about 40 % by volume to about 60 % by volume, about 40 % by volume to about 80 % by volume, about 40 % by volume to about 85 % by volume, about 40 % by volume to about 90 % by volume, about 40 % by volume to about 95 % by volume, about 40 % by volume to about 99 % by volume, about 40 % by volume to about 100 % by volume, about 60 % by volume to about 80 % by volume, about 60 % by volume to about 85 % by volume, about 60 % by volume to about 90 % by volume, about 60 % by volume to about 95 % by volume, about 60 % by volume to about 99 % by volume, about 60 % by volume to about 100 % by volume, about 80 % by volume to about 85 % by volume, about 80 % by volume to about 90 % by volume, about 80 % by volume to about 95 % by volume, about 80 % by volume to about 99 % by volume, about 80 % by volume to about 100 % by volume, about 85 % by volume to about 90 % by volume, about 85 % by volume to about 95 % by volume, about 85 % by volume to about 99 % by volume, about 85 % by volume to about 100 % by volume, about 90 % by volume to about 95 % by volume, about 90 % by volume to about 99 % by volume, about 90 % by volume to about 100 % by volume, about 95 % by volume to about 99 % by volume, about 95 % by volume to about 100 % by volume, or about 99 % by volume to about 100 % by volume. In some embodiments, the carbon containing source comprises a CO2 concentration between about 0.04 % by volume, about 1 % by volume, about 10 % by volume, about 20 % by volume, about 40 % by volume, about 60 % by volume, about 80 % by volume, about 85 % by volume, about 90 % by volume, about 95 % by volume, about 99 % by volume, or about 100 % by volume. In some embodiments, the carbon containing source comprises a CO2 concentration between at least about 0.04 % by volume, about 1 % by volume, about 10 % by volume, about 20 % by volume, about 40 % by volume, about 60 % by volume, about 80 % by volume, about 85 % by volume, about 90 % by volume, about 95 % by volume, or about 99 % by volume. In some embodiments, the carbon containing source comprises a CO2 concentration between at most about 1 % by volume, about 10 % by volume, about 20 % by volume, about 40 % by volume, about 60 % by volume, about 80 % by volume, about 85 %Attorney Docket No.56520-710601 by volume, about 90 % by volume, about 95 % by volume, about 99 % by volume, or about 100 % by volume. Structured Membranes

[0194] The present disclosure may provide reactor and separation systems that comprisemicro- or nanostructured membranes. A micro- or nanostructured membrane may be utilized to perform a selective separation of one or more chemical species from a mixture comprising more than one chemical species. A micro- or nanostructured membrane may also provide additional utility in a chemical processing system including physically separating product streams and comprising a component of an electrical cathode or anode in an electrochemical system.

[0195] A micro- or nanostructured membrane may comprise one or more microscale ornanoscale materials (e.g., including positive features, such as microscale or nanoscale structures, and / or negative features, such as microscale and nanoscale pores or microscale and nanoscale depressions). In some instances, a membrane may comprise carbon nanotubes, carbon nanospheres, carbon nano-onions, graphene-such as materials, or pyrolyzed porous carbon materials (see FIGS.2 and 4 ). A membrane may comprise micro- or nanostructured material synthesized from non-carbon materials. A membrane may comprise carbon nanomaterials doped with other elements such as nitrogen, sulfur, and boron. A micro- or nanostructured material may be embedded, fixed, or otherwise bound to one or more other substrates or materials to construct a membrane. A micro- or nanostructured material embedded in a substrate or material may create pores within the structured membrane. The pores may permit the selective passage of certain chemical species. Other substrates or materials in the membrane may be selected for material properties including rigidity, strength, and electrical conductivity. Other substrates or materials in a micro- or nanostructured membrane may include polymers, e.g. polysulfones, metals, and ceramics. The microscale or nanoscale materials may have a maximum dimension of at least about 0.4 nanometers (nm), 0.6 nm, 0.8 nm, 1 nm, 1.2 nm, 1.4 nm, 1.6 nm, 1.8 nm, 2.0 nm, 2.5 nm, 3.0 nm, 3.5 nm, 4.0 nm, 4.5 nm, 5.0 nm, 5.5 nm, 6.0 nm, 6.5 nm, 7.0 nm, 7.5 nm, 8.0 nm, 8.5 nm, 9.0 nm.9.5 nm.10 nm, 20 nm, 30 nm, 40 nm, 50 nm, 60 nm, 70 nm, 80 nm, 90 nm, 100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, 400 nm, 500 nm, 600 nm, 700 nm, 800 nm, 900 nm, 1 micrometer, 10 micrometers, 100 micrometers or larger. In some instances, the maximum dimension may be at most about 100 micrometers, 10 micrometers, 1 micrometer, 900 nm, 800 nm, 700 nm.600 nm, 500 nm, 400 nm, 300 nm, 200 nm, 100 nm, 90 nm, 80 nm, 70 nm, 60 nm, 50 nm, 40 nm,Attorney Docket No.56520-710601 30 nm, 20 nm, 10 nm, 9.5 nm, 9.0 nm, 8.5 nm, 8 nm, 7.5 nm, 7.0 nm, 6.5 nm, 6.0 nm, 5.5 nm, 5.0 nm, 4.5 nm, 4.0 nm, 3.5 nm, 3.0 nm, 2.5 nm, 2.0 nm, 1.8 nm, 1.6 nm, 1.4 nm, 1.2 nm, 1.0 nm, 0.8 nm, 0.6 nm, or 0.4 nm or less.

[0196] A micro- or nanostructured membrane may comprise a particular shape, structuredepending upon its application. In some instances, a membrane may have a cylindrical structure such as with a hollow fiber membrane format, or have a substantially flat sheet structure. A membrane may partially or fully enclose a volume or void space. The surface area of a membrane disposed toward an enclosed or void space may be defined as a lumen side of the membrane. In some instances, mass transfer across a membrane may be driven by chemical potential, pressure difference, or temperature difference between a lumen side and a non-lumen side of a membrane. A membrane may further comprise additional structures such as frames or fittings that secure the membrane to other portions of the described systems.

[0197] A micro- or nanostructured membrane may be composed with micro- ornanomaterials embedded so as to create pores within the membrane. The micro- or nanomaterial may be chosen based upon a characteristic pore size that it may create. Without wanting to be bound by theory, a pore may be defined as a void space or volume within a solid material through which a liquid or gas molecule may flow or diffuse. A chemical species may pass through a pore created by the internal diameter space in a carbon nanotube, through spaces between nanoparticles e.g. clustered nanotubes or nano-onions, through the pores of a porous carbon, or through the space between layers of graphene-such as material. A micro- or nanomaterial may have a characteristic length scale such as a diameter, pore size, or layer spacing that is sufficient to permit the passage of chemical species through a void space in the material. In some instances, a characteristic length may be at least about 0.4 nanometers (nm), 0.6 nm, 0.8 nm, 1 nm, 1.2 nm, 1.4 nm, 1.6 nm, 1.8 nm, 2.0 nm, 2.5 nm, 3.0 nm, 4.0 nm, 5.0 nm or larger. In some instances, a characteristic length may be no more than about 5.0 nm, 4.0 nm, 3.0 nm, 2.5 nm, 2.0 nm, 1.8 nm, 1.6 nm, 1.4 nm, 1.2 nm, 1.0 nm, 0.8 nm, 0.6 nm, or about 0.4 nm or less. A pore may have a larger diameter than length. A pore may have a larger length than diameter. A pore may have a length to width ratio of about 1:10, 1:5, 1:2, 1:1, 2:1, 5:1, 10:1, 100:1, or about 1000:1. A pore may have a length to width ratio of at least about 1:10, 1:5, 1:2, 1:1, 2:1, 5:1, 10:1, 100:1, or about 1000:1. A pore may have a length to width ratio of no more than about 1000:1, 100:1, 10:1, 5:1, 2:1, 1:1, 1:2, 1:5, or about 1:10 or less. A pore may comprise a substantially straight path such as a carbon nanotube or the space between layers of horizontal graphene-such as materials. A pore mayAttorney Docket No.56520-710601 have a diagonal, skewed, or tortuous path in some materials, such as meso- or nanoporous carbons.

[0198] A membrane may comprise a material with a characterized porous structure.Materials may include nanopores, mesopores, and micropores. In some instances, nanopores may be characterized as having an average pore size of about 2 nm or less. In some instances, mesopores may be characterized as having an average pore size of between about 2 nm and about 20 nm. In some instances, micropores may be characterized as having an average pore size of about 20 nm or more. A membrane may comprise structures with pore sizes across a range of pores sizes (e.g., nanopores and mesopores). A membrane may comprise structures with pores sizes from within a particular classification of pores sizes (e.g., only mesopores). Pores may have circular, oval, non-circular or irregular pore shapes or pore cross-section profiles. A pore size may be characterized as an average characteristic cross-sectional dimension (e.g., pore diameter or cross-sectional area). A membrane may comprise pores (e.g., micropores or nanopores) with an average cross-sectional dimension of at least about 0.5 nm, 1 nm, 5 nm, 10 nm, 15 nm, 20 nm, 30 nm, 40 nm, 50 nm, 100 nm, 250 nm, 500 nm, 1 micron (μm), or at least about 5 μm or more. A membrane may comprise pores with an average cross-sectional dimension of no more than about 5 μm, 1 μm, 500 nm, 250 nm, 100 nm, 50 nm, 40 nm, 30 nm, 20 nm, 15 nm, 10 nm, 5 nm, 1 nm, 0.5 nm or less.

[0199] A membrane comprising a micro- or nanostructured material may permit masstransport of one or more chemical species across the membrane. A membrane comprising a micro- or nanostructured material may be selective for particular species. In some instances, a membrane comprising micro- or nanostructured materials may selectively transfer CO or CO2 from a gas stream. In some instances, a membrane comprising micro- or nanostructured materials may selectively transfer gaseous ethylene or ethanol from a gas mixture. In some instances, a membrane comprising micro- or nanostructured materials may selectively transfer hydrocarbons from an aqueous liquid mixture. A membrane comprising a micro- or nanostructured material may transfer particular chemical species by diffusive or convective mass transport. In some instances, mass transfer may be enhanced by the application of an external force or field. In particular instances, mass transfer may be driven or enhanced by the application of a magnetic or electrical field. In other instances, mass transfer may be driven by a pressure gradient (e.g. pulling a vacuum on one side of the membrane). In some instances, the selectivity of a membrane may be reversed by reversing an applied field or force. In other instances, a membrane may have a unidirectional or invariant mass transfer selectivity.Attorney Docket No.56520-710601

[0200] A micro- or nanostructured membrane may have an improved or preferredoperation temperature and operation pressure. In some instances, a system comprising a micro- or nanostructured membrane may be operated at an ambient pressure or temperature. In some instances, a system comprising a micro- or nanostructured membrane may be operated at an elevated pressure or under a vacuum or reduced pressure. A pressure gradient may be utilized to drive mass transfer across a membrane system. A micro- or nanostructured membrane may be utilized in a system with an operating temperature of about −30°C, −20°C, −10°C, 0°C, 5°C, 10°C, 15°C, 20°C, 25°C, 30°C, 35°C, 40°C, 50°C, 60°C, 70°C, or about 80° C. A micro- or nanostructured membrane may be utilized in a system with an operating temperature of at least about −30°C, −20°C, −10°C, 0°C, 5°C, 10°C, 15°C, 20°C, 25°C, 30°C, 35°C, 40°C, 50°C, 60°C, 70°C, or about 80° C. or more. A micro- or nanostructured membrane may be utilized in a system with an operating temperature of no more than about 80°C, 75°C, 70°C, 65°C, 60°C, 55°C, 50°C, 45°C, 40°C, 35°C, 30°C, 25°C, 20°C, 15°C, 10°C, 5°C, 0°C, −5°C, −10°C, −20°C, or about −30°C or less.

[0201] A micro- or nanostructured membrane may be utilized in a system with anoperating pressure of about 0 bar, 1 bar, 2 bar, 3 bar, 4 bar, 5 bar, 6 bar, 7 bar, 8 bar, 9 bar, 10 bar, 15 bar, 20 bar, 30 bar, 40 bar, 50 bar or more. A micro- or nanostructured membrane may be utilized in a system with an operating pressure of at least about 1 bar, 2 bar, 3 bar, 4 bar, 5 bar, 6 bar, 7 bar, 8 bar, 9 bar, 10 bar, 15 bar, 20 bar, 30 bar, 40 bar, 50 bar or more. A micro- or nanostructured membrane may be utilized in a system with an operating pressure of no more than about 50 bar, 40 bar, 30 bar, 20 bar, 15 bar, 10 bar, 9 bar, 8 bar, 7 bar, 6 bar, 5 bar, 4 bar, 3 bar, 2 bar, 1 bar or less.

[0202] A micro- or nanostructured membrane may permit a particular flux of CO orCO2across the membrane. A flux of CO or CO2may be driven by a pressure gradient across the membrane. In some instances, a pressure gradient may be driven by a gas stream comprising CO or CO2 at a pressure elevated above ambient pressure. In other instances, a pressure gradient may exist by pulling a vacuum on one side of the membrane, e.g. the lumen side. A micro- or nanostructured membrane may permit a CO or CO2 flux of about 0.1 kilogram gas / m2of membrane / hr (kg / m2 / hr), 0.5 kg / m2 / hr, 1 kg / m2 / hr, 2 kg / m2 / hr, 3 kg / m2 / hr, 4 kg / m2 / hr, 5 kg / m2 / hr, 6 kg / m2 / hr, 7 kg / m2 / hr, 8 kg / m2 / hr, 9 kg / m2 / hr, or about 10 kg / m2 / hr. A micro- or nanostructured membrane may permit a CO or CO2flux of at least about 0.1 kg / m2 / hr, 0.5 kg / m2 / hr, 1 kg / m2 / hr, 2 kg / m2 / hr, 3 kg / m2 / hr, 4 kg / m2 / hr, 5 kg / m2 / hr, 6 kg / m2 / hr, 7 kg / m2 / hr, 8 kg / m2 / hr, 9 kg / m2 / hr, or at least about 10 kg / m2 / hr. A micro- or nanostructured membrane may permit a CO or CO2flux of no more than about 10 kg / m2 / hr, 9Attorney Docket No.56520-710601 kg / m2 / hr, 8 kg / m2 / hr, 7 kg / m2 / hr, 6 kg / m2 / hr, 5 kg / m2 / hr, 4 kg / m2 / hr, 3 kg / m2 / hr, 2 kg / m2 / hr, 1 kg / m2 / hr, 0.5 kg / m2 / hr, or about 0.1 kg / m2 / hr or less.

[0203] A micro- or nanostructured membrane may permit a particular flux ofhydrocarbons across the membrane. A flux of hydrocarbons may be driven by a pressure gradient across the membrane. In some instances, a pressure gradient may be driven by a gas or liquid stream comprising hydrocarbons at a pressure elevated above ambient pressure. In other instances, a pressure gradient may exist by pulling a vacuum on one side of the membrane, e.g. the lumen side. A micro- or nanostructured membrane may permit a hydrocarbon flux of about 0.1 kilogram hydrocarbon / m2of membrane / hr (kg / m2 / hr), 0.5 kg / m2 / hr, 1 kg / m2 / hr, 2 kg / m2 / hr, 3 kg / m2 / hr, 4 kg / m2 / hr, 5 kg / m2 / hr, 6 kg / m2 / hr, 7 kg / m2 / hr, 8 kg / m2 / hr, 9 kg / m2 / hr, or about 10 kg / m2 / hr. A micro- or nanostructured membrane may permit a hydrocarbon flux of at least about 0.1 kilogram kg / m2 / hr, 0.5 kg / m2 / hr, 1 kg / m2 / hr, 2 kg / m2 / hr, 3 kg / m2 / hr, 4 kg / m2 / hr, 5 kg / m2 / hr, 6 kg / m2 / hr, 7 kg / m2 / hr, 8 kg / m2 / hr, 9 kg / m2 / hr, or at least about 10 kg / m2 / hr. A micro- or nanostructured membrane may permit a hydrocarbon flux of no more than about 10 kg / m2 / hr, 9 kg / m2 / hr, 8 kg / m2 / hr, 7 kg / m2 / hr, 6 kg / m2 / hr, 5 kg / m2 / hr, 4 kg / m2 / hr, 3 kg / m2 / hr, 2 kg / m2 / hr, 1 kg / m2 / hr, 0.5 kg / m2 / hr, or about 0.1 kg / m2 / hr or less.

[0204] A membrane with an enhanced selectivity for one or more chemical species mayenhance the chemical conversion rate or phase equilibrium of a conversion system. Without wanting to be bound to theory, selective enrichment for one or more chemical species within the void or pore space of the micro- or nanostructured component of a membrane may increase the volumetric concentration of the one or more chemical species within the void or pore space. In some instances, a kinetic rate enhancement or shift in phase equilibrium for a particular chemical reaction may be driven by one or more chemical species having higher volumetric concentrations within the membrane than may be predicted by their bulk phase concentrations on either side of the membrane. In a particular instance, the selective mass transfer of one or more chemical species through a membrane may cause an increased concentration of the one or more chemical species in a boundary layer adjacent to the surface of the membrane. An increase in the boundary layer concentration of the one or more chemical species may increase the availability of one or more chemical species to a catalyst deposited at the surface of the membrane. In another instance, a catalyst may be deposited within the void or pore space of a micro- or nanostructured material within a membrane, allowing direct transfer of an increased mass transfer of one or more chemical species to the catalyst by bulk flow.Attorney Docket No.56520-710601

[0205] The mass transfer selectivity of a membrane for one or more chemical speciesmay cause a measurable enhancement of the rate of reaction for one or more chemical reactions in a chemical conversion system that comprises such a membrane. In some instances, the rate of reaction for one or more chemical reactions may increase by at least about 5%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 75%, 100%, 150%, 200%, 500%, or about 1000% or more. In some instances, the rate of reaction for one or more chemical reactions may be higher than may be predicted by the use of measured reactant concentrations due to other synergistic effects such as electric field enhancement of catalyst activity. In some instances, the mass transfer selectivity of a membrane for one or more chemical species may cause a measurable reduction in the rate of reaction for one or more chemical side reactions (e.g. side reactions, degradation reactions) in a chemical conversion system that comprises such a membrane. In some instances, the rate of reaction for one or more side chemical reactions may decrease by at least about 5%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 75%, 100%, 150%, 200%, 500%, or about 1000% or more.

[0206] A membrane comprising a micro- or nanostructured material may furthercomprise one or more catalyst materials. A catalyst material may be attached, bonded, deposited or functionalized to the surface of a micro- or nanostructured material. In some instances, a catalyst may be located on a surface of a membrane. A catalyst may be localized in particular areas of a membrane or on particular areas of a micro- or nanostructured material to control where a catalyzed chemical reaction may occur. A catalyst may be located within a pore or pore-such as structure in a membrane. A chemical reaction catalyzed by a catalyst may occur on a particular area of the membrane or within the pore or pore-such as space of the membrane. A catalyst may comprise a metal atom, metal complex, or metal particle. A catalyst may comprise a metal such as titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, aluminum, silicon, yttrium, zirconium, niobium, molybdenum, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, silver, cadmium, indium, tin, antimony, tantalum, tungsten, osmium, platinum, gold, mercury, or lead. In some instances, a doped carbon nanomaterial may comprise a catalyst. In a particular instance, N-doped carbon nanotubes may comprise a catalyst. In another instance, carbon nanotubes with electrodeposited platinum, nickel, or copper nanoparticles may comprise a catalyst (see FIG.5 ). A membrane may comprise more than one catalyst. In some instances, one or more catalysts may be deposited on one or more areas or surfaces of a membrane, and one or more differing catalysts may be deposited on one or more differing areas or surfaces of a membrane. A membrane may catalyze one or more chemical reactions when mass transferAttorney Docket No.56520-710601 occurs in a particular direction across the membrane, and catalyze one or more differing chemical reactions when mass transfer occurs in a differing direction across the membrane.

[0207] An electrochemical reduction process utilizing a micro- or nanostructured catalystmembrane may utilize methods or components to minimize catalyst poisoning. A micro- or nanostructured membrane comprising a catalyst may be refreshed or regenerated to mitigate the impact of catalyst poisoning and the deposition of other byproduct species. In some instances, a membrane may be removed from an electrochemical reduction system for catalyst regeneration. In other instances, a membrane may be flushed with acid to dissolve or remove catalyst particles, followed thereafter by deposition of new catalyst particles on the membrane surface or nanoparticle surface.

[0208] A membrane comprising a micro- or nanostructured material may have enhancedelectrical properties. In some embodiments, the membranes may be conductive, due to the electrical properties of the micro- or nanostructured materials. In some instances, a membrane may be semiconducting (e.g. carbon nanotubes of a particular chirality). A membrane may be configured to act as an electrode in an electrochemical system. A membrane may permit an electrical current to be conveyed to one or more catalysts associated with it. An electrical current may enhance the reactivity of a catalyst for particular catalyzed chemical reactions. In some instances, the selective mass transfer of particular chemical species across a micro- or nanostructured membrane may increase the current density achieved at the membrane electrode.

[0209] A membrane comprising a micro- or nanostructured material may be utilized forvarious purposes. In some instances, a membrane may permit mass transfer of a chemical species from a first gas mixture into a second gas mixture. In some instances, a membrane may permit mass transfer of a chemical species from a gas phase into a liquid phase. In some instances, a membrane may permit mass transfer of a chemical species from a first liquid mixture into a second liquid mixture. In some instances, a membrane may permit mass transfer of a chemical species to a catalytic site where a chemical reaction may occur. In some instances, a membrane may be utilized to perform both chemical separations and catalysis. In some instances, a membrane may be cycled between separation and catalysis by the directional application of electric fields or other fields or forces. In other instances, a membrane may simultaneously catalyze and performing a chemical separation.Attorney Docket No.56520-710601 Chemical Conversion Systems

[0210] The present disclosure includes chemical conversion systems for the conversion ofcarbon dioxide into other chemical species (e.g., C1+ products) via electrochemical reduction. Numerous embodiments may be conceived over a wide range of processing scales. CO or CO2 conversion systems may include microscale fuel production devices, standalone chemical production systems that produce specific chemicals or fuels at the scale of tens to hundreds of kilograms per day, or industrial-scale production of chemicals or fuels at the scale of thousands of kilograms per day or more.

[0211] A chemical conversion system may utilize one or more micro- or nanostructuredmembranes to perform the electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide. A chemical conversion system may include one or more micro- or nanostructured membranes to perform a separation of carbon dioxide from a gas stream and supply the carbon dioxide to a chemical reactor. A chemical conversion system may include one or more micro- or nanostructured membranes to perform a separation of a chemical mixture resulting from a unit operation of a chemical conversion system. A chemical conversion system may include one or more micro- or nanostructured membranes to perform a catalyzed electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide to another chemical species (e.g. formate, methanol, ethanol). A chemical conversion system may include one or more micro- or nanostructured membranes to perform one or more catalyzed conversion reactions of one or more species formed via electrochemical reduction of carbon dioxide (e.g. further reduction of CO or CO2reduced products, such as formate to methanol or ethanol, methanol and ethanol to propanol, ethanol to butanol, such as dehydration of ethanol to ethylene).

[0212] A chemical conversion system may comprise one or more unit operations forseparating chemical species using a membrane comprising a micro- or nanostructured material. A chemical conversion system may comprise one or more unit operations for reacting one or more chemical species using a membrane comprising a micro- or nanostructured material. In some instances, a chemical conversion system may utilize micro- or nanostructured membrane unit operations for distinct operations, such as the reaction of one or more chemical species or the separation of one or more chemical species. In some instances, a chemical conversion system may utilize a single micro- or nanostructured membrane unit operation for a plurality of operations, such as simultaneous reaction and separation of one or more chemical species. In some instances, a chemical conversion system may comprise a plurality of unit operations comprising a membrane that comprises a micro-Attorney Docket No.56520-710601 or nanostructured material. In some instances, a plurality of unit operations may be working redundantly on a particular process, for example a plurality of CO or CO2 to formate chemical reactors. In other instances, a plurality of unit operations may be performing a range of processes, for example chemical reactors tailored to produce hydrocarbons with varying molecular weight ranges.

[0213] Any unit operation in a chemical conversion system may be configured to operatein a batch, semi-batch, or continuous mode. Any unit operation in a chemical conversion system may have one or more feed streams. Any unit operation in a chemical conversion system may have one or more product streams. A unit operation in a chemical conversion system may utilize one or more recycle or purge streams to control its function. In some instances, a unit operation capable of a plurality of processes (e.g. reaction and separation) may operate continuously. In some instances, a unit operation capable of a plurality of processes may operate cyclically between modes of operation.

[0214] A chemical conversion system may comprise any number of additional operationsbeyond the membrane-based unit operations. A chemical conversion system may comprise one or more unit operations for separations. Separation unit operations may include distillation columns, reactive distillation columns, gas absorption columns, stripping columns, additional catalysis operations, such as with catalyst packed columns, flash tanks, humidifiers, leaching units, liquid-liquid extraction units, dryers, adsorption systems, ion- exchange columns, membrane separation units, filtration units, sedimentation units, and crystallization units. A chemical conversion system may comprise one or more unit operations for heat transfer. Heat transfer unit operations may include mantle heaters, cartridge heaters, tape heaters, pad heaters, resistive heaters, radiative heaters, fan heaters, shell-and-tube heat exchangers, plate-type heat exchangers, extended-surface heat exchangers, scraped-surface heat exchangers, condensers, vaporizers, and evaporators. A chemical conversion system may comprise one or more unit operations for fluid transfer. Fluid transfer devices may include piping, tubing, fittings, valves, pumps, fans, blowers, compressors, stirrers, agitators, and blenders. Pumping equipment may be operated at pressures above atmospheric pressure or used to draw a vacuum. A chemical conversion system may comprise one or more chemical reaction units aside from an electrochemical reduction reactor. Chemical reaction units may include plug flow reactors, continuous-stirred tank reactors, packed bed columns, fluidized bed reactors, and batch reactors. Chemical reactors may be utilized for various upgrading and conversions including dehydrogenation, hydrogenation, cracking, dehydration, decarboxylation, carboxylation, amination,Attorney Docket No.56520-710601 deamination, alkylation, dealkylation, oxidation, reduction, polymerization, and depolymerization.

[0215] A chemical conversion system may have one or more pieces of equipment forprocess control or process safety. A chemical conversion system may contain one or more thermocouples, temperature gauges, pressure gauges, rotameters, mass flow controllers, pH probes, chemical analyzers, velocity gauges, infrared sensors, flow sensors, PID control devices, PLC control devices, purge valves, purge lines, and recycle lines. A chemical conversion system may be under operative control by one or more computers or computer systems.

[0216] Any unit operation within a chemical conversion system, including a centralelectrochemical reduction unit, may have at least one feed or input stream. Any unit operation within a chemical conversion system, including a central electrochemical reduction unit, may have at least one product or outlet stream. Any feed or input stream and product or outlet stream may comprise one or more inline unit operations for processes such as fluid transfer, heat transfer, mass transfer, chemical reaction, or process control.

[0217] A chemical conversion system comprising one or more micro- or nanostructuredmembranes may reduce or eliminate the energy consumption associated with one or more unit operations. For example, a gas separator comprising one or more micro- or nanostructured membranes may eliminate the need for a distillation column or separate adsorption system to separate CO or CO2from air. In some instances, the utilization of unit operations comprising micro- or nanostructured membranes may eliminate one or more pumps, compressors, heat exchangers, separators, or reactors from an electrochemical reduction system. The utilization of one or more micro- or nanostructured membranes may reduce the energy consumption of a processing in or processing component by at least about 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 99% or more.

[0218] A chemical conversion system may comprise one or more energy generationdevices. Energy generation devices may comprise renewable or clean energy generation devices such as photovoltaic cells, solar concentration heaters, wind turbines, water turbines, biomass combustion systems, and biomass gasifiers. A chemical conversion system may be in direct electrical connection with an energy source such as a nuclear power source or a geothermal power source. A renewable or clean energy source may provide the electrical energy source sufficient to electrochemically reduce CO or CO2 to other chemicals. A renewable or clean energy source may provide the electrical energy source sufficient toAttorney Docket No.56520-710601 perform any other unit operation sufficient to produce a chemical product. A renewable or clean energy source may include solar power sources (e.g. photovoltaic cells) geothermal power sources, hydroelectric power sources, nuclear power sources, tidal power sources, wind power sources, biomass power sources, or any combination thereof. In some instances, a chemical conversion system may be entirely self-sustaining, such as when no external power supply is necessary. In other instances, a chemical conversion system may reduce the external power demand of a chemical production process when compared to a production method. In some cases, power generation systems may be employed to make use of non- target byproducts, such as with a fuel cell for conversion of hydrogen, methane, or CO with oxygen to create electricity, which may be used in the electrochemical process.

[0219] A chemical conversion system may reduce the external power demand of achemical process by at least about 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99% or more. In some instances, a chemical conversion system may generate fuels with a greater energy content than the total external energy consumed to produce the fuels. A chemical conversion system may reduce the carbon footprint for the production of one or more chemicals.

[0220] A chemical conversion system may reduce the net carbon emissions of a chemicalproduction process. The total carbon emissions of a chemical production process may decrease by at least about 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99% or more. In some instances, a chemical production process may be net carbon negative, such as when more carbon is sequestered in a product than is released by the production of the product. A chemical conversion system may be utilized to reduce the net carbon emissions of another chemical process. In some instances, a chemical conversion system may be coupled to an effluent gas source (e.g. a power plant flue gas stream) to minimize the total carbon dioxide release from the effluent gas source. A chemical conversion system may reduce the total carbon emissions of another system or source by at least about 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99% or more. Chemical Reduction Systems and Methods

[0221] The present disclosure provides chemical conversion systems that convert CO orCO2 to other chemicals (e.g., C1+ products) via an electrochemical reduction system. In some instances, the electrochemical conversions system may produce hydrocarbons in the liquidAttorney Docket No.56520-710601 phase via the electrochemical reduction of bicarbonate ions that are produced by the reaction of CO or CO2 with water. The electrochemical reduction system may generate bicarbonate ions via the capture of CO or CO2 from various sources, including atmospheric carbon dioxide and effluent gases from an industrial or chemical process. In some instances, the chemical reduction system may reduce the energy consumption of a CO or CO2 reduction process by at least about 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99% or more. In some instances, a CO or CO2 reduction system may utilize a feed stream comprising carbon dioxide without the need for further purification. In some instances, a CO or CO2 reduction system may utilize a feed stream comprising CO or CO2without the need for additional separation processes that enrich the CO or CO2composition of the feed stream. A feed stream to an electrochemical reduction system may comprise carbon dioxide on a molar basis of about 0.01%, 0.02%, 0.03%, 0.04%, 0.05%, 0.06%, 0.07%, 0.08%, 0.09%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.5%, 1%, 5%, 10%, 20%, 50%, 90%, 95% or more. A feed stream to an electrochemical reduction system may comprise carbon dioxide on a molar basis of at least about 0.01%, 0.02%, 0.03%, 0.04%, 0.05%, 0.06%, 0.07%, 0.08%, 0.09%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.5%, 1%, 5%, 10%, 20%, 50%, 90%, 95% or more. A feed stream to an electrochemical reduction system may comprise carbon dioxide on a molar basis of no more than about 95%, 90%, 50%, 20%, 10%, 5%, 1%, 0.5%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.09%, 0.08%, 0.07%, 0.06%, 0.05%, 0.04%, 0.03%, 0.02%, or 0.01% or less.

[0222] An electrochemical reduction system may produce hydrocarbons at a specific ratebased upon the available surface area for electrochemical reduction. An electrochemical reduction system may produce hydrocarbons at a rate of about 10 kilograms / meter squared / hour (kg / m2 / hr), 20 kg / m2 / hr, 30 kg / m2 / hr, 40 kg / m2 / hr, 50 kg / m2 / hr, 60 kg / m2 / hr, 70 kg / m2 / hr, 80 kg / m2 / hr, 90 kg / m2 / hr, 100 kg / m2 / hr, 150 kg / m2 / hr, or about 200 kg / m2 / hr. An electrochemical reduction system may produce hydrocarbons at a rate of about 10 kg / m2 / hr, 20 kg / m2 / hr, 30 kg / m2 / hr, 40 kg / m2 / hr, 50 kg / m2 / hr, 60 kg / m2 / hr, 70 kg / m2 / hr, 80 kg / m2 / hr, 90 kg / m2 / hr, 100 kg / m2 / hr, 150 kg / m2 / hr, or about 200 kg / m2 / hr or more. An electrochemical reduction system may produce hydrocarbons at a rate of no more than about 200 kg / m2 / hr, 150 kg / m2 / hr, 100 kg / m2 / hr, 90 kg / m2 / hr, 80 kg / m2 / hr, 70 kg / m2 / hr, 60 kg / m2 / hr, 50 kg / m2 / hr, 40 kg / m2 / hr, 30 kg / m2 / hr, 20 kg / m2 / hr, or 10 kg / m2 / hr or less.

[0223] An electrochemical reduction system may have a selectivity for the conversion ofCO or CO2 to one or more chemical species (e.g., C1+ products). In some instances, a selectivity may be defined as the percentage of carbon atoms entering a reactor, system, or unit that are converted to a product species. For example, a selectivity of 50% may indicateAttorney Docket No.56520-710601 that 50% of entering CO or CO2molecules were converted to a hydrocarbon species in a reactor, system or unit. In some instances, a selectivity may be defined as the percentage of carbon atoms entering a reactor, system, or unit that are converted to a chemical species within a particular class, weight range, carbon number range, or other characteristic. For example, a selectivity of 50% C1-C4 may indicate that 50% of entering CO or CO2 molecules were converted to a C1 to C4 hydrocarbon product. A selectivity may be a single-pass selectivity. A single-pass selectivity may be defined as the percentage of carbon atoms entering a reactor, system, or unit that are converted to a hydrocarbon product on a single pass through the reactor, system, or unit. A selectivity may be a recycled selectivity. A recycled selectivity may be defined as the percentage of carbon atoms entering a reactor, system, or unit that are converted to a hydrocarbon product on two or more passes through the reactor, system, or unit.

[0224] An electrochemical reduction system may have a selectivity of about 10%, 20%,30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, or about 99%. An electrochemical reduction system may have a selectivity of at least about 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, or about 99% or more. An electrochemical reduction system may have a selectivity of no more than 99%, 95%, 90%, 80%, 70%, 60%, 50%, 40%, 30%, 20%, or 10% or less.

[0225] An electrochemical reduction system for the conversion of CO or CO2 into otherchemicals may comprise various components that may be necessary for the reduction of CO or CO2. Components may include cathodes, anodes, contactors, extractors, pumps, vapor- liquid separators, and ion exchange membranes. In some instances, some components may be included or excluded from a chemical reduction system depending upon the preferred embodiment of the device. In some instances, a chemical reduction system may be a single, stand-alone, or fully integrated system that performs all processes in the electrochemical reduction of CO or CO2. In other instances, an electrochemical reduction system may comprise at least two or more operatively linked unit operations that collectively perform the necessary processes in the electrochemical reduction of CO or CO2.

[0226] An electrochemical reduction system may comprise a housing. The housing mayprovide various functions to the electrochemical reduction system, including without limitation: securing components (e.g., membranes), physically containing fluids, separating differing fluids within a single unit, retaining temperature or pressure, and / or providing insulation. The housing may comprise any suitable material, including metals, ceramics, refractories, insulations, plastics, and glasses. The housing may comprise one unit of anAttorney Docket No.56520-710601 electrochemical reduction system (e.g., a cathode). The housing may comprise two or more units of an electrochemical reduction system (e.g., a cathode and anode). A complete electrochemical reduction system may be contained within a single housing.

[0227] The housing may include one or more walls. The housing may include one ormore compartments or chambers. The housing may have a cross-section that is circular, triangular, square, rectangular, pentagonal, hexagonal, or partial shapes or combinations of shapes thereof. The housing may be single-piece or formed of a plurality of pieces (e.g., pieces welded together). The housing may include a coating on an interior portion thereof. Such coating may prevent reaction with a surface in the interior portion of the housing, such as corrosion or an oxidation / reduction reaction with the surface.

[0228] An electrochemical reduction system may comprise a cathode, an anode and anelectrolyte solution that collectively provide the necessary components for the reduction of carbon dioxide to other chemical species. The electrolyte may comprise an aqueous salt solution that is composed with an improved ionic strength and pH for the electrochemical reduction of CO or CO2. An electrolyte may comprise an aqueous salt solution comprising bicarbonate ions. In some instances, an electrolyte may comprise an aqueous solution of sodium bicarbonate or potassium bicarbonate. In some instances, bicarbonate ions may dissociate in the presence of one or more catalysts to produce CO or CO2 molecules for a reduction reaction. The dissolution of CO or CO2 into the electrolyte solution may regenerate or maintain the improved concentration of bicarbonate ions.

[0229] An electrochemical reduction system may be configured to operate at an improvedprocessing temperature. An electrochemical reduction system or any component thereof may have an operating temperature of about −30°C, −20°C, −10°C, 0°C, 5°C, 10°C, 15°C, 20°C, 25°C, 30°C, 35°C, 40°C, 50°C, 60°C, 70°C, or about 80° C. An electrochemical reduction system or any component thereof may have an operating temperature of at least about −30°C, −20°C, −10°C, 0°C, 5°C, 10°C, 15°C, 20°C, 25°C, 30°C, 35°C, 40°C, 50°C, 60°C, 70°C, or about 80° C. or more. An electrochemical reduction system or any component thereof may have an operating temperature of no more than about 80°C, 75°C, 70°C, 65°C, 60°C, 55°C, 50°C, 45°C, 40°C, 35°C, 30°C, 25°C, 20°C, 15°C, 10°C, 5°C, 0°C, −5°C, −10°C, −20°C, or about −30° C. or less.

[0230] An electrochemical reduction system may be configured to operate at an improvedvoltage for the reduction of CO or CO2 to reduced products. An electrochemical reduction system may be arranged in a stack or series configuration to tailor the system voltage to an improved value. An electrochemical reduction system may have an operating voltage ofAttorney Docket No.56520-710601 about 0.1 volts (V), 0.2V, 0.3V, 0.4V, 0.5V, 0.75V, 1.0V, 2.0V, 3.0V, 4.0V, 5.0V, 10V, 15V, or about 20V. An electrochemical reduction system may have an operating voltage of at least about 0.1 volts (V), 0.2V, 0.3V, 0.4V, 0.5V, 0.75V, 1.0V, 2.0V, 3.0V, 4.0V, 5.0V, 10V, 15V, or about 20V or more. An electrochemical reduction system may have an operating voltage of no more than about 20V, 15V, 10V, 5.0V, 4.0V, 3.0V, 2.0V, 1.0V, 0.75V, 0.5V, 0.4V, 0.3V, 0.2V, or about 0.1V or less.

[0231] An electrochemical reduction system may have an improved cathode currentdensity. In some instances, the cathode current density may determine the rate of CO or CO2 reduction at the cathode. A cathode may be characterized by an overall electrochemical efficiency. An overall electrochemical efficiency may be defined as the percentage of electrical energy converted into chemical energy. A cathode may have a cathode current density of about 10 milliAmps / square centimeter (mA / cm2), 50 mA / cm2, 100 mA / cm2, 150 mA / cm2, 200 mA / cm2, 250 mA / cm2, 300 mA / cm2, 350 mA / cm2, 400 mA / cm2, 450 mA / cm2, 500 mA / cm2, 600 mA / cm2, 700 mA / cm2, 800 mA / cm2, 900 mA / cm2, or about 1000 mA / cm2. A cathode may have a cathode current density of at least about 10 mA / cm2, 50 mA / cm2, 100 mA / cm2, 150 mA / cm2, 200 mA / cm2, 250 mA / cm2, 300 mA / cm2, 350 mA / cm2, 400 mA / cm2, 450 mA / cm2, 500 mA / cm2, 600 mA / cm2, 700 mA / cm2, 800 mA / cm2, 900 mA / cm2, or about 1000 mA / cm2or more. A cathode may have a cathode current density of no more than about 1000 mA / cm2, 900 mA / cm2, 800 mA / cm2, 700 mA / cm2, 600 mA / cm2, 500 mA / cm2, 450 mA / cm2, 400 mA / cm2, 350 mA / cm2, 300 mA / cm2, 250 mA / cm2, 200 mA / cm2, 150 mA / cm2, 100 mA / cm2, 50 mA / cm2, 10 mA / cm2or less.

[0232] A cathode in an electrochemical reduction system may have an overallelectrochemical efficiency. A cathode may have an overall electrochemical efficiency of about 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95% or more. A cathode may have an overall electrochemical efficiency of at least about 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95% or more. A cathode may have an overall electrochemical efficiency of no more than about 95%, 90%, 85%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 65%, 60%, 55%, 50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, 10%, 5% or less.

[0233] An electrolyte may comprise a solution with a particular ionic strength ormolarity. An electrolyte may have an ionic strength of about 0.01 moles / liter (M), 0.05M, 0.1M, 0.2M, 0.3M, 0.4M, 0.5M, 0.6M, 0.7M, 0.8M, 0.9M, 1.0M, 1.1M, 1.2M, 1.3M, 1.4M, 1.5M, 2.0M, 2.5M, or about 3.0M. An electrolyte may have an ionic strength of at least about 0.01M, 0.05M, 0.1M, 0.2M, 0.3M, 0.4M, 0.5M, 0.6M, 0.7M, 0.8M, 0.9M, 1.0M, 1.1M,Attorney Docket No.56520-710601 1.2M, 1.3M, 1.4M, 1.5M, 2.0M, 2.5M, or at least about 3.0M or more. An electrolyte may have an ionic strength of no more than about 3.0M, 2.5M 2.0M, 1.5M, 1.4M, 1.3M, 1.2M, 1.1M, 1.0M, 0.9M, 0.8M, 0.7M, 0.6M, 0.5M, 0.4M, 0.3M, 0.2M, 0.1M, 0.05M, or no more than about 0.01M or less. A salt in an electrolyte may have a molarity of about 0.01 moles / liter (M), 0.05M, 0.1M, 0.2M, 0.3M, 0.4M, 0.5M, 0.6M, 0.7M, 0.8M, 0.9M, 1.0M, 1.1M, 1.2M, 1.3M, 1.4M, 1.5M, 2.0M, 2.5M, or about 3.0M. A salt in an electrolyte may have a molarity of at least about 0.01M, 0.05M, 0.1M, 0.2M, 0.3M, 0.4M, 0.5M, 0.6M, 0.7M, 0.8M, 0.9M, 1.0M, 1.1M, 1.2M, 1.3M, 1.4M, 1.5M, 2.0M, 2.5M, or at least about 3.0M or more. A salt in an electrolyte may have a molarity of no more than about 3.0M, 2.5M 2.0M, 1.5M, 1.4M, 1.3M, 1.2M, 1.1M, 1.0M, 0.9M, 0.8M, 0.7M, 0.6M, 0.5M, 0.4M, 0.3M, 0.2M, 0.1M, 0.05M, or no more than about 0.01M or less. A salt in an electrolyte may have a molarity in a range from about 0.01M to about 0.1M, about 0.01M to about 0.2M, about 0.01M to about 0.5M, about 0.01M to about 1.0M, about 0.01M to about 3.0M, about 0.1M to about 0.2M, about 0.1M to about 0.5M, about 0.1M to about 1.0M, about 0.1M to about 3.0M, about 0.2M to about 0.5M, about 0.2M to about 1.0M, about 0.2M to about 3.0M, about 0.5M to about 1.0M, about 0.5M to about 3.0M, or about 1.0M to about 3.0M.

[0234] An electrolyte may have an improved pH for the electrochemical reduction ofCO2. An electrolyte may have a pH of about 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, or about 14. An electrolyte may have a pH of at least about 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 or more. An electrolyte may have a pH of no more than about 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0) or less. An electrolyte may have a pH in a range from about 0 to about 2, about 0) to about 3, about 0) to about 4, about 0) to about 5, about 0) to about 7, about 0) to about 10, about 0) to about 14, about 2 to about 3, about 2 to about 4, about 2 to about 5, about 2 to about 7, about 2 to about 10, about 2 to about 14, about 3 to about 4, about 3 to about 5, about 3 to about 7, about 3 to about 10, about 3 to about 14, about 4 to about 5, about 4 to about 7, about 4 to about 10, about 4 to about 14, about 5 to about 7, about 5 to about 10, about 5 to about 14, about 7 to about 10, about 7 to about 14, or from about 10 to about 14.

[0235] An electrolyte in an electrochemical reduction system may be a non-aqueouselectrolyte. In some instances, an electrolyte may comprise an ionic liquid with a dissolved salt. An ionic liquid may include, but is not limited to, imidazolium-based fluorinated anion ionic liquids, imidazolium acetates, imidazolium fluoroacetates, pyrrolidinium ionic liquids, or any combination thereof.

[0236] An anode may comprise an elemental metal such as nickel, tin, or gold. An anodemay comprise a wire mesh, metal foam or other permeable structure of the chosen anodeAttorney Docket No.56520-710601 material. An anode material may be in operative contact with an anion exchange membrane material or another physical separator that prevents contact with the cathode.

[0237] A cathode may comprise any appropriate material. In some instances, a cathodemay comprise copper nanoparticles and / or N-doped carbon nanomaterials. In some instances, a cathode may comprise a micro- or nanostructured membrane material. In some instances, a cathode may comprise one or more catalysts for the electrochemical reduction of CO or CO2or other chemical reactions. A cathode material may be in operative contact with an anion exchange membrane material or another physical separator that prevents contact with the cathode. In some instances, the distance between the cathode and anode may be minimized to reduce resistance. In some instances, forced convective flow of electrolyte between the electrodes may further reduce electrical resistance and / or may permit for greater distance between the electrodes. In some instances, the electrodes may be in different housings. In some instances, the anode and cathode may have a minimal distance with an ion selective membrane between them. In some instances, no ion selective membrane may be used.

[0238] An electrochemical reduction system may comprise one or more extractor units.An extractor unit may comprise any unit operation or separation unit that selectively separates one or more chemical species from a feed stream. In some instances, an extractor may comprise a membrane separator. In some instances, an extractor may comprise a micro- or nanostructured membrane. In some instances, an extractor may extract one or more chemical species derived from the reduction of carbon dioxide. In some instances, an extractor may extract one or more chemical species derived from the reduction of CO or CO2 from an electrolyte solution. In other instances, an extractor may separate one or more chemical species derived from the subsequent reaction of carbon dioxide electrochemical reduction products.

[0239] An electrochemical reduction system may comprise one or more contactor units.A contactor unit may comprise any unit operation or separation unit that selectively separates one or more chemical species from a feed stream. In some instances, a contactor may comprise a gas adsorption column. In other instances, a contactor may comprise packing to increase a liquid solutions surface area and a fan to increase gas passage at the liquid interface. Such contactors may share components with cooling towers. In other instances, an extractor may comprise a membrane separator. In some instances, an extractor may comprise a micro- or nanostructured membrane. In some instances, a contactor may extract one or more chemical species from a feed stream. In some instances, a contactor may extract carbonAttorney Docket No.56520-710601 dioxide from a feed stream. In some instances, a contactor may separate CO or CO2from a feed stream and dissolve the CO or CO2 in an electrolyte solution. In some cases, a feed stream may be air. In some cases, the feed stream may be filtered prior to use. Such filtering may in some cases remove particulate matter and / or volatile organic materials and / or undesired materials of various kinds. The uptake of CO or CO2 in a gas contactor may be enhanced by the presence of hydroxide ions generated within the electrochemical reduction system.

[0240] An electrochemical reduction system may comprise one or more ion exchangemembranes. An ion exchange membrane may comprise a cation exchange membrane, an anion exchange membrane, or a bipolar membrane. An ion exchange membrane may be in operative contact with a cathode, an anode, or both a cathode and anode. In some instances, an electrochemical reduction system may comprise no ion exchange membranes. In some instances, an ion exchange membrane may be configured to minimize the distance between the anode and the cathode. An ion exchange membrane may have a thickness of about 1 μm, 5 μm, 10 μm, 25 μm, 50 μm, 100 μm, 125 μm, 150 μm, 200 μm, 250 μm, 300 μm, 400 μm, 500 μm, 750 μm, 1 mm, or more than 1 mm. An ion exchange membrane may have a thickness of at least about 1 μm, 5 μm, 10 μm, 25 μm, 50 μm, 100 μm, 125 μm, 150 μm, 200 μm, 250 μm, 300 μm, 400 μm, 500 μm, 750 μm, 1 millimeter (mm), or more. An ion exchange membrane may have a thickness of no more than about 1 mm, 750 μm, 500 μm, 400 μm, 300 μm, 250 μm, 200 μm, 150 μm, 125 μm, 100 μm, 50 μm, 25 μm, 10 μm, 5 μm, 1 μm, or less.

[0241] In some embodiments, the system comprises a chemical reduction unit thatincludes a micro- or nanostructured membrane. In some cases, the membrane incorporates one or more catalysts on its surface or within its structure. In some instances, separate catholyte and anolyte reservoirs facilitate electrolyte circulation. For example, the chemical reduction unit may include tanks, pumps, or housings configured for fluid flow management. As an example, the system may incorporate heat exchangers or cooling systems to maintain preferred operating temperatures.

[0242] In some embodiments, the system includes an extractor that employs a micro- ornanostructured membrane to separate reduced carbon products from the electrolyte. In some cases, the extractor integrates a vapor-liquid separator or relies on pressure or chemical potential gradients to isolate products. In some instances, a contactor with a micro- or nanostructured membrane is used to capture CO or CO₂ from a gas feed. For example, an anode unit may include a micro- or nanostructured catalyst to facilitate oxidation reactions.Attorney Docket No.56520-710601 As an example, the system may also use an ion exchange membrane to divide cathodic and anodic compartments.

[0243] In some embodiments, the system converts CO or CO₂ into reduced carbonproducts through an electrochemical reaction in a cathode unit. In some cases, the resulting product-rich stream is directed to an extraction module for RCP separation. In some instances, any non-condensable gases are managed by a vacuum pump, allowing compression or disposal. For example, a partially depleted electrolyte stream may be returned to the chemical reduction unit to sustain continuous operation. As an example, a contactor may introduce additional CO or CO₂, ensuring ongoing conversion within the system.

[0244] In some embodiments, the system maintains pH control in the electrolyte toimprove carbon reduction. In some cases, oxygen generation at the anode helps regulate overall electrochemical balance. In some instances, an ion exchange membrane allows ion transfer, supporting pH adjustment between the catholyte and anolyte. For example, the anode side may oxidize residual species while producing oxygen, which is separated via a vapor-liquid separator. As an example, the separated oxygen may be used beneficially or released as needed. Overview of the Systems and Methods

[0245] The present disclosure provides systems and methods for producing one or morecarbon products using renewable energy sources and electrochemical processes configured to reduce overall hardware requirements, improve energy utilization, and simplify system architecture.

[0246] In some embodiments, the systems and methods provided herein are configured toproduce reduced carbon products from one or more carbon sources using electrochemical units powered at least in part by renewable energy. In some cases, the systems and methods provided herein are configured to couple the renewable power output directly to electrochemical units without requiring traditional power conversion components. In some instances, the systems and methods provided herein are configured to modify power consumption in response to power availability through electrical configuration of electrochemical unit architecture. For example, the systems and methods provided herein are configured to operate electrochemical units in a plurality of electrical configurations that accommodate variations in renewable energy supply. As an example, the systems and methods provided herein are configured to improve energy transfer efficiency and increase utilization of the renewable energy resource while reducing overall hardware requirements.Attorney Docket No.56520-710601

[0247] In some embodiments, the systems and methods provided herein comprise aplurality of electrochemical units that receive electrical energy from one or more renewable energy sources and apply that energy to produce carbon products from carbon sources. In some cases, the systems and methods provided herein comprise a direct current (DC) electrical interface that electrically couples the renewable power output to the electrochemical units without requiring intermediate DC / DC converters, inverters, or power regulators. In some instances, the systems and methods provided herein comprise one or more electrochemical units configured to operate primarily in the ohmic region of their voltage-current profile to provide predictable load behavior compatible with the renewable source. In some instances, the systems and methods provided herein comprise electrochemical units that are configured to operate above their nominal electrical rating during periods of elevated renewable energy availability. For example, the systems and methods provided herein comprise electrochemical units with cooling and structural characteristics that permit operation under increased current density conditions, including supercharged operation during peak generation intervals. As an example, the systems and methods provided herein comprise an electrochemical stack configuration that may be reconfigured through series-parallel switching, such as to adjust its electrical load characteristics to provide closer impedance matching with varying renewable power output. Energy Source

[0248] In some embodiments, the present disclosure provides systems and methods forproducing one or more reduced carbon products using electrical energy derived from one or more renewable or non-renewable sources. In some cases, the system is configured to utilize electricity to drive electrochemical processes for converting carbon-containing feedstocks into beneficial fuels or chemicals. In some instances, the system may be deployed at locations with distributed energy generation, centralized utility access, or behind-the-meter configurations. For example, a commercial facility may use on-site solar generation to power an electrochemical process that reduces captured carbon dioxide into one or more reduced carbon products. As an example, the system may be implemented in an industrial zone where both waste heat and carbon-rich process gases are available. In some instances, the system may be configured to dynamically adjust its operation to efficiently utilize a fluctuating power supply, such as for variable renewable sources such as solar and wind, as detailed further herein.Attorney Docket No.56520-710601

[0249] FIG. 1 shows an example of a utility-scale solar energy system configured toexport power to the electrical grid. In this example, the system includes a solar array 100 comprising a plurality of photovoltaic (PV) modules arranged in series-parallel configurations to generate a direct current (DC) power output. The DC output is supplied to a maximum power point tracking (MPPT) converter 101, which regulates the electrical impedance between the PV array and the downstream components. The regulated DC output is transmitted to an inverter 102 and then to substation 103 before dispatching the power to the grid 104. In this way, FIG.1 contrasts some solar-grid architectures with the direct- coupled system described in the present disclosure. In contrast to the system shown in FIG.1, the systems of the present disclosure, such as depicted in FIG.2, may convert one or more renewable power sources into a direct current (DC) power output; without requiring intermediate power electronics, such as the MPPT converter 101 and the inverter 102 (e.g., directly coupling the DC output of the solar array 100 (or 200) to the electrochemical units 201).

[0250] In some embodiments, the system comprises a plurality of power sources. In somecases, the plurality of power sources comprises sustainable, inexhaustible, or renewable energy sources. In some cases, the plurality of renewable energy sources comprise one or more of solar, wind, geothermal, hydroelectric, tidal, wave, biomass, ocean thermal, or hybrid systems. In some instances, the system may combine these sources to improve availability and match generation to electrochemical load requirements, such as a plurality of electrochemical units described herein. For example, a hybrid solar-wind configuration may deliver power across diurnal and seasonal cycles. As an example, the plurality of renewable energy sources may support continuous operation (e.g., daily, weekly, yearly), such as when the carbon feedstock is constantly available.

[0251] In some embodiments, the system comprises a plurality of renewable energy unitsconfigured to convert one or more renewable power sources into usable electrical output. In some cases, these units include solar energy modules or wind turbines arranged to match the load profile of electrochemical equipment described herein. In some instances, the system combines multiple renewable units to maintain high uptime and improve capacity factor. For example, a solar array may complement wind turbines during evening or overcast conditions. As an example, a remote or off-grid site may rely on this configuration for uninterrupted power delivery to electrochemical processes.

[0252] In some embodiments, the renewable power source comprises solar energyconfigured to drive the electrochemical conversion of carbon feedstocks into reduced carbonAttorney Docket No.56520-710601 products. In some cases, the system comprises a plurality of solar energy units (e.g., photovoltaic modules or solar thermal converters) that transform solar irradiance into electricity or heat. In some instances, the plurality of solar energy units may produce direct current (DC). For example, a photovoltaic array may generate unregulated DC for direct coupling to electrochemical cells. As an example, a solar energy unit may be in electrical communication with an intermediate power unit to generate a DC power.

[0253] In some embodiments, the solar energy unit comprises any solar array configuredto generate electricity from solar irradiance. In some cases, the solar array comprises modules formed from monocrystalline silicon, CdTe, CIGS, perovskite, or hybrid PV-thermal materials. In some instances, these modules include bifacial PV designs with bypass diodes and reconfigurable wiring to optimize generation under varying conditions. For example, the system may employ single-axis or dual-axis trackers to enhance daily and seasonal energy capture and align production with electrolyzer demand. As an example, a solar array on trackers may adjust its orientation throughout the day to maximize insolation, capture reflected light, extend production windows, and improve overall capacity factor.

[0254] In some embodiments, the system is configured for an onsite renewablegeneration configuration that directly feeds local loads and minimizes reliance on external grid infrastructure (e.g., behind-the-meter installation). In some cases, the system comprises one or more components configured for real-time matching of solar generation with the load profile of electrolyzers. In some instances, a plurality of electrochemical units draws direct current (DC) output from the plurality of renewable energy units (such as a solar array) without requiring grid interconnection or downstream conversion. For example, the solar array may be oriented to meet the majority of operational needs during daylight hours. As an example, an integrated control framework may modulate electrolyzer voltage or current density in concert with solar power output to optimize conversion efficiency.

[0255] In some embodiments, the solar power described herein may be combined withadditional renewable resources to facilitate continuous operation (e.g., daily, weekly, yearly) of the electrolysis system. In some cases, the system incorporates wind, geothermal, or hydroelectric generation to supplement solar output when sunlight is limited. In some instances, automated controls are configured to dynamically prioritize or blend these inputs based on real-time availability. For example, daytime operations may predominantly rely on solar, while wind turbines provide electricity during evening or overnight periods. As an example, this hybrid approach maximizes utilization of all available resources and provides uninterrupted production of reduced carbon products.Attorney Docket No.56520-710601

[0256] In some embodiments, the plurality of renewable energy units includes systemsconfigured to produce DC electricity compatible with electrochemical equipment. In some cases, at least one solar energy unit directly converts irradiance into DC through photovoltaic cells or thermal-to-electric systems. In some instances, the system is configured to achieve near-unity power transfer efficiency by aligning the open-circuit voltage of the solar array with the electrolyzer stack voltage range, reducing or eliminating the need for inverters and voltage regulators. For example, a monocrystalline photovoltaic installation may connect to an electrochemical stack via passive busbars. As an example, a concentrated solar power plant may employ a generator and rectifier assembly to deliver regulated DC voltage, ensuring stable operation and streamlined plant design.

[0257] FIG. 2 shows an example of a system configured to produce one or more reducedcarbon products using renewable energy in a behind-the-meter (BTM) configuration, wherein direct current (DC) power is supplied to electrochemical units without conversion to alternating current (AC). In this example, the system comprises a solar array 200 directly connected to a bank of electrochemical units 201 via a switch network 202 that provides dynamic reconfiguration to track available solar output. Optional components include a thermal management subsystem 205 and control signal input 204. FIG.2 illustrates the core innovation of this disclosure: a DC-coupled, MPPT-free system using reconfigurable electrochemical architecture.

[0258] In some embodiments, the plurality of renewable energy units are configured toproduce electrical output suitable for powering electrochemical conversion systems. In some cases, the output includes DC, AC, or variable-frequency signals. In some instances, the system is optimized for DC output with electrical characteristics matched to the electrochemical load. For example, the system may ensure the voltage and current profile of the solar array aligns with the electrochemical stack’s operating window. As an example, switch-based reconfiguration may dynamically adjust the number of active stacks in series or parallel to avoid conversion losses.

[0259] In some embodiments, the system is configured to operate in a Behind-the-Meter(BTM) configuration, in which electrical output is consumed locally without export to the grid. In some cases, this allows direct coupling between the solar array and the electrochemical units without grid compliance. In some instances, BTM deployment eliminates inverters, transformers, and interconnection fees. For example, a solar array installed on an industrial facility may be wired directly to an electrochemical stack usingAttorney Docket No.56520-710601 passive busbars and switch-controlled architecture. As an example, the system may operate independent of grid-tied pricing or curtailment constraints.

[0260] In some embodiments, the solar energy unit exhibits a non-linear Current / Voltage(IV) profile that varies with irradiance and temperature. In some cases, the IV curve includes a maximum power point (MPP) where current × voltage is maximized. In some instances, the solar array behaves as a current source below MPP, then rapidly drops beyond it. For example, the MPP may occur at 1,500 volts under peak sun conditions. As an example, the MPP may be estimated using temperature-based heuristics instead of active MPPT.

[0261] FIG. 3 shows non-limiting examples of photovoltaic system configurationsillustrating impacts of series and parallel connections on current-voltage and power characteristics. In some embodiments, the photovoltaic system 300 and methods comprise analyzing IV curves representing different configurations. In some cases, an IV curve for a parallel configuration 304 includes module connections that increase overall system output current and extend the IV curve vertically, culminating in a Parallel Maximum Power Point (MPP) 307. In some instances, this parallel array corresponds to an operating region 311, while a series configuration 305 arranges modules end-to-end to increase system voltage, shifting the IV curve horizontally and defining a Series MPP 308 within an operating region 312. For example, a baseline single module configuration 306 may define an additional reference IV characteristic, and corresponding power curves (309 for parallel, 310 for series) may be used to identify improved power outputs. As an example, the system is thereby able to evaluate which array—parallel 304, series 305, or single module 306—best aligns with specific power or voltage requirements. In some embodiments, the system comprises one or more components configured to adjust the configuration of a plurality of renewable energy units. In some cases, the system includes a switching network that reconfigures these renewable energy units into parallel, series, or a combination thereof. In some instances, the configurations depicted in FIG.3 illustrate how arranging photovoltaic modules in parallel 304 or series 305—relative to a baseline single- module array 306—directly influences the overall current-voltage (IV) characteristics 301 and 302, as well as the location of each Maximum Power Point 307 and 308. For example, a parallel array shifts the IV curve upward to accommodate higher current, whereas a series array shifts it rightward to provide elevated voltage. As an example, these modifications also alter the system’s power output curves 303, 309, and 310, providing more precise alignment with specific load requirements. In some instances, an application that requires higher current at moderate voltages may operate near the parallel MPP 307, whereas a voltage-intensiveAttorney Docket No.56520-710601 load may instead utilize the series MPP 308 for improved performance. As an example, this flexible reconfiguration permits the system 300 to address diverse operational scenarios and efficiency goals.

[0262] In some embodiments, the system comprises one or more components configuredto adjust the configuration of a plurality of renewable energy units, such as by employing a switching network to reconfigure those units into parallel, series, or a combination thereof. In some cases, the system’s 300 electrical output fundamentally changes based on the chosen topology for the series 305 and parallel 304 configurations relative to a baseline single- module array 306, as illustrated by the IV curves in FIG.3. In some instances, the respective Maximum Power Points (307 for parallel, 308 for series) indicate the operating points that optimize power extraction under each array. For example, a parallel layout may emphasize higher currents at lower voltages, whereas a series layout provides higher voltages at lower currents. As an example, these configurations can be selected or combined to match downstream load profiles or meet various system constraints, and evaluating the MPPs may guide dynamic reconfiguration or determine a fixed array for improved performance under varying sunlight conditions.

[0263] In some cases, the plurality of power sources includes finite or exhaustible sourcessuch as grid-connected electricity, natural gas-fired generators, or battery systems. In some instances, these sources may provide supplemental or backup electricity to maintain uptime during periods of low renewable availability. For example, a facility may use electricity from the grid or from on-site fossil-based cogeneration to power the electrochemical system during low insolation periods. As an example, stored electricity may be discharged to support operations when solar output is unavailable.

[0264] The systems and methods described herein may utilize a variety of computationalcomponents, including algorithms, models, and control logic, to manage and achieve improved power utilization in the electrochemical conversion of carbon dioxide into reduced carbon products. These computational components may operate within a larger control framework that governs overall system behavior, and this framework can encompass functions such as data acquisition, actuation, and safety interlocks. Examples of algorithms and models include the configuration selection model, which, in some cases, determines the array of electrochemical units to achieve improved power utilization; the maximum power point estimation model, which, in some cases, infers the voltage for improved power utilization from the solar power source; the stack activation prioritization model, which, in some cases, selects the order of electrochemical unit activation to achieve improved powerAttorney Docket No.56520-710601 utilization; and the forecast-informed configuration planning model, which, in some cases, adjusts system settings based on predicted power availability to achieve improved power utilization. It will be understood that these components may be implemented via executable code and may operate in conjunction with broader control logic that manages real-time system operation. Electrochemical Units

[0265] In some embodiments, the systems and methods comprise a plurality ofelectrochemical units configured to receive direct current (DC) electrical energy from one or more renewable energy sources and use at least a portion of the received power to produce one or more reduced carbon products from a carbon-containing material (e.g., carbon dioxide (CO₂)) feedstock. In some cases, the electrochemical units comprise one or more electrolyzers configured for continuous or intermittent operation based on available power. In some instances, the electrolyzers are configured to operate using unregulated DC power supplied directly from a solar array or other renewable source, without requiring intermediate power conversion electronics such as inverters or DC-DC converters. For example, the system may include a solar-coupled bank of modular electrolyzers that produce syngas, alcohols, or hydrocarbons from carbon-based reactants without synchronization to grid power. As an example, the electrochemical units may begin operation as soon as sufficient DC voltage is available, without waiting for external control systems to stabilize. In some instances, the electrolyzers may comprise utilizing a separation unit that includes an anode, a cathode, and a porous membrane (e.g., comprising micro- or nanostructured materials). For example, the membrane may facilitate one or more of the electrochemical reaction and the separation of products.

[0266] In some embodiments, the electrolyzers comprise a stack of electrochemical cellselectrically coupled in series, in parallel, or in a mixed series-parallel configuration to form a stack suitable for operation under variable power conditions. In some cases, the cells are configured to operate primarily within the ohmic region of their current-voltage (IV) profile, where voltage and current maintain a linear relationship. In some instances, this configuration improves power tracking with renewable sources by ensuring that electrolyzer current increases proportionally with solar voltage, avoiding performance drops due to activation overpotentials or mass transport limitations. For example, each cell may include electrodes, membranes, and electrolytes configured to maintain low resistance under a wide range ofAttorney Docket No.56520-710601 current densities. As an example, the electrolyzer may function across a broad input power range without entering inefficient regions of the IV curve.

[0267] In some embodiments, the electrolyzers comprise components that supportoperation beyond nominal power ratings during periods of peak solar or wind generation. In some cases, the nominal rating is defined as the baseline current density or power level under standard operating parameters. In some instances, the electrolyzers operate in an overcapacity or “supercharged” mode, where the input current exceeds nominal levels without requiring a proportional increase in overall hardware requirements. For example, the electrolyzers may include liquid-fed flow cells with active cooling mechanisms that provide higher current density operation during midday peak irradiance. In some instances, the mechanical and thermal configuration of the stacks may support short-duration spikes in power input without performance degradation, thereby improving capacity factor while avoiding excessive hardware expansion.

[0268] In some embodiments, the system is configured such that the electrolyzers areintentionally undersized relative to the solar array’s peak output. In some cases, the electrochemical unit count is reduced below the nameplate generation capacity to decrease overall installed equipment. In some instances, the system accomplishes this by operating the smaller set of electrolyzers in higher power modes more frequently, thereby maintaining production while reducing the number of installed cells. For example, the electrolyzers may be rated at 50% to 70% of the solar array capacity and may be driven into supercharged mode during brief peaks to match power availability. As an example, this tradeoff lessens system hardware requirements and simplifies deployment while preserving annual production targets.

[0269] FIG. 4 shows a non-limiting example of aspects of a power regulation system 400that manages electrical energy transfer from a solar photovoltaic (PV) array to an inverter, illustrating the effects of different DC:AC sizing ratios across a diurnal time profile. In some embodiments, the system’s inverter AC power output over the course of a day is depicted with power on the vertical axis (reference 401) and time of day on the horizontal axis (reference 402), as illustrated in FIG.4.

[0270] In some embodiments, the system and methods may utilize different PV array-to-inverter sizing ratios, represented by a low DC:AC ratio operational curve 403 and a high DC:AC ratio operational curve 404. Each curve (403, 404) represents the inverter's potential delivered AC power output under the respective sizing condition. In some cases, operation corresponding to the low DC:AC ratio curve 403 remains entirely below a defined inverterAttorney Docket No.56520-710601 output rating 406, while operation corresponding to the high DC:AC ratio curve 404 exceeds the inverter output rating 406 during midday hours, thereby resulting in energy clipping.

[0271] In some instances, the system operates subject to an inverter output rating 406,which establishes a constant upper bound for the inverter-delivered AC power. For example, when the power generation corresponding to the high DC:AC ratio curve 404 exceeds the inverter output rating 406, the system's output is clipped, defining an inverter clipping condition or region 405 where excess generated DC energy is not converted to AC.

[0272] As an example, operating the system with a higher DC:AC ratio (404) may resultincreased energy capture during early morning and late afternoon compared to operating with a lower ratio (403); this increase is represented by the energy gain region 407. In some cases, the system and methods may involve an energy optimization strategy where the energy increase represented by region 407 outweighs the energy lost due to clipping (405), leading to higher overall daily energy delivery.

[0273] In some embodiments, the system and methods comprise performanceoptimization by selecting a DC:AC ratio (403 or 404) that increases total energy yield across non-peak hours while accepting limited clipping losses (405) during peak solar intensity. In some cases, the system and methods comprise alternative configurations where utilizing a lower DC:AC ratio (403) avoids clipping (405) but results in reduced energy capture (407) during lower irradiance conditions.

[0274] In this way, the operational characteristics depicted in FIG. 4 illustrate aspects of apower regulation framework considering the inverter AC power output reference 401, the time-of-day reference 402, low DC:AC ratio operation 403, high DC:AC ratio operation 404, inverter clipping 405, the inverter output rating 406, and energy gain 407, to manage and optimize solar energy conversion based on PV array-to-inverter sizing relationships.

[0275] In some embodiments, the electrolyzers comprise a modular stack architecture inwhich the voltage and current characteristics may be dynamically adjusted by changing the number of active stacks. In some cases, each stack contains a fixed number of cells wired in series, and the number of active stacks may be increased or decreased to match the available input power. In some instances, switch-based reconfiguration is used to rewire stacks in real time into different series-parallel arrangements. For example, a controller may switch from three stacks in series to two stacks in series with two branches in parallel to reduce stack voltage and increase current under bright sunlight. As an example, this provides compatibility with variable renewable output without needing voltage converters or MPPT logic.Attorney Docket No.56520-710601

[0276] FIG. 5 illustrates a non-limiting example of how a power regulation system 500may manage time-based energy delivery (e.g., Kilo Watt Hours, KWH, vertical axis) from a solar photovoltaic (PV) array to an inverter over a time-of-day period (horizontal axis 502), depicting varying performance across different irradiance conditions and days. In some embodiments, the system and methods comprise logic for regulating inverter performance, permitting identification and management of inverter clipping and seasonal irradiance variability based on comparative solar generation profiles, thereby improving energy utilization efficiency.

[0277] In some embodiments, the system's operation is tracked or controlled relative tothe time-of-day axis 502, which may span a full solar day (e.g., 12-16 hours) including morning and evening transitions.

[0278] In some embodiments, the system 500 may exhibit, under certain conditions (e.g.,clouded, shaded, or low seasonal solar angles), a low-output profile 503. In some cases, this profile 503 may correspond to relatively low total daily energy delivery (e.g., about 4.5 kWh to 6.5 kWh) often occurring in fall or winter months.

[0279] In some embodiments, the system 500 may exhibit, under conditions of near-improved irradiance (e.g., clear-sky spring or summer days), a high-output profile 504. In some cases, this profile 504 may correspond to higher energy delivery (e.g., about 7.0 kWh to 9.5 kWh) and may reflect inverter operation near its rated capacity for several hours.

[0280] In some embodiments, during peak solar periods, such as with undersizedinverters relative to the PV array, the system's 500 operation may result in a clipped output profile 505. In some cases, this profile 505 shows sustained output near the inverter's power limits (e.g., when instantaneous power exceeds the AC rating, such as between about 9.0 kW and about 12.0 kW).

[0281] In some embodiments, the system's power generation capability, in the absence ofinverter constraints, may be represented by a theoretical unclipped output profile 506. In some cases, this profile 506 may correspond to a higher energy delivery (e.g., about 13.0 kWh to 15.5 kWh) under improved solar conditions. For example, comparison between the clipped profile 505 and the theoretical profile 506 may be used to evaluate energy loss due to clipping.

[0282] In some embodiments, the system comprises a processor configured to quantifyenergy loss attributable to inverter clipping. In some cases, the processor calculates this loss by comparing actual output profiles such as 505 with theoretical output profiles such as 506. In some instances, the quantified loss ranges from approximately 1.0 kWh to 2.0 kWh perAttorney Docket No.56520-710601 day, representing about 7% to 12% of total available energy during high-irradiance conditions.

[0283] In some embodiments, the system evaluates clipping behavior across differentsolar seasons. In some cases, the processor compares low-irradiance conditions (e.g., profile 503) with high-irradiance conditions (e.g., profiles 504, 505, 506) to determine seasonal variations in energy loss. In some instances, clipping losses are reduced to below 3% during low-sun periods and increase to above 8% during high-sun periods.

[0284] In some embodiments, the system comprises a processor configured to manageinverter performance based on time-of-day power profiles, as illustrated in FIG.5. In this example, FIG.5 depicts inverter output under varying irradiance conditions, including reduced output 503, high output 504, clipped output 505, and theoretical unclipped output 506, each plotted against the time-of-day axis 502. In some cases, the processor uses these profiles to monitor solar generation, identify clipping conditions, and adjust inverter operation to improve energy utilization under changing environmental conditions and system constraints.

[0285] FIG. 6 illustrates non-limiting examples of electrolyzer current-voltage (IV)characteristics 600, in accordance with one or more embodiments herein. In some embodiments, the systems and methods described herein comprise or exhibit the electrolyzer voltage-current responses shown in FIG.6. Such characteristics may be represented by plotting Cell voltage (V) (vertical axis 601) against Current density (mA / cm²) (horizontal axis 602).

[0286] In some instances, the electrolyzer's performance, represented by performancecurves 604, varies with operating temperature. For example, FIG.6 shows a first performance curve corresponding to operation at a first temperature (e.g., 25°C) and a second performance curve corresponding to operation at a second, higher temperature (e.g., 80°C). These performance curves 604 comprise the cell voltages 601 required to achieve a range of current densities 602 under each thermal condition. In some embodiments, the characterization may include one or more reference voltage indicators 603, such as the theoretical reversible voltage associated with each temperature, providing a thermodynamic baseline.

[0287] In some cases, the performance curves 604 comprise characteristic regionscorresponding to different dominant electrochemical phenomena. These may comprise an activation overpotential region 605, an ohmic overpotential region 606, and a concentration overpotential region 607. In some instances, the activation overpotential region 605, often at low current densities 602, comprises voltage losses primarily due to electrode kinetics. TheAttorney Docket No.56520-710601 ohmic overpotential region 606 may exhibit a more linear relationship between voltage 601 and current density 602, comprising voltage losses primarily due to internal resistive effects (e.g., ionic conductivity in the electrolyte). The concentration overpotential region 607, often at high current densities 602, comprises voltage losses primarily due to mass transfer limitations near the electrodes.

[0288] As an example, understanding this IV characterization 600 may support systemoperation primarily within the ohmic overpotential region 606. Operating within this region 606 may provide simplified analysis or improved performance, such as in systems coupled to variable power sources, such as photovoltaic arrays.

[0289] FIG. 7 illustrates a non-limiting example of a system and method that comprisesor exhibits voltage-current (IV) responses 700 for electrolyzer configurations with varying numbers of series and parallel connections, in accordance with one or more embodiments herein. In some embodiments, the systems and methods described herein comprise or exhibit the electrolyzer voltage-current (IV) responses shown in FIG.7 (700). In some cases, the IV response varies based on the electrical array of electrolyzer cells in parallel or in series. For example, graph 702 ( “Varyingillustrates how adjusting the number of parallel electrolyzer branches affects the slope of the IV curve, plotted with Voltage on axis 701 and Current on axis 703. In some instances, increasing the number of parallel branches—such as those represented by curves 704, 705, and 706—increases the current output (703) at a given voltage (701), thereby resulting in a progressively steeper slope in the linear region of the IV characteristic. As shown, curve 704 may correspond to a configuration with fewer parallel branches and lower resulting current, while curve 706 may represent a configuration with a greater number of parallel branches and higher resulting current.

[0290] In some embodiments, the systems and methods further comprise electricalconfigurations that adjust the number of electrolyzer cells connected in series. For example, graph 712 ( “Varying ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^”), plotted with Voltage on axis 707 and Current on axis 708, illustrates how changing the number of cells in series per branch influences the voltage range of the IV response. In some instances, as the number of series-connected electrolyzers increases—such as those represented by curves 709, 710, and 711—the IV response shifts toward higher voltage operation along the voltage axis 707. For example, curve 709 may correspond to fewer series cells and a lower required voltage, while curve 711 may reflect a higher number of series cells, resulting in an IV curve that is shifted farther to the right along the voltage axis 707. As shown in FIG.7, adjusting the number of series elements allows theAttorney Docket No.56520-710601 system's operating voltage more closely matched to the voltage provided by the power source.

[0291] In some embodiments, the electrolyzers comprise alkaline electrolyzers. In somecases, each electrochemical cell may be associated with an operating voltage comparable to that used in similar alkaline or membrane-based electrolyzers, such as those described herein. In some cases, a baseline operating voltage may fall within a range that supports predictable operation within the ohmic region of the cell’s IV curve. In some instances, current density may increase under preferred power conditions to levels above nominal, allowing the system to enter a supercharged mode while maintaining system stability. For example, each cell may include an electrode area similar to those used in mid-scale modular electrolyzers, with dimensions suitable for stack-level scalability. As an example, the cell architecture may support operation across a range of input voltages and currents without requiring changes to the electrolyzer configuration (e.g., size, materials).

[0292] In some embodiments, the system may include a plurality of stacks arranged inseries and / or parallel combinations that may be varied in real time based on available power. In some cases, the system may be configured with a group of electrochemical stacks, each including a number of cells consistent with some electrolyzer modules, such as those found in 100-cell stack configurations described herein. In some instances, three, four, or five stacks may be arranged in series to form a branch, and a plurality of branches may be connected in parallel to increase system current draw. For example, this configuration may support a system voltage comparable to peak solar DC output levels, such as those within the range of solar IV curves illustrated herein. As an example, the system may switch between configurations to maintain a desired operating point across changing power conditions.

[0293] In some embodiments, the system may be operated in configurations thatprioritize higher production rates over improved energy efficiency. For example, when additional power is available from renewable resources (e.g., surplus solar), the system may be driven at current densities above nominal configuration (e.g., current, voltage, temperature) levels. Operating in this higher-current regime reduces conversion efficiency by several percentage points relative to the peak value, similar to systems intentionally operated above nominal current density. These performance tradeoffs may be justified in scenarios where renewable energy availability is intermittent or overabundant, thereby allowing increased output at the expense of reduced efficiency.

[0294] In some embodiments, the system may be operated to increase production outputwithout requiring proportional increases in energy input or system footprint. In some cases,Attorney Docket No.56520-710601 this may involve operating a subset of electrochemical units in a higher-throughput mode, while others remain higher-efficiency configurations, allowing the overall system to meet production targets while maintaining thermal balance and energy efficiency. In some instances, the system may prioritize current consumption over power consumption, allowing greater product generation per unit time while operating within a defined efficiency range. For example, the system may utilize real-time switching to selectively activate stacks based on available cooling capacity, energy price signals, or time-of-day irradiance. As an example, certain stacks may be operated at elevated current densities during peak sun hours, while others remain idle or in turndown mode to avoid localized heating or degradation.

[0295] In some embodiments, the amount of reduced carbon product generated by theelectrochemical system may be influenced at least in part by the input current supplied to the electrochemical units. In some cases, higher input current may correspond to increased production rates, such as when electrochemical cells are operated within a stable voltage range and preferred reaction conditions. In some instances, system configurations may be selected to maximize current flow, rather than total power consumption, to increase product output while maintaining acceptable efficiency. For example, during periods of high solar availability, the system may be operated in a configuration that draws increased current across a plurality of stacks to achieve a higher total production rate. As an example, stack- level current control may be used to adjust production dynamically in response to power availability or operational objectives.

[0296] In some embodiments, the system may be configured to adjust its voltage andcurrent operating point in response to the electrical characteristics of the renewable energy source. In some cases, electrochemical units may exhibit a voltage that increases with current, due to factors such as electrode kinetics, ohmic losses, and interfacial resistance. In some instances, the electrical impedance of the stack, which may include both resistive and reactive components, may modify the voltage required to sustain a given current. For example, the system may be operated below a certain voltage threshold to maintain energy efficiency or to remain within the maximum power point range of the solar source. As an example, the system may include reconfiguration logic that selects between higher-voltage, lower-current modes or lower-voltage, higher-current modes depending on available power and thermal constraints.

[0297] In some embodiments, the electrochemical stack may present a voltage thatincreases with current due to internal resistance or other impedance-related effects. In someAttorney Docket No.56520-710601 cases, the system may select stack configurations that balance voltage and current to maintain compatibility with the renewable power source and optimize energy efficiency.

[0298] In some embodiments, the electrochemical units may comprise a stack includingan anode, a cathode, and an ion-conducting membrane disposed between the electrodes. In some cases, the membrane may be configured to selectively transport ions (e.g., anions, cations, or protons) while separating products generated at each electrode. In some instances, the stack may further comprise fluidic channels for the delivery and removal of electrolyte or reactant streams. For example, the stack may be configured as a flow cell in which carbon dioxide is dissolved in an electrolyte and delivered to the cathode compartment. As an example, the membrane may be a bipolar membrane, an anion exchange membrane, a cation exchange membrane, or a composite structure thereof.

[0299] In some embodiments, the electrochemical units may be configured to operate inone or more modes, including continuous mode, pulsed mode, turndown mode, or supercharged mode. In some cases, a portion of the stacks may be operated in high-efficiency mode while others operate at higher throughput. In some instances, the mode of operation may be selected based on one or more system-level parameters, such as power availability, temperature, electrolyte concentration, or process target. For example, the system may operate in supercharged mode during peak solar hours to increase production. As an example, turndown mode may be used to maintain stack efficiency during periods of reduced power availability.

[0300] In some embodiments, the electrochemical units may be directly coupled to one ormore renewable energy sources without intervening power regulation electronics. In some cases, the units may be configured to draw DC power from the source across a variable voltage and current range. In some instances, the electrochemical units may be matched to the power characteristics of the source to permit for efficient operation without the use of inverters, transformers, or DC-DC converters. Modular Units

[0301] In some embodiments, the electrochemical units may be provided in a modularconfiguration such that stacks may be added, removed, or reconfigured depending on application requirements. In some cases, a base unit may include a predefined number of stacks, each having a fixed number of electrochemical cells. In some instances, the number of active units may be adjusted based on production targets, power availability, or system operating conditions. For example, the system may scale production up or down by activatingAttorney Docket No.56520-710601 or deactivating individual stacks. As an example, individual modules may be operated independently or in coordinated groups.

[0302] In some embodiments, the plurality of electrochemical units may be arranged in amodular architecture, where individual stacks or groups of cells may be selectively activated, deactivated, or reconfigured to align with power availability or production targets. In some cases, each module may comprise a stack of electrochemical cells, with internal connections configured for series or parallel operation. In some instances, two or more modules may be grouped into electrical branches that may be rerouted dynamically through a switch network. For example, a controller may activate a first subset of modules to operate in a high- efficiency mode while a second subset operates in a higher-throughput mode. As an example, the system may include a number of physically similar modules, each capable of operating independently or in coordination with others, thereby supporting both scalability and flexible load distribution.

[0303] In some embodiments, each electrochemical unit or module may be configured toreceive one or more inputs, including direct current (DC) electrical power, renewable energy from on-site sources, and one or more carbon-containing feedstocks, such as carbon dioxide or carbonate solutions. In some cases, the DC power input may originate from solar, wind, or hybrid renewable systems, and may be routed to the electrochemical units without conversion. In some instances, the electrochemical unit may also include interfaces for product removal, liquid or gas storage, or downstream transportation, such as piping, compression, or separation units described herein. For example, the electrochemical stack may be positioned adjacent to one or more energy sources and connected directly to them via conductive busbars. As an example, the system may operate with a single input source (e.g., solar array) or a combination of sources with or without buffer storage.

[0304] In some embodiments, each electrochemical unit may be structured in a layeredconfiguration, wherein a plurality of electrochemical cells are arrayed vertically or horizontally in repeating units. In some cases, this layout may include alternating electrode layers, membrane layers, and separator plates, similar to stacked circuit board assemblies. In some instances, thermal or fluidic management layers may be inserted between modules to support cooling, feedstock flow, or pressure regulation. For example, the electrochemical unit may be arrayed in a vertical tower, a horizontal sled, or a modular cassette-style format, depending on installation constraints. As an example, the physical configuration may permit individual units to be replaced, removed, or reconfigured without altering the surrounding hardware.Attorney Docket No.56520-710601

[0305] In some embodiments, the plurality of electrochemical units are configured tosupport operation under varying power availability by allowing selective electrical interconnection across a plurality of stack configurations. In some cases, the electrochemical units may be arrayed into two or more series, parallel, or series-parallel groups that may be dynamically reconfigured to match the electrical characteristics of the available power source. In some instances, the system may include a switch network or other configuration logic described herein, which may be used to adjust the aggregate system voltage and current without requiring intermediate power regulation components. For example, FIG.8 illustrates a non-limiting example of a switching scheme in which stacks are arrayed in either higher- voltage or higher-current configurations depending on renewable energy availability. As an example, the switching scheme may be used to adjust the system impedance to more closely match with solar IV conditions, thereby supporting direct DC coupling and minimizing energy losses.

[0306] Specific examples of modular electrochemical system configurations areillustrated in the following figures. FIG.20 shows an example of a system 2000 for modular electrochemical fuel production configured to operate with variable direct current (DC) power input, such as from a behind-the-meter renewable energy source. In this example, the system comprises a central electrochemical assembly 2000 and supporting upstream and downstream subsystems configured for carbon capture and fuel separation. The electrochemical assembly includes a cathode 2002, an anode 2003, and one or more repeating units 2010, 2011, which may be interleaved between bipolar or charge carrier plates 2001 and 2004. A porous separator 2005 may be positioned between the cathode and anode to permit ionic transport while maintaining physical separation of reagents and products.

[0307] In some embodiments related to FIG. 20, the system and methods comprise amodular stack 2007 configured for direct electrochemical reduction of carbon-containing species into one or more reduced carbon products. In some cases, the stack 2007 comprises a plurality of repeating units 2010, 2011, which may be arrayed in series and / or parallel to accommodate dynamic input power from variable renewable sources. In some instances, the repeating units are configured to accept direct current (DC) power input without power conversion electronics such as inverters or DC-DC converters. For example, the stack 2007 may receive unregulated DC output from a photovoltaic array and dynamically adjust operation based on real-time current availability. As an example, the stack may also be selectively reconfigured by a switch network (not shown) to operate in normal, turndown, or supercharged modes to optimize current draw in response to solar variability.Attorney Docket No.56520-710601

[0308] In some embodiments related to FIG. 20, the system further comprises a carbonnanotube (CNT) membrane module 2006 for product separation and purification. In some cases, the CNT membrane module selectively transports or filters the reduced carbon product from the electrolyte stream, allowing purified fuel to be collected in a second compartment 2008. In some instances, the second compartment 2008 may be used for temporary storage, downstream processing, or direct fuel utilization. For example, the CNT membrane 2006 may comprise a nanostructured material capable of selective alcohol or hydrocarbon permeation, based on size exclusion or chemical affinity. As an example, an alternative separation unit (not shown) may be used in place of the CNT membrane, such as a distillation or adsorption- based unit, depending on system configuration.

[0309] In some embodiments related to FIG. 20, the system further comprises a direct aircapture (DAC) module 2009 configured to provide carbon dioxide to the stack 2007. In some cases, the DAC module captures atmospheric carbon dioxide and converts it into carbonate or bicarbonate ions via an alkaline or aqueous electrolyte solution. In some instances, the captured CO₂ may be directly supplied to the electrochemical stack for reduction without purification or compression. For example, the DAC module 2009 may supply a gas stream comprising up to about 10% CO₂ by volume. As an example, a flue gas stream or other waste CO₂ source may also be used instead of atmospheric air.

[0310] In some embodiments, the system comprises a controller that adjusts currentallocation across repeating units 2010, 2011 to increase the total daily yield of reduced carbon products while maintaining compatibility with the instantaneous DC power available, as illustrated in the example of FIG.20. In some cases, the controller executes the configuration selection model described herein to dynamically determine the configuration of active electrochemical units under total cell count constraints. In some instances, the configuration selection model solves an integer optimization problem (e.g. Equation (1)). In some instances, the system prioritizes total current draw over power conversion efficiency to improve net fuel yield under intermittent solar output. For example, during peak irradiance, the system may allocate some repeating units to supercharged operation while retaining others in normal mode. For example, when available power falls below a threshold, the system may switch to a turndown configuration with reduced active area but higher energy efficiency. For example, the configuration selection model may select a configuration that results in a daily yield of reduced carbon products that is at least 5% greater than a yield achievable with a prior configuration.Attorney Docket No.56520-710601

[0311] In some embodiments, the system integrates a modular electrochemical stack2007, DAC module 2009, and CNT membrane separation unit 2006 into a unified architecture configured to produce net-zero carbon fuels using behind-the-meter solar power. In some cases, the system may operate without grid interconnection, power conditioning electronics, or external CO₂ purification, and is configured to flexibly adapt to variable renewable energy inputs.

[0312] As another example, FIG. 21 shows a system 2100 for producing reduced carbonfuels using an electrochemical stack with integrated catalytic separation and product recovery. In this example, the system includes a central electrochemical assembly 2100 comprising a cathode 2102, an anode 2103, and one or more repeating units interleaved between bipolar or charge carrier plates 2101 and 2104. A porous separator 2105 is positioned between the electrodes and is coated with a catalyst suitable for water splitting, facilitating enhanced ionic transfer and oxygen evolution.

[0313] In some embodiments related to FIG. 21, the system and methods comprise anelectrochemical stack 2107 configured to reduce carbon-containing reactants into fuel products. In some cases, the stack 2107 comprises a plurality of repeating units arrayed in a modular architecture, allowing for operational flexibility and compatibility with variable DC power inputs. In some instances, the electrochemical cells operate with minimal or no power conversion electronics, permitting direct coupling to behind-the-meter solar generation systems. For example, the stack may receive fluctuating direct current from a photovoltaic array and maintain continuous production through flexible impedance matching or real-time cell reconfiguration.

[0314] In some embodiments related to FIG. 21, the porous separator 2105 may comprisea coating of one or more water-splitting catalysts, which may include metal oxides, metal- organic frameworks, or other electrocatalytically active materials. In some cases, this catalytic layer enhances the rate of water oxidation at the anode, promoting efficient electron and proton transfer. In some instances, the presence of the catalyst layer may also improve overall reaction kinetics and reduce cell overpotential. For example, the catalyst may promote higher current densities while maintaining stable operation under varying thermal and electrical conditions. As an example, an alternative porous membrane may be used that includes selective ion transport layers without catalytic enhancement.

[0315] In some embodiments related to FIG. 21, the system includes a carbon nanotube(CNT) membrane module 2106 positioned downstream of the electrochemical stack 2107. In some cases, the CNT membrane 2106 selectively separates target fuel products—such asAttorney Docket No.56520-710601 alcohols, ethers, or hydrocarbons—from the electrolyte. In some instances, the CNT membrane provides phase-selective transport based on molecular size, polarity, or diffusion rate. For example, ethanol or ethylene produced in the stack may permeate through the membrane while remaining components are recirculated. As an example, a polymeric or ceramic membrane may be substituted for the CNT-based material depending on target molecule characteristics.

[0316] In some embodiments related to FIG. 21, the separated fuel is collected in asecond compartment 2108, which may serve as a storage or transfer point for downstream usage. In some cases, this compartment supports temporary isolation of high-purity fuel for transport, use in turbines, or local consumption. In some instances, compartment 2108 is integrated into a distributed energy system or coupled to an end-use application such as a generator or fuel cell. For example, the separated fuel may be delivered to a grid-isolated data center or stored for off-grid electrification.

[0317] In this way, the system illustrated in FIG. 21 integrates a catalyst-enhanced porousseparator 2105, modular electrochemical stack 2107, and carbon nanotube separation module 2106 to produce and recover electrochemically derived fuels from renewable electricity without relying on traditional grid infrastructure or power conversion systems. This figure demonstrates an approach compatible with the architecture described in 710.601 and 710.101, wherein the system utilizes direct DC coupling, scalable modular cell configuration, and nanomaterial-based separation for improved behind-the-meter fuel production.

[0318] FIG. 22 shows an example of a modular electrochemical system 2200 configuredto utilize a bipolar membrane assembly for electrochemical fuel production. In this example, the system includes a central electrochemical cell assembly 2200, comprising a cathode 2202, an anode 2203, and one or more repeating units positioned between bipolar membrane or charge carrier plates 2201 and 2204. A bipolar membrane 2205 is positioned between the cathode and anode and may function as both a selective ion transport barrier and a catalytic interface.

[0319] In some embodiments related to FIG. 22, the system and methods comprise abipolar membrane-based electrochemical stack configured for direct DC-powered operation using behind-the-meter solar input. In some cases, the system includes bipolar or charge carrier plates 2201 and 2204, which serve as structural or current-carrying components for adjacent repeating units. In some instances, the repeating units comprise combinations of electrodes and membranes tailored to operate efficiently under variable power conditions. For example, the bipolar membrane 2205 may include a cation exchange layer and an anionAttorney Docket No.56520-710601 exchange layer bonded together, facilitating internal water dissociation under electric field application.

[0320] In some embodiments related to FIG. 22, the bipolar membrane 2205 is coatedwith a water-splitting catalyst that facilitates internal generation of protons and hydroxide ions. In some cases, the catalyst is applied to one or both membrane interfaces. In some instances, the catalyst is positioned only on the cation exchange membrane (CEM) side or only on the anion exchange membrane (AEM) side. For example, the use of water-splitting catalysts on the CEM interface may enhance proton generation toward the cathode. As an example, coating only the AEM interface may favor hydroxide generation toward the anode, providing pH gradient control across the membrane.

[0321] In some embodiments related to FIG. 22, the system may follow the same processconfiguration as described in FIG.20 or FIG.21, including downstream components such as a product separation module, carbon nanotube membrane, and a fuel collection compartment. In some cases, the bipolar membrane-based configuration may replace the porous separator shown in the previous figures. In some instances, the use of a bipolar membrane provides higher voltage operation or pH differential management across the electrochemical stack. For example, the stack may be tuned to operate under acidic cathode and alkaline anode conditions to improve selectivity or efficiency. In this way, the system illustrated in FIG.22 offers an alternative membrane architecture to those described in FIGS.20–21, permitting water dissociation and selective ion transport through a bipolar membrane 2205. In some embodiments, the system may incorporate variations of a bipolar membrane in which a water-splitting catalyst is disposed only on the cation exchange membrane (CEM) or only on the anion exchange membrane (AEM).

[0322] FIG. 23 shows an example configuration 2300 utilizing a CNT membrane 2305specifically configured to block fuel crossover. In some embodiments, the system comprises bipolar membrane or charge carrier plates 2301, 2304, a cathode 2302, and an anode 2303. In this configuration, the CNT membrane 2305 is positioned or configured such that it inhibits or prevents the flow of generated fuel products from the cathode side towards the anode compartment. For example, this may improve product purity or prevent side reactions at the anode. In some instances, this configuration may utilize process flows similar to those described with FIG.20-21.

[0323] FIG. 24 shows an example of a system 2400 for producing and extractingelectrochemically generated fuels using a modular electrochemical stack coupled with a carbon nanotube (CNT) membrane and direct air capture (DAC) unit. In this example, theAttorney Docket No.56520-710601 system includes an electrochemical assembly 2400, which comprises a cathode 2402, an anode 2403, and bipolar membrane or charge carrier plates 2401 and 2405. In some cases, the assembly includes an internal separator 2408, and a fuel transport mechanism 2406, which directs the generated fuel laterally across a CNT membrane interface 2407.

[0324] In some embodiments related to FIG. 24, the system and methods comprise amodular electrochemical stack 2410 configured to receive carbon dioxide from an air source and convert it into reduced carbon products. In some cases, the stack 2410 is operatively connected to a DAC unit 2409, which extracts atmospheric CO₂ and feeds it into the electrochemical cell for in situ reduction. In some instances, the stack comprises a series of repeating electrochemical cells arrayed between bipolar or charge carrier plates 2401, 2405. For example, the system may operate on intermittent solar-generated DC power without the use of power inverters or DC-DC converters.

[0325] In some embodiments related to FIG. 24, a CNT membrane 2407 is integratedadjacent to or within the separator 2408, permitting selective fuel transport from the cathode side to a separate outlet pathway. In some cases, this CNT membrane selectively permits alcohols, hydrocarbons, or other neutral fuel species to pass, while rejecting ionic or aqueous components. In some instances, this lateral transport configuration allows fuel to be continuously extracted during operation, preventing fuel buildup and cross-contamination. For example, the fuel transport line 2406 may channel the product to an external collection point without the need for phase separation. As an example, an alternative material such as a graphene oxide or ceramic nanomembrane may be used in place of the CNT membrane for similar transport functions.

[0326] In some embodiments related to FIG. 24, the system includes a fuel output line2411 operatively connected to the stack 2410, wherein the fuel product exits the system after passing through the CNT membrane 2407. In some cases, the separator 2408 is positioned to provide directional fuel flow while maintaining electrical isolation and ionic conductivity between compartments. In some instances, the fuel is collected in gaseous or liquid form depending on the target product and operating parameters. For example, ethanol may be collected in liquid form under low-temperature conditions, while ethylene may be captured as a gas and directed for compression or storage.

[0327] In some embodiments related to FIG. 24, the DAC module 2409 supplies a low-purity carbon dioxide stream, such as ambient air, flue gas, or a synthetic gas mixture. In some cases, the electrochemical stack 2410 is configured to handle CO₂ feed streams with concentrations as low as about 0.04% (ambient) or up to about 90%, and may include internalAttorney Docket No.56520-710601 buffering mechanisms to regulate pH and reaction rate. In some instances, the DAC and stack units are co-located at a distributed energy site where local solar or wind power provides off- grid fuel synthesis. For example, the system may be deployed at a remote or edge facility operating independently of traditional grid infrastructure. In this way, the system illustrated in FIG.24 combines a DAC unit 2409, an electrochemical stack 2410, and an integrated CNT membrane transport module 2407 to provide decentralized production of carbon-based fuels using renewable power. Systems and Methods for Improving Production from Renewables

[0328] In some embodiments, the system adjusts this series-parallel configuration usingswitching-based topologies, thereby shaping the IV characteristics to match those of the connected solar power source. In some cases, the system comprises a fixed total number of electrolyzer cells. In some instances the relationship between the total number of cells and their array is defined by Equation (1): ntotal = nseries × nparallel (^^)where ntotalrepresents the total number of electrolyzer cells in the system, nseriesrepresents the number of cells connected in series per branch, and nparallelrepresents the number of parallel branches of series-connected cells.

[0329] As an example, the system may utilize a reconfigurable switching network todynamically vary the number of cells connected in series or in parallel, rather than employing traditional power electronics such as DC-DC converters. FIG.8 illustrates a non-limiting example of a system and method that comprises or exhibits an impedance-shifting power regulation scheme using a reconfigurable electrolyzer array and coordinated switching, in accordance with one or more embodiments herein. In some instances, the interlocked switches (805, 807) permit the system to toggle between at least two distinct series-parallel topologies using the fixed number of electrolyzer units (six in this example).

[0330] In some embodiments, the system implements a switch-based topology thatdynamically alters the series-parallel array of the electrochemical stacks.

[0331] In some embodiments, the reconfiguration of the electrolyzer branches betweenthese states provides the system to shift its overall load impedance. This effectively shapes the aggregate IV response of the electrolyzer array, facilitating direct coupling and impedance matching with the power source 801 across varying operating conditions without requiring intermediary power electronic converters, thereby reducing system complexity and conversion losses. In some instances, this approach provides direct electrical connectionAttorney Docket No.56520-710601 between the solar array and the electrolyzer system, reducing system complexity, minimizing conversion losses, and maintaining efficient power transfer across a range of solar generation conditions. In some instances, at least one direct bus connection couples this solar array to at least one electrochemical unit, thereby avoiding an AC grid interface (see FIG.14). In some cases, these electrochemical units operate on the DC output without converting it to alternating current (AC) and without additional power electronics such as inverters or DC-DC converters. In some instances, the system establishes a direct electrical connection that handles variable and unregulated DC conditions, ensuring that the electrochemical reaction may proceed under fluctuating renewable inputs. As an example, the footprint for this behind-the-meter system may be smaller than comparable front-of-the-meter installations.

[0332] In some embodiments, this direct DC interface is suitable for off-grid or grid-limited installations, reducing the need for large-scale power electronics. In some cases, the modular series-parallel switching replaces high-voltage inverters or DC-DC converters by relying on integer-based reconfiguration to match renewable output with electrochemical demand. As an example, partial sizing of these components may reduce overall hardware requirements when compared to facilities that do not incorporate on-site buffering.

[0333] In some embodiments, the system comprises a processor configured to execute aconfiguration selection model that determines how to arrange electrochemical stacks in series and parallel based on real-time power availability. In some cases, the processor evaluates permissible combinations of series and parallel configurations under a constraint on total electrolyzer cell count. In some instances, the processor selects the configuration that provides the system to align electrical impedance with the DC power source while maintaining current output within the stack’s electrochemical operating envelope. For example, the processor may activate three parallel branches of two stacks each when irradiance is high and reconfigure to two parallel branches of three stacks each under lower voltage conditions. As an example, the model adjusts the number of active stacks per branch in response to solar IV curve conditions without requiring any DC-DC conversion hardware.

[0334] In some embodiments, the system comprises at least one behind-the-meter arraythat includes at least one renewable energy source physically located on user premises. In some cases, the behind-the-meter architecture includes at least one solar array configured to deliver direct current (DC) power without external inversion hardware.

[0335] In some embodiments, the system comprises a plurality renewable energy unitsconfigured to convert solar, wind, or other resources into a direct current (DC) output for powering electrochemical units that reduce carbon dioxide (CO₂) into one or more products.Attorney Docket No.56520-710601 For example, a behind-the-meter solar array may feed a series of electrochemical cell stacks to produce beneficial chemicals or fuels. As an example, a solar array may directly couple to a plurality of branches of electrolyzers that share the same DC bus, thereby avoiding losses associated with some power conversion stages. In some instances, at least one direct bus connection couples this solar array to at least one electrochemical unit, thereby avoiding a AC grid interface (see FIG.14). For example, the array may include at least one wiring assembly positioned to route power from the on-site source directly to the electrochemical load. In some cases, the system physically sizes pumps or compressors to handle this expected throughput while acknowledging transient spikes in supercharged mode. In some instances, at least one intermediate buffer tank is positioned downstream of the electrochemical stacks to accommodate brief surges. For example, the system may include at least one low-pressure storage vessel for short-term product containment (see FIG.14).

[0336] In some embodiments, the system regulates behind-the-meter power flows tofavor electrochemical conversion over grid export. In some cases, at least one processor adjusts voltage thresholds so that at least one electrochemical branch remains below the maximum power point, thereby boosting current. In some instances, the processor evaluates real-time irradiance data and activates reconfigurations to maintain a targeted production level. For example, the system may shift specific branches into supercharged mode at midday when compared to configurations lacking supercharging. As an example, the system may switch certain branches into turndown mode if the bus voltage becomes too low, thereby preserving efficiency when compared to systems lacking adaptive control.

[0337] In some embodiments, at least one switch-based topology is implemented tocontrol series or parallel configurations among the electrochemical units. In some cases, the system comprises at least one bus that routes power to a plurality of branches, each having a defined number of cells. In some instances, each branch incorporates at least one switching element to modify its series-parallel array in real time. For example, the bus may include at least one high-current connector that engages or disengages during dynamic operation (see FIG.15). As an example, the system may comprise at least one controller board that interprets signals from a processor and actuates the switching network.

[0338] In some embodiments, at least one electrochemical cell stack comprises a pluralityof cells subject to an integer constraint on the maximum number of active cells. In some cases, the stack comprises a plurality of layers, each layer containing at least one cell with a specific rated voltage range. In some instances, each layer includes at least one conductive plate for uniform current distribution. For example, the system may provide at least oneAttorney Docket No.56520-710601 protective enclosure that shields the stacks from environmental conditions when compared to exposed cells (see FIG.16). As an example, thermal or structural limits may define the maximum feasible cell count within a single stack. In some instances, the system comprises a switching network configured to perform the reconfiguration. For example, the switching network may comprise a 4-way switch 807 and a double-pole, double-throw (DPDT) switch 805, which may be mechanically or electrically interlocked via an interconnection mechanism 810 to ensure coordinated switching between valid states. The system may also include branch isolation switches {802, 812, 813} and an optional high-impedance element 809 (e.g., 1 MΩ resistor). In FIG.9 (Normal Mode): Branch isolation switches 812 and 802 are depicted in a closed state, providing current flow through their respective branches, while branch isolation switch 813 is depicted in an open state, disabling its branch. The interlocked switching mechanism (e.g., comprising switches 805, 807, and interconnection 810) is configured in a state that establishes two active parallel branches connected across the source 801. In FIG.10 (Supercharge Mode): Branch isolation switches 802, 812, and 813 are all depicted in a closed state, providing current flow through all three input branches. The interlocked switching mechanism (e.g., comprising switches 805, 807, and interconnection 810) is configured in its alternate state compared to the "normal mode" shown previously.

[0339] In some embodiments, a local switch network physically reconfigures theelectrochemical stacks according to commands from the configuration control subsystem, which calculates an array that improves alignment with the solar power source under given conditions. In some cases, the network restricts itself to a predefined set of allowable series- parallel combinations, ensuring that total cell count constraints are observed. In some instances, the system assigns a fraction of the stacks to supercharged mode while keeping others in normal mode, balancing reaction throughput and heat dissipation. For example, a user may observe that certain cell groups cycle briefly into high-current states when a passing cloud clears. As an example, the remaining cell groups remain in normal or turndown mode, preserving efficiency or managing temperature.

[0340] In some embodiments, the system defines at least one nameplate capacity basedon a nominal operating load in normal mode. In some embodiments, the system implements at least one discrete operating mode designated as supercharged, normal, or turndown. In some cases, the supercharged mode increases current density and elevates the daily reaction rate when compared to systems lacking a supercharge option. In some instances, a second switching state (corresponding to “supercharge” or “overdrive” mode) configures the system to form three parallel branches, each with two electrolyzers in series (e.g., branch 1: {800,Attorney Docket No.56520-710601 811}; branch 2: {803, 804}; branch 3: {806, 808}), resulting in ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^=2 ^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ = 3 and thereby presenting a lower aggregate load impedance to powersource 801 for higher current draw. For example, supercharged mode may drive current densities beyond nominal ratings, producing elevated throughput and higher production rates, as illustrated by an energy efficiency analysis component 1206 where a first trace 1207 decreases to about 30% efficiency at high insolation due to higher internal losses. As an example, normal mode may balance current draw, while turndown mode reduces current for enhanced efficiency; in one switching state (corresponding to “normal mode”), the system forms two parallel branches, each comprising three electrolyzers in series (e.g., branch 1:{800, 811, 808}; branch 2: {803, 804, 806}), matching ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ = 3 ^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ = 2 . Insome instances, the processor may assign at least one branch to turndown mode during low irradiance intervals, lowering power consumption relative to modes lacking such adjustments, and move selected branches into supercharged mode if solar data indicates a surplus of power. For example, when the available solar power aligns with a lower curve 1101, the system may operate fewer stacks or reconfigure them into a higher-voltage, lower-current array (e.g., low power mode 1106), thus prioritizing energy efficiency while remaining compatible with reduced input power.

[0341] In some embodiments, the system enhances its average capacity factor byassigning fewer total cells to accommodate peak power at higher currents. In some cases, the switch-based topology exploits periods of strong insolation or wind to drive selected electrolyzers in supercharged mode, eliminating the need for additional cell stacks. In some instances, this approach increases utilization of existing cells rather than strictly matching the maximum power point, recognizing that product formation scales closely with current density. For example, the system may reduce the total number of electrolyzer cells by about 66% relative to a non-supercharged configuration yet maintain near-equivalent energy efficiency. As an example, this hardware simplification preserves a high level of daily throughput while reducing overall system complexity.

[0342] In some embodiments, a thermal management subsystem monitors stacktemperatures and restricts supercharged mode when certain heat thresholds are reached. In some cases, the system reduces current or directs fewer cells into supercharged operation if temperatures approach preset maxima, ensuring that performance and lifetime remain within acceptable bounds. In some instances, different branches rotate in and out of supercharged mode to distribute heat accumulation across a plurality of stacks. For example, a timedAttorney Docket No.56520-710601 rotation may keep each branch below critical temperature while still benefiting from elevated current densities. As an example, the system may also scale electrolyte flow rates or introduce cooling cycles to maintain safe temperature margins during intense sunshine.

[0343] In some embodiments, the system comprises a processor configured to execute astack activation prioritization model that selects the order in which individual electrochemical stacks are brought online or transitioned between operating modes. In some cases, the processor uses historical performance metrics, temperature readings, and maintenance history to assign activation scores to each stack. In some instances, the model prioritizes stacks that have the highest efficiency, lowest thermal load, or least recent usage to balance wear and extend system lifetime. For example, when only five stacks are needed to meet current demand, the processor activates stacks that are below temperature thresholds and have not operated in the past 48 hours. As an example, the model maintains balanced utilization of available hardware and supports fault-tolerant reallocation during partial failures or maintenance cycles.

[0344] In some embodiments, the configuration selection model is executed to managedifferent operating modes across a plurality of electrochemical branches. In some cases, the configuration selection model uses the estimated maximum power point (MPP) voltage from a maximum power point estimation model to compare bus voltage against an MPP threshold. In some instances, if bus voltage surpasses the estimated MPP voltage, the configuration selection model shifts at least one branch into a higher-current configuration to increase total product formation. For example, the system may assign supercharged or normal modes on a branch-by-branch basis when compared to uniform mode assignments (see FIG.15). As an example, the configuration selection model updates branch settings in coordination with solar forecasts to enhance overall daily output when compared to systems lacking predictive scheduling. In some instances, the configuration selection model assigns series-parallel configurations to adjust the load impedance for improved current transfer. For example, the configuration selection model may select a series configuration when the solar array output voltage is high and current is low, to reduce reflective power losses by minimizing impedance mismatch (e.g., FIG.3, FIG.7). For example, the configuration selection model may select a parallel configuration when the solar array output voltage is low and current is high, to draw more current (e.g., FIG.3, FIG.7)

[0345] In some embodiments, the system comprises a processor configured to execute amaximum power point estimation model that infers the voltage at which a connected solar array delivers peak power. In some cases, the processor estimates this voltage usingAttorney Docket No.56520-710601 temperature-based heuristics derived from established photovoltaic IV relationships, without requiring active MPPT circuitry. In some instances, the processor compares the estimated MPP voltage to the actual system bus voltage to determine whether reconfiguration may be performed to shift the system left of the MPP, thereby prioritizing current draw. For example, when the estimated MPP is 1.4 V and the bus voltage reaches 1.5 V, the processor may adjust stack configuration to lower the system voltage and increase total current. As an example, this model provides current-focused control decisions without requiring external voltage- tracking electronics.

[0346] In some embodiments, a local switch network physically reconfigures theelectrochemical stacks according to commands from the configuration selection model. In some cases, the configuration selection model calculates an array that improves impedance alignment with the solar power source under given conditions by examining real-time or forecasted DC availability and selecting suitable configurations for each electrochemical branch. In some cases, the configuration selection model determines when it may be beneficial to operate below the maximum power point (MPP) voltage to increase total current, while adhering to constraints on voltage, cell count, and thermal limits to ensure that supercharged, normal, or turndown modes remain feasible. For example, the system may shift multiple branches into a supercharged configuration when forecasts indicate upcoming peak sunlight. As an example, the configuration selection model may revert to a turndown mode upon predicting prolonged cloud cover, which sustains efficiency during low-irradiance intervals.

[0347] In some embodiments, the configuration selection model is executed periodicallyor in response to sudden changes in irradiance or wind speed, to reassign electrochemical branches to different series-parallel configurations or operating modes. In some cases, the configuration selection model performs an iterative evaluation, weighing the benefit of shifting certain branches into supercharged mode to increase the rate of fuel production against the energy efficiency gained by maintaining those branches in turndown mode. In some instances, the configuration selection model achieves a rapid adaptation of the electrochemical load curve to the renewable source’s current-voltage (IV) characteristics. For example, when the configuration selection model's iteration interval is about one minute, the system may capture short bursts of higher solar output. As an example, a longer iteration interval may suffice in more stable conditions, reducing computational overhead.

[0348] In some embodiments, the configuration selection model uses an objectivefunction to determine the improved operating point on the renewable source's current-voltageAttorney Docket No.56520-710601 (IV) curve. This objective function incorporates factors such as energy efficiency, power transfer efficiency, and the predicted economic value of the produced fuel. In some cases, this dynamic adjustment of electrolyzer configurations results in high utilization of the available renewable power and an increase in the production of CO₂-derived chemicals or fuels. For example, operating away from the maximum power point (MPP) may reduce instantaneous power efficiency but can increase total daily production by maintaining a higher average current.

[0349] In some embodiments, the system comprises a processor configured to execute aforecast-informed configuration planning model that adjusts the array of electrochemical stacks based on predicted changes in power availability. In some cases, the processor receives environmental forecast inputs such as satellite irradiance projections, local weather data, or irradiance sensor measurements. In some instances, the processor schedules future reconfigurations or operating mode transitions in anticipation of solar ramp-up or ramp-down conditions to maintain production and thermal stability. For example, when a forecast indicates sustained peak sunlight for the next hour, the processor may prepare certain stacks for supercharged operation while allocating time to pre-cool the system. As an example, this model supports proactive system adjustments using data-driven predictions without waiting for real-time voltage or current deviations to occur.

[0350] In some embodiments, the system acknowledges that operating away from thesolar or wind maximum power point reduces immediate power efficiency but significantly increases current flow, thus raising the net production of CO₂-derived products. In some cases, the slight power-efficiency tradeoff is justified by higher throughput, which may yield improved economic returns for chemical or fuel production. In some instances, this transition sacrifices a small fraction of power transfer efficiency but gains significantly more current for CO₂ reduction. For example, capturing about 90% of the maximum power point’s power output can yield about 120% of the maximum power point’s current, thereby improving overall production rates. As an example, this operating mode may be utilized when a direct relationship exists between product formation and current.

[0351] In some embodiments, the system reconfigures its series-parallel array at discreteintervals based on measured or forecasted conditions, adjusting the bus voltage to capture improved current flow. In some cases, a temperature-based estimation of the solar maximum power point (MPP) voltage indicates that the operating voltage has exceeded the preferred efficiency threshold, prompting the system to provide higher-current modes in the electrochemical units. In some instances, the system performs several reconfigurations eachAttorney Docket No.56520-710601 day to align with midday irradiance peaks. For example, it may revert to a more conservative series array in the late afternoon to enhance efficiency during lower power levels. As an example, the system balances throughput and energy efficiency across varying solar conditions.

[0352] FIG. 11 shows how a plurality of electrochemical units may operate in relation tovarying solar current-voltage (IV) characteristics. The solar IV curves, such as 1101, represent different power availability scenarios based on irradiance, while the shaded regions 1104, 1105, and 1106 define an electrolyzer operating envelope in which current density and voltage combinations support efficient conversion. Here, each region corresponds to a specific system configuration and operating mode, including low-power mode 1106, normal mode 1105, and supercharged mode 1104. As shown in this example, when solar power increases, the processor reconfigures one or more electrochemical units to operate at higher current and lower voltage, aligning with upper IV curves such as 1101. In some cases, this reconfiguration corresponds to supercharged operation 1104, which increases total production while operating at reduced energy efficiency. For example, the system includes switching logic that dynamically adjusts series-parallel stack groupings based on the current operating point along a solar IV curve. As an example, the controller selects an operating region— 1104, 1105, or 1106—based on target production rates, energy efficiency requirements, and the available power. The intersection between a given IV curve and the electrolyzer envelope defines operating points such as MPPs 1102, which support high power transfer or current utilization without requiring power conversion electronics. The boundaries of each operating region reflect configuration limits, thermal headroom, and design constraints, permitting the system to adapt to changing environmental conditions while maintaining efficient electrochemical conversion.

[0353] FIG. 12 shows a non-limiting example of a system and methods for evaluatingphotovoltaic system performance across a range of insolation levels and operational modes. In some embodiments, the system comprises a processor configured to evaluate photovoltaic performance across a range of irradiance levels and operating modes, as illustrated in FIG. 12. In some cases, the system includes a power transfer efficiency analysis component 1200 and an energy efficiency analysis component 1206, each configured to assess system performance in response to normalized solar input. In some instances, component 1200 includes an insolation axis 1201, a power efficiency axis 1202, and traces 1204 and 1205 representing distinct operating modes, where trace 1204 corresponds to normal operation and trace 1205 reflects a configuration optimized to reduce conduction losses and maintain stableAttorney Docket No.56520-710601 efficiency under high irradiance. For example, the energy efficiency analysis component 1206 includes an insolation axis 1209, an energy efficiency axis 1208, and traces 1207 and 1210 representing supercharged and high-efficiency modes, respectively. As an example, the processor may restrict access to supercharged mode based on irradiance thresholds or exposure duration to limit cumulative energy loss, or alternatively prioritize high-efficiency mode (trace 1210) during steady-state conditions to maintain thermal stability. In some instances, the system includes a trace mapping module 1211 that associates each operating mode with its corresponding trace across the analysis components, and may include a legend to identify the traces for supercharged, normal, and high-efficiency configurations. For example, the processor compares performance tradeoffs between power output and energy conversion by analyzing the slope and relative position of each trace, where normal mode (trace 1204) may provide higher instantaneous output than high-efficiency mode (trace 1205), while energy efficiency (trace 1207) decreases more rapidly at higher irradiance. As an example, the processor evaluates performance decline across traces 1204, 1205, 1207, and 1210 and uses the rate of change to trigger mode transitions; for instance, a steep drop in trace 1207 may generate a control signal to shift into high-efficiency operation. In some instances, the processor applies a slope-based decision model to manage transitions during transient cloud cover or daily irradiance peaks, and integrates analysis components 1200 and 1206, trace mapping module 1211, and configuration logic to control real-time mode selection. As an example, the processor may also incorporate historical irradiance data, storage state, or load forecasts to further refine mode decisions and increase total energy capture while minimizing resistive loss and thermal load.

[0354] FIG. 13 presents a non-limiting example of a system and methods for regulatingelectrolyzer current delivery in relation to solar array voltage output. In some cases, the system includes a photovoltaic output module (1300) that generates a current-voltage (IV) response based on real-time irradiance and internal electrical characteristics. In some instances, the configuration selection model evaluates selectable operating points (1301, 1302, and 1303), each representing a different electrolyzer loading configuration defined by the number of active parallel cells. For example, the configuration selection model prioritizes operating point 1301 when maximizing current delivery to support fuel production targets. As an example, the system may operate at point 1301 even if operating point 1302 may provide higher electrical power, focusing on increased current output and a corresponding production rate.Attorney Docket No.56520-710601

[0355] In some embodiments, the configuration selection model selects betweenoperating points based on a defined current setpoint. In some cases, operating point 1302 aligns with the maximum power point (MPP) of the photovoltaic array, while operating point 1301 aligns with maximum electrolyzer throughput. In some instances, the configuration selection model determines that although operating point 1302 offers a greater voltage-power product, operating point 1301 supports higher current for enhanced electrochemical conversion. For example, the configuration selection model may direct operation at point 1301 when fuel output is prioritized over electrical efficiency. As an example, the system maintains current-biased operation despite lower wattage, leveraging greater electrolyzer utilization.

[0356] In some embodiments, the system includes an extended cell activationconfiguration, represented by operating point 1303. In some cases, the configuration selection model adds parallel cell branches to steepen the IV slope, creating a new intersection at 1303 with increased voltage and distributed current. In some instances, the configuration selection model concludes that while this configuration reduces heat loss per cell, it also increases overall voltage demand and offers limited current gains. For example, the configuration selection model avoids activating additional cells when the net current increase is marginal and efficiency decreases. As an example, operation at 1303 is deprioritized to maintain voltage-constrained operation aligned with efficient fuel conversion.

[0357] In some embodiments, the system incorporates an energy distribution analysisframework to evaluate operating point performance. In some cases, shaded region 1304 indicates energy effectively used for electrolysis, while shaded region 1305 represents energy dissipated as heat or lost due to inefficiencies. In some instances, the configuration selection model calculates the relative area of region 1304 to determine whether a selected operating point provides sufficient production benefit. For example, the configuration selection model concludes that 1301 yields a larger useful energy region than 1302, even at lower total power, by delivering improved current for fuel production. As an example, this supports current- focused operation during variable solar conditions.

[0358] In some embodiments, the configuration selection model prioritizes currentdelivery over power maximization at the solar-electrochemical interface. In some cases, the configuration selection model analyzes IV characteristics, intersection point locations, and energy distribution regions to dynamically select the operating point. In some instances, the configuration selection model deprioritizes operating point 1302 when fuel generation targets take precedence over power efficiency and reduces the number of active cells to moveAttorney Docket No.56520-710601 operation closer to operating point 1301. For example, the configuration selection model manages electrolyzer cell activation to avoid excessive parallelization, which may shift operation toward higher voltage, lower-efficiency conditions such as 1303. As an example, the system relies on photovoltaic output module (1300), operating points (1301–1303), and energy zones (1304 and 1305) to support current-driven regulation of carbon product production.

[0359] FIG. 14 shows a non-limiting example of the relationship between solar sourcecurrent-voltage (IV) characteristics and electrolyzer load line behavior under different configuration settings. In some cases, direct electrical coupling results in an operating point defined by the intersection of a solar source IV curve (1408) and electrolyzer load lines (1406 or 1407). In some instances, the total power delivered to the electrolyzers is calculated as the product of operating voltage (1402) and current (1401). For example, operation along electrolyzer load line 1406 delivers the power represented by shaded rectangular area 1403. As an example, operation along electrolyzer load line 1407 delivers the power represented by the combined shaded areas 1403 and 1404, indicating increased power delivery under these source conditions.

[0360] In some embodiments, the system operates the electrolyzer array using acombination of configurations rather than a single setup. In some cases, certain electrolyzer branches are operated with a first configuration corresponding to load line 1406, while others are operated with a second configuration corresponding to load line 1407. In some instances, switching selected branches to a more energy-efficient configuration, such as one that places more cells in series under load line 1406, moves the operating point closer to the maximum power point of the solar source curve (1408). For example, this configuration management strategy increases production and corresponds to the lightly shaded area 1405. As an example, the configuration selection model determines the electrolyzer array based on solar source characteristics (1408) to achieve operating targets, including increased current (1401). In some embodiments, the system operates the electrolyzer array using a combination of configurations rather than a single setup. In some cases, certain electrolyzer branches are operated with a first configuration corresponding to load line 1406, while others are operated with a second configuration corresponding to load line 1407. In some instances, switching selected branches to a more energy-efficient configuration, such as one that places more cells in series under load line 1406, moves the operating point closer to the maximum power point of the solar source curve (1408). For example, this configuration management strategy increases production and corresponds to the lightly shaded area 1405. As an example, theAttorney Docket No.56520-710601 configuration selection model determines the electrolyzer array based on solar source characteristics (1408) to achieve operating targets, including increased current (1401).

[0361] In some embodiments, the system operates the electrolyzer array using acombination of configurations rather than a single setup. In some cases, certain electrolyzer branches are operated with a first configuration corresponding to load line 1406, while others are operated with a second configuration corresponding to load line 1407. In some instances, switching selected branches to a more energy-efficient configuration, such as one that places more cells in series under load line 1406, moves the operating point closer to the maximum power point of the solar source curve (1408). For example, this configuration management strategy increases production and corresponds to the lightly shaded area 1405. As an example, the configuration selection model determines the electrolyzer array based on solar source characteristics (1408) to achieve operating targets, including increased current (1401).In some embodiments, the system operates the electrolyzer array using a combination of configurations rather than a single setup. In some cases, certain electrolyzer branches are operated with a first configuration corresponding to load line 1406, while others are operated with a second configuration corresponding to load line 1407. In some instances, switching selected branches to a more energy-efficient configuration, such as one that places more cells in series under load line 1406, moves the operating point closer to the maximum power point of the solar source curve (1408). For example, this configuration management strategy increases production and corresponds to the lightly shaded area 1405. As an example, the configuration selection model determines the electrolyzer array based on solar source characteristics (1408) to achieve operating targets, including increased current (1401).

[0362] FIG. 15 shows a non-limiting example of a production enhancement processflowchart. In some embodiments, the system comprises a reconfigurable electrolyzer architecture that executes the process 1500, beginning at node 1501, as illustrated in FIG.15. In some cases, the processor measures solar cell temperature at module 1502 and uses the maximum power point (MPP) estimation module 1503 to calculate the maximum power point voltage ^^^^^^^^based on temperature-dependent heuristics. In some instances, the system measures the current bus voltage (^^^^^^^^^^^^^^at module 1504 and compares it to the estimated ^^^^^^^^at decision point 1507 to determine whether operation remains on the low-voltage, high- current side of the current-voltage (IV) curve. For example, if ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^> is not sufficiently below ^^^^^^^^the processor initiates a reconfiguration at module 1506 by switching at least one electrolyzer branch into a high-throughput mode to reduce voltage and increase total current.Attorney Docket No.56520-710601 As an example, once ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^drops below the ^^^^^^^^threshold, the processor measures total current at module 1508 and proceeds to module 1505, where it dynamically adjusts the configuration of each electrolyzer branch to enhance current utilization and fuel production efficiency while maintaining operation on the preferred portion of the IV curve.

[0363] FIG. 16 shows a non-limiting example of a configuration determination processflowchart involving solar generation modeling, power parameter evaluation, and feasibility assessment, in accordance with one or more embodiments herein. In some embodiments, a configuration determination process 1600 integrates solar generation modeling, power parameter evaluation, and iterative stack configuration logic, as illustrated in FIG.16. In some cases, the system receives weather and location data, solar farm parameters, and a target nameplate capacity for input to a generation modeling module 1602. In some instances, generation modeling module 1602 applies a simulation framework to produce time-series outputs, such as solar generation and temperature profiles, based on the input data (such as the National Renewable Energy Laboratory’s System Advisor Model (SAM)). For example, these outputs inform subsequent configuration assessments by indicating operating conditions that the electrolyzer stack may encounter throughout the day. As an example, the configuration selection model uses the output of module 1602 to adapt the stack configuration for predicted solar fluctuations and align performance with anticipated irradiance levels.

[0364] In some embodiments, the system includes an electrolyzer data module 1603 thatstores technical specifications, stack performance characteristics, and allowed power parameter ranges. In some cases, these inputs are passed to a configuration assessment module 1604, which simulates or predicts system performance under varying solar power conditions. In some instances, the configuration selection model uses the output of the configuration assessment module 1604 to evaluate the electrical compatibility of different stack arrangements with the time-series output from the generation modeling module 1602 by calculating metrics such as current utilization, energy efficiency, and alignment with the solar current-voltage (IV) curve. For example, the system compares these metrics against predefined operating thresholds to determine if certain configurations exceed allowable current density or voltage limits. As an example, the configuration assessment module 1604 may identify an array that balances energy efficiency with production targets, ensuring that the chosen configuration aligns with available solar power.Attorney Docket No.56520-710601

[0365] In some embodiments, the performance metrics generated by the configurationassessment module 1604 are passed to a feasibility evaluation module 1606, which applies system-level constraints to determine whether each candidate configuration remains within acceptable power parameter bounds. In some cases, the feasibility evaluation module 1606 checks factors such as total voltage, current density, available cell count, thermal headroom, and impedance matching with the renewable power source. In some instances, the feasibility evaluation module 1606 determines whether the evaluated configuration satisfies minimum thresholds for system operability, thermal stability, and control compatibility. For example, the feasibility evaluation module 1606 may flag a candidate array if its thermal load exceeds a defined maximum, prompting further adjustments in stack design. As an example, the feasibility evaluation module 1606 may disqualify configurations that do not meet minimum production targets under certain irradiance levels, ensuring that the system operates within practical constraints.

[0366] In some embodiments, the system includes a feasibility check module 1607 thatdetermines whether the configuration under review complies with all power parameter constraints. In some cases, if the configuration exceeds one or more limits, the configuration selection model activates a cell count projection module 1605 to modify stack-related power parameters, including series-parallel arrangements, total electrolyzer cells, or allowable branch current. In some instances, the configuration selection model iteratively evaluates new combinations using the configuration assessment module 1604 and the feasibility evaluation module 1606 until the feasibility check module 1607 confirms that the proposed configuration is valid. For example, the system re-examines voltage, current, and thermal performance to identify adjustments that satisfy operational requirements. As an example, once the system determines that the stack configuration meets all required electrical and thermal limits, the configuration selection model finalizes that configuration for deployment.

[0367] In some embodiments, the system connects input data modules 1601 and 1603 tothe generation modeling module 1602, which provides output to the configuration assessment module 1604 and the feasibility evaluation module 1606. In some cases, the configuration selection model iterates between the cell count projection module 1605 and the feasibility check module 1607 to refine power parameters until it identifies a configuration that satisfies stack-level operating constraints and compatibility with the renewable energy source. In some instances, each iteration adjusts series-parallel arrangements or allowable current limits to more closely match with the time-series solar generation profile. For example, the system may increase the number of active electrolyzer cells to address voltage requirements duringAttorney Docket No.56520-710601 peak solar conditions while maintaining thermal stability. As an example, once an array meets all assessment criteria, the configuration selection model finalizes that configuration for deployment.

[0368] FIG. 29 shows a non-limiting example of a direct-DC coupled electrochemicalsystem with distinct operating modes for different electrolyzer stacks controlled via a switch network. In some embodiments, the present disclosure provides a direct-DC coupled electrochemical system that operates multiple electrolyzer stacks in different modes via a switch network (e.g., as shown in FIG.29). In some cases, a solar array 2901 serves as the renewable power source, delivering DC power directly to a switch network 2902. In some instances, the switch network 2902, guided by control signals from a controller 2903 (dashed line indicates control signal flow), routes the DC power to one or more downstream paths corresponding to distinct operating modes. For example, one path may direct power through a voltage and current (VI) sensor 2907 to a normal mode stack 2904. In some cases, another path may direct power through a VI sensor 2908 to a supercharged mode stack 2905, and a further path may direct power through a VI sensor 2909 to a turndown (low-power) mode stack 2906. As an example, the controller 2903 may receive sensor feedback from one or more sensors (e.g., 2907, 2908, and 2909) and the configuration selection model may select among normal, supercharged, or turndown operation based on real-time power availability from the solar array 2901. In some instances, the controller 2903 activates normal mode stack 2904 under moderate power levels, supercharged mode stack 2905 when high power is available to increase throughput, and turndown mode stack 2906 at low power levels to maintain efficiency or system readiness. As an example, the controller 2903 may combine these modes concurrently, with the configuration selection model adapting operational paths in response to varying power conditions and coordinating a flexible, optimized electrochemical process without intermediate power conversion electronics. In some embodiments, the system comprises one sensor. In some embodiments, the system comprises another component configured to determine voltage and current.

[0369] FIG. 30 shows a non-limiting example of a system configuration utilizing aplurality of renewable energy sources, including solar and wind power, connected to power an electrolyzer and capture unit, in accordance with one or more embodiments herein. In some embodiments, a system integrates a plurality of renewable energy sources, such as solar panels 3001 and wind turbines 3004, positioned in a suitable environment. In some cases, power from solar panels 3001 and wind turbines 3004 (dashed lines converging on an electrolyzer) supplies an electrolyzer 3003 receiving a reactant feed—such as CO₂-enrichedAttorney Docket No.56520-710601 electrolyte—via a pipe from a capture unit 3002. In some instances, capture unit 3002 functions as a Direct Air Capture (DAC) module, processing ambient air and delivering captured reactants to electrolyzer 3003. For example, the electrolyzer 3003 uses renewable power to produce an output stream (arrow away from 3003) containing fuel products or processed electrolyte that may require further separation or recirculation. As an example, FIG.30 shows an array combining solar panels 3001 and wind turbines 3004 with electrolyzer 3003 and capture unit 3002. In some instances, system configurations may include solar-focused, wind-focused, or additional renewable sources (e.g., depending on location, scale, and technical requirements).

[0370] In some embodiments, the system utilizes a hybrid configuration comprising aplurality of renewable energy sources. In some cases, these sources include both solar and wind energy feeding into a shared DC bus. In some instances, the system rectifies wind power so it augments solar input and expands the overall operating range. For example, the same series-parallel reconfiguration principle may apply, allowing certain branches to enter supercharged mode when wind speed is high. As an example, overnight wind generation may sustain moderate current draw or pulsed operation, providing baseline CO₂ reduction in the absence of sunlight. In some instances, the system maintains this baseline reduction throughout a 24-hour cycle if wind remains available. As an example, this hybrid array harnesses a plurality of renewable resources to increase total production and enhance overall capacity factor.

[0371] FIG. 31 shows a non-limiting example schematic of a system integrating direct-DC solar power, direct air capture, a dynamically reconfigurable electrolyzer with enhanced control, fuel separation, storage, and electrolyte recirculation. In some embodiments, the system integrating direct-DC solar power, direct air capture, an optimized reconfigurable electrolyzer, fuel separation, storage, and electrolyte recirculation. In some cases, solar panels 3100 provide DC power through direct DC lines 3101 to an electrolyzer stack 3103. In some instances, a DAC unit 3102 draws in ambient air and captures CO₂ into an electrolyte solution, which flows via electrolyte input pipe 3109 to electrolyzer stack 3103 for electrochemical conversion. For example, stack 3103 produces a combined output stream of fuel product and electrolyte, routed to a separation unit 3105 for fuel isolation. As an example, the separated fuel travels through fuel output pipe 3108 to e-fuel storage tanks 3106, while the depleted electrolyte stream moves via recirculation pipe 3107 to recirculation input 3113 and returns to DAC unit 3102.Attorney Docket No.56520-710601

[0372] In some embodiments, a controller or monitor unit 3104 supervises systemoperation by sending control signals (indicated by dashed lines) to electrolyzer stack 3103 and tracking parameters for storage tanks 3106. In some cases, the controller dynamically adjusts stack 3103 modes—such as load line reconfiguration or branch activation, which alters the stack's electrical impedance—based on real-time solar input from panels 3100 or measured system parameters. In some instances, the controller ensures continuous alignment between DAC output, electrolysis conditions, and separation unit flow to optimize fuel production and minimize inefficiencies. For example, the controller may shift electrolyzer settings under variable sunlight or CO₂ capture rates. As an example, storage tanks 3106 may send status information to controller 3104, prompting modifications to maintain safe operating levels and accommodate transport scheduling.

[0373] In some embodiments, separation unit 3105 channels the depleted electrolytethrough recirculation pipe 3107 to recirculation input 3113, thereby closing the electrolyte loop and reducing material losses. In some cases, this loop facilitates continuous CO₂ absorption at DAC unit 3102, supplying freshly enriched electrolyte to stack 3103 for uninterrupted electrochemical conversion. In some instances, a transport mechanism such as truck 3112 removes fuel from storage tanks 3106, providing flexible distribution and commercial utilization of the e-fuel product. For example, the system provides on-site fuel generation without intermediate power conversion, leveraging direct-DC supply and integrated DAC. As an example, FIG.31 demonstrates a self-contained architecture that combines atmospheric CO₂ capture, solar power utilization, and optimized electrolysis for real-time fuel production and storage.

[0374] In some embodiments, the system operates in either a continuous or a pulsedmode to accommodate fluctuations in renewable power and manage cell conditions. In some cases, continuous operation applies a steady voltage and current to drive electrochemical reactions at a stable rate. In some instances, this steady approach may simplify control logic and maintain predictable output levels, particularly when solar or wind availability remains relatively constant. For example, continuous mode may be beneficial during daytime hours with consistent sunlight or sustained wind flow, allowing the system to utilize a uniform current density. As an example, this uniformity may reduce strain on peripheral equipment by streamlining system monitoring and minimizing rapid changes in voltage or reactant feed rates.

[0375] In some embodiments, a pulsed operation applies brief bursts of higher currentfollowed by short pauses, permitting cells to cool and replenish reactants while alsoAttorney Docket No.56520-710601 smoothing out transient drops in solar or wind input. In some cases, the system modulates these pulses based on real-time data, ensuring that heat accumulation remains within safe limits and that reactant supply stays balanced. In some instances, this pulsed mode helps mitigate the impact of intermittent power sources by delivering strong current surges when renewable output peaks and pausing during dips. For example, the controller may adjust pulse duration and amplitude to align with expected weather changes, forecasting data, or short-term production goals. As an example, the system may ramp current density up or down more gradually, using predictive models to fine-tune reaction conditions in response to dynamic external factors such as temperature shifts or incoming cloud cover.

[0376] In some embodiments, the system adjusts at least one power parameter associatedwith the plurality of electrochemical units based on the direct current (DC) power output received from the plurality of renewable energy units. In some cases, the adjustable power parameter comprises an input current or an input voltage, or both, associated with at least two electrochemical units. In some instances, the power parameter comprises an effective electrical resistance or impedance presented by the electrochemical units to the power source. For example, changing the electrical configuration of the electrolyzer bank alters its aggregate resistance to draw more or less current at the available voltage. As an example, this adjustment permits the electrochemical load to track the variable power supplied by sources such as solar arrays throughout the day.

[0377] In some embodiments, the systems and methods described herein employ directelectrical coupling between renewable energy units and electrochemical units, avoiding intermediate power conversion electronics. In some cases, the direct current (DC) power from a renewable source such as a solar array (2901, 3100) travels directly (3101) to multiple electrochemical units (201, 2107, 2207, 2410, 3103) without conversion to alternating current (AC). In some instances, this array bypasses inverters, transformers, or DC-DC converters that often appear in other setups, thereby simplifying infrastructure and minimizing both component cost and conversion losses. For example, FIG.31 conceptually depicts power lines 3101 connecting solar panels 3100 directly to an electrolyzer stack 3103, eliminating layers of power electronics that may otherwise handle voltage or waveform adjustments. As an example, this direct connection may streamline system architecture, reduce points of failure, and promote greater overall energy efficiency in renewable-to-fuel processes.

[0378] In some embodiments, efficient operation with direct DC coupling involvesaligning the voltage and current characteristics of the renewable source and the electrochemical units. In some cases, the system adjusts its current-voltage (IV) profile toAttorney Docket No.56520-710601 coordinate with solar array parameters that vary with irradiance and temperature, as indicated in FIG.2, FIG.3, and FIG.11. In some instances, the design of the electrolyzer bank (considering temperature, materials, and electrical configuration, as shown in FIG.6 and FIG. 7) is tailored to intersect the solar IV curve at an improved operating point. For example, eliminating traditional power regulation components, such as Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) converters, allows the solar array and electrolyzer stack to operate in tandem based on naturally occurring IV characteristics. As an example, the electrolyzer configuration may be dynamically adjusted (e.g., changing series or parallel connections) to maintain a beneficial intersection with the solar IV curve, as illustrated in FIG.11, FIG.13, and FIG.14, ensuring efficient energy transfer and robust fuel production performance.

[0379] In some embodiments, the system utilizes dynamic reconfiguration of theelectrochemical units to adapt power parameters in response to varying renewable power availability. In some cases, at least two electrochemical units or stacks (such as 2904, 2905, 2906) may switch between series and parallel electrical arrangements through a switch network (2902). In some instances, a controller (2903) determines the specific configuration (for example, the number of units in series versus parallel) in real-time or near real-time based on the DC power output from the renewable energy source. For example, FIG.8 shows a high-level schematic of impedance-shifting using interlocked switches (805, 807) to reconfigure a plurality of electrolyzer units (800, 803, etc.). As an example, FIG.9 depicts a normal mode (two parallel branches of three series units), while FIG.10 shows a supercharged mode (three parallel branches of two series units) to modify the load impedance seen by the power source (801).

[0380] In some embodiments, the system employs strategies that relate to the MaximumPower Point (MPP) of the solar array but prioritize fuel production over maximizing instantaneous electrical power transfer. In some cases, the system maintains the operational voltage of the electrochemical units “to the left” of the MPP on the solar IV curve to maximize current, as indicated in FIG.2, FIG.11, or FIG.13. In some instances, operating at a lower voltage may deliver higher current, directly correlating with increased electrochemical production. For example, FIG.13 shows operating point 1301, which draws more current and thus enhances production, in contrast to point 1302, the MPP maximizing power. As an example, the system estimates MPP voltage based on real-time sensor data or predictive modeling, simplifying control logic by avoiding traditional perturb-and-observe MPPT approaches (see FIG.15).Attorney Docket No.56520-710601

[0381] In some embodiments, the configuration selection model is executed by aprocessor or controller (2903) in real-time or near real-time to determine an improved configuration of the electrochemical units using forecasts or current operational data. In some cases, the configuration selection model takes inputs such as weather forecasts (e.g., solar irradiance), temperature data, historical patterns, and the available number of electrolyzer cells or stacks. In some instances, the configuration selection model's objective is to modulate current draw while adhering to constraints on total cell count, voltage limits, and operating temperature. For example, the configuration selection model may specify how many stacks run in normal mode (2904), supercharged mode (2095), or turndown mode (2096) in each time interval to maximize fuel production while maintaining a minimum energy efficiency level under a given solar profile (FIG.17, FIG.18). As an example, the configuration selection model may solve Equation (1) to calculate the required number of stacks in series and parallel.

[0382] In some embodiments, the system comprises a processor configured to classifyelectrochemical stacks into supercharged, normal, or turndown operating modes. In some cases, the processor evaluates parameters such as current availability, stack temperature, and fuel output targets to decide which branches operate at higher or lower current densities. In some instances, the model assigns a subset of branches to supercharged mode when power availability exceeds a baseline threshold, while keeping others in lower-power modes to manage thermal load. For example, the processor may designate three stacks as supercharged for high-yield operation and maintain remaining stacks in normal mode, ensuring stable temperatures and balanced performance. As an example, this model addresses load balancing across branches and ensures compatibility with the direct DC input from the renewable source.

[0383] In some embodiments, the electrochemical units operate under multiple modes—such as continuous operation, pulsed operation, or variable current density—to accommodate power fluctuations and enhance performance. In some cases, a turndown mode (2906) runs at reduced current when renewable power is limited, maintaining efficiency and minimizing standby losses. In some instances, a supercharged mode (2905) permits operation above nominal capacity under high DC power availability, increasing production at the expense of some energy efficiency (see FIG.11 and FIG.12). For example, the system may choose a hybrid configuration where units (2905) run in supercharged mode while others (2904) maintain higher-efficiency normal mode (see FIG.29) to balance maximum throughput with thermal management. As an example, the system monitors temperature to curtailAttorney Docket No.56520-710601 supercharged operations if thresholds are exceeded, protecting components and extending operational life.

[0384] In some embodiments, the system modifies reaction conditions or rates in theelectrochemical units based on available DC power output. In some cases, reaction conditions such as temperature, electrolyte concentration, pressure, or pH are altered to optimize performance under current power levels. In some instances, the system directly adjusts overall reaction rate or the production rate of the reduced carbon products when power input is high enough to support supercharged operation. For example, the system may increase electrolyte flow rate or increase cell operating temperature to facilitate faster reaction kinetics during abundant power availability. As an example, the system shifts from supercharged mode to normal mode if input current drops below a predefined threshold for a set duration, stabilizing conditions and preventing resource waste.

[0385] In some embodiments, the electrochemical reduction process converts CO₂ intoone or more reduced carbon products using the supplied renewable DC power. In some cases, these products include alcohols (e.g., methanol, ethanol, propanol, butanol), hydrocarbons (e.g., methane, ethane, ethylene), aldehydes, ketones, ethers, or carboxylic acids. In some instances, carbon-based fuels like e-ethanol or e-ethylene provide net-zero carbon emissions when derived from atmospheric or renewable CO₂. For example, producing e-ethanol through direct DC coupling and dynamic electrolyzer reconfiguration may create a storable, transportable fuel without relying on fossil feedstocks. As an example, this process contributes to an integrated renewable energy system that addresses both carbon capture and clean fuel generation.

[0386] In some embodiments, the system integrates the electrochemical fuel productionwith capture, transport, and utilization actions, creating a complete energy cycle. In some cases, at a first location, the system captures CO₂ (e.g., via DAC unit 3102) from atmospheric air using solid sorbents, liquid solvents, or other suitable direct air capture technologies. In some instances, the CO₂ is then transferred to one or more electrochemical stacks (3103) for conversion to a carbon-based product (e.g., e-ethanol, e-ethylene, or other hydrocarbons or alcohols) using catalysts tailored for high selectivity, and this electrochemical process is powered by renewable energy units (3100). For example, the resultant carbon product is subsequently separated (3105) via downstream purification or separation stages such as distillation columns, membranes, or phase separators and stored on-site in tanks or pressurized vessels. As an example, once stabilized, the carbon product may be transported (e.g., via pipeline, rail, or truck 3112) from the first location to a second, distinct locationAttorney Docket No.56520-710601 where conventional equipment such as gas turbines or reciprocating engines generate electricity from the transported carbon product to power end-users like data centers, remote communities, or critical infrastructure independently from any electrical transmission grid, and in some instances, the product exhibits a distinct isotopic signature (e.g., Δ¹³C > −25‰) verifying its non-fossil, atmospheric origin.

[0387] In some embodiments, transporting the carbon product, such as e-ethanol or e-ethylene, from the first location (production site) to the second location (utilization site) occurs via a variety of methods suited for liquid or gaseous fuels. In some cases, the system identifies the most cost-effective or energy-efficient mode based on factors such as distance, product form, and regulatory constraints. In some instances, existing pipeline infrastructure may be repurposed, or rail transport (e.g., using tank cars) and truck transport (e.g., using tanker trucks) provide alternatives when pipelines are unavailable. For example, transport via waterways, using barges or ships equipped with proper storage tanks, may handle large-scale shipments for projects near coastal areas or navigable rivers. As an example, specialized containers such as ISO tank containers or pressurized and cryogenic vessels are used to maintain product quality (e.g., preventing evaporation or polymerization of olefins) and ensure safe transit, and real-time sensors may monitor temperature, pressure, and product purity throughout the journey.

[0388] In some embodiments, the system comprises a processor configured to execute adirect current matching model that identifies the intersection between the renewable energy source’s current-voltage profile and the electrochemical load’s electrical characteristics. In some cases, the processor computes the system voltage at which the solar-generated current equals the aggregate current demand of the electrochemical units based on their real-time configuration. In some instances, the model relies on analytical or iterative methods such as Lambert W function approximations to solve for the voltage that satisfies both the source IV curve and the electrolyzer response in the ohmic region. For example, the processor may calculate the intersection point between a solar array’s temperature-adjusted IV output and a dynamically reconfigured set of stacks operating with a known voltage threshold and resistance. As an example, the system may apply this model at regular intervals to ensure continuous current matching during changing environmental conditions without relying on active power conversion electronics. Computer Systems

[0389] The present disclosure provides computer systems that are programmed toimplement methods of the disclosure. FIG.25 is a schematic diagram of a computer systemAttorney Docket No.56520-710601 2501 that is programmed or otherwise configured to manage electrochemical unit operation and power allocation. The computer system 2501 may regulate aspects of the configuration selection model and related processes, such as determining electrolyzer configurations, setting operating modes, and processing sensor data. The computer system 2501 may be an electronic device of a user or a remotely located system, and in some embodiments may be a mobile device.

[0390] As shown in FIG. 25, the computer system 2501 includes a central processing unit(CPU) 2502, which may be single- or multi-core (or a plurality of processors in parallel). The system further includes a communication bus 2503 (e.g., a motherboard bus), a communication interface 2504 (e.g., for connection to a local network or the internet), memory 2505 (e.g., random-access memory, read-only memory, flash memory), and an electronic storage unit 2506 (e.g., a hard disk or solid-state drive). One or more peripheral devices 2508 (e.g., sensors, actuators, or data acquisition modules) may also be present. The CPU 2502, memory 2505, storage 2506, communication interface 2504, and peripheral devices 2508 communicate via the communication bus 2503.

[0391] The computer system 2501 may connect to a computer network 2507 (e.g., a localnetwork or the internet) via the communication interface 2504. In some cases, the network 2507 may permit distributed or cloud computing. The CPU 2502 is programmed to execute a sequence of machine-readable instructions (software or program code) stored in the memory 2505 or in storage 2506, thereby configuring the CPU 2502 to implement methods of the present disclosure, including the configuration selection model and data processing for electrochemical unit control.

[0392] The storage unit 2506 may contain drivers, libraries, electrochemical process data,and control programs. It may also store user preferences and control parameters that the CPU 2502 retrieves and executes from memory 2505. The CPU 2502 may be part of an embedded system, a programmable logic controller (PLC), or an industrial computer.

[0393] The computer system 2501 may also communicate with other control systems ordata logging systems via the network 2507. Examples of such systems include remote monitoring stations, cloud-based data storage, or other on-site controllers. A user may access functionalities of the computer system 2501 (such as process visualization or parameter adjustments) through a user interface.

[0005] The machine-executable instructions for the configuration selection model and other control functions are stored in the memory 2505 or electronic storage 2506. At runtime, the CPU 2502 fetches, decodes, and executes these instructions. The code may be supplied in a compiled form.

[0006] Various aspects of theAttorney Docket No.56520-710601 control system may be embodied as “articles of manufacture,” including non-transitory computer-readable media carrying the instructions or data structures. For instance, the memory 2505 or storage 2506 may hold software that, when executed by the CPU 2502, performs the methods of the present disclosure.

[0394] In some embodiments, the computer system 2501 includes or is incommunication with an electronic display 2509 that provides a user interface (UI) for process monitoring and control (e.g., a graphical user interface). The computer system 2501 executes algorithms to manage electrochemical unit operation, including the configuration selection model.

[0395] As used herein, the terms “artificial intelligence,” “artificial intelligencetechniques,” “artificial intelligence operation,” and “artificial intelligence algorithm” generally refer to any computational system or procedure configured to take one or more actions that enhance or maximize the likelihood of achieving a defined goal, such as optimizing the electrochemical conversion of CO2 into reduced carbon products. In some embodiments, “artificial intelligence” may encompass “generative modeling,” “machine learning” (ML), or “reinforcement learning” (RL).

[0396] As used herein, “machine learning,” “machine learning techniques,” “machinelearning operation,” and “machine learning model” generally refer to analytical or statistical processes by which a computer's performance on a specific task improves with experience or data. In various implementations, machine learning involves identifying and recognizing patterns in existing (“training”) data to make predictions or decisions on new (“inference”) data, for example, to predict improved operating conditions for an electrochemical cell. A machine learning model (which may include algorithms such as supervised, semi-supervised, self-supervised, or unsupervised) may provide deductive or abductive inferences based on real or simulated data. ML may include one or more methods such as regression analysis, classification, clustering, dimensionality reduction, ensemble learning, anomaly detection, deep learning, or ultra-deep learning. Non-limiting examples of ML algorithms include, but are not limited to: k-means, k-nearest neighbors, learning vector quantization, linear / non- linear / least squares regression, ridge regression, principal component regression, LASSO, logistic regression, Bayesian networks, hidden Markov models, support vector machines, decision trees (boosted or random forests), neural networks (feedforward, convolutional, recurrent, LSTM), deep belief networks, Boltzmann machines, generative adversarial networks, encoders / decoders (e.g., auto-encoders), and transformers.Attorney Docket No.56520-710601

[0397] Training a machine learning model for electrochemical systems may involveselecting one or more untrained data models and applying a training dataset. The selected models may be specified based on user input or automatically inferred parameters, such as predicted or explanatory variables (e.g., temperature, pressure, voltage). Training conditions (e.g., maximum model complexity or limits on refinement) may also be specified. During training, a first subset of the dataset is often used to adjust model parameters (weights or scaling factors). Because training can be computationally intensive, additional or cloud-based computing resources may be used. Once a preliminary model is obtained, further refinements or hyperparameter tuning may be performed until the model meets certain selection criteria for accuracy, robustness, or efficiency in predicting electrochemical performance.

[0398] In some cases, a second subset of the training data is used for validation, helpingassess model performance (for example, predicting known outcomes in the validation subset, such as product yield or energy consumption). If the model’s performance is insufficient, additional training or parameter adjustments may occur. Once performance reaches or exceeds the required metrics, the resulting trained model may be stored for subsequent use. Storage may include saving parameters in a database or server, along with metadata indicating model version or applicable input conditions (e.g., reactor type, operating conditions). In some embodiments, a plurality of models are retained for different tasks, data conditions, or operational contexts within the electrochemical conversion system.

[0399] In certain embodiments, the machine learning approach leverages a large languagemodel (LLM). An LLM is an advanced AI model configured to understand and generate human language. These models are often trained via deep-learning architectures (for example, transformers) using massive text corpora, providing them to learn syntax, semantics, and contextual relationships. As such, LLMs may generate coherent, context- relevant text and be applied to a variety of natural language processing tasks.

[0400] In some embodiments, the systems, methods, platforms, or media disclosed hereinemploy at least one computer program. A computer program is a set of machine-executable instructions (for example, code or software) that may be processed by one or more CPUs. The instructions may be organized into modules (for example, functions, objects, APIs) and may be written in various languages. They may reside in, or be distributed across, local or remote storage units, memory devices, servers, or other computing resources. The instructions may be combined or distributed. For example, a single computer program may handle all relevant tasks, or a plurality of programs may exist, each focusing on specific functions. The program may be furnished at manufacturing time or via download (forAttorney Docket No.56520-710601 example, over a network). The computer program may be implemented as standalone software or integrated into a larger suite of services.

[0401] In some embodiments, the computer program comprises a web application (forexample, an application to monitor and control electrochemical processes). A web application may utilize frameworks such as Microsoft .NET, Ruby on Rails, or other client- and server- side technologies (for example, HTML, XML, CSS, JavaScript, PHP, Python, Java, or SQL). In certain cases, the web application may incorporate enterprise server products (for example, IBM Lotus Domino) or media players (for example, Adobe Flash, HTML5) to deliver interactive content.

[0402] In other embodiments, the computer program includes a mobile applicationprovided to a mobile computing device. The mobile application may be pre-installed on the device or acquired later (for example, via an app store or direct network distribution). Such mobile software may be developed using languages such as C, C++, C#, Objective-C, Java, JavaScript, Python, or HTML / CSS, in conjunction with suitable mobile operating system software development kits (SDKs). Examples include Apple iOS, Google Android, BlackBerry, or Windows Mobile. Commercially available mobile development environments include, for example, Android Studio, Xcode, Visual Studio, or cross-platform tools such as Flutter, React Native, or PhoneGap (Apache Cordova). The choice of environment and language generally reflects the target device ecosystem and desired application features.

[0403] In some embodiments, a computer program is implemented as a standaloneapplication, meaning it operates as an independent process rather than a plug-in or extension to another process. Standalone applications often involve compiling source code (for example, C, C++, Objective-C, Java, Python, VB .NET) into machine code, providing direct execution on a target operating system or hardware platform. One or more compiled programs may be delivered and run as separate executables.

[0404] Certain implementations of the control system for the electrochemical processdescribed herein may be divided into software modules or components. A software module may be a file, a set of code segments, a library, an object, a data structure, or any combination thereof. These modules may be distributed across a plurality of machines, cloud environments, or local systems. In some cases, a software module includes or integrates with web, mobile, or standalone applications. These modules may scale across cloud computing infrastructures, providing flexible deployment and maintenance.

[0405] The systems and methods disclosed may employ one or more databases or datarepositories. Suitable database technologies include (but are not limited to) relationalAttorney Docket No.56520-710601 databases (for example, SQL, MySQL, PostgreSQL, Oracle), non-relational (NoSQL) or document-oriented systems (for example, MongoDB), object databases, XML databases, or graph databases. A database may be distributed or cloud-based, potentially spanning a plurality of servers or data centers. In certain embodiments, the database is integrated with or accessible via web-based or mobile-based front ends, facilitating remote queries, updates, or analytics. Whether local, remote, or distributed, these databases may store various data elements relevant to the electrochemical system—such as AI model parameters, training or validation datasets, user inputs, operating conditions, or logs of interaction events—and may support analytical processes that leverage machine learning or AI algorithms described herein. EXAMPLES

[0406] The following illustrative examples are representative of examples of the softwareapplications, systems, and methods described herein and are not meant to be limiting in any way. Example 1 –Wharton, Texas solar farm

[0407] One example examined the effect of the described optimization using the DetailedPV model in the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) System Advisor Model (SAM). This simulation generated a yearly power-production profile for a hypothetical solar farm located in Wharton County, Texas, using physics-based modeling and local weather data. Although this location was not selected as a definitive improved solar site—and final designs may reflect specific geographies—the same methodology and weather inputs may be applied in other regions. Additional results for alternative scenarios appear in Example^2.

[0408] The SAM model incorporated several system parameters: it set an inverter loadingratio (ILR) of^1 to minimize clipping-related effects; relied on automated loss estimates provided by SAM; employed single-axis tracking with bifacial modules (common in large- scale U.S. installations); assumed about 99.5% inverter efficiency; assigned a nominal 100,000^kW nameplate capacity; and predicted a maximum power-point voltage near 1.5^kV at high insolation levels.

[0409] SAM’s hourly (or sub-hourly) generation data then served as input to anoptimization model, which took the total number of electrolyzer cells as a variable. At each timestep, the optimizer determined how many electrolyzers operated in low-power, normal,Attorney Docket No.56520-710601 or “supercharge” mode to improve overall production. Example^2 describes additional technical details of this model’s structure and constraints.

[0410] In these simulations, each electrolyzer cell operated at a minimum voltage ofroughly 2.5^V, exhibiting an IV slope of 50^mA / cm^2 per 400^mV. The active electrode surface area measured about 1174^cm^2, and available stack configurations included three, four, or five stacks in series, each containing 100^cells.

[0411] The resulting electrolyzer dispatch and production data underwent furtherevaluation using a “Solar BTM techno-economic model” (TEM). Although the TEM’s complete methodology is beyond the scope of this disclosure, it used SAM-derived production data and system metrics to calculate total hydrogen output. It then applied mass and energy balances to estimate the required capital equipment. From there, it generated a levelized production metric. While economic considerations factored into the TEM, this example emphasizes how varying electrolyzer cell counts affect technical performance (e.g., production rates, capacity factors). Notably, certain configurations also simplify power- electronics requirements or reduce hardware complexity, passively lowering associated system costs in addition to shifting operational modes and throughput.

[0412] In this scenario, the facility produced primarily hydrogen. “Consumption-optimized” approaches were compared against a best-case scenario involving power regulation via an MPPT converter (at ~98% efficiency), allowing electrolyzers to switch on or off based on solar availability—akin to methods tested by Sinopec. This approach helped illustrate potential differences in performance or utilization when electrolyzers draw power directly from a behind-the-meter solar source.

[0413] Table^1 shows an example of the model outputs for different total cell counts,loading ratios, capacity factors, and average daily production of the one or more carbon products, among other parameters. These values show how varying the electrolysis configuration may shift the technical operating envelope—e.g., by altering capacity factor or daily fuel yield. Some parameter sets provide higher production, while others achieve a higher capacity factor or closer alignment with available solar power.

[0414] Although the data reflect specific assumptions and a particular solar profile, theyunderscore how technical parameters (e.g., total cell count, loading ratio, stack configuration) interact with site-specific solar resources. For instance, lower cell counts may increase capacity factor to over 90% but may modestly reduce daily hydrogen output; higher cell counts may raise production of the one or more carbon products to around 6.0^tH2 / day, albeit with a lower capacity factor. Additionally, configurations that reduce total cell count orAttorney Docket No.56520-710601 employ direct coupling may simplify the overall system architecture, indirectly reducing hardware requirements. Actual results will vary based on real-world component performance, local insolation, and operating strategies.

[0415] Table 1: Example Results of Techno‐Economic AnalysisTotal cells Loading ratio CapacityAvg daily Project Pre-tax LCOP factor production [tH2] CAPEX ($ / kg H2)750002.905.414.02.942.34 5.7 17.3 3.061250001.905.820.73.29150000 1.74 6.0 23.8 3.441750001.566.027.23.65200000 1.40 6.0 30.6 3.99

[0416] FIG.^17 shows a heatmap 1700 of the modeled annual AC output (kW) by hour1701 across each day of the year 1702. In this grayscale example, lighter regions indicate higher instantaneous solar production, while darker regions indicate near-zero or minimal output. The vertical axis 1702 often runs from day^0 (or day^1) to day^365, and the horizontal axis 1701 covers hours in a 24-hour cycle. Values on the grayscale bar 1703 range from near- zero or slightly negative to roughly 90^kW or higher, highlighting daily and seasonal solar variability. This figure underscores the diurnal nature of solar availability, including midday production peaks in most months and lower outputs near dawn or dusk.

[0417] FIG.^18 depicts a combined histogram and CDF chart 1800 for the same solarfarm’s annual generation dataset, excluding hours of zero generation. Histogram bins 1801 appear along the horizontal axis 1803, representing ranges of average power output, while a CDF curve 1805 along the upper boundary indicates the fraction of total operating hours at or below each bin. This view helps illustrate how often the system delivers moderate versus high power and identifies common operating levels—for instance, median or 90th-percentile production. In some embodiments, such insights inform technical decisions about stack sizing or the number of electrolyzer cells to activate under lower sunlight conditions.

[0418] FIG.^19 provides plots 1900 of three distinct efficiency metrics—transferefficiency (curve^1906), energy efficiency (curve^1905), and overall energy-to-product percentage on a higher heating value (HHV) basis (curve^1904)—as the total electrolyzer cellAttorney Docket No.56520-710601 count 1902 varies from 50,000 to 200,000. The vertical axis 1901 ranges from near^0.0 to^1.0, representing fractional or percentage values, while a secondary top axis 1903 may show reference ticks or divisions. In this example, operating with fewer cells sometimes runs the stacks nearer improved current densities in a “supercharge” mode, whereas larger arrays potentially offer more partial-load flexibility near or below the maximum power point voltage. Each configuration accordingly yields different production efficiencies. In some cases, reducing the total cell count may also simplify power-electronic requirements or lower hardware complexity, although actual implementations depend on site-specific solar profiles and design objectives.

[0419] By focusing on capacity factors, daily production of the one or more carbonproducts, and operational efficiencies across different configurations, this example highlights how tuning the electrolyzer cell count (and associated strategies) may achieve specific technical goals—ranging from maximizing throughput to maintaining higher utilization— even before incorporating any economic or financial parameters. In some embodiments, adjusting cell counts or operating states provides more effective matching of solar farm output over time. Actual performance depends on factors such as real-world equipment efficiencies, local insolation patterns, and the chosen control strategy. Example 2: Production Optimization and Solar Farm Design Cases A2.1 – Solar IV Model

[0420] A simplified model of the solar array current, ^^^^^^^^^^^^(^^,^^,^^), may be expressed byequation (2) below. In this model In this model, ^^^^^^ denotes the number of parallel strings,^^^^^^represents the number of cells in series per string, α is an empirical factor between 1 and 2, and the other terms are as defined below:Where Iscis the short-circuit current, Q is the normalized insolation, ^^0is the dark saturation current, α is an empirical “performance factor” with a value between 1 and 2, q is the fundamental charge, ^^^^is the Boltzmann constant, V is the cell voltage.Attorney Docket No.56520-710601 npsis the number of cells in parallel within the solar array, ^^^^^^is the number of cells in series for the solar stack, and T is the cell temperature in Kelvin.

[0421] The maximum power point (MPP) for the solar array may be found where thederivative of power ^^ = ^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^ ^^is zero. In practice, this MPP may be computed for each(Q,T) or measured in real time via known techniques. A2.2 – Electrolyzer IV Model

[0422] The electrolyzers are modeled primarily in their ohmic region, using Equation (3)for the current:where: ^^^^is the number of cells (or sub‐units) in parallel on the electrolyzer side, ^^^^is the number of cells in series for a particular electrolyzer branch, m is the slope in the ohmic overpotential region (A / V or similar unit), ^^^^^^^^is the voltage at the onset of the ohmic region, and ^^^^^^ (⋅) function ensures no negative current is considered if ^^ < ^^^^ ^^^^^^^^

[0423] Here, ^^^^ and ^^^^ refer exclusively to the electrolyzer stack configuration, distinctfrom ^^^^^^and ^^^^^^in the solar array.

[0424] In some cases, once these solar and electrolyzer current‐voltage equations areestablished, the operating point (^^, ^^) is found by equating ^^^^^^^^^^^^(^^, ^^, ^^) to ^^^^^^^^^^^^(^^) andsolving for ^^. Because the solar current in the relevant operating range is nonnegative, the^^^^^^ (⋅) function may sometimes be omitted for numerical convenience, though including it prevents unphysical negative current at lower voltages. A2.3 – Lambert W Solution (Optional)

[0425] In certain embodiments, the operating voltage ^^ may be computed by rearrangingthe above equations into a transcendental form:

[0426] For convenience, define ^^^^ = [… ] and ^^^^ = [… ], which capture constants relatedto the voltage offset ^^^^^^^^ and slope ^^.

[0427] A solution for V may be expressed in terms of the Lambert W function, denoted^^^^. An illustrative form may appear asAttorney Docket No.56520-710601where:^^ = exp (^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^), ^^^^and ^^^^are vectors capturing the relevant coefficients, and ^^^^(⋅) is the Lambert W function, which may be approximated via known expansions or iterative techniques.

[0428] Depending on the domain of interest, generally a few iterations of a Lambert Wfunction approximation may be utilized for practical control or optimization. One approximation uses: ^^ ^^^^ (^^) = ^^( )^(1^^ ^^+1 1 + ^ ^^(^^) + log (^^)) ^^(^^)With initial ^^ (^ )^^ 0^ =^^. Another simplified form is:A2.4 – Production Optimization Problem

[0429] Given time‐varying insolation ^^(^^) and temperature ^^(^^) , the system may wishto maximize hydrogen (or other reduced product) output by configuring how many cells areallocated in series vs. parallel for each time interval. For instance, a vector ns ∈maydefine ^^ possible series counts, and np ∈may define how many parallel branches are activated under each series configuration. A constraint on the total available cells ensures: ^^^^^^^^^^^^ ≥ nTSnP

[0430] The electrolyzer current at voltage ^^ and configuration ^^^^ may be:or in vector form: ^^^^^^^^^^^^(^^, nP)Attorney Docket No.56520-710601 ^^ where ^^^^and ^^^^capture constants such as −^^^^^^^^^^and ^^^^^^.

[0431] The integer variable nP indicates how many parallel branches are allocated to eachseries configuration in nS. The total cell availability constraint is ^^^^^^^^^^^^ ≥ nTSnP.

[0432] At each time ^^, the system “solves” for ^^(^^) by equating^^^^^^^^^^^^ (^^, ^^^^). The power is ^^ = ^^ ⋅ ^^ , and one may define:Vtnns (energy efficienc )P ηe=y , ηp =(transfer efficiency), V PMPPwhich may be combined as:

[0433] Over a scheduling horizon of n intervals, the objective is to maximize:subject to constraints such as:

[0434] One skilled in the art may incorporate additional constraints (e.g., minimumturndown ratio, maximum current density) as needed.

[0435] This integer “convex” problem may often be tackled by specialized optimizationsolvers (e.g., interior‐point methods). For instance, a problem with ^^ time intervals and ^^possible series configurations yields ^^ ⋅ ^^ dimensions. Even an unoptimized solver mayhandle 30,000 time intervals (120,000 degrees of freedom) in about one minute on a general desktop workstation, though this performance may vary with algorithmic and hardware choices. A2.5 – Solar Farm Design Variations

[0436] Additional solar farm design graphs (for example, single‐axis tracking vs. fixed‐axis, or bifacial vs. unifacial modules) may be integrated into the previously described optimization framework in various ways. For general grid‐tie applications, single‐axis tracking generally improves capacity factor; however, behind‐the‐meter electrolyzer systems may not derive the same benefit from high peak outputs if they tend to operate “to the left” of the MPP. Consequently, bifacial fixed‐axis modules may serve as a middle ground byAttorney Docket No.56520-710601 capturing diffuse irradiance from a plurality of angles without incurring the extra expense or mechanical complexity of tracking systems. Meanwhile, single‐axis tracking may shift the overall power distribution toward higher output levels, raising the capacity factor to around 21–22% in some scenarios, although the added cost of tracking equipment may outweigh its advantages when electrolyzers are configured for particular voltage or current ranges. These considerations underscore that the most suitable solar farm configuration for behind‐the‐ meter hydrogen or carbon‐product generation may differ significantly from general grid‐ oriented designs. While single‐axis tracking is well suited to boosting capacity factor for some grid operations, direct‐coupled electrolyzer setups may show diminishing returns if the system often runs at partial load. Accordingly, developers may weigh a plurality of factors, including CAPEX, capacity factor, and the resultant distribution of generated power, within the broader integer‐convex optimization framework described above.

[0437] In summary, Example 2 demonstrates how fundamental IV equations for solararrays and electrolyzers may be coupled with an integer‐convex optimization approach to determine series and parallel cell allocations for each time in. By solving these equations— optionally employing the Lambert W function—and applying constraints on cell availability, current density, or other design parameters, the system may enhance production or energy efficiency. Furthermore, variations in solar farm design (tracking vs. fixed‐axis, bifacial vs. unifacial) may be seamlessly incorporated into this framework, allowing project planners to balance cost, complexity, and operational performance under a wide array of realistic conditions.

[0438] FIG. 26 depicts a chart 2600 showing a histogram 2601 of system powergeneration in kilowatts along the horizontal axis 2602, with a dotted vertical line 2603 highlighting a particular reference level (e.g., a median or percentile threshold). A cumulative distribution function (CDF) curve 2604 rises toward the upper right, and a second vertical scale 2605 on the right-hand side represents the CDF percentage from about 0% to 100%. In this non-limiting example, the depicted configuration is “no tracking, unifacial module” with an about 18% capacity factor at a tilt set to the local latitude. The histogram bars 2601 reflect how often each power range occurs over a given time period, while the CDF curve 2604 indicates the fraction of total hours operating below or above the dotted line 2603.

[0439] FIG. 27 illustrates a chart 2700 for a “one-axis tracking, unifacial module”scenario achieving roughly a 21.8% capacity factor. As in FIG.26, the histogram 2601 along the horizontal axis 2602 shows the frequency distribution of power outputs at various kilowatt levels, whereas the dotted vertical line 2603 marks a particular reference point in theAttorney Docket No.56520-710601 power spectrum. A rising CDF curve 2604 traverses from left to right, and the right-hand vertical scale 2605 denotes the cumulative percentage of total hours. By shifting the power distribution toward higher outputs, the tracking configuration depicted in FIG.27 may increase the capacity factor, although this may involve added complexity or costs compared to the fixed-tilt scenario. These details are illustrative and do not constrain alternative designs that may also fall within the broader teachings of the disclosure.

[0440] FIG. 28 depicts a chart 2800 highlighting how tracking may shift the probabilitydensity function (PDF) or histogram 2601 rightward, thereby increasing the frequency of higher power outputs. The horizontal axis 2602 in kilowatts is accompanied by a vertical dotted line 2603 that serves as a benchmark (e.g., a 50% percentile or a nominal operating point). A CDF curve 2604 ascends on the same plot, and the right-hand vertical scale 2605 indicates the associated cumulative percentage of total operating hours. Although this example underscores the benefits of single-axis tracking for raising the system’s average output, the overall suitability of tracking may depend on cost considerations, local insolation profiles, and electrolyzer operating voltages. As with the previous figures, these specifics merely illustrate one embodiment and do not limit the scope of the present disclosure or its possible variations.

[0001] While preferred embodiments of the present invention have been shown anddescribed herein, it will be obvious to those skilled in the art that such embodiments are provided by way of example only. It is not intended that the invention be limited by the specific examples provided within the specification. While the invention has been described with reference to the aforementioned specification, the descriptions and illustrations of the embodiments herein are not meant to be construed in a limiting sense. Numerous variations, changes, and substitutions will now occur to those skilled in the art without departing from the invention. Furthermore, it shall be understood that all aspects of the invention are not limited to the specific depictions, configurations or relative proportions set forth herein which depend upon a variety of conditions and variables. It may be understood that various alternatives to the embodiments of the invention described herein may be employed in practicing the invention. It is therefore contemplated that the invention shall also cover any such alternatives, modifications, variations, or equivalents. It is intended that the following claims define the scope of the invention and that methods and structures within the scope of these claims and their equivalents be covered thereby.

Claims

WSGR Docket No.56520-710.601 CLAIMS WHAT IS CLAIMED IS:

1. A system for producing one or more reduced carbon products, comprising:(a) a plurality of renewable energy units configured to convert one or more renewable power sources into a direct current (DC) power output; and (b) a plurality of electrochemical units configured to use at least a portion of said DC power output to electrochemically reduce carbon dioxide (CO₂) into said one or more reduced carbon products, wherein said CO₂ is supplied from a gaseous CO₂ source comprising up to about 90% CO₂ by volume, and wherein said DC power output is supplied to said plurality of electrochemical units without being converted to alternating current (AC) power.

2. The system of claim 1, wherein said gaseous CO₂ source comprises up to about80% CO₂ by volume.

3. The system of claim 2, wherein said gaseous CO₂ source comprises up to about50% CO₂ by volume.

4. The system of claim 3, wherein said gaseous CO₂ source comprises up to about10% CO₂ by volume.

5. The system of claim 4, wherein said gaseous CO₂ source comprises up to about1% CO₂ by volume.

6. The system of claim 5, wherein said gaseous CO₂ source comprises, at least inpart, atmospheric air.

7. The system of claim 6, wherein said system further comprises a direct air captureunit configured to extract carbon dioxide from atmospheric air and supply it to said gaseous CO₂ source.

8. The system of any one of claims 1 to 7, wherein said system further comprises anelectrolyte solution configured to capture at least a subset of said CO₂ from said gaseous CO₂ source stream into said electrolyte solution, thereby forming one or more carbonate or bicarbonate ions.

9. The system of claim 8, wherein a concentration of said one or more carbonate orbicarbonate ions in said electrolyte solution is at least about 0.05 M.

10. The system of claim 9, wherein a concentration of said one or more carbonate orbicarbonate ions in said electrolyte solution is at least about 1.5 M.WSGR Docket No.56520-710.601 11. The system of claim 1, wherein at least one of said plurality of electrochemicalunits comprises an alkaline electrolyzer.

12. The system of claim 1, wherein at least one of said plurality of electrochemicalunits comprises an electrochemical stack including an anode and a cathode.

13. The system of claim 12, wherein said cathode is configured to operate at a currentdensity of at least 100 mA / cm².

14. The system of claim 12 or claim 13, wherein said electrochemical stack furthercomprises a membrane positioned between said anode and said cathode.

15. The system of claim 14, wherein said membrane comprises an anion exchangemembrane, a cation exchange membrane, a bipolar membrane, a polymer electrolyte membrane, a ceramic or solid oxide membrane, a graphene-based membrane, a carbon nanotube-based membrane, a micro-structured membrane, or a nano-structured membrane.

16. The system of claim 15, wherein said membrane has a thickness of no more thanabout 200 µm.

17. The system of claim 1, wherein said reduced carbon product comprises one ormore alcohols, hydrocarbons, aldehydes, ketones, ethers, or carboxylic acids.

18. The system of claim 1, wherein said reduced carbon product comprises one ormore carbon-based fuels produced from electrochemically reduced carbon dioxide and configured to result in net-zero carbon emissions upon utilization.

19. The system of claim 1, wherein at least one power parameter associated with saidplurality of electrochemical units is adjusted based on said direct current (DC) power output from said plurality of renewable energy units.

20. The system of claim 19, wherein said power parameter comprises an input currentand / or an input voltage associated with at least two electrochemical units of said plurality of electrochemical units.

21. The system of claim 19 or 20, wherein said power parameter comprises aresistance associated with at least two electrochemical units of said plurality of electrochemical units.

22. The system of any one of claims 19 to 21, wherein said power parametercomprises operation of at least two electrochemical units of said plurality of electrochemical units at a level that utilizes a portion of said direct current (DC) power output exceeding a nominal rated capacity of each of said at least two electrochemical units.WSGR Docket No.56520-710.601 23. The system of any one of claims 19 to 22, wherein at least two electrochemicalunits of said plurality of electrochemical units are configured to be dynamically reconfigured in series and / or parallel using a switch network, wherein said configuration is determined at least in part based on said direct current (DC) power output from said plurality of renewable energy units.

24. The system of claim 23, wherein said dynamic reconfiguration is performed toadjust said power parameter of at least two electrochemical units of said plurality of electrochemical units in response to variations in said direct current (DC) power output from said plurality of renewable energy units.

25. The system of claim 24, wherein the operational voltage across said plurality ofelectrochemical units is dynamically maintained below a maximum power point voltage of at least one of said plurality of renewable energy units by adjusting resistance in real time to optimize power extraction and prevent overloading.

26. The system of claim 25, wherein said maximum power point voltage isdetermined based at least in part on one or more of real-time sensor data, historical efficiency trends, or predictive system modeling.

27. The system of claim 26, wherein said maximum power point voltage is estimatedbased at least in part on a temperature measurement of at least one of said plurality of renewable energy units.

28. The system of any one of claims 19 to 27, further comprising a processorconfigured to estimate a maximum available direct current (DC) power output of said plurality of renewable energy units at a future time point based on forecasted environmental data.

29. The system of claim 28, wherein said forecasted environmental data comprisesone or more of satellite-derived data, weather station measurements, or real-time sensor readings related to environmental conditions affecting renewable energy generation.

30. The system of claim 28, wherein said processor is further configured to execute aconfiguration selection model to determine a configuration of said electrochemical units that modulates current draw under a constraint on total available electrochemical cell count.

31. The system of claim 1, wherein said plurality of electrochemical units areconfigured to operate in at least one of: (a) a continuous operation mode, (b) a pulsed operation mode, and (c) a variable current density operation mode.WSGR Docket No.56520-710.601 32. The system of claim 1, further comprising a load prioritization module configuredto selectively activate or deactivate individual electrochemical units based on real-time power availability, wherein said module dynamically ranks activation priority based on measured or forecasted energy input.

33. The system of any one of the preceding claims, wherein said plurality ofelectrochemical units are operated such that overall system performance is optimized based on maximizing total current consumption rather than total power consumption.

34. The system of claim 33, wherein operation to maximize current results in a powerconversion efficiency that remains within a defined percentage of a maximum achievable power conversion efficiency, optionally within about 5% to about 25% of said maximum.

35. The system of any one of the preceding claims, wherein said plurality ofelectrochemical units are configured to operate in a flexible turndown mode in which one or more units operate at reduced current density to maintain energy efficiency during periods of low renewable power availability.

36. The system of any one of the preceding claims, wherein a subset of said pluralityof electrochemical units operates in a supercharged mode while one or more remaining units operate in a higher-efficiency normal mode, such that production is maximized while maintaining overall system energy efficiency above a predefined threshold.

37. The system of any one of the preceding claims, wherein one or more reactionconditions associated with said plurality of electrochemical units are adjusted based on said direct current (DC) power output from said plurality of renewable energy units, said reaction conditions comprising one or more of temperature, electrolyte concentration, pH, or pressure.

38. The system of any one of the preceding claims, wherein a reaction rate orproduction rate of said one or more reduced carbon products is adjusted based on said direct current (DC) power output from said plurality of renewable energy units.

39. The system of claim 38, wherein said reaction rate or production rate is increasedwhen an input current to at least one of said plurality of electrochemical units exceeds a predefined threshold.

40. The system of claim 39, wherein said predefined threshold corresponds to anominal rated current, and said increased input current results in a supercharged operating mode that increases production rate while decreasing energy efficiency.

41. The system of claim 40, wherein said system is further configured to revert fromsaid supercharged operating mode to a normal operating mode when said input current falls below said predefined threshold for a specified time period.WSGR Docket No.56520-710.601 42. The system of any one of claims 38 to 41, wherein said system comprises athermal management subsystem configured to monitor temperature and limit or disable said supercharged operating mode when a temperature threshold is exceeded.

43. The system of any one of the preceding claims, wherein said system operateswithout requiring power conversion electronics, such that said direct current (DC) power output is delivered to said plurality of electrochemical units without the use of any inverter, transformer, or DC-DC converter.

44. The system of any one of the preceding claims, wherein said system is furtherconfigured to match the operating voltage and current characteristics of said plurality of renewable energy units and said plurality of electrochemical units, thereby eliminating the need for active voltage or current regulation circuitry.

45. The system of any one of the preceding claims, wherein said system comprises adirect electrical connection between said plurality of renewable energy units and said plurality of electrochemical units, and is configured to dynamically adjust electrochemical unit operation (including activation, sequencing, or configuration) based on the unregulated DC power output.

46. A method for producing one or more reduced carbon products, comprising:(a) converting one or more renewable power sources into a direct current (DC) power output using a plurality of renewable energy units; (b) supplying said DC power output to a plurality of electrochemical units without converting said DC power output to alternating current (AC) power; and (c) electrochemically reducing carbon dioxide (CO₂), supplied from a gaseous CO₂ source comprising up to about 90% CO₂ by volume, into said one or more reduced carbon products using said plurality of electrochemical units.

47. The method of claim 46, wherein said gaseous CO₂ source comprises up to about80% CO₂ by volume.

48. The method of claim 47, wherein said gaseous CO₂ source comprises up to about50% CO₂ by volume.

49. The method of claim 48, wherein said gaseous CO₂ source comprises up to about10% CO₂ by volume.

50. The method of claim 49, wherein said gaseous CO₂ source comprises up to about1% CO₂ by volume.

51. The method of claim 50, wherein said gaseous CO₂ source comprises, at least inpart, atmospheric air.WSGR Docket No.56520-710.601 52. The method of claim 51, further comprising extracting carbon dioxide fromatmospheric air using a direct air capture unit and supplying it to said gaseous CO₂ source.

53. The method of any one of claims 46 to 52, further comprising capturing at least aportion of said CO₂ into an electrolyte solution to form one or more carbonate or bicarbonate ions.

54. The method of claim 53, wherein a concentration of said one or more carbonate orbicarbonate ions in said electrolyte solution is at least about 0.05 M.

55. The method of claim 54, wherein said concentration is at least about 1.5 M.

56. The method of claim 46, wherein at least one of said electrochemical unitscomprises an alkaline electrolyzer.

57. The method of claim 46, wherein at least one of said electrochemical unitscomprises an electrochemical stack comprising an anode and a cathode.

58. The method of claim 57, wherein said cathode is operated at a current density of atleast 100 mA / cm².

59. The method of claim 57 or 58, further comprising using a membrane positionedbetween said anode and said cathode.

60. The method of claim 59, wherein said membrane comprises an anion exchangemembrane, a cation exchange membrane, a bipolar membrane, a polymer electrolyte membrane, a ceramic or solid oxide membrane, a graphene-based membrane, a carbon nanotube-based membrane, a micro-structured membrane, or a nano-structured membrane.

61. The method of claim 60, wherein said membrane has a thickness of no more thanabout 200 µm.

62. The method of claim 46, wherein said one or more reduced carbon productscomprise one or more alcohols, hydrocarbons, aldehydes, ketones, ethers, or carboxylic acids.

63. The method of claim 46, wherein said one or more reduced carbon productscomprise one or more carbon-based fuels configured to result in net-zero carbon emissions upon utilization.

64. The method of claim 46, further comprising adjusting one or more powerparameters of said electrochemical units based on said DC power output.

65. The method of claim 64, wherein said power parameter comprises input currentand / or input voltage to at least two of said electrochemical units.

66. The method of claim 64 or 65, wherein said power parameter comprises anelectrical resistance associated with said electrochemical units.WSGR Docket No.56520-710.601 67. The method of any one of claims 64 to 66, further comprising operating saidelectrochemical units at input current levels that exceed a nominal rated capacity during periods of high DC power availability.

68. The method of any one of claims 64 to 67, further comprising dynamicallyreconfiguring said electrochemical units in series and / or parallel using a switch network based on said DC power output.

69. The method of claim 68, wherein said dynamic reconfiguration adjusts impedanceor branch configuration in response to real-time power availability.

70. The method of claim 69, further comprising maintaining the operating voltage ofsaid electrochemical units below a maximum power point voltage of at least one of said renewable energy units.

71. The method of claim 70, wherein said maximum power point voltage isdetermined based on one or more of sensor data, historical trends, or predictive modeling.

72. The method of claim 71, wherein said maximum power point voltage is estimatedbased on a temperature measurement of said renewable energy units.

73. The method of any one of claims 64 to 72, further comprising estimating a futureDC power availability using environmental forecast data.

74. The method of claim 73, wherein said forecasted data comprises satellite-derivedirradiance, weather station data, or real-time irradiance sensors.

75. The method of claim 73 or 74, further comprising executing a configurationselection model to determine a configuration of said electrochemical units that modulates current draw under a constraint on available electrochemical cell count.

76. The method of claim 46, further comprising operating said electrochemical unitsin at least one of: (a) a continuous operation mode, (b) a pulsed operation mode, or (c) a variable current density mode.

77. The method of claim 46, further comprising selectively activating or deactivatingindividual electrochemical units based on power availability and load prioritization logic.

78. The method of any one of claims 46 to 77, wherein said system is operated tomaximize total current consumption rather than total power consumption.

79. The method of claim 78, wherein operation to maximize current results in a powerconversion efficiency within about 5% to about 25% of a peak power conversion efficiency.

80. The method of any one of the preceding method claims, further comprisingoperating at least one electrochemical unit in a flexible turndown mode during low power availability.WSGR Docket No.56520-710.601 81. The method of any one of the preceding method claims, further comprisingoperating a subset of electrochemical units in a supercharged mode and one or more others in a higher-efficiency normal mode.

82. The method of any one of the preceding method claims, further comprisingadjusting one or more of temperature, pressure, pH, or electrolyte concentration based on said DC power output.

83. The method of any one of the preceding method claims, further comprisingadjusting a reaction rate or product output rate based on said DC power output.

84. The method of claim 83, wherein said reaction rate is increased when inputcurrent exceeds a threshold defining a supercharged operation.

85. The method of claim 84, further comprising reverting from said superchargedmode to a normal mode when said input current drops below said threshold for a predefined period.

86. The method of any one of claims 83 to 85, further comprising monitoring systemtemperature and disabling said supercharged mode if a thermal threshold is exceeded.

87. The method of any one of the preceding method claims, wherein said method isperformed without converting said DC power using inverters, transformers, or DC-DC converters.

88. The method of any one of the preceding method claims, further comprisingmatching voltage and current characteristics of said renewable energy units and said electrochemical units to eliminate active regulation circuitry.

89. The method of any one of the preceding method claims, further comprisingdirectly connecting said renewable energy units and said electrochemical units and dynamically adjusting operation of said electrochemical units based on the unregulated DC power.

90. A method for producing one or more reduced carbon products, comprising:(a) converting one or more renewable power sources into a direct current (DC) power output using a plurality of renewable energy units; (b) supplying said DC power output directly to a plurality of electrochemical units without converting said DC power to alternating current (AC) power; (c) electrochemically reducing carbon dioxide, supplied from a gaseous CO₂ source, into said one or more reduced carbon products using said plurality of electrochemical units; andWSGR Docket No.56520-710.601 (d) adjusting one or more power parameters associated with said plurality of electrochemical units based on said DC power output.

91. A method for producing and utilizing a carbon product, comprising:(a) at a first location, providing (i) a contactor configured for direct air capture, (ii) an electrochemical stack comprising an anode and a cathode, and (iii) one or more renewable energy units; (b) in the contactor, contacting an air stream comprising carbon dioxide (CO₂) with an electrolyte solution to capture at least a portion of the CO₂ from the air stream into the electrolyte solution, thereby forming carbonate and / or bicarbonate ions therein; (c) directing the electrolyte solution comprising the carbonate and / or bicarbonate ions to the electrochemical stack; (d) supplying a direct current (DC) power output from the one or more renewable energy units to the electrochemical stack; (e) electrochemically reducing the carbonate and / or bicarbonate ions in the electrolyte solution at the cathode to generate the carbon product, while applying a voltage between the cathode and the anode using the DC power output; (f) transporting the carbon product from the first location to a second location distinct from the first location; and (g) generating electricity from the carbon product at the second location.

92. The method of claim 91, wherein the electrolyte solution used in the contactor is ahigh pH aqueous electrolyte.

93. The method of claim 91 or 92, wherein (e) further comprises regeneratinghydroxide ions in the electrolyte solution, thereby increasing the pH of the electrolyte solution.

94. The method of any one of claims 91 to 93, further comprising recycling at least aportion of the electrolyte solution from the electrochemical stack back to the contactor.

95. The method of any one of claims 91 to 94, wherein the carbon product comprisese-ethanol.

96. The method of any one of claims 91 to 94, wherein the carbon product comprisese-ethylene.WSGR Docket No.56520-710.601 97. The method of any one of claims 91 to 96, further comprising separating thecarbon product from the electrolyte solution using a separation membrane after in (e) and before in (f).

98. The method of claim 97, wherein the separation membrane comprises a carbonnanotube (CNT) membrane.

99. The method of any one of claims 91 to 98, wherein transporting the carbonproduct in (f) comprises using a pipeline, rail, or truck.

100. The method of any one of claims 91 to 99, wherein generating electricity in(g) comprises using a gas turbine or a reciprocating engine.

101. The method of any one of claims 91 to 100, wherein the electricity generatedat the second location is used to power a data center.

102. The method of any one of claims 91 to 101, wherein the DC power output issupplied to the electrochemical stack without conversion to alternating current (AC) power.

103. A system for producing and utilizing a carbon product, comprising:(a) at a first location: (i) one or more renewable energy units configured to generate a direct current (DC) power output; (ii) a contactor configured to contact an air stream comprising carbon dioxide (CO₂) with an electrolyte solution to capture at least a portion of the CO₂ into the electrolyte solution; and (iii) an electrochemical stack comprising an anode and a cathode, the stack configured to receive the electrolyte solution from the contactor and the DC power output from the renewable energy units, and further configured to electrochemically reduce the captured CO₂ in the electrolyte solution to generate the carbon product; (b) means for transporting the carbon product from the first location to a second location distinct from the first location; and (c) an electricity generator at the second location configured to generate electricity from the carbon product.

104. The system of claim 103, wherein the contactor is configured to utilize a highpH aqueous electrolyte.

105. The system of claim 103 or 104, wherein the electrochemical stack isconfigured to regenerate hydroxide ions in the electrolyte solution during operation.WSGR Docket No.56520-710.601 106. The system of any one of claims 103 to 105, further comprising a fluidconnection configured to recycle at least a portion of the electrolyte solution from the electrochemical stack back to the contactor.

107. The system of any one of claims 103 to 106, wherein the carbon productcomprises e-ethanol or e-ethylene.

108. The system of any one of claims 103 to 107, further comprising a separationunit positioned downstream of the electrochemical stack and upstream of the means for transporting, the separation unit comprising a membrane configured to separate the carbon product from the electrolyte solution.

109. The system of claim 108, wherein the membrane comprises a carbon nanotube(CNT) membrane.

110. The system of any one of claims 103 to 109, wherein the means fortransporting comprises a pipeline, a rail car, or a truck.

111. The system of any one of claims 103 to 110, wherein the electricity generatorcomprises a gas turbine or a reciprocating engine.

112. The system of any one of claims 103 to 111, wherein the second locationcomprises a data center configured to be powered, at least in part, by the electricity generator.

113. The system of any one of claims 103 to 112, wherein the system lacks powerconversion electronics configured to convert the DC power output from the renewable energy units to alternating current (AC) power before supply to the electrochemical stack.

114. The method of claim 93, wherein the regeneration of hydroxide ions increasesthe pH of the electrolyte solution, thereby regenerating the CO₂ absorption capacity of the electrolyte solution directed back to the contactor in accordance with claim 94.

115. The system of claim 106, wherein the regenerated hydroxide ions enhance saidCO₂ absorption capacity of the recycled electrolyte solution via said fluid connection.

116. The method of any one of claims 91 to 102 or 114, wherein the transporting in(f) and the generating electricity in (g) are performed without requiring connection to an electrical transmission grid between the first location and the second location.

117. The system of any one of claims 103 to 113 or 115, wherein the means fortransporting and the electricity generator are configured to operate independently of an electrical transmission grid connection between the first location and the second location.

118. The method of any one of claims 91 to 102, 114, or 116, wherein the carbonproduct generated in (e) comprises a Δ¹³C value greater than -25 parts per thousand (‰).WSGR Docket No.56520-710.601 119. The method of claim 118, wherein the carbon product comprises a Δ¹³C valueof about -5‰ to about -10‰.

120. The system of any one of claims 103 to 113, 115, or 117, wherein the carbonproduct generated by the electrochemical stack comprises a Δ¹³C value greater than -25 parts per thousand (‰).

121. The method of any one of claims 91 to 102, 114, 116, 118 or 119, wherein thecarbon product transported in (f) is chemically stable for long-term storage at the second location prior to in (g).

122. The system of any one of claims 103 to 113, 115, 117, or 120, furthercomprising storage tanks at the second location configured to store the chemically stable carbon product for long durations before use by the electricity generator.

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