Electrochemical cell pressure monitoring and related devices and systems

Abstract

Systems and methods for measuring pressure applied to an electrochemical cell are generally described. In some aspects, an electrochemical device is provided that includes an electrochemical cell and an associated sensor. The sensor may be configured to generate a signal indicative of the pressure experienced by the electrochemical cell. In some cases, the sensor measures the applied pressure in response to a displacement of a load-bearing element of the electrochemical device. Such a configuration allows for accurate measurement of pressure at a cell while being positioned adjacent to a housing element of the electrochemical device rather than overlapping the cell itself. For example, in some embodiments, a strain gauge adjacent to a load-bearing member (e.g., a housing fastener or frame element) of a housing of the electrochemical device is used to measure the cell pressure.

Description

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

[0001] This application claims priority under 35 U.S.C. §119(e) to U.S. Provisional Application No. 63 / 320,955, filed March 17, 2022, entitled "Pressure Monitoring of Electrochemical Cells and Related Devices and Systems," which is incorporated by reference in its entirety for all purposes. [Technical field]

[0002] SUMMARY OF THE DISCLOSURE Generally, a system and method for measuring pressure applied to an electrochemical cell is described. [Background technology]

[0003] Batteries typically include one or more cells in which an electrochemical reaction occurs to generate an electric current. The performance of an electrochemical cell can be improved by applying a force to at least a portion of the electrochemical cell (e.g., during cycling of the cell). Certain embodiments of the present disclosure are directed to inventive articles, systems, and methods for measuring and / or handling compressive forces in batteries. Summary of the Invention

[0004] Systems and methods for measuring pressure applied to an electrochemical cell are generally described. The subject matter of this invention may include interrelated products, alternative solutions to a particular problem, and / or various uses of one or more of the systems and / or articles.

[0005] In one aspect, an electrochemical device is provided. In some embodiments, the electrochemical device comprises an electrochemical cell; a housing at least partially enclosing the electrochemical cell, the housing configured to apply an anisotropic force having a component perpendicular to an electrode surface of the electrochemical cell through tension in a load-bearing housing member during at least one period of time during charging and / or discharging of the electrochemical cell; and a sensor adjacent the load-bearing housing member and configured to generate a signal indicative of a pressure experienced by the electrochemical cell.

[0006] In another aspect, a system is provided. In some embodiments, the system comprises an electrochemical cell; a housing at least partially enclosing the electrochemical cell, the housing configured to apply an anisotropic force having a component perpendicular to an electrode surface of the electrochemical cell during at least one of a period of time during charging and / or discharging of the electrochemical cell; a sensor configured to generate a signal; and a control system configured to receive the signal generated by the sensor, the control system comprising one or more processors programmed to: determine a measurement indicative of a pressure experienced by the electrochemical cell based at least in part on the signal generated by the sensor; and generate a signal indicative of a condition of the electrochemical cell based at least in part on whether the measurement indicative of the pressure experienced by the electrochemical cell is greater than an upper threshold or less than a lower threshold.

[0007] In another aspect, a method is provided. In some embodiments, the method comprises applying an anisotropic force having a component perpendicular to an electrode plane of an electrochemical cell during at least one of a period of time during charging and / or discharging of the electrochemical cell; determining a measurement indicative of the pressure experienced by the electrochemical cell during at least a portion of the force applying step; and generating a signal indicative of a state of the electrochemical cell based at least in part on the measurement indicative of the pressure experienced by the electrochemical cell.

[0008] Other advantages and novel features of the present invention will become apparent from the following detailed description of various non-limiting embodiments of the invention when considered in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. In the event that the specification and any documents incorporated by reference contain conflicting and / or inconsistent disclosure, the present specification shall control. [Brief description of the drawings]

[0009] Non-limiting embodiments of the present invention are described by way of example with reference to the accompanying figures, which are schematic and are not intended to be drawn to scale. In the figures, each identical or nearly identical component shown is typically represented by a single number. Not every element is labeled in each figure, and for the sake of clarity, not every component of each embodiment of the present invention is shown in every figure, unless the figures are necessary for a person skilled in the art to understand the invention.

[0010] [Figure 1A] FIG. 1A is a cross-sectional schematic diagram of an electrochemical device comprising an electrochemical cell, a housing, and a sensor, according to some embodiments. [Figure 1B] FIG. 1B is a cross-sectional schematic diagram of an electrochemical device comprising an electrochemical cell, a housing, and a sensor, according to some embodiments.

[0011] [Figure 1C] FIG. 1C is a cross-sectional schematic diagram of an electrochemical device comprising a stack of electrochemical cells, a housing, and a sensor, according to some embodiments.

[0012] [Figure 1D] FIG. 1D is a cross-sectional schematic diagram of an electrochemical device comprising a stack of electrochemical cells, a housing, and a sensor, according to some embodiments.

[0013] [Diagram 2] FIG. 2 is a cross-sectional schematic diagram of an electrochemical cell, according to some embodiments.

[0014] [Figure 3A] FIG. 3A is a schematic top view of a sensor in the form of a strain gauge, according to some embodiments.

[0015] [Figure 3B] FIG. 3B is a circuit diagram of a circuit for determining (or measuring) an electrical signal, according to some embodiments.

[0016] [Figure 4] FIG. 4 is a cross-sectional schematic diagram of an electrochemical device comprising an electrochemical cell, a housing, and a sensor, according to some embodiments.

[0017] [Diagram 5] FIG. 5 is a cross-sectional schematic diagram of an electrochemical device comprising an electrochemical cell, a housing, and a sensor, according to some embodiments.

[0018] [Figure 6A] FIG. 6A is a cross-sectional schematic diagram of an electrochemical device comprising an electrochemical cell, a housing, and a sensor overlying the electrochemical cell, according to some embodiments.

[0019] [Figure 6B] FIG. 6B is a cross-sectional schematic diagram of an electrochemical device comprising a stack of electrochemical cells, a housing, and a sensor overlying the electrochemical cells, according to some embodiments.

[0020] [Figure 7] FIG. 7 is a cross-sectional schematic diagram of a system comprising an electrochemical device comprising an electrochemical cell, a housing, and a sensor, and comprising a control system, according to some embodiments.

[0021] [Figure 8] FIG. 8 is a cross-sectional schematic diagram of an electric vehicle comprising an electrochemical device, according to some embodiments.

[0022] [Figure 9] FIG. 9 shows a plot of measured force on a load-bearing housing member versus load step for a pressure testing system and strain gauges, according to some embodiments.

[0023] [Figure 10] FIG. 10 shows an image of a load-bearing housing element coupled with a sensor in the form of a strain gauge and tested by an external pressure testing system, according to some embodiments.

[0024] [Figure 11] FIG. 11 shows a plot of measured force and elongation of a load-bearing housing member for a pressure testing system, according to some embodiments. [Figure 12] FIG. 12 shows a plot of measured force and elongation of a load-bearing housing member for a strain gauge, according to some embodiments.

[0025] [Figure 13] FIG. 13 shows a plot of active surface pressure and electrochemical device voltage versus time, according to some embodiments. Detailed Description of the Invention

[0026] Systems and methods for measuring pressure applied to an electrochemical cell are generally described. In some aspects, an electrochemical device is provided that includes an electrochemical cell and an associated sensor. The pressure sensor may be configured to generate a signal indicative of the pressure experienced by the electrochemical cell (e.g., the pressure experienced by an electrode face of the electrochemical cell). In some cases, the sensor measures the applied pressure in response to the displacement of a load-bearing element (or part) of the electrochemical device. Such a configuration allows for accurate measurement of pressure at a cell while being positioned adjacent to a housing element of the electrochemical device rather than overlapping the cell itself. For example, in some embodiments, a strain gauge adjacent to a load-bearing member (e.g., a housing fastener or frame element) of the housing of the electrochemical device is used to measure the cell pressure.

[0027] Additionally, some systems and methods described in this disclosure provide a way to monitor the status of one or more electrochemical cells in an electrochemical device based on a signal generated by a sensor. The status of the electrochemical cells (e.g., their health and / or safety) can be determined based on a measurement of the working pressure experienced by the cells (e.g., during charging and / or discharging). For example, a system can be provided that includes an electrochemical device, a sensor, and a control system configured to receive a signal from the sensor. The control system can generate a signal indicative of the status of the electrochemical cells such that a user can monitor the status and / or manually or automatically adjust one or more operating parameters of the electrochemical device (e.g., charge / discharge and / or applied pressure).

[0028] In some cases, it may be beneficial to apply a force to the electrochemical cells of an electrochemical device. For example, in some cases, applying an anisotropic force having a component perpendicular to the electrode surface (e.g., the electrode active surface) of at least one electrochemical cell can improve performance during charging and / or discharging, for example by reducing problems such as electrode dendrite formation and surface roughening, while increasing current density. As such an example, at least one electrochemical cell of an electrochemical device may comprise lithium metal or a lithium metal alloy as an electrode active material during at least a portion of a charge / discharge cycle. Lithium metal may undergo dendritic growth, which may, for example, cause electrochemical cell failure and safety issues in certain cases. Applying an anisotropic force to an electrode comprising lithium metal can reduce lithium dendrite formation and other deleterious phenomena. In some cases, it may be desirable to monitor in real time the pressure experienced by an electrochemical cell (e.g., an as-assembled electrochemical device, such as during charge / discharge). Such monitoring can be useful to assess the health of the electrochemical device throughout its life cycle and / or to guide any necessary adjustments in the operation of the electrochemical device. However, some systems used to monitor the pressure of electrochemical cells may have drawbacks. For example, external pressure testing systems (e.g., Instron®, load frames) are large, expensive, and not suitable for real-time monitoring of electrochemical devices outdoors in a laboratory environment (e.g., when used in realistic conditions such as in electric vehicles). As another example, pressure arrays such as Tekscan scanners can be integrated with the electrochemical device stack of an assembled electrochemical device, but they suffer from drift and may not provide sufficient accuracy and precision to detect small pressure fluctuations that may indicate electrochemical device health issues. In the present disclosure, it has been found that certain sensors can be integrated with electrochemical devices without some or all of these drawbacks.For example, a sensor such as a strain gauge coupled to a load-bearing member of the housing of the electrochemical device is inexpensive and easily integrated with the assembled electrochemical device, yet can accurately measure cell pressure.

[0029] In one aspect, electrochemical devices are generally described. FIGS. 1A-1B are cross-sectional schematic diagrams of one embodiment of an electrochemical device 100. An electrochemical device may comprise one or more electrochemical cells and one or more other elements (e.g., an article stacked with the electrochemical cell, a housing, an electrochemical device control system, electrical and thermal management equipment, etc.). In some embodiments, an electrochemical device comprises an electrochemical cell. For example, the electrochemical device 100 in FIGS. 1A-1B comprises an electrochemical cell 110 at least partially surrounded by a housing 102 in combination with a sensor 105, which is described in more detail below. The electrochemical device can have any of a variety of suitable configurations, including, but not limited to, a stacked configuration, a folded configuration, or a wound configuration. In some embodiments, at least one electrode of an electrochemical cell in an electrochemical device comprises lithium metal and / or a lithium metal alloy as the electrode active material during at least a portion of a charge / discharge cycle. For example, at least one electrode of the electrochemical cell 110 can include lithium metal and / or a lithium metal alloy as the electrode active material during at least a portion of a charge / discharge cycle of the electrochemical device 100 .

[0030] In some embodiments, the electrochemical cell in the electrochemical device comprises an anode. FIG. 2 is a cross-sectional schematic diagram of an example embodiment of an electrochemical cell 110 comprising an anode 112. The anode can comprise an anode active material. As used herein, "anode active material" refers to any electrochemically active species associated with the anode. In some embodiments, the anode comprises lithium metal and / or lithium metal alloy as the anode active material during at least a portion of a charge / discharge cycle. For example, referring again to FIG. 2, in some embodiments, the anode 112 comprises lithium metal and / or lithium metal alloy as the anode active material. In some cases, the anode is or comprises evaporated lithium (e.g., evaporated lithium film). Additional examples of suitable anode active materials are described in more detail below. Certain embodiments described herein can be directed to systems, devices, and methods that can improve monitoring and / or operation of electrochemical devices comprising certain anodes (e.g., lithium metal-containing anodes). For example, certain embodiments may provide improved monitoring of pressure resulting from an applied force, which in some cases may vary depending on the state of charge of the electrochemical cell and / or the health of the electrochemical cell.

[0031] In some embodiments, an electrochemical cell in an electrochemical device comprises a cathode. For example, referring again to FIG. 2, electrochemical cell 110 comprises cathode 114. The cathode can include a cathode active material. As used herein, "cathode active material" refers to any electrochemically active species associated with a cathode. In some cases, the cathode active material is or comprises a lithium intercalation compound (e.g., a metal oxide lithium intercalation compound). As a non-limiting example, in some embodiments, cathode 114 of FIG. 2 comprises a nickel-cobalt-manganese lithium intercalation compound. Additional examples of suitable cathode materials are described in more detail below.

[0032] As used herein, "cathode" refers to an electrode in which the electrode active material is oxidized during charging and reduced during discharging, and "anode" refers to an electrode in which the electrode active material is reduced during charging and oxidized during discharging.

[0033] In some embodiments, the electrochemical cell of the electrochemical device comprises a separator between the anode and the cathode. FIG. 2 shows a separator 115 between the anode 112 and the cathode 114 according to some embodiments. The separator may be a solid, electrically non-conductive or insulating material that separates or insulates the anode and cathode from each other to prevent shorting and allows ions to move between the anode and the cathode. In some embodiments, the separator may be porous and permeable to the electrolyte. In some embodiments, the separator is a solid electrolyte that inhibits the movement of electrons between the anode and the cathode, but allows ions to move between the anode and the cathode.

[0034] Although a single electrochemical cell is illustrated in the electrochemical devices shown in FIGS. 1A-1B, the electrochemical devices are not limited to having a single electrochemical cell. In some embodiments, the electrochemical device comprises multiple electrochemical cells. In some embodiments, the electrochemical device is part of a battery (e.g., a rechargeable battery) having multiple electrochemical cells. In some embodiments, the electrochemical device (e.g., a battery) comprises a first electrochemical cell and a second electrochemical cell. For example, the electrochemical device 100 in FIG. 1C illustrates an electrochemical device 100 comprising, for example, a first electrochemical cell 110 and a second electrochemical cell 120. It should be understood that in other embodiments, the first electrochemical cell and the second electrochemical cell have similar components (e.g., the same anode active material, the same cathode active material, the same type of separator), while in other embodiments, the first electrochemical cell has one or more different components than the second electrochemical cell (e.g., different anode active material, different cathode active material, different type of separator). In some embodiments, the first electrochemical cell and the second electrochemical cell are identical in configuration and / or size (or dimensions). In some embodiments, the cells of an electrochemical device (e.g., a battery) are arranged in an electrical circuit in parallel, in series, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the electrochemical device comprises a stack comprising electrochemical cells (e.g., a first electrochemical cell, a second electrochemical cell). It is understood that the stack may be a multi-element stack comprising components other than cells, such as, for example, thermally insulating compressible solid article portions (e.g., thermally insulating foams such as microcellular polyethylene foams), thermally conductive solid article portions (e.g., metal or metal alloy fins such as aluminum fins), and / or sensors (e.g., pressure sensors).

[0035] Some aspects of the present disclosure relate to applying an anisotropic force having a component perpendicular to the electrode surface (e.g., electrode active surface) of an electrochemical cell. In such cases, the anisotropic force is applied to the electrochemical cell for at least one period of time during charging and / or discharging of the electrochemical cell. In some embodiments, the anisotropic force is applied to the electrochemical cell throughout the entire charge / discharge cycle of the electrochemical cell. The ability to effectively measure the magnitude (and / or change) of pressure experienced by the electrochemical cell as a result of the applied force during cycling can present certain challenges, including ease of integration, accuracy, and cost of the pressure measurement device into an assembled electrochemical device. Certain aspects described in the present disclosure directed to sensors and related systems can address and overcome such issues in some cases. Some embodiments provide a pressure measuring device capable of measuring at least 3 kg. f / cm 2 , at least 5 kg f / cm 2 , at least 10 kg f / cm 2 , at least 12 kg f / cm 2 , at least 20 kg f / cm 2 , at least 25 kg f / cm 2 , and / or up to 30 kg f / cm 2 , up to 35kg f / cm 2 , up to 40kg f / cm 2 100 psi or greater. f / cm 2 More than 25kg f / cm 2 Below 3kg f / cm 2 Over 15kg f / cm 2 Below 10kg f / cm 2 Over 40kg f / cm 2Less than or equal to 12kg f / cm 2 Over 30kg f / cm or less). In some embodiments, an anisotropic force is applied having a component perpendicular to the electrode surface of the electrochemical cell defining a pressure in any of the aforementioned ranges, where the electrode surface is an electrode active surface. In some embodiments, an anisotropic force is applied having a component perpendicular to the electrode surface of the electrochemical cell defining a pressure in any of the aforementioned ranges, where the electrode surface of the electrochemical cell comprises metallic lithium (e.g., lithium metal and / or a metal alloy comprising lithium). In some embodiments, an anisotropic force is applied having a component perpendicular to the electrode surface of the electrochemical cell defining a pressure in any of the aforementioned ranges, where the electrode surface of the electrochemical cell faces an electrode of the electrochemical cell having an opposite polarity (e.g., the anisotropic force has a component perpendicular to the surface of the anode that faces the cathode of the cell, or the anisotropic force has a component perpendicular to the surface of the cathode that faces the anode of the cell). In some embodiments where the electrochemical cell is part of a stack of cells, an anisotropic force is applied having a component perpendicular to a lateral plane of the stack (corresponding to the ends of the stack rather than the sides) that defines a pressure in any of the aforementioned ranges. In some embodiments where the electrochemical cell is part of a stack of cells, an anisotropic force is applied having a component parallel to the direction in which the cells are stacked that defines a pressure in any of the aforementioned ranges. For example, in FIG. 5, the force 182 is parallel to the direction in which the stack 304, comprising the first electrochemical cell 110 and the second electrochemical cell, is stacked, and can define a pressure in any of the aforementioned ranges. In this context, "parallel" can be within 20°, within 10°, within 5°, within 2° of parallel.

[0036] 1A is a schematic diagram of a force applied to an electrochemical cell 110 in the direction of arrow 181, according to some embodiments. Arrow 182 illustrates the component of force 181 that is perpendicular to the electrode plane of electrochemical cell 110, according to one embodiment.

[0037] As mentioned above, in some embodiments, an anisotropic force is applied having a component perpendicular to the electrode surface of the electrochemical cell, where the electrode surface is the electrode active surface. As used herein, the term "electrode active surface" is used to refer to the electrode surface where an electrochemical reaction can occur. As an example, in an embodiment where the electrode comprises lithium metal foil as the anode active material, the outer surface of the lithium metal foil is the active surface of the electrode. In general, when an electrode is part of an electrochemical cell, the electrode active surface can be in physical contact with an electrolyte, which transports ions or other non-electron electrochemically active reactants between the electrode and a counter electrode. For example, in FIG. 2, the anode 112 of the electrochemical cell 110 has an active surface 107.

[0038] In some embodiments, a measurement indicative of a pressure experienced by the electrochemical cell is determined during at least a portion (or all) of the application of an anisotropic force having a component perpendicular to the electrode surface (e.g., the electrode active surface) of the electrochemical cell. The measurement indicative of the pressure can be based on a signal or a calculation generated by one or more devices associated with the electrochemical cell. For example, in some embodiments, the measurement indicative of the pressure experienced by the electrochemical cell is based at least in part on a signal generated by a sensor associated with the electrochemical cell. The sensor can be associated with the electrochemical cell in any of a variety of ways, provided that the sensor is capable of measuring the magnitude and / or change in pressure experienced by the electrochemical cell. For example, in some embodiments, the sensor is adjacent (e.g., directly adjacent, indirectly adjacent) to the electrochemical cell. In some, but not necessarily all, embodiments, the sensor is directly adjacent to the electrochemical cell such that there are no intervening layers or components between the sensor and the electrochemical cell. However, in other embodiments, there may be intervening elements or layers between the sensor and the electrochemical cell, such as other sensors (e.g., temperature sensors, cooling elements, spacers, etc.). In some embodiments, the sensor is adjacent to a component of the electrochemical device other than the electrochemical cell, and the other component is in direct or indirect contact with the electrochemical cell. For example, in some embodiments, the electrochemical device comprises a housing (described in more detail below) that at least partially surrounds the electrochemical cell, and the electrochemical device comprises a sensor adjacent to the housing.

[0039] 1A-1B are cross-sectional schematic diagrams of one embodiment of an electrochemical device 100 comprising a sensor 105 associated with an electrochemical cell 110. The sensor can be configured to generate a signal indicative of a pressure experienced by the electrochemical cell (e.g., an electrode surface) as a result of an anisotropic force having a component perpendicular to the electrode surface of the electrochemical cell. The signal indicative of the pressure experienced by the electrochemical cell can communicate a direct measurement of the pressure or can be converted to a measurement of pressure (e.g., by communicating a value of a parameter such as force or strain that can be used to calculate the pressure). The sensor can be located and configured such that the magnitude and / or distribution of the pressure determined by the sensor is indicative of the magnitude and / or distribution of the pressure experienced by the electrochemical cell. In FIG. 1A, the sensor 105 is adjacent to a housing 102 that surrounds the electrochemical cell 110. In some embodiments, interactions between the electrochemical cell and the housing (e.g., during application of an anisotropic force) can in turn affect measurements taken by the sensor.

[0040] In some embodiments, the sensor is configured to generate a signal. The signal can take any of a variety of forms, provided that the signal can be used to directly or indirectly obtain a pressure measurement associated with the electrochemical device. For example, the sensor can generate an electrical, optical, magnetic, and / or thermal signal indicative of a pressure reading. In some embodiments, the signal generated by the sensor is indicative of a pressure experienced by the electrochemical cell (e.g., an electrode surface). The pressure experienced by the electrochemical cell measured by the sensor can be a pressure defined by an applied anisotropic force (e.g., a pressure defined by a component (or element) of the anisotropic force perpendicular to an active surface of an electrode of the electrochemical cell). For example, in some embodiments, the signal generated by the sensor can be directly or indirectly converted into a measurement of the pressure experienced by an electrode surface of the electrochemical cell (e.g., an electrode active surface such as an anode active surface) during application of the anisotropic force. In some embodiments, the sensor measures the pressure directly and generates a direct pressure measurement signal. In some embodiments, the sensor measures the pressure indirectly. For example, in some embodiments, rather than directly measuring pressure, the pressure sensor indirectly measures the pressure experienced by the electrochemical cell (e.g., electrode surfaces) by generating a signal corresponding to a parameter (e.g., voltage, resistance, force, strain, etc., in the electrochemical cell or an element other than the electrochemical cell) that can be used to calculate the pressure experienced by the electrochemical cell (e.g., based on the geometry of the electrochemical device and its components).

[0041] As discussed above, in some embodiments, the signal generated by the sensor may be an electrical signal. For example, in some embodiments, the signal generated by the sensor is based on a measured voltage (e.g., a voltage output from the sensor). In some embodiments, the signal generated by the sensor is based on a measured resistance (e.g., a resistance measurement in an electrical circuit including the sensor). In some embodiments, the signal generated by the sensor is based on a measured current (e.g., a current measurement in an electrical circuit including the sensor).

[0042] Any of a variety of suitable sensors may be used. The sensor may be selected based on the magnitude of pressure expected, the desired pressure resolution (both magnitude and spatial distribution), the desired accuracy, ease of integration with the electrochemical device, cost, and / or the desired dimensions (e.g., compatibility with the dimensions of the electrochemical device). In some embodiments, the sensor is a resistive sensor. Non-limiting examples of resistive sensors include strain gauges and piezoresistive sensors. In some embodiments, the sensor is a capacitive-based sensor. An example of a capacitive sensor includes two electrodes with an electrically insulating material between the two electrodes. The electrically insulating material may have a known dielectric constant. In some cases, the electrically insulating material is configured such that a force applied to a capacitive-based sensor including two electrodes in the electrically insulating material changes the thickness of the electrically insulating material, thereby changing the measured capacitance between the two electrodes. For example, in some cases, the electrically insulating material between the two electrodes is a polymeric material. The polymeric material may be relatively soft and have a known dielectric constant. In some embodiments, the sensor is a piezoelectric sensor. Piezoelectric and piezoresistive sensors generally comprise a piezoelectric or piezoresistive material coupled to an external electrical circuit that can detect and measure a change in charge or resistance when the material is mechanically deformed. In some embodiments, the sensor comprises a pressure form. In some embodiments, the sensor comprises a load cell. For example, in some embodiments where a rod is the load-bearing housing member, a donut-shaped load cell can be coupled to the rod. In some embodiments, the sensor comprises a sensor array. One non-limiting example of a suitable sensor is the Tekscan 5101 sensor array. In some embodiments, the sensor is or comprises a thin film.Non-limiting examples of sensors are described in "Thin Film Sensors for measuring small forces" by F. Schmaljohann, D. Hagedorn and F. Loffler, Journal of Sensors and Sensor Systems. No. 4, (Feb. 2015), 91-95. In some cases, the sensors are commercially available and are coupled to the electrochemical cell. In some cases, however, the sensors are assembled during the manufacture of the electrochemical device. In some such cases, the sensors are formed by vacuum deposition, coating and curing (e.g., in the case of polymeric materials), printing (e.g., inkjet printing, screen printing), and / or spraying (e.g., aerosol spraying).

[0043] As mentioned above, in some embodiments, the sensor is a strain gauge. A strain gauge is a device that changes resistance with applied force and thus converts force (e.g., from applied pressure, tension, or weight) into electrical resistance that can be measured. For example, a change in length of the strain gauge (e.g., due to tension or compression) can cause a strain in a resistor that is part of the strain gauge, thereby changing the resistance of the resistor. In the context of the present disclosure, it has been found that strain gauges, in some cases, are easily integrated into assembled electrochemical devices due to their small size and easily combined with simple electrical circuits. This easy integration of strain gauges is in contrast to certain other instruments used to measure force / pressure (such as external pressure test equipment such as the Instron® load frame pressure test system or hydraulic test systems equipped with load cells). External pressure test equipment is generally expensive and too bulky to be used with assembled electrochemical devices (e.g., batteries) in normal use. It has further been found that strain gauges can be sufficiently accurate in measuring the expected pressure magnitudes and / or variations associated with the electrochemical devices of the present disclosure, and, as described in more detail below, it has also been found that the strain gauges can achieve sufficient accuracy without directly contacting any portion of the electrochemical cell or stack of cells.

[0044] 3 is a top schematic diagram of a strain gauge 151, which is a type of potential strain gauge suitable for use as a sensor. The strain gauge 151 comprises a measurement grid 152 (e.g., comprising a metal and / or metal alloy with a known resistivity, such as constantan) embedded in a carrier 153 (e.g., a polymeric carrier such as polyimide). The measurement grid 152 can be electrically coupled to leads 154 that can be used to measure a signal associated with the strain gauge, such as a measured resistance, voltage, and / or current. In use, strain 155 (shown as a pull (or tension) using arrows) can affect the measured resistance associated with the measurement grid 152. Strain gauges of this type are commercially available from vendors such as OMEGA® (Omega Engineering, Norwalk, CT).

[0045] In some embodiments, an electrical circuit is used to measure an electrical signal from a sensor (e.g., a signal indicative of the pressure experienced by the electrochemical cell). For example, in some embodiments, a signal is generated from a sensor (e.g., a strain gauge) based on an applied input voltage and a measured output voltage (which may depend on the resistance of one or more components of the circuit). In some embodiments, a Wheatstone bridge circuit is used as part of the strain gauge to generate a signal (e.g., a signal indicative of the pressure experienced by the electrochemical cell). FIG. 3B is a circuit schematic of a Wheatstone bridge circuit, showing V in is the input voltage, R1, R2, and R3 are resistors with known fixed resistance, R g is the resistance of the strain gauge, which can be measured, for example, with a galvanometer, V out is the output voltage. In this configuration, V out is based on Kirchhoff's circuit law g Also, R g varies based on the force applied to the strain gauge and may depend on the magnitude of displacement of a component of the electrochemical device (e.g., a load-bearing housing element), as described elsewhere in this disclosure.

[0046] The measurement of an applied force F, which is related to the strain experienced by the object, is performed using a strain gauge coupled to the object, and the V in can be determined using the following equations (1) to (4): TIFF2025510626000002.tif75134

[0047] In the above formula, GF is the gauge factor, E is the Young's modulus of the object (e.g., a load-bearing housing member as described below) whose dimension is changing due to strain, and A is the cross-sectional area across which the measured strain is applied. The gauge factor is defined as the ratio of the rate of change of electrical resistance (strain) to the rate of change of length (strain) of the strain gauge. The gauge factor can be experimentally determined for the particular strain gauge used. The pressure experienced by an electrochemical cell on the electrode surfaces (e.g., the electrode active surfaces) can be calculated by dividing the total force applied to the cell by the area of ​​the electrode surfaces.

[0048] The sensor (e.g., strain gauge, piezoelectric sensor, piezoresistive sensor) may be coupled to the electrochemical device in any of a variety of ways. For example, in some embodiments, the sensor is attached to a component of the electrochemical device. For example, the sensor can be attached to the component of the electrochemical device using adhesives and / or fasteners.

[0049] As described above, in some embodiments, the electrochemical device comprises a housing. The housing can at least partially surround other components of the electrochemical device. For example, the housing can at least partially surround an electrochemical cell. FIGS. 1A-1B show a housing 102 at least partially surrounding an electrochemical cell 110 according to some embodiments. FIG. 1C shows a housing 102 at least partially surrounding a stack 106 comprising a first electrochemical cell 110 and a second electrochemical cell 120. The housing can comprise a rigid, rigid element. As an example, the housing can comprise one or more rigid plates. For example, the housing 202 of FIG. 4 comprises a rigid plate 201 according to some embodiments. In some cases, the housing does not have a rigid plate. For example, in some cases, the rigid surface and other components of the housing's containment structure configured to contain the electrochemical cell are part of a unitary structure. In some embodiments, the housing is in the form of a frame that is mated to rigid plates (eg, end plates) with rigid housing components covering the side portions of the electrochemical cell.

[0050] In some embodiments, the housing of the electrochemical device is configured to apply an anisotropic force having a relatively high magnitude component perpendicular to at least one (or all) electrode surface of the electrochemical cells in the electrochemical device during at least one period of time during charging and / or discharging of the electrochemical cells. The housing can be configured to apply such a force in a variety of ways. For example, in some embodiments, the housing comprises two rigid articles (e.g., a first rigid plate and a second rigid plate as shown in FIG. 4, where the housing 202 comprises a first rigid plate 201 and a second rigid plate 203). An object (e.g., a machine screw, a nut, a spring, etc.) may be used to apply pressure to the ends (or areas near the ends) of the housing to apply the force. For example, in the case of a machine screw, the electrochemical cells and other components of the electrochemical device pack can be compressed between the plates (e.g., the first rigid plate and the second rigid plate) when the screw is turned. As another example, in some embodiments, one or more wedges may be placed between the housing and a fixed surface (e.g., a tabletop, etc.) The force may be applied by applying a force to the wedge (e.g., by turning a machine screw) between the housing (e.g., between the housing and a rigid plate of a containment structure) and an adjacent fixed surface to drive the wedge.

[0051] The housing may have couplings that can be used to connect its components and / or to apply at least a portion of the anisotropic force. The housing may include, for example, couplings proximate an end of the housing (e.g., proximate an end of a rigid plate). FIG. 4 shows a coupling 205 connecting a first rigid plate 201 and a second rigid plate 203 according to an embodiment. The coupling may connect the first rigid plate and the second rigid plate. In some embodiments, the housing of the electrochemical device has more than one coupling. In some cases, the housing includes at least two couplings, at least four couplings, and / or up to eight or more couplings. In some embodiments, the coupling comprises a fastener. The fastener may span from one end of the housing to the other end. Examples of fasteners include, but are not limited to, rods (e.g., threaded rods, interlocking rods, etc.), bolts, screws (e.g., machine screws), nails, rivets, ties, clips (e.g., side clips, circlips, etc.), bands, or combinations thereof. In some cases, applying a force through a rigid plate comprises causing relative movement between a part of the coupling (e.g., a nut) and a fastener of the coupling (e.g., by tightening a nut at the interface between the fastener and the rigid plate, or by turning a machine screw if the fastener comprises a machine screw).

[0052] In some embodiments, the housing of the electrochemical device is configured to apply an anisotropic force to the electrode surface via tension in a load-bearing housing member. In this context, the term "load-bearing" refers to a load associated with applying an anisotropic force having a component perpendicular to the electrode surface of the electrochemical cell. It is understood that the load-bearing housing member bears a load associated with the entire anisotropic force or a load associated with only a portion of the anisotropic force (such as in the case of multiple load-bearing housing members). For example, in FIGS. 1A-1B, according to some embodiments, the housing 102 comprises a load-bearing housing member 104 that is on the side of the electrochemical cell 110. In some cases, applying a force 181 having a component 182 perpendicular to the electrode surface (e.g., the electrode active surface) of the electrochemical cell 110 is accomplished by configuring the housing 102 such that the load-bearing housing member 104 is in tension. 4 , coupling 205 (e.g., a fastener such as a bolt) is a load-bearing housing member that is under tension in the direction of arrow 207 when used to press first plate 201 and second plate 203 against first electrochemical cell 110 and second electrochemical cell 120 such that the electrode surface (e.g., electrode active surface) of the first electrochemical cell is subjected to a pressure defined by component 182 of anisotropic force 181. Coupling 205 is in tension as it maintains first rigid plate 201 and second rigid plate 203 constraining first electrochemical cell 110 and second electrochemical cell 120. 5, electrochemical device 100 comprises a stack 304 comprising a first electrochemical cell 110 and a second electrochemical cell 120 at least partially surrounded by a housing 302, where the housing comprises a first rigid plate 310 and a second rigid plate 312 mated to a first rigid housing element 314 and a second rigid housing element 316. Housing 302 can be in the form of a frame that surrounds stack 304, with first rigid housing element 314 and second rigid housing element 316 being sides of the frame.The housing 302 can be configured such that as the first rigid plate 310 and the second rigid plate 312 compress the stack 304, the application of the anisotropic force 182 is maintained through tension (or pulling) in the first rigid housing element 314 and the second rigid housing element 316. Thus, in this embodiment, the first rigid housing element 314 and the second rigid housing element are the load-bearing housing elements of the housing 302.

[0053] The load-bearing housing member can take any of a variety of forms depending on the design of the housing and the technique used to apply the anisotropic force. In some embodiments, the load-bearing housing member is a rigid body. In some embodiments, the load-bearing housing member is a rigid body having rigidity. In some embodiments, the load-bearing housing member is a rigid portion of the housing that spans the thickness of some or all of the electrochemical cells in the electrochemical device. In some embodiments, the load-bearing housing member is a coupling (e.g., a fastener such as a rod (e.g., a threaded rod, an interlocking rod, etc.), a bolt, a screw (e.g., a machine screw), a nail, a rivet, a tie, a clip (e.g., a side clip, a circlip, etc.), and / or a band). In some embodiments, the housing comprises a frame (e.g., a containment structure) that at least partially surrounds the electrochemical cells, and the load-bearing housing member forms at least a portion of the frame (e.g., a portion of the frame on the side of the electrochemical cells when the electrochemical device is assembled).

[0054] In some implementations, the load-bearing housing member displaces along at least one dimension as the magnitude of the applied anisotropic force changes. The sensor can be configured to generate a signal based on the magnitude of such displacement and / or a component thereof. In some implementations, the load-bearing housing member displaces along a dimension having a component perpendicular to the electrode surface of the electrochemical cell upon a change in the magnitude of the applied anisotropic force. For example, an increase in the magnitude of the applied force can be associated with the load-bearing housing member being under increasing tension. In this case, the increasing tension can be associated with an elongation of the load-bearing housing member, such that the load-bearing housing member is displaced in a tension direction having a component perpendicular to the electrode surface. FIGS. 1A-1B illustrate such a phenomenon, according to some implementations. In FIG. 1A, the housing 102 exerts an anisotropic force 181 having a component 182 perpendicular to the electrode surface of the electrochemical cell 110 through tension in a load-bearing housing member 104 having a length 103. In contrast, in FIG. 1B, expansion of the electrochemical cell 110 relative to the rigid housing 102 (e.g., due to deposition of anode active material such as lithium metal during charging) may cause the electrochemical cell 110 to experience an anisotropic force 181′ having a component 182′ perpendicular to its electrode surface (wherein the component 182′ is greater than the component 182 from FIG. 1A). The increase in the magnitude of the component 182′ may be related to an increase in pressure experienced by the electrochemical cell 110 and an increase in tension experienced by the load-bearing housing member 104. The increased tension in the load-bearing housing member 104 causes the load-bearing housing member 104 to experience a displacement having a component in a direction perpendicular to the electrode surface of the electrochemical cell 110, resulting in a new length 103′, where the new length 103′ in FIG. 1B is greater than the length 103 from FIG. 1A. Analogously, a decrease in the magnitude of the applied anisotropic force may be associated with the load-bearing housing member being under reduced tension and displacing along a dimension having a component perpendicular to the electrode face as the length of the load-bearing housing member contracts.

[0055] In the context of the present disclosure, it has been found that the displacement of the load-bearing housing member along a dimension having a component perpendicular to the electrode surface can indicate a change in the magnitude of the anisotropic force perpendicular to the electrode surface, and thus a change in the magnitude of the pressure experienced by the electrode surface. Thus, it has been found that measuring such a displacement of a component other than the electrochemical cell can be used to indirectly generate a measurement of the pressure experienced by the electrochemical cell, rather than directly measuring the pressure of the electrochemical cell itself (e.g., by placing the sensor in the cell and exposing the sensor to an anisotropic force). Thus, in some implementations, the sensor is configured to generate a signal (e.g., indicative of the pressure experienced by the electrode surface) based at least in part on the magnitude of the displacement along the dimension of the load-bearing housing member having a component perpendicular to the electrode surface. In some implementations, the signal generated by the sensor is based on a measured voltage, current, and / or resistance that varies at least in part on the magnitude of the displacement along the dimension of the load-bearing housing member having a component perpendicular to the electrode surface. One example of a sensor that can be configured in this manner is a strain gauge. Displacement of the load-bearing housing member can cause a change in strain in the strain gauge, which can then generate a signal indicative of the magnitude of that displacement in the form of a change in resistance or voltage measurement across the strain gauge. The change in resistance or voltage measurement across the strain gauge can then be used to calculate a change in pressure experienced by the electrochemical cell (e.g., at an electrode surface). As another example, piezoelectric or piezoresistive sensors can also be used to measure the displacement along the load-bearing housing member and output a signal (e.g., an electrical signal) indicative of that change.

[0056] In some, but not necessarily all, embodiments, the sensor is adjacent to a load-bearing housing member. For example, in FIGS. 1A-1D, the sensor 105 is adjacent to a load-bearing housing member 104 of the housing 102 that at least partially surrounds the electrochemical cell 110. Such placement of the sensor facilitates the sensor measuring dimensional changes in the housing associated with application of an anisotropic force to the electrochemical cell. In some embodiments, the sensor is directly adjacent to the load-bearing housing member. When the sensor is directly adjacent to the load-bearing housing member, there are no intervening elements between the sensor and the load-bearing housing member. In some embodiments, the sensor is attached to the load-bearing housing member. For example, the sensor may be attached to the load-bearing housing member via adhesives, welds, and / or fasteners. In some embodiments, the sensor is directly adjacent to an adhesive and / or weld that is directly adjacent to the load-bearing housing member. In some embodiments, at least a portion of the sensor is within 10 mm, 5 mm, 2 mm, 1 mm, 0.5 mm, 0.2 mm, 0.1 mm, or less of at least a portion of the load-bearing housing member. In some embodiments, the sensor is positioned such that displacement of the load-bearing housing member along a dimension having a component perpendicular to the electrode surface (e.g., electrode active surface) of the electrochemical cell causes the sensor to generate a signal indicative of the magnitude of the applied force causing the displacement and / or the pressure experienced by the electrode surface of the electrochemical cell as a result of the applied force. In some embodiments, the sensor is adjacent (e.g., directly adjacent) to an exterior surface of the housing (e.g., load-bearing housing member). For example, in Figures 1A-1C, the sensor 105 is on the exterior of the housing 102 of the electrochemical device 100. In other embodiments, the sensor is adjacent (e.g., directly adjacent) to an interior surface of the housing (e.g., load-bearing housing member). For example, in Figure 1D, the sensor 105 is on the interior of the housing 102 of the electrochemical device 100.

[0057] In some embodiments, the sensor is on a side of the electrochemical cell. For example, in Figures 1A-1D, sensor 105 is on a side of electrochemical cell 110. In some embodiments where an electrochemical device comprises multiple electrochemical cells (e.g., part of a stack), the sensor is on a side of some or all of the electrochemical cells (e.g., on a side of some or all of the stack). For example, in Figures 4-5, electrochemical device 100 comprises first electrochemical cell 110 and second electrochemical cell 120, and sensor 105 is on a side of both first electrochemical cell 110 and second electrochemical cell 120. The side location of the sensor can facilitate assembly of an electrochemical device comprising electrochemical cells and a sensor (e.g., by separately assembling a stack of electrochemical cells and then combining the sensor during assembly of the electrochemical device). In the context of the present disclosure, it has been found that the sensor can be positioned laterally of the electrochemical cell (e.g., by positioning the sensor adjacent to a load-bearing housing member) and still accurately generate a signal indicative of the amount of pressure the electrochemical cell is subjected to. In some embodiments, the sensor is lateral to the electrode surface of the electrochemical cell. In some embodiments, the sensor is lateral to all of the electrode surfaces of the stack of electrochemical cells. In some embodiments, the sensor is lateral to the electrode active surface (e.g., the anode active surface and / or the cathode active surface) of the electrochemical cell. In some embodiments, the sensor is lateral to all of the electrode active surfaces (e.g., the anode active surface and / or the cathode active surface) of the stack of electrochemical cells. In some embodiments, at least 50% by volume (vol%), at least 75 vol%, at least 90 vol%, at least 95 vol%, at least 99 vol%, or all of the sensor is lateral to at least 50 vol%, at least 75 vol%, at least 90 vol%, at least 95 vol%, at least 99 vol%, or all of the electrochemical cells.

[0058] In some embodiments, the sensor is not present at the side of the electrochemical cell. In some embodiments, the sensor overlaps the electrochemical cell such that at least one line perpendicularly emanating from the electrode surface (e.g., the electrode active surface) of the electrochemical cell intersects with the sensor. For example, in FIG. 6A, the sensor 105 overlaps the electrochemical cell 110 such that a line 108 perpendicular to the electrode surface of the electrochemical cell 110 intersects with the sensor 105. In some embodiments, the sensor is at least partially (e.g., partially or completely) present within a stack comprising electrochemical cells. For example, in FIG. 6B, the electrochemical device 100 comprises a stack 106 comprising a first electrochemical cell 110 and a second electrochemical cell 120, the stack 106 further comprising the sensor 105. In some such embodiments, the sensor may be present at the end of the stack or may be an internal element of the stack (e.g., an element between the electrochemical cells). Sensor arrays such as the TEKSCAN pressure sensor can be used as sensors that overlie an area of ​​an electrode surface (eg, an area of ​​an electrode active surface) and / or that are part of a stack of electrochemical cells.

[0059] In some embodiments, the electrochemical device is part of a system configured to generate a signal indicative of a state of the electrochemical cell. In some embodiments, the signal indicative of the state of the electrochemical cell is based at least in part on a measurement indicative of a pressure experienced by the electrochemical cell (e.g., as a result of an applied anisotropic force). For example, in some embodiments, the electrochemical device comprises or is coupled to a control system. The control system may be configured to receive a signal generated by a sensor. The signal generated by the sensor may be indicative of a measurement of a pressure experienced by the electrochemical cell. As an illustrative example, FIG. 7 is a cross-sectional schematic diagram of a system 200 comprising an electrochemical device 100, a sensor 105, and a control system 156 according to some embodiments. The sensor 105 may be configured to generate a signal indicative of a measurement of a pressure experienced by the electrochemical cell 110, and the control system 156 may be configured to receive the signal.

[0060] The control system may include one or more processors and / or management circuitry. The one or more processors may be configured to control and / or monitor one or more components of the electrochemical device, including one or more (e.g., two or more, three or more, four or more) sensors (if present). Examples of suitable processors are described in more detail below.

[0061] The control system can be configured to receive electrical signals from the sensor. For example, referring again to FIG. 7, the system 200 can include a control system 156 configured to receive electrical signals from the sensor 105 via wires 157. In some implementations, the control system is configured to receive signals from the sensor via one or more wires or other solids, while in other implementations, the control system is configured to receive signals wirelessly from the sensor (e.g., when the sensor includes a wireless transmitter, such as a radio transmitter, and the control system includes a wireless receiver). The control system can include one or more processors programmed to determine a measurement of a signal indicative of the pressure experienced by the electrochemical cell based at least in part on the signal generated by the sensor. An example of the process is as follows: Strain of the sensor (e.g., due to displacement of a load-bearing housing member) can result in a change in resistance or other characteristic of the sensor, which can manifest as a change in the voltage measured by a galvanometer coupled to an electrical circuit including the sensor. The voltage measured by the galvanometer is transmitted (e.g., wired or wirelessly) to the control system, where the voltage measurement can be stored in a computer memory. Other parameters, such as experimental parameters related to the control system, pressure sensor, and components of the electrochemical device, can also be stored in the computer's memory (e.g., based on predetermined values ​​programmed into the memory or values ​​entered by a user). These parameters can include, but are not limited to, resistance values ​​of resistors in a Wheatstone bridge circuit, gauge coefficients of strain gauges (if the sensor is a strain gauge), dimensions of elements of the electrochemical device (e.g., numerical values ​​of the active areas of the housing and electrodes), etc. The one or more processors can be programmed to input these stored parameters and the measured output voltage into one or more equations from which the pressure experienced by the electrochemical cell can be calculated.For example, if the sensors are strain gauges and a Wheatstone bridge circuit is used, one or more processors can be programmed with instructions to input the stored and measured parameters into equations (1)-(4) above to calculate the measured applied force associated with the sensor. The measured applied force can then be converted to a pressure measurement by dividing the total force experienced by the electrochemical cell by the cell's electrode active area (a parameter stored in the computer's memory).

[0062] As described above, in some embodiments, a signal is generated that is indicative of the state of the electrochemical device. The state of the electrochemical device associated with the signal may indicate any of a variety of conditions related to the safety and / or effective operation of the electrochemical device. For example, in some embodiments, the signal indicative of the state of the electrochemical device is indicative of the health and / or safety of the electrochemical device. For example, in some embodiments, the end of life of the electrochemical device or detrimental side reactions of the electrochemical cell may result in abnormal dimensional changes of the cell, which may result in an increase or decrease in pressure experienced by the electrode surface (e.g., the electrode active surface) due to the force exerted by the stationary housing. By monitoring (e.g., with a sensor and a control system) the pressure experienced by the electrochemical cell, such abnormal dimensional changes of the cell, indicative of a deterioration in the health of the cell and / or a potential safety concern due to side reactions, can be detected and appropriately addressed (e.g., by shutting the cell off from operation of the electrochemical cell or adjusting its charge and / or discharge rates). As another example, in some embodiments, the electrodes of the electrochemical cell are most efficiently utilized and / or have the highest current density when the electrodes are subjected to anisotropic pressure within a predetermined range. Accidental changes in pressure (e.g., due to external factors such as external handling of the electrochemical device or internal factors such as expansion / contraction of nearby cells) can then reduce the efficiency of the cell. By monitoring the pressure experienced by the electrochemical cell (e.g., with sensors and a control system), deviations from a desired applied force can be identified and addressed (e.g., by repositioning elements of the electrochemical device and / or adjusting tension on load-bearing housing members).

[0063] The signal indicative of the status of the electrochemical device can take any of a variety of forms. For example, the signal may be an electrical signal generated by the control system and transmitted, by wire or wirelessly, to a display of another computer (e.g., a user's computer) or a computer that is part of the same control system. The display can be programmed to receive the signal and, based on the signal, display a message indicating information related to the status of the electrochemical device. For example, the display can generate a diagnostic code. As another example, the signal may be an electrical signal generated by the control system and transmitted to one or more processors configured to adjust the operation of the electrochemical device. For example, in some embodiments, the control system comprises one or more processors that are programmed to start or stop charging and / or discharging, or adjust the rate of charging and / or discharging, of one or more electrochemical cells of the electrochemical device, based on an electrical signal received by the processor indicative of the status of the electrochemical device. As another example, in some embodiments, the control system comprises one or more processors that are programmed to induce the electrochemical device to adjust the magnitude of the anisotropic force applied to the electrochemical cell (e.g., by the housing) based on electrical signals received by the processor indicative of a state of the electrochemical device.

[0064] In some embodiments, the signal indicative of the state of the electrochemical cell is based at least in part on whether a measured value indicative of the pressure experienced by the electrochemical cell is greater than an upper threshold or less than a lower threshold. For example, one or more processors of the control system may be programmed to compare the measured value indicative of the pressure experienced by the electrochemical cell calculated above with an upper threshold and / or a lower threshold. The upper and lower thresholds may be pre-defined thresholds stored in the computer's memory or may be values ​​manually entered by a user. In some embodiments, the one or more processors are programmed to generate a signal indicative of the state of the cell if the measured value of the pressure is greater than an upper threshold. In some embodiments, the one or more processors are programmed to generate a signal indicative of the state of the cell if the measured value of the pressure is less than a lower threshold. By way of example only, in some embodiments, a measured pressure experienced by the electrochemical cell (e.g., at an electrode surface) of 50 kg may be used to determine whether the measured value of the pressure is greater than an upper threshold. f / cm 2 Anything greater than 5 kg indicates harmful side reactions in the cell that pose safety concerns. f / cm 2 A pressure less than the upper threshold indicates that the cell is out of position relative to the pressure applying element of the housing. In either case, a signal indicative of the measured pressure of the cell being outside these upper and lower limits can be generated to alert a user and / or an automatic control system to the state of the cell and / or the need for intervention to address the state of the electrochemical cell. In some embodiments, in response to the signal indicative of the state of the electrochemical device, the electrochemical device is configured to adjust the applied anisotropic force such that a signal indicative of the pressure experienced by the electrochemical cell (e.g., generated by a sensor) is below an upper threshold and above a lower threshold. Such a course (or process) can be accomplished using a closed loop process involving a control system and, for example, a housing or pressure applying element in the electrochemical apparatus.

[0065] In some embodiments, various anode active materials are suitable for use in the anode of the electrochemical cells described herein. In some embodiments, the anode active material comprises lithium (e.g., lithium metal), such as lithium foil, lithium deposited (or attached) on a conductive or non-conductive substrate (e.g., a release layer), and lithium alloys (e.g., lithium-aluminum alloys and lithium-tin alloys). The lithium can be included as a film or as multiple (optionally separated) films. Lithium alloys suitable for use in the subject matter described herein can include alloys of lithium with aluminum, magnesium, silicium, indium, and / or tin. In some embodiments, the anode active material comprises lithium (e.g., lithium metal and / or lithium metal alloys) during at least a portion or all of the charging and / or discharging process of the electrochemical cell. In some embodiments, the anode active material comprises lithium (e.g., lithium metal and / or lithium metal alloys) during a portion of the charging and / or discharging process of the electrochemical cell, but does not comprise lithium metal and / or lithium metal alloys upon completion of the discharging process.

[0066] In some embodiments, the anode active material comprises at least 50 wt% lithium. In some cases, the anode active material comprises at least 75 wt%, at least 90 wt%, at least 95 wt%, or at least 99 wt% lithium.

[0067] In some embodiments, the anode is an electrode from which lithium ions are released during discharge and into which lithium ions are inserted (e.g., intercalated) during charge. In some embodiments, the anode active material is a lithium intercalation compound (e.g., a compound that can reversibly insert lithium ions at lattice sites and / or interstitial sites). In some embodiments, the anode active material comprises carbon. In some cases, the anode active material is or comprises a graphitic material (e.g., graphite). Graphitic materials generally refer to materials comprising a plurality of graphene layers (i.e., layers comprising carbon atoms covalently bonded in a hexagonal lattice). Adjacent graphene layers are typically attracted to one another via van der Waals forces, although in some cases, covalent bonds may exist between one or more sheets. In some cases, the carbon-containing anode active material is or comprises coke (e.g., petroleum coke). In some embodiments, the anode active material comprises an alloy of any of silicon, lithium, and / or combinations thereof. In one embodiment, the anode active material is lithium titanate (Li4Ti5O 12 , also referred to as "LTO"), tin-cobalt oxide, or any combination thereof.

[0068] In some embodiments, various cathode active materials are suitable for use in the cathodes of the electrochemical cells described herein. In some embodiments, the cathode active material comprises a lithium intercalation compound (e.g., a compound that can reversibly insert lithium ions into lattice and / or interstitial sites). In some cases, the cathode active material comprises a layered oxide. A layered oxide generally refers to an oxide having a lamellar structure (e.g., multiple sheets or layers stacked on top of each other). Non-limiting examples of suitable layered oxides include lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2), lithium nickel oxide (LiNiO2), lithium manganese oxide (LiMnO2), and the like. In some embodiments, the layered oxide is lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (LiNi x Mn y Coz In some such embodiments, the sum of x, y, and z is 1. For example, a non-limiting example of a suitable NMC compound is LiNi 1 / 3 Mn 1 / 3 Co 1 / 3 In some embodiments, the layered oxide has the formula (Li2MnO3) x (LiMO2) (1-x) where M is one or more of Ni, Mn, and Co. For example, the layered oxide can have the formula (Li2MnO3) 0.25 (LiNi 0.3 Co 0.15 Mn 0.55 O2) 0.75 In some embodiments, the layered oxide may be lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxide (LiNi x Co y Al z O2, also referred to as "NCA"). In some such embodiments, the sum of x, y, and z is 1. For example, a non-limiting example of a suitable NCA compound is LiNi 0.8 Co 0.15 Al 0.05 In certain embodiments, the cathode active material is a transition metal polyanion oxide (e.g., a compound comprising a transition metal, oxygen, and / or an anion having an absolute charge greater than one). A non-limiting example of a suitable transition metal polyanion oxide is lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4, also known as "LFP"). Another non-limiting example of a suitable transition metal polyanion oxide is lithium manganese iron phosphate (LiMn x Fe 1-x PO4, also referred to as "LMFP"). A non-limiting example of a suitable LMFP compound is LiMn 0.8 Fe 0.2 In some embodiments, the cathode active material is a spinel (e.g., a compound having the structure AB2O4, where A is Li, Mg, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, Ni, Ti, or Si, and B is Al, Fe, Cr, Mn, or V). Non-limiting examples of suitable spinels include those having the formula LiM x Mn2-x The spinel may be lithium manganese oxide having a ZnO content of 0, where M is one or more of Co, Mg, Cr, Ni, Fe, Ti, and Zn. In some embodiments, x may be equal to 0, and the spinel may be lithium manganese oxide (LiMn2O4, also known as "LMO"). Another non-limiting example is lithium manganese nickel oxide (LiNi x M 2-x O4, also referred to as "LMNO"). A non-limiting example of a suitable LMNO compound is LiNi 0.5 Mn 1.5 O4. In some cases, the electroactive material of the second electrode is Li 1.14 Mn 0.42 Ni 0.25 Co 0.29 O2 ("HC-MNC"), lithium carbonate (Li2CO3), lithium carbides (e.g., Li2C2, Li4C, Li6C2, Li8C3, Li6C3, Li4C3, Li4C5), vanadium oxides (e.g., V2O5, V2O3, V6O 13 ), and / or vanadium phosphate (e.g., lithium vanadium phosphate such as Li3V2(PO4)3), or any combination thereof.

[0069] In some embodiments, the cathode active material comprises a conversion compound. For example, the cathode may be a lithium conversion cathode. It has been recognized that cathodes comprising a conversion compound may have a relatively high specific capacity. Without wishing to be bound by theory, it is believed that the relatively high specific capacity can be achieved by utilizing all possible oxidation states of the compound through conversion reactions in which multiple electron transfers occur per transition metal (e.g., 0.1 to 1 electron transfer for intercalation compounds). Suitable conversion compounds include, but are not limited to, transition metal oxides (e.g., Co3O4), transition metal hydrides, transition metal sulfides, transition metal nitrides, and transition metal fluorides (e.g., CuF2, FeF2, FeF3). Transition metals generally refer to elements whose atoms have a partially filled d sub-shell (e.g., Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Y, Zr, Nb, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Cd, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Pt, Au, Hg, Rf, Db, Sg, Bh, Hs).

[0070] In some cases, the cathode active material may be doped with one or more dopants to change the electrical properties (e.g., electrical conductivity) of the cathode active material. Non-limiting examples of suitable dopants include aluminum, niobium, silver, zirconium, and the like.

[0071] In some embodiments, the cathode active material can be modified with a surface coating comprising an oxide. Non-limiting examples of surface oxide coating materials include: MgO, Al2O3, SiO2, TiO2, ZnO2, SnO2, ZrO2. In some embodiments, such coatings can prevent direct contact between the cathode active material and one or more components of the electrolyte, thereby inhibiting side reactions.

[0072] In certain embodiments, the cathode active material comprises sulfur. In some embodiments, the cathode active material comprises an electroactive sulfur-containing material. As used herein, "electroactive sulfur-containing material" refers to an electrode active material that contains elemental sulfur in any form, where the electrochemical activity involves the oxidation or reduction of sulfur atoms or groups. As an example, the electroactive sulfur-containing material may comprise elemental sulfur (e.g., S8). In some embodiments, the electroactive sulfur-containing material comprises a mixture of elemental sulfur and a sulfur-containing polymer. Thus, suitable electroactive sulfur-containing materials include, but are not limited to, elemental sulfur, sulfides or polysulfides (e.g., alkali metal sulfides), which may be organic or inorganic, and organic materials comprising sulfur and carbon atoms, which may or may not be polymeric. Suitable organic materials include, but are not limited to, those further comprising heteroatoms, conductive polymer segments, composite materials, and conductive polymers. In some embodiments, the electroactive sulfur-containing material in an electrode (e.g., cathode) comprises at least 40 wt% sulfur. In some cases, the electroactive sulfur-containing material comprises at least 50 wt%, at least 75 wt%, or at least 90 wt% sulfur.

[0073] Examples of sulfur-containing polymers include those described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,601,947 and 5,690,702 to Skoteim et al.; U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,529,860 and 6,117,590 to Skoteim et al.; U.S. Pat. No. 6,201,100, issued Mar. 13, 2001 to Gorkovenko et al.; and PCT Publication No. WO 99 / 33130, each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for all purposes. Other suitable electroactive sulfur-containing materials comprising polysulfide linkages are those described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,441,831 to Skoteim et al.; U.S. Pat. No. 4,664,991 to Perichaud et al.; and U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,723,230, 5,783,330, 5,792,575, and 5,882,819 to Naoi et al., the specifications of each of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties for all purposes. Further examples of electroactive sulfur-containing materials include those comprising disulfide groups as described, for example, in U.S. Pat. No. 4,739,018 to Armand et al.; U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,833,048 and 4,917,974 to De Jonghe et al.; U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,162,175 and 5,516,598 to Visco et al.; and U.S. Pat. No. 5,324,599 to Oyama et al., each of which is incorporated by reference in its entirety for all purposes.

[0074] One or more of the electrodes may further include additional additives, such as conductive additives, binders, and the like, as described in U.S. Pat. No. 9,034,421 to Mikhaylik et al.; and U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2013 / 0316072, each of which is incorporated by reference in its entirety for all purposes.

[0075] In embodiments in which an electrolyte is present, any of a variety of materials can be used as the electrodes. The electrolyte can include, for example, a solution of ions, a solid electrolyte, a gel electrolyte, and / or combinations thereof.

[0076] In some embodiments, the electrochemical cell further comprises a separator between the two electrode portions (e.g., the anode portion and the cathode portion). The separator may be a solid non-conductive or insulating material that separates or insulates the anode and cathode from shorting to each other and allows for the transport of ions between the anode and cathode. In some embodiments, the porous separator may be permeable to the electrolyte.

[0077] The pores of the separator may be partially or substantially filled with electrolyte. The separator may be provided as a porous free-standing film that is interleaved with the anode and cathode during cell fabrication. Alternatively, a porous separator layer may be applied (or painted) directly onto the surface of one of the electrodes, as described, for example, in PCT Publication WO 99 / 33125 to Carlson et al. and U.S. Patent No. 5,194,341 to Bagley et al.

[0078] A variety of separator materials are known in the art. Examples of suitable solid porous separator materials include, but are not limited to, polyolefins such as polyethylene (e.g., SETELA™ from Tonen Chemicals), polypropylene, glass fiber filter paper, ceramic materials, and the like. For example, in some embodiments, the separator comprises a microporous polyethylene film. Further examples of suitable separators and separator materials for use in the present invention include those comprising a microporous xerogel layer (e.g., a microporous pseudoboehmite layer), as described in commonly assigned U.S. Patent Nos. 6,153,337 and 6,306,545 to Carlson et al., which may be provided as a free-standing film or by applying a coating directly to one of the electrodes. Solid electrolytes and gel electrolytes may function as separators in addition to their electrolyte function.

[0079] As mentioned above, in some embodiments, a force or forces are applied to a portion of an electrochemical cell. Applying a force in this manner can reduce the unevenness or roughness of the electrode surface of the cell (e.g., when a lithium metal or lithium alloy anode is used), thereby improving performance. Electrochemical devices in which anisotropic forces are applied and methods of applying such forces are described, for example, in U.S. Patent No. 9,105,938, published on February 11, 2010 as U.S. Patent Publication No. 2010 / 0035128, entitled "Application of Forces in Electrochemical Cells," and issued on August 11, 2015, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for all purposes.

[0080] In embodiments described herein, the electrochemical device can undergo charge / discharge cycles involving deposition of metal (e.g., lithium metal or other active material) on the anode surface during charging, and metal reactions at the anode surface that result in diffusion of metal from the anode surface during discharge. The uniformity of metal deposition at the anode can affect cell performance. For example, when lithium metal is removed from the anode and / or redeposited, it can sometimes result in uneven surface formation. For example, when redeposited, it can deposit unevenly to form a rough surface. A rough surface can increase the amount of lithium metal available for undesired chemical reactions, which can result in reduced cycle life and / or reduced cell performance. In accordance with certain embodiments described herein, it has been found that applying force to the electrochemical device reduces such behavior, improving the cycle life and / or performance of the cell.

[0081] In some embodiments, the electrochemical device (e.g., a housing of the electrochemical device) is configured to apply an anisotropic force having a component perpendicular to an electrode surface (e.g., an electrode active surface) of one electrochemical cell (e.g., a first electrochemical cell, a second electrochemical cell) during at least one period of time during charging and / or discharging.

[0082] In some embodiments, an anisotropic force having a component perpendicular to the electrode surface of one of the electrochemical cells (e.g., the first electrochemical cell, the second electrochemical cell) is applied during at least one period of time during charging and / or discharging of the electrical device. In some embodiments, the force may be applied continuously over a period of time or over multiple periods of time that may vary in duration and / or frequency. The anisotropic force may be applied, in some cases, to predetermined locations of one or more electrochemical cells and appropriately distributed over the active surface of one or more electrochemical cells of the electrochemical device. In some embodiments, the anisotropic force is applied uniformly over one or more active surfaces of the anode.

[0083] "Anisotropic force" has its usual meaning in the art and means a force that is unequal in all directions. An example of a force that is equal in all directions is the internal pressure of a fluid or material within a fluid or material, such as the internal gas pressure of an object. An example of a force that is unequal in all directions includes a force that is directed in a particular direction, such as the force exerted by an object on a table via gravity on the table. Another example of anisotropic force includes certain forces exerted by bands placed around an object. For example, a rubber band or turnbuckle can exert a force around the object it is wrapped around. However, the band cannot exert any direct force on any part of the outer surface of the object that is not in contact with the band. Also, if the band stretches more along a first axis than along a second axis, the band can exert a greater force in a direction parallel to the first axis than a force exerted parallel to the second axis.

[0084] A force having a "normal component" relative to a surface (e.g., the active surface of an electrode such as an anode) has its ordinary meaning as understood by one of ordinary skill in the art, including, for example, a force that acts at least partially in a direction substantially normal to the surface. Those of ordinary skill in the art will recognize other examples of these terms, particularly as they apply within the context of this description.

[0085] In some embodiments, anisotropic forces can be applied such that the magnitude of the force is substantially equal in all directions within a plane defining the cross-section of the electrochemical device, but the magnitude of the force in the out-of-plane directions is not substantially equal to the magnitude of the force in the in-plane directions.

[0086] In one set of embodiments, the electrochemical devices (e.g., housings) described herein are configured to apply an anisotropic force having a component perpendicular to the electrode plane of one of the electrochemical cells (e.g., the first electrochemical cell, the second electrochemical cell) during at least one period of time during charging and / or discharging of the cell. In such configurations, the electrochemical cells may be formed as part of a container that applies such a force, either due to a "load" applied during or after assembly of the cells, or during use of the electrochemical device as a result of expansion and / or contraction of one or more elements of the electrochemical device itself.

[0087] The magnitude of the applied force is, in some embodiments, large enough to improve the performance of the electrochemical device. In some cases, both the electrode active surface (e.g., anode active surface) and the anisotropic force can be selected such that the anisotropic force affects the surface morphology of the electrode active surface, suppressing the increase in the area of ​​the electrode active surface through charge and discharge, and in the absence of the anisotropic force, but under otherwise essentially identical conditions, the area of ​​the electrode active surface increases more through charge and discharge cycles. "Essentially identical conditions" refers to similar or identical conditions except for the manner and / or magnitude of the force application. For example, otherwise identical conditions can refer to electrochemical devices that are identical, but that are not configured (e.g., by couplings such as brackets or other connections) to apply an anisotropic force to the electrochemical device of interest.

[0088] As described herein, in some embodiments, the surface of the anode can be further enhanced during cycling (e.g., in the case of lithium, the occurrence of mossy or bumpy surfaces of lithium can be reduced or avoided) by the application of an externally applied pressure (which in some embodiments is uniaxial). The externally applied pressure can in some embodiments be selected to be greater than the yield stress of the material forming the anode. For example, in the case of an anode comprising lithium, although not necessarily in all embodiments, the cell can be subjected to a pressure of at least 10 kg. f / cm 2 , at least 20 kg f / cm 2 The material may be subjected to an externally applied anisotropic force by a force that determines the pressure at or above the yield stress of lithium, which is 7-8 kgf / cm2. f / cm 2 Therefore, at pressures greater than this value (e.g., uniaxial pressure), the surface roughness of the moss-like Li or any of the surfaces may be reduced or suppressed. The surface roughness of the lithium may reproduce the surface pressing against it. Therefore, at least about 10 kg f / cm 2 , at least about 20 kg f / cm 2 , and / or up to 30 kg f / cm 2 , up to 40kg f / cm 2 When cycling under externally applied pressure, if the pressing surface is smooth, cycling can make the lithium surface smoother.

[0089] In some cases, one or more forces applied to the cell have a component that is not perpendicular to the electrode surface (e.g., anode) of the electrochemical cell. For example, in FIG. 1A, force 184 is not perpendicular to the electrode surface of the electrochemical cell. In one set of embodiments, the sum of all anisotropic force components applied in a direction perpendicular to any electrode surface of the electrochemical device is greater than the sum of the components in a direction that is not perpendicular to the electrode surface. In some embodiments, the sum of all anisotropic force components applied in a direction perpendicular to any electrode surface of the electrochemical device is at least about 5%, at least about 10%, at least about 20%, at least about 35%, at least about 50%, at least about 75%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, at least about 99%, or at least about 99.9% greater than the sum of any of the components in a direction parallel to the electrode surface.

[0090] In some cases, the electrochemical cell may be pre-compressed before being inserted into the housing and may expand once inserted into the housing, resulting in a net force on the electrochemical cell. Such an arrangement may be advantageous, for example, when the electrochemical cell can withstand relatively high pressure fluctuations.

[0091] In some embodiments, the electrochemical cells and electrochemical devices (e.g., rechargeable batteries) described in this disclosure can be used to power or otherwise be incorporated into electric vehicles (or electric vehicles, electric cars). As a non-limiting example, the electrochemical cells and / or electrochemical devices and / or batteries (e.g., comprising lithium metal and / or lithium alloy electrochemical cells and / or sensors) described in this disclosure can be used in some embodiments to power the drivetrain of an electric vehicle. The vehicle can be any suitable vehicle suitable for travel on land, sea, and / or air. For example, the vehicle can be a car, truck, motorcycle, boat, helicopter, airplane, and / or other suitable type of vehicle. FIG. 8 is a cross-sectional schematic diagram of an electric vehicle 600 in the form of a car comprising an electrochemical device 100, according to some embodiments. The electrochemical device 100 can, in some cases, power the drivetrain of the electric vehicle 600.

[0092] As mentioned above, certain embodiments of the systems and / or methods of the present invention include one or more processors, e.g., associated with a control system configured to receive signals generated by the sensors. The processor, according to certain embodiments, may be part of a computer-implemented (or based) control system. The computer-implemented control system may be used to operate various components of the system. In general, any computational methods, steps, simulations, algorithms, systems, and system elements described herein may be implemented and / or controlled using one or more computer-implemented control systems, such as the various embodiments of computer-implemented systems described below. The methods, steps, control systems, and control system elements described herein are not limited in their implementation to the specific computer systems described herein, but may use many other different machines.

[0093] The computer implemented control system may be a part of or operatively coupled to one or more articles (e.g., electrochemical cells, electrochemical device housings, sensors) and / or other system components that may be automated, and in some embodiments may be configured and / or programmed to control and adjust operational parameters, as well as to analyze and calculate any of the values ​​described above, for example. In some embodiments, the computer implemented control system may send and receive reference signals for setting and / or controlling operational parameters of system devices. In other embodiments, the computer implemented system may be located separately from and / or remotely relative to other system components, and may be configured to receive data from one or more systems of the invention via indirect and / or portable means, such as via a portable electronic data storage device, such as a magnetic disk, or via communication over a computer network, such as the Internet or a local intranet.

[0094] A computer-implemented control system may include a number of known components and circuits, including a processor, a memory system, input / output devices and interfaces (e.g., interconnection mechanisms), as well as other components such as transport circuitry (e.g., one or more buses), video and audio data input / output (I / O) subsystems, special purpose hardware, and other components and circuits as described in more detail below. Additionally, the computer system may be a multi-processor computer system or may include multiple computers connected through a computer network.

[0095] The computer implemented control system may include commercially available processors such as, for example, x86 available from Intel, Celeron, Pentium, and Core processors, similar devices available from AMD and Cyrix, 680X0 series microprocessors available from Motorola, and PowerPC microprocessors available from IBM. Many other processors are available, and the computer system is not limited to any particular processor.

[0096] The processor typically executes a program called an operating system, examples of which include Windows NT, Windows 95 or 98, Windows XP, Windows Vista, Windows 7, Windows 10, Windows 11, UNIX, Linux, DOS, VMS, MacOS, OS8, and OS X, which controls the execution of other computer programs and provides scheduling, debugging, input / output control, accounting, compilation, storage allocation, data and memory management, communications control, and related services. The processor and operating system, in some embodiments, together define a computer platform upon which application programs in high-level programming languages ​​are written. A computer-implemented control system is not limited to a particular computer platform.

[0097] In one embodiment, the processor generally manipulates data in the integrated circuit memory device according to program instructions and copies the manipulated data to the non-volatile storage medium after processing is complete. A variety of mechanisms for managing data movement between the non-volatile storage medium and the integrated circuit memory device are known, and the computer implemented control system that performs the methods, steps, system control, and system element control described above is not limited thereto. The computer implemented control system is not limited to any particular memory system.

[0098] At least one of the memory systems described above can be used to store one or more data structures (e.g., look-up tables) or equations such as calibration curve equations. For example, at least one of the non-volatile recording media can store at least one database including one or more such data structures. Such a database can be any of a variety of types of databases, such as, for example, a file system including one or more flat-file data structures in which data is organized into data units separated by delimiters, a relational database in which data is organized into data units stored in tables, an object-oriented database in which data is organized into data units stored as objects, another type of database, or any combination thereof.

[0099] It should be understood that one or more of any type of computer-implemented control system can be used to implement the various embodiments described herein. The subject matter of the present invention can be implemented in software, hardware, or firmware, or any combination thereof. The computer-implemented control system can include specially programmed special purpose hardware, such as application specific integrated circuits (ASICs). Such special purpose hardware can be configured to implement one or more of the methods, steps, algorithms, system controls, and / or system element controls described above, either as part of the computer-implemented control system described above, or as an independent component.

[0100] The computer-implemented control system and its components may be programmable using any of a variety of one or more suitable computer programming languages. Additionally, the methods, steps, algorithms, system controls, and / or system element controls may be implemented using any of a variety of suitable programming languages. Such languages ​​may include procedural programming languages, e.g., LabView, C, Pascal, Fortran, and BASIC, object-oriented languages, e.g., C++, Java, and Eiffel, as well as other languages ​​such as scripting languages ​​or even assembly languages. In some embodiments, the computer programming language is Python. In some embodiments, the computer programming language is SQL.

[0101] Such methods, steps, algorithms, system controls, and / or system element controls, individually or in combination, may be implemented as a computer program product tangibly embodied as a computer readable signal on a computer readable medium, e.g., a non-volatile recording medium, an integrated circuit memory element, or a combination thereof. For each such method, step, simulation, algorithm, system control, or system element control, such computer program product may include computer readable signals tangibly embodied on a computer readable medium that, when executed by a computer, define instructions, e.g., as part of one or more programs, that instruct a computer to perform the method, step, algorithm, system control, and / or system element control.

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filed on February 18, 2015 as U.S. Application No. 14 / 624 / 641, published on August 20, 2015 as U.S. Publication No. US-2015-0236320-A1, and patented on May 16, 2017 as U.S. Patent No. 9,653,750, entitled "ELECTRODE PROTECTION USING A COMPOSITE COMPRISING AN "Electrolyte-Inhibiting Ion Conductor"; filed on October 23, 2015 as U.S. Application No. 14 / 921,381, published on April 28, 2016 as U.S. Publication No. US-2016-0118638-A1, entitled "Comppositions for Use as Protective Layers and Other Components in Electrochemical Cells"; filed on October 21, 2015 as U.S. Application No. 14 / 918,672, published on April 28, 2016 as U.S. Publication No. US-2016-0118651-A1, entitled "Ion-Conductive Composites for Electrochemical Cells"; filed on October 21, 2015 as U.S. Application No. 14 / 918,672, published on April 28, 2016 as U.S. Publication No. US-2016-0118651-A1, entitled "Ion-Conductive Composites for Electrochemical Cells"; CELLS”; “PROTECTIVE LAYERS IN LITHIUM-ION ELECTROCHEMICAL CELLS AND ASSOCIATED ELECTRODES AND METHODS” filed on September 9, 2015 as U.S. Application No. 14 / 848 / 659, published on March 10, 2016 as U.S. Publication No. US-2016-0072132-A1, and patented on June 15, 2021 as U.S. Patent No. 11,038,178;Titled "GLASS-CERAMIC ELECTROLYTES FOR LITHIUM-SULFUR BATTERIES", filed on October 18, 2017 as U.S. Application No. 15 / 567,534, published on May 17, 2018 as U.S. Publication No. US-2018-0138542-A1, and patented on November 24, 2020 as U.S. Patent No. 10,847,833; Titled "PROTECTIVE LAYERS FOR ELECTROCHEMICAL BATTERIES", filed on May 20, 2016 as U.S. Application No. 15 / 160,191, published on November 24, 2016 as U.S. Publication No. US-2016-0344067-A1, and patented on October 29, 2019 as U.S. Patent No. 10,461,372 CELLS"; filed on September 30, 2019 as U.S. Application No. 16 / 587,939, published on March 26, 2020 as U.S. Publication No. US-2020-0099108-A1, entitled "PROTECTIVE LAYERS FOR ELECTROCHEMICAL CELLS"; filed on November 4, 2016 as U.S. Application No. 15 / 343,890, published on May 18, 2017 as U.S. Publication No. US-2017-0141385-A1, entitled "LAYER COMPOSITE AND ELECTRODE HAVING A SMOOTH SURF; "ACE, AND ASSOCIATED METHODS"; filed on November 11, 2016 as U.S. Application No. 15 / 349,140, ​​published on May 18, 2017 as U.S. Publication No. US-2017-0141442-A1, entitled "ADDITIVES FOR ELECTROCHEMICAL CELLS"; patented on June 11, 2019 as U.S. Patent No. 10 / 320,031, entitled "ADDITIVES FOR ELECTROCHEMICAL CELLS"; filed on November 4, 2016 as U.S. Application No. 15 / 343,635, published on May 25, 2017 as U.S. Publication No. US-2017-0149086-A1, patented as U.S. Patent No. 9,89086. Filed on November 21, 2017 as U.S. Patent No. 9,825,328, entitled "IONICALLY CONDUCTIVE COMPOUNDS AND RELATED USES"; filed on May 18, 2018 as U.S. Application No. 15 / 983,352, published on November 22, 2018 as U.S. Publication No. US-2018-0337406-A1, patented on December 15, 2020 as U.S. Patent No. 10,868,306 entitled "PASSIVATING AGENTS FOR ELECTROCHEMICAL "ELECTROCHEMICAL CELLS"; filed on March 9, 2018 as U.S. Application No. 15 / 916,588, published on September 13, 2018 as U.S. Publication No. US-2018-0261820-A1, and patented on June 1, 2021 as U.S. Patent No. 11,024,923; filed on November 2, 2018 as U.S. Application No. 16 / 098,654, published on July 30, 2020 as U.S. Publication No. US-2020-0243824-A1, and patented on April 27, 2021 as U.S. Patent No. 10,991,925; entitled "COATINGS FOR COMPONENTS OF ELECTROCHEMICAL CELLS”;Titled "PASSIVATING AGENTS FOR ELECTROCHEMICAL CELLS", filed on May 18, 2018 as U.S. Application No. 15 / 983,363, published on December 6, 2018 as U.S. Publication No. US-2018-0351158-A1, and patented on March 9, 2021 as U.S. Patent No. 10,944,094; Titled "ELECTRODE EDGE PROTECTION IN ELECTROCHEMICAL CELLS", filed on March 16, 2018 as U.S. Application No. 15 / 923,342, published on September 27, 2018 as U.S. Publication No. US-2018-0277850-A1, and patented on July 21, 2020 as U.S. Patent No. 10,720,648 "IN SITU CURRENT COLLECTOR"; filed on June 7, 2018 as U.S. Application No. 16 / 002,097, published on December 13, 2018 as U.S. Publication No. US-2018-0358651-A1, and patented on March 31, 2020 as U.S. Patent No. 10,608,278; filed on May 19, 2017 as U.S. Application No. 15 / 599,595, published on November 23, 2017 as U.S. Publication No. US-2017-0338475-A1, and patented on December 29, 2020 as U.S. Patent No. 10,879,527; CELLS"; titled "PROTECTIVE MEMBRANE FOR ELECTROCHEMICAL CELLS" filed on September 7, 2018 as U.S. Application No. 16 / 124,384, published on March 21, 2019 as U.S. Publication No. US-2019-0088958-A1; titled "PROTECTIVE LAYERS COMPRISING METALS FOR ELECTROCHEMICAL CELLS" filed on June 18, 2019 as U.S. Application No. 16 / 470,708, published on November 14, 2019 as U.S. Publication No. US-2019-0348672-A1, patented on November 23, 2021 as U.S. Patent No. 11,183,690;Patented on February 10, 2017 as U.S. Application No. 15 / 429,439, published on July 13, 2017 as U.S. Publication No. US-2017-0200975-A1, and patented on August 14, 2018 as U.S. Patent No. 10,050,308, entitled "LITHIUM-ION ELECTROCHEMICAL CELL, COMPONENTS THEREOF, AND METHODS OF MAKING AND USING SAME"; Patented on May 24, 2018 as U.S. Application No. 15 / 988,182, published on December 6, 2018 as U.S. Publication No. US-2018-0351148-A1, entitled "IONICALLY CONDUCTIVE COMPOUNDS AND RELATED ELECTROCHEMICAL CELLS ... "NON-AQUEOUS ELECTROLYTES FOR HIGH ENERGY LITHIUM-ION BATTERIES"; filed on April 2, 2018 as U.S. Application No. 15 / 765,362, published on September 6, 2018 as U.S. Publication No. US-2018-0254516-A1, entitled "NON-AQUEOUS ELECTROLYTES FOR HIGH ENERGY LITHIUM-ION BATTERIES"; filed on July 31, 2019 as U.S. Application No. 16,527,903, published on February 6, 2020 as U.S. Publication No. US-2020-0044460-A1, entitled "MULTIPLEXED CHARGE DISCHARGE BATTERY MANAGEMENT"; SYSTEM; filed on December 23, 2019 as U.S. Application No. 16 / 724,586 and published on July 9, 2020 as U.S. Publication No. US-2020-0220146-A1, entitled "ISOLATABLE ELECTRODES AND ASSOCIATED ARTICLES AND METHODS"; filed on December 23, 2019 as U.S. Application No. 16 / 724,596 and published on July 9, 2020 as U.S. Publication No. US-2020-0220149-A1, entitled "ELECTRODES, HEATERS, SENSORS, AND ASSOCIATED ARTICLES AND METHODS";Patents entitled "FOLDED ELECTROCHEMICAL DEVICES AND ASSOCIATED METHODS AND SYSTEMS" filed on December 23, 2019 as U.S. Application No. 16 / 724,612 and published on July 9, 2020 as U.S. Publication No. US-2020-0220197-A1; Patents entitled "ELECTROCHEMICAL DEVICES INCLUDING POROUS ELECTROCHEMICAL DEVICES" filed on May 21, 2020 as U.S. Application No. 16 / 879,861 and published on November 26, 2020 as U.S. Publication No. US-2020-0373578-A1 "ELECTRICALLY COUPLED ELECTRODES, AND ASSOCIATED ARTICLES AND METHODS"; filed on May 21, 2020 as U.S. Application No. 16 / 879,839, published on November 26, 2020 as U.S. Publication No. US-2020-0373551-A1, entitled "ELECTRICALLY COUPLED ELECTRODES, AND ASSOCIATED ARTICLES AND METHODS"; filed on August 7, 2018 as U.S. Application No. 16 / 057,050, published on December 17, 2020 as U.S. Publication No. US-2020-0395585-A1, entitled "LITHIUM-COATED SEPARATORS AND ELECTROCHEMICAL CELLS COMPRISING THE SAME"; filed on August 14, 2020 as U.S. Application No. 16 / 994,006 and published on February 25, 2021 as U.S. Publication No. US-2021-0057753-A1, entitled "ELECTROCHEMICAL CELLS AND COMPONENTS COMPRISING THIOL GROUP-CONTAINING SPECIES"; filed on October 31, 2019 as U.S. Application No. 16 / 670,905 and published on May 6, 2021 as U.S. Publication No. US-2021-0135297-A1, entitled "SYSTEM AND METHOD FOR OPERATING A RECHARGEABLE ELECTROCHEMICAL CELL OR BATTERY";Filed on November 4, 2020 as U.S. Application No. 17 / 089,092 and published on May 13, 2021 as U.S. Publication No. US-2021-0138673-A1, entitled "ELECTRODE CUTTING INSTRUMENT"; filed on October 31, 2020 as U.S. Application No. 16 / 670,933 and published on May 6, 2021 as U.S. Publication No. US-2021-0135294-A1, entitled "SYSTEM AND METHOD FOR OPERATING A RECHARGEABLE ELECTROCHEMICAL CELL OR "BATTERY"; filed on November 19, 2020 as U.S. Application No. 16 / 952,177, published on May 20, 2021 as U.S. Publication No. US-2021-0151839-A1, entitled "BATTERIES, AND ASSOCIATED SYSTEMS AND METHODS"; filed on November 19, 2020 as U.S. Application No. 16 / 952,235, published on May 20, 2021 as U.S. Publication No. US-2021-0151830-A1, entitled "BATTERIES WITH COMPONENTS INCLUDING CARBON FIBER ... METHODS"; filed on November 19, 2020 as U.S. Application No. 16 / 952,228 and published on May 20, 2021 as U.S. Publication No. US-2021-0151817-A1, entitled "BATTERY ALIGNMENT, AND ASSOCIATED SYSTEMS AND METHODS"; filed on November 19, 2020 as U.S. Application No. 16 / 952,240 and published on May 20, 2021 as U.S. Publication No. 2021-0151841-A1, entitled "SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR APPLYING AND MAINTAINING COMPRESSION PRESSURE ON ELECTROCHEMICAL CELLS";Titled "THERMALLY INSULATING COMPRESSIBLE COMPONENTS FOR BATTERY PACKS", filed on November 19, 2020 as U.S. Application No. 16 / 952,223 and published on May 20, 2021 as U.S. Publication No. US-2021-0151816-A1; Titled "COMPRESSION SYSTEMS FOR BATTERIES", filed on December 17, 2020 as U.S. Application No. 17 / 125,124 and published on June 24, 2021 as U.S. Publication No. US-2021-0193984-A1; Titled "SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR FABRICATING LITHIUM METAL ELECTRODES”; filed on December 17, 2020 as U.S. Application No. 17 / 125,110; Patent application Ser. No. 17 / 125,070 filed on Dec. 17, 2020 and published on Jun. 24, 2021 as U.S. Publication No. US-2021-0193996-A1 entitled "LITHIUM METAL ELECTRODES"; Patent application Ser. No. 17 / 126,390 filed on Dec. 18, 2020 and published on Jun. 24, 2021 as U.S. Publication No. US-2021-0194069-A1 entitled "SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR PROVIDING, ASSEMBLING, AND MANAGING INTEGRATED POWER BUS FOR RECHARGEABLE ELECTROCHEMICAL CELL OR BATTERY";filed December 18, 2020 as U.S. Application No. 17 / 126,424 and published July 15, 2021 as U.S. Publication No. US-2021-0218243, entitled "SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR PROTECTING A CIRCUIT, RECHARGEABLE ELECTROCHEMICAL CELL, OR BATTERY";filed March 12, 2021 as International Application No. PCT / US2021 / 022070, and published September 16, 2021 as International Publication No. WO2021 / 183858, entitled "APPLICATION OF PRESSURE TO ELECTROCHEMICAL DEVICES INCLUDING DEFORMABLE SOLIDS, AND RELATED SYSTEMS";

[0103] U.S. Provisional Application No. 63 / 223,663, filed July 20, 2021, entitled "BATTERY PACK AND RELATED COMPONENTS AND METHODS," is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety for all purposes. U.S. Provisional Application No. 17 / 702,971, filed March 24, 2022, and published September 29, 2022 as U.S. Publication No. US-2022-0311081, entitled "BATTERY PACK AND RELATED COMPONENTS AND METHODS," is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety for all purposes.

[0104] U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 320,955, filed March 17, 2022, entitled "Pressure-Monitoring For Electrochemical Cells and Related Devices and Systems," the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference for all purposes.

[0105] When a part (e.g., a layer, structure, region) is "on," "adjacent to," "above," "over," "overlying on," or "supported by" another part, it is understood that it can be directly on the part, or there can be intervening parts (e.g., layers, structures, regions). Similarly, when a part is "below" or "underneath" another part, it can be directly under the part, or there can be intervening parts (e.g., layers, structures, regions). When a part is "directly on," "directly adjacent to," "immediately adjacent to," "in direct contact with," or "directly supported by" another part, it means that there are no intervening parts. It should be understood that when a part is referred to as being "on," "above," "adjacent," "over," "overlying" or "supported by" another part, this can refer to the entire part or a portion of the part.

[0106] As used herein, a surface is said to "face" an object when a line perpendicular to and extending away from the bulk of the material comprising the surface intersects the object. For example, a first surface and a second surface can face each other if a line perpendicular to the first surface and extending away from the bulk of the material comprising the first surface intersects the second surface. A surface can face another object if the surface contacts the other object or if one or more intermediate materials are disposed between the surface and the other object. For example, two surfaces facing each other may contact or include one or more intermediate members between them. In some cases, the surfaces and the object (e.g., another surface) facing each other are substantially parallel. In some embodiments, two surfaces can be substantially parallel if, for example, the maximum angle subtended by the two surfaces is 10° or less, 5° or less, 2° or less, or 1° or less.

[0107] The following examples are intended to illustrate certain embodiments of the present invention, but do not exemplify the full scope of the invention.

[0108] Example 1

[0109] This example describes an experiment that demonstrates the suitability of a sensor adjacent to a load-bearing housing member to accurately measure an applied force. Specifically, the sensor was in the form of a strain gauge and the load-bearing housing member was in the form of a titanium bolt. An Instron® 5969 Load Frame Pressure Test System equipped with a 50 kN load cell was used to apply a force to the titanium bolt and the force measurements from the strain gauge on the titanium bolt were compared to measurements from the load cell of the Instron® load frame.

[0110] An Omega® KFH-6-350-C1-11L3M3R strain gauge with a resistance of 350 ohms was obtained and attached to a titanium bolt with the grid of the strain gauge aligned to the compression / tension dimension being tested. Adhesive was applied to the back of the strain gauge and Kapton tape was used to control, align and secure the strain gauge to the titanium bolt. The Kapton tape was removed and the adhesive was allowed to cure for 24 hours. The strain gauge was connected to a Bridge Completion Module that includes circuit components that together form a Wheatstone bridge circuit as shown in FIG. 3B. The Bridge Completion Module was connected to a voltmeter and the output voltage was used for the measurements. The output voltage from the strain gauge was calibrated to the applied force and the force measured by the strain gauge was determined from that calibration.

[0111] An Instron® load frame was used to apply ten incremental force steps to the titanium bolts, ranging from 1,000 Newtons to over 10,000 Newtons. Figure 9 shows a plot of the force measurement data taken during the load steps using the load cell of the Instron® load frame ("Instron (Newtons)" on the plot) and a plot of the force measurement data taken using a strain gauge attached to the bottle ("Strain Gauge (Newtons)" on the plot). The data in Figure 9 show good agreement between the Instron® load frame pressure test system and the strain gauges for applied force magnitudes over an order of magnitude. This data suggests that strain gauges on the load-bearing housing members of an electrochemical device can measure forces (and therefore pressures) with sufficient accuracy for pressure monitoring of electrochemical devices over an appropriate dynamic range.

[0112] Example 2

[0113] This example describes an experiment that demonstrates the suitability of a sensor adjacent to a load-bearing housing member to accurately measure applied force. Specifically, the sensor was in the form of a strain gauge, and the load-bearing housing member was in the form of a carbon fiber coupon designed to form an element of the longitudinal dimension of an electrochemical device housing frame according to a specific embodiment. An Instron® 68TM-50 load frame pressure testing system equipped with a 50 kN load cell was used to apply force to the carbon fiber coupon, and the force measurements from the strain gauge on the carbon fiber coupon were compared to the measurements from the load cell of the Instron® system.

[0114] An Omega® KFH-6-350-C1-11L3M3R strain gauge with a resistance of 350 ohms was obtained and attached to the carbon fiber coupon, and the output voltage measurements from the Wheatstone bridge circuit were used to determine the strain gauge measurements in the same manner as described in Example 1 for the titanium bolt. Figure 10 is an image of the experimental setup, where the carbon fiber coupon with attached strain gauge was placed into an Instron® pressure test system.

[0115] A load was applied at a ramp rate over a period of approximately one minute using an Instron® load frame system, and both force and extension measurements were taken using the Instron® load frame while simultaneously recording the output voltage from the strain gauges, which correlates to force. Figure 11 shows a plot of the force and extension measurements recorded by the Instron® load frame, and Figure 12 shows the output voltage V from the strain gauges. out (constant input voltage V in 11 and 12 show good correspondence between the force measurements between the Instron® load frame and the strain gauges, and from the elongation measurements, demonstrate that the recorded force measurements are based at least in part on the magnitude of displacement along the load-bearing dimension of the load-bearing housing member.

[0116] Example 3

[0117] This example describes an experiment demonstrating monitoring of pressure experienced by an electrochemical cell in an electrochemical device equipped with a sensor adjacent to a load-bearing housing member of the electrochemical device during cycling of the electrochemical device. Specifically, strain gauge measurements were used to monitor pressure in an electrochemical device comprising an electrochemical cell with a lithium metal anode in a housing. The housing was configured to apply pressure to the electrochemical cell via two carbon fiber end plates held together by four titanium bolt fasteners as the load-bearing housing members on the sides of the cell. Two Omega® KFH-6-350-C1-11L3M3R strain gauges were attached to the titanium bolts and configured to make force measurements as described in Example 1 above.

[0118] The force measurements from the strain gauges were converted to active area pressure measurements of the lithium anode of the electrochemical cell based on the dimensions and calibration of the cell and housing. Specifically, the electrochemical cell had an active area of ​​7280 mm 2 Four titanium bolts are used as load-bearing housing members, each with a Young's modulus of 113,800 MPa and a cross-sectional area of ​​19.635 mm 2 Each strain gauge had a gauge factor (GF) of 2.07, and the Wheatstone bridge circuit had a V in An applied voltage of V = 5.25 V was used. The first strain gauge had an unstrained V of 1.85 mV. out and the second strain gauge is found to have an unstrained V of -0.15 mV. out These values ​​were used in combination with equations (1)-(4) above to calculate the applied anisotropic force (because the shape of the housing and the area of ​​the electrode active surface were known) and therefore the pressure experienced by the electrode active surface.

[0119] FIG. 13 shows plots of the electrochemical device voltage and active area pressure over time during cycling of the electrochemical device. The strain gauge measurements of active area pressure are shown as "SG1" and "SG2" for the first and second strain gauges, respectively, and the electrochemical device voltage is shown as "battery_voltage". The pressure experienced by the cell was expected to change with the state of charge of the electrochemical device due to dimensional changes in the lithium metal anode based on the extent of lithium metal deposition. As can be seen in FIG. 13, the change in active area pressure measured by the strain gauges on the titanium bolts corresponded to the change in electrochemical device voltage over time. This suggests that the strain gauges on the load-bearing housing members can be used to monitor the pressure experienced by the cells (and variations thereof) of the fully assembled electrochemical device.

[0120] While several aspects of the invention have been described and illustrated herein, those skilled in the art can readily envision various other methods and / or structures for performing the functions and / or results and / or obtaining one or more advantages described herein, and each such variation and / or modification is deemed to be within the scope of the present invention. More generally, those skilled in the art will readily appreciate that all parameters, dimensions, materials, and configurations described herein are meant to be exemplary, and that the actual parameters, dimensions, materials, and / or configurations will depend on the particular application using the teachings of the present invention. Those skilled in the art will recognize, or be able to ascertain, using no more than one or more routine experiments, many equivalents to the specific embodiments of the invention described herein. It is therefore to be understood that the foregoing embodiments are presented by way of example only, and that, within the scope of the appended claims and their equivalents, the invention may be practiced otherwise than as specifically described and claimed. The present invention is directed to each individual feature, system, article, material, and / or method described herein. Furthermore, any combination of two or more such features, systems, articles, materials, and / or methods is included within the scope of the present invention, if such features, systems, articles, materials, and / or methods are not mutually inconsistent.

[0121] As used herein and in the claims, the term "at least a portion" means some or all. "At least a portion" can mean at least 1 wt%, at least 2 wt%, at least 5 wt%, at least 10 wt%, at least 25 wt%, at least 50 wt%, at least 75 wt%, at least 90 wt%, at least 95 wt%, or at least 99 wt%, and / or up to 100 wt% in certain embodiments, according to certain embodiments.

[0122] As used in the description and the claims herein, the indefinite articles "a" and "an" should be understood to mean "at least one" unless clearly indicated to the contrary.

[0123] As used herein in the detailed description and claims, the term "and / or" should be understood to mean "either or both" of the elements so conjoined (i.e., elements that are conjunctively present in some cases and elements that are disjunctively present in other cases). Unless expressly indicated to the contrary, other elements, whether related or unrelated to the elements specifically identified, can optionally be present other than the elements specifically identified by the "and / or" clause. Thus, as a non-limiting example, "A and / or B," when used in conjunction with an open-ended term such as "comprising," refers to, in one embodiment, A without B (optionally including elements other than B); in another embodiment, B without A (optionally including elements other than A); in yet another embodiment, including both A and B (optionally including other elements), etc.

[0124] When used in the detailed description and claims herein, "or" should be understood to have the same meaning as "and / or" as described above. For example, when separating items in a list, "or" or "and / or" shall be interpreted as being inclusive (i.e., including at least one of, but more than one of, and optionally additionally including those not in the list). To the clear contrary, when terms such as "only one of" or "exactly one of" or "consisting of" are used in the claims, they refer to the inclusion of exactly one element of a number or list of elements. In general, the term "or" as used herein shall be interpreted as indicating exclusive alternatives (i.e., "one or the other but not both") only when preceded by an exclusive term such as "either," "one of," "only one of," or "exactly one of." "Consisting essentially of," as used in the claims, shall have its ordinary meaning as used in the field of patent law.

[0125] As used herein and in the claims, the term "at least one" referring to a list of one or more elements should be understood to mean at least one element selected from any one or more elements in the list of elements, but not necessarily including at least one of each and every element specifically listed in the list of elements, and not excluding any combination of elements in the list of elements. This definition also allows for the optional presence of elements other than those specifically identified in the list of elements to which the "at least one" term refers, whether related or unrelated to the elements specifically identified. Thus, as a non-limiting example, "at least one of A and B" (or, equivalently, "at least one of A or B" or, equivalently, "at least one of A and / or B") can refer to, in one embodiment, at least one, and optionally more than one, A, but no B (and optionally including elements other than B); in another embodiment, at least one, and optionally more than one, B, but no A (and optionally including elements other than A); in yet another embodiment, at least one, and optionally more than one, A, and at least one, and optionally more than one, B (and optionally including other elements), etc.

[0126] All transitional phrases, such as "comprising," "including," "carrying," "having," "containing," "involving," "holding," and the like, both in the claims and in the above specification, are to be understood to be open-ended (i.e., meaning including, but not limited to). Only the transitional phrases "consisting of" and "consisting essentially of" are to be understood to be closed or semi-closed transitional phrases, respectively, as defined in Section 211.03 of the United States Patent Office's Manual of Patent Examining Procedures.

Claims

1. 1. An electrochemical device comprising: Electrochemical cells; a housing at least partially enclosing the electrochemical cell, the housing being configured to apply an anisotropic force having a component perpendicular to an electrode face of the electrochemical cell via tension in a load-bearing housing member during at least one period of time during charging and / or discharging of the electrochemical cell; and a sensor adjacent the load-bearing housing member and configured to generate a signal indicative of the pressure experienced by the electrochemical cell; An electrochemical device comprising:

2. 1. A system comprising: Electrochemical cells; a housing at least partially enclosing the electrochemical cell, the housing being configured to apply an anisotropic force having a component perpendicular to a plane of electrodes of the electrochemical cell during at least one period of time during charging and / or discharging of the electrochemical cell; A sensor configured to generate a signal; and a control system configured to receive a signal generated by the sensor; and The control system is determining a measurement indicative of a pressure experienced by the electrochemical cell based at least in part on the signal generated by the sensor; and generating a signal indicative of a condition of the electrochemical cell based at least in part on whether a measurement indicative of a pressure experienced by the electrochemical cell is greater than an upper threshold or less than a lower threshold; The system comprises one or more processors programmed to:

3. The component of the anisotropic force perpendicular to the electrode plane of the electrochemical cell is at least 3 kg ｆ / cm ２ 3. The electrochemical device or system according to claim 1, wherein the pressure is determined as:

4. The electrochemical device or system according to any one of claims 1 to 3, wherein the electrode surface is an electrode active surface.

5. The system of any one of claims 2 to 4, wherein the housing is configured to apply anisotropic forces via tension in the load-bearing housing members.

6. 6. The electrochemical device or system of any one of claims 1 and 3-5, wherein the sensor is configured to generate a signal based at least in part on a magnitude of displacement along a dimension of the load-bearing housing member having a component perpendicular to the electrode plane.

7. 7. The electrochemical device or system of any one of claims 1 and 3-6, wherein the sensor is directly adjacent to the load-bearing housing member.

8. 8. An electrochemical device or system according to any preceding claim, wherein the sensor is to the side of the electrochemical cell.

9. The electrochemical device or system of any one of claims 1 and 3-8, wherein the signal generated by the sensor is based on a measured voltage, current, and / or resistance that varies based at least in part on the magnitude of displacement along a dimension of the load-bearing housing member having a component perpendicular to the electrode plane.

10. 10. An electrochemical device or system according to any preceding claim, wherein the sensor comprises a strain gauge, a piezoelectric material, a load cell and / or a pressure form.

11. The electrochemical device or system of any one of claims 1 to 10, wherein the sensor comprises a strain gauge.

12. 12. The electrochemical device or system of any one of claims 1 to 11, wherein the electrochemical cell is a first electrochemical cell and the electrochemical device or system comprises a stack of electrochemical cells at least partially enclosed by a housing, the stack comprising a first electrochemical cell and a second electrochemical cell.

13. A system according to any one of claims 2 to 12, wherein the signal indicative of the state of the electrochemical cell is indicative of the health and / or safety of the electrochemical cell.

14. A system as claimed in any one of claims 2 to 13, wherein based on the signal indicative of the status of the electrochemical cells, the one or more processors are programmed to start or stop charging and / or discharging the electrochemical cells or adjust the rate of charging and / or discharging.

15. 15. The system of any one of claims 2 to 14, wherein based on the signal indicative of a state of the electrochemical cell, the one or more processors are programmed to induce the electrochemical device to adjust the magnitude of the anisotropic force applied to the electrochemical cell.

16. 16. The electrochemical device or system of any one of claims 1 to 15, wherein the electrochemical cell comprises lithium metal and / or lithium alloy as electrode active material during at least a portion of the charging and / or discharging process of the electrochemical cell.

17. 17. The electrochemical device or system according to any one of claims 1 to 16, wherein the electrochemical cell comprises lithium metal and / or lithium alloy as electrode active material during the entire process of charging and / or discharging the electrochemical cell.

18. 18. The electrochemical device or system of any one of claims 1 to 17, wherein the electrochemical device or system is or comprises a battery.

19. 20. The battery of claim 18, wherein the battery is a rechargeable battery.

20. An electric vehicle comprising an electrochemical device, battery or system according to any one of claims 1 to 19.

21. applying an anisotropic force having a component perpendicular to the electrode planes of the electrochemical cell during at least one period of time during charging and / or discharging of the electrochemical cell; determining a measurement indicative of the pressure experienced by the electrochemical cell during at least a portion of the force applying step; and generating a signal indicative of a condition of the electrochemical cell based at least in part on the measurement indicative of the pressure experienced by the electrochemical cell; The method comprising:

22. 22. The method of claim 21, wherein the measurement indicative of the pressure experienced by the electrochemical cell is based at least in part on a signal generated by a sensor associated with the electrochemical cell.

23. A method according to any one of claims 21 to 22, wherein the anisotropic force is applied via tension in a load-bearing housing member of a housing that at least partially surrounds the electrochemical cell.

24. 24. The method of claim 23, wherein the sensor is configured to generate a signal based at least in part on a magnitude of displacement along a dimension of the load-bearing housing member having a component perpendicular to a plane of the electrode.

25. The component of the anisotropic force perpendicular to the electrode plane of the electrochemical cell is at least 3 kg ｆ / cm ２ The method according to any one of claims 21 to 24, wherein the pressure is defined as

26. The method of any one of claims 21 to 25, wherein the electrode surface is an electrode active surface.

27. A method according to any one of claims 23 to 26, wherein the sensor is directly adjacent the load-bearing housing member.

28. The method of any one of claims 22 to 27, wherein the sensor is laterally disposed in an electrochemical cell.

29. 29. The method of any one of claims 23 to 28, wherein the signal generated by the sensor is based on a measured voltage, current, and / or resistance that varies based at least in part on the magnitude of displacement along a dimension of the load-bearing housing member having a component perpendicular to the electrode plane.

30. The method according to any one of claims 22 to 29, wherein the sensor comprises a strain gauge, a piezoelectric material, a load cell, and / or a pressure form.

31. A method according to any one of claims 22 to 30, wherein the sensor comprises a strain gauge.

32. 32. The method of any one of claims 21 to 31, wherein the electrochemical cell is a first electrochemical cell and the anisotropic force is applied to a stack of electrochemical cells, the stack comprising the first electrochemical cell and a second electrochemical cell.

33. The method of claim 32 , wherein the stack is at least partially surrounded by a housing.

34. A method according to any one of claims 32 to 33, wherein the sensor is at least partially present within the stack.

35. 35. The method of any one of claims 21 to 34, wherein the signal indicative of the state of the electrochemical cell is based at least in part on whether a measured value indicative of a pressure experienced by the electrochemical cell is greater than an upper threshold value or less than a lower threshold value.

36. A method according to any one of claims 21 to 35, wherein the signal indicative of the condition of the electrochemical cell is indicative of the health and / or safety of the electrochemical cell.

37. 37. The method of any one of claims 21 to 36, further comprising starting or stopping charging and / or discharging, or adjusting the rate of charging and / or discharging, of the electrochemical cell based on the signal indicative of the state of the electrochemical cell.

38. The method of any one of claims 21 to 37, further comprising adjusting the magnitude of the anisotropic force applied to the electrochemical cell based on the signal indicative of a state of the electrochemical cell.

39. The method of any one of claims 21 to 38, wherein the electrochemical cell comprises lithium metal and / or lithium alloy as electrode active material during at least a portion of the charging and / or discharging process of the electrochemical cell.

40. The method according to any one of claims 21 to 39, wherein the electrochemical cell comprises lithium metal and / or lithium alloy as electrode active material during the entire process of charging and / or discharging the electrochemical cell.

41. The method of any one of claims 21 to 40, wherein the electrochemical cell is part of a battery.

42. 42. The method of claim 41, wherein the battery is a rechargeable battery.

43. A method according to any one of claims 21 to 42, wherein the electrochemical cell or battery is part of an electric vehicle.

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