Fluidized bed reactor for post-treatment of particles

Abstract

The system for post-processing carbon powder includes a fluidized bed reactor having an interior housing a fluidized bed region. The system may include a gas source, a gas inlet valve, a gas-solid separator, and an energy source may be coupled to the fluidized bed reactor. Prior to operation, carbon nanoparticles may be supported in powder form in the fluidized bed region. The gas source may output a gas phase mixture to the interior of the fluidized bed reactor, and the energy source may electromagnetically excite the gas phase mixture to generate a plasma phase mixture formed in a plasma region adjacent to or disposed within the interior of the fluidized bed reactor. The energy source may be disposed at one or more locations relative to the gas inlet valve.

Description

[Technical field]

[0001] CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This patent application claims priority to U.S. Patent Application No. 17 / 739,397, entitled "FLUIDIZED BED REACTORS FOR POST-PROCESSING POWDERED CARBON," filed May 9, 2022, all of which are assigned to the assignee of the present application. The disclosures of all prior applications are considered part of, and are incorporated by reference into, this patent application.

[0002] The present disclosure relates generally to processing carbon particles, and more particularly to post-processing of carbon powder in a fluidized bed. [Background technology]

[0003] The reactor typically contains holding various raw materials such as carbon (also called "carbonaceous") particles, which may undergo further processing (referred to as "post-processing") before shipment to the customer. Through post-processing, the raw materials may be energetically excited by microwave radiation to produce end products such as carbon-carbon growth and / or metal-modified carbon nanoparticles. For example, the end products may be used in battery components of electric vehicles (EVs). To post-process the carbon particles, various types of chemical processing methods may be used, such as plasma-based post-processing methods. These methods provide access to the desired chemistry at energy levels that cannot be achieved by traditional thermal-based or liquid-based processes. Furthermore, the energy transfer between the plasma species and the feed gas is faster than the convective heating used in thermal processes. As a result, plasma-based post-processing methods may complement fluidized bed architectures, which also provide fast energy transfer, thereby tending to increase reactor processing efficiency during batch post-processing of carbon particles. Thus, further improvements in the post-processing of carbon powders in fluidized beds are desired. Summary of the Invention

[0004] This summary is provided to introduce in a simplified form some of the concepts that are further described below in the detailed description. This summary is not intended to identify key features or essential features of the claimed subject matter, nor is it intended to limit the scope of the claimed subject matter.

[0005] One innovative aspect of the subject matter described in this disclosure may be implemented as a system for post-treatment of carbon materials in a fluidized bed (e.g., a plasma fluidized bed). In some aspects, the system may include a fluidized bed reactor with an interior including a fluidized bed region. The fluidized bed reactor may be formed as an elongated tube having a top section, a bottom section disposed opposite the top section, a length extending from the top section toward the bottom section, and an outlet extending from the bottom section. Additionally, the fluidized bed reactor may have a gas source coupled with the fluidized bed reactor. In this manner, the gas source may output a gas phase mixture to the interior of the fluidized bed reactor. In some examples, a gas inlet valve may be coupled with and in fluid communication with the gas source. In this manner, the gas inlet valve may be opened, closed, and / or closed to correspondingly regulate the flow of the gas phase mixture into the interior of the fluidized bed reactor. In one embodiment, a gas-solid separator may be disposed upstream of the gas inlet valve in the fluidized bed reactor. The gas-solid separator may function, for example, to separate solids from gases in a mixture being processed inside a fluidized bed reactor. The outlet of the fluidized bed reactor may discharge one or more of the gas phase mixture or other gases associated with the operation of the fluidized bed reactor. For example, the gas phase mixture may have a pressure between 1 milliTorr (mTorr) and 760 Torr.

[0006] In some other embodiments, the fluidized bed reactor may be formed as an elongated cylindrical tube and include a main section having a first cross-sectional diameter and a tapered section connected to the main section and having at least a second cross-sectional diameter that may differ from the first cross-sectional diameter. For example, in some embodiments, the tapered section may confine the carbon nanoparticles preloaded in the fluidized bed region prior to operation of the fluidized bed reactor. Additionally, the tapered section may include a constriction region that may increase the fluid velocity in association with the insertion of a gas phase mixture, which may include one or more of a pure gas or a mixture of two or more gases. The gas phase mixture may prevent at least some of the carbon nanoparticles from escaping the fluidized bed reactor. Additionally, in some embodiments, the fluidized bed reactor may have a cross-sectional area formed as one of a rectangle, a square, a bell-shape, a circle, or an ellipse.

[0007] In some embodiments, carbon nanoparticles in powder form can be loaded into the fluidized bed region prior to operation of the fluidized bed reactor. The carbon nanoparticles can include one or more non-hollow carbon spheres (NHCS) particles. In this manner, the carbon nanoparticles can be fluidized above the gas-solid separator based on the inflow of the gas phase mixture into the fluidized bed region. Furthermore, the carbon nanoparticles can be electromagnetically excited, which is initiated by an energy source. In some examples, a pressure control assembly can be coupled with the fluidized bed reactor to control one or more of the pressure or gas velocity associated with the fluidization of the carbon nanoparticles in the fluidized bed region.

[0008] Additionally, the system may include an energy source capable of operating in either a pulsed or continuous mode. The energy source may be or include an inductively coupled plasma source, a capacitively coupled plasma source, a microwave coupled plasma torch, a microwave coupled surface wave source, a direct current coupled plasma source, a direct current coupled arc source, or a pulsed direct current plasma source. In some examples, the microwave coupled plasma torch may operate at a pressure between 1 milliTorr (mTorr) and 760 Torr. Additionally, the microwave coupled plasma torch may be positioned along one or more sides of the fluidized bed reactor or adjacent to the gas source. The microwave coupled plasma torch may disperse a number of additional amounts of the plasma phase mixture into the interior of the fluidized bed reactor. In this manner, a number of additional amounts of the plasma phase mixture may energetically excite one or more of the gas phase mixture, the plasma phase mixture, or the carbon nanoparticles. The interior of the fluidized bed reactor may hold one or more of the gas phase mixture or the plasma phase mixture. Additionally, the inductively coupled plasma source may be formed as a coil surrounding the fluidized bed reactor.

[0009] In some aspects, the energy source may be located at one or more locations relative to the gas inlet valve and / or may be located remotely from the fluidized bed reactor. In some other aspects, the energy source may be located at one or more locations of the energy source, including one of downstream of the gas inlet valve, upstream of the fluidized bed region, next to the fluidized bed region, or downstream of the fluidized bed region. In one embodiment, the energy source may be coupled to the fluidized bed reactor. In this manner, the energy source electromagnetically excites the gas phase mixture to generate a plasma phase mixture. In some aspects, the plasma phase mixture may be formed in a plasma region located adjacent to or within the interior of the fluidized bed reactor. The plasma region may be characterized by one or more of gas temperature, electron temperature and velocity, or fluid flow rate.

[0010] In some examples, a vacuum pump can be coupled to the fluidized bed reactor, thereby controlling the formation of the fluidized bed region. For example, the vacuum pump and / or the energy source can control the energy characteristics of the plasma phase mixture in the fluidized bed reactor. In some embodiments, the energy source can generate the plasma phase mixture as one or more of a thermal equilibrium plasma phase mixture or a non-thermal equilibrium plasma phase mixture. Additionally, a control knob can be coupled to the fluidized bed reactor. In this manner, the control knob can set a thermal equilibrium setting of the plasma phase mixture. For example, the thermal equilibrium setting can generate either a thermal equilibrium plasma phase mixture or a non-thermal equilibrium plasma phase mixture. Additionally, the thermal equilibrium setting can control the energy characteristics associated with one or more of the plasma phase mixture or the gas phase mixture. For example, in some examples, the energy characteristics can include an energy transfer rate between the plasma phase mixture and the gas phase mixture. In some other examples, the energy characteristics can include a plasma-material interaction based on an interaction between the plasma phase mixture and the carbon nanoparticles.

[0011] In some examples, the energy management device may be located remotely from the fluidized bed reactor. The energy management device may include a matching network that controls the energy excitation of the gas phase mixture via an energy source. In some aspects, a side port may be formed in the fluidized bed reactor to feed additional gas phase mixture into the fluidized bed reactor. In some examples, the fluidized bed region may be associated with a fluidized bed architecture, which may control the residence time associated with the operation of the matching network.

[0012] The details of one or more embodiments of the subject matter described in this disclosure are set forth in the accompanying drawings and the description below. Other features, aspects, and advantages will become apparent from the description, drawings, and claims. It should be noted that the relative dimensions of the following figures may not be drawn to scale.

[0013] The drawings described below are for illustration purposes only and are not intended to limit the scope of the present disclosure. [Brief description of the drawings]

[0014] [Figure 1] 1 illustrates an exemplary system for post-processing carbon nanoparticles in a fluidized bed reactor, according to some embodiments. [Figure 2A] 2 illustrates an exemplary configuration of the fluidized bed reactor shown in FIG. 1 according to some embodiments. [Figure 2B] 2 illustrates another exemplary configuration of the fluidized bed reactor shown in FIG. 1 according to some embodiments. [Diagram 3] 2 illustrates another exemplary configuration of the fluidized bed reactor shown in FIG. 1 according to some embodiments. [Figure 4] 2 illustrates another exemplary configuration of the fluidized bed reactor shown in FIG. 1 according to some embodiments. [Diagram 5] 2 illustrates another exemplary configuration of the fluidized bed reactor shown in FIG. 1 according to some embodiments. [Figure 6] 2 illustrates an exemplary recirculating bed configuration of at least a portion of the fluidized bed reactor shown in FIG. 1 according to some embodiments. [Figure 7] 2 illustrates an exemplary reactor for producing carbon particles or post-processing carbon nanoparticles as shown in FIG. 1, according to some embodiments. [Figure 8] 2 illustrates another exemplary reactor for producing carbon particles or post-processing carbon nanoparticles as shown in FIG. 1 according to some embodiments. [Figure 9] 2 illustrates exemplary few-layer graphene (FLG) nanoplatelets that can be produced by the system illustrated in FIG. 1 , according to some embodiments. [Figure 10] 1 shows a micrograph of graphene material produced by sulfuric acid (H2SO4) exfoliation from graphite, according to some embodiments. [Figure 11] 1 shows a micrograph of microwave energy based wavy and / or wrinkled graphene, according to some embodiments. [Figure 12] 1 shows a micrograph of an exemplary carbon particle, according to some embodiments. [Figure 13A] 1 shows a diagram of an exemplary carbon particle, according to some embodiments. [Figure 13B] 5B illustrates an example step function representing the carbon particle of FIG. 5A according to some implementations. [Figure 14] 1 shows a graph illustrating an exemplary distribution of pore volume versus pore width for an exemplary carbon particle, according to some embodiments. [Figure 15A] 1 shows electron micrographs of exemplary carbon particles, aggregates, and / or agglomerates according to some embodiments. [Figure 15B] 1 shows electron micrographs of exemplary carbon particles, aggregates, and / or agglomerates according to some embodiments. [Figure 16] 1 shows a graph illustrating cumulative pore volume and pore width for micropores and mesopores dispersed in exemplary carbon particles, according to some embodiments. [Figure 17] 1 illustrates an exemplary carbon particle configuration, according to some embodiments. [Figure 18] 1 shows a diagram depicting an exemplary battery, according to some embodiments. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

[0015] Like reference numbers and designations in the various drawings indicate like elements. The following description is directed to several exemplary embodiments for the purpose of illustrating the innovative aspects of the present disclosure. However, those skilled in the art will readily recognize that the teachings herein can be applied in many different ways. The described embodiments can be implemented in any type of fluidized bed reactor and can be used to post-treat carbon particles. Thus, the disclosed embodiments should not be limited by the examples provided herein, but rather encompass all embodiments contemplated by the appended claims. Furthermore, well-known elements of the present disclosure will not be described in detail or will be omitted so as not to obscure the relevant details of the present disclosure.

[0016] Plasma-based processing of gaseous and / or solid materials has emerged as a favored chemical manufacturing solution. In this context, an energy source (e.g., inductively coupled plasma, "ICP") is used to generate one or more feedstocks (e.g., methane (CH 4 The plasma may function to energetically excite a reaction chamber containing a hydrocarbon gas such as a fluorine atom (HF) or a semi-finished material (e.g., carbon particles) for post-processing. When processing a feedstock such as a gas, the energy source may electromagnetically excite the hydrocarbon gas and promote autoignition of the gas to form a plasma (e.g., comprising one or more plasma-based species). In general, the plasma may not exist within the reaction chamber at thermal equilibrium, thereby constantly changing physical parameters. This constant change within the plasma may create an energy environment suitable for further dissociation of the decomposed hydrocarbons into, for example, methyl radicals, (CH 3 ·), which may combine and recombine in cooler regions of the reaction chamber to self-nucleate and produce desired output products such as powder-form carbon materials (e.g., referred to herein as "carbon particles"). Additionally, for post-processing operations, the plasma may promote various plasma-material interactions (e.g., ion bombardment), which may be suitable for certain post-processing methods (e.g., carbon-carbon growth). In general, reaction chambers containing methyl radicals may operate with relatively high power coupling efficiencies and low ion energies. Thus, output carbon materials may include few-layer graphene (FLG), graphenized materials, carbon nano-onions (CNO), and the like. In some examples, the carbon materials may be further post-processed into layered materials in the reaction chamber. The layered materials may later be incorporated into various consumer products such as carbon-based automobile bumpers, battery electrodes, harmful gas sensors, and the like.

[0017] In particular, certain plasma-based post-treatment methods (including, for example, those used in the semiconductor industry) may offer several desirable performance-related features compared to conventional thermal gas-phase and / or liquid-phase post-treatment methods. These features may include providing the ability to access certain chemistries (e.g., of feedstock and / or semi-finished materials) at lower energy levels that are not conveniently achievable with conventional thermal-based and / or liquid-based methods. Furthermore, the energy transfer rates observed between the plasma species and the gases contained within the reaction chamber are faster than convective heating (e.g., used in thermal processes). Thus, plasma-based post-treatment methods tend to complement reactors including reaction vessels with fluidized bed structures that facilitate efficient batch processing. Plasma-based post-treatment methods may induce energetic ion bombardment, which may improve the throughput efficiency of certain processing methods, such as reactive ion etching. Energetic ion bombardment is not available in conventional (e.g., thermal) processing methods.

[0018] Aspects of the present disclosure recognize that conventional semiconductor plasma equipment may not employ plasma fluidized bed technology to post-treat powder substrates. Moreover, such equipment may not be capable of post-treating powder substrates at an industrial level (e.g., 10 kilograms per hour or more). According to various aspects of the subject matter disclosed herein, a system for post-treating carbon powder is provided. In some examples, the system may include a fluidized bed reactor with an interior including a fluidized bed region. The system may include a gas source, a gas inlet valve, a gas-solid separator, and an energy source may be coupled with the fluidized bed reactor. Carbon nanoparticles in powder form may be input into the fluidized bed region prior to operation of the fluidized bed reactor. The energy management device may be located remotely from the fluidized bed reactor. The gas source may output a gas phase mixture into the interior of the fluidized bed reactor. In this manner, the energy source may electromagnetically excite the gas phase mixture to generate a plasma phase mixture formed in a plasma region located adjacent to or within the interior of the fluidized bed reactor. The energy source may be located at one or more positions relative to the gas inlet valve.

[0019] Aspects of the subject matter disclosed herein include heteroatom doping, carbon-carbon growth, plasma activation, metal modification, plasma-based etching, carbide formation and / or growth, carbon phase changes (e.g., sp 2- Hybridization to sp 3- The present invention may include using the present system to perform one or more plasma-based carbon powder post-treatment methods, including carbon-carbon hybridization, carbon-carbon grafting, or carbon-carbon grafting. Typically, these processes are performed in static vacuum chambers or vacuum tumbler systems, making industrial scale-up difficult or potentially impossible. Furthermore, vacuum chambers or vacuum tumbler systems may not be able to provide post-treatment homogeneity, resulting in irregular semi-finished materials that are not suitable for customer use. Aspects of the subject matter disclosed herein may include the use of fluidized bed architectures to homogeneously process (e.g., post-treat) carbon particles and / or powders, directly control residence time, energy transfer rate, as well as providing adjustable gas temperature treatment.

[0020] FIG. 1 illustrates an exemplary system 100 for post-processing carbon nanoparticles in a fluidized bed reactor, according to some embodiments. In some examples, the system may include a fluidized bed reactor 110 with an interior 112 including a fluidized bed region 114, and an energy source 120 coupled to a coil 122 disposed proximate the fluidized bed reactor 110. The fluidized bed reactor 110 may be formed as an elongated tube 111 having a top section 180, a bottom section 190 disposed opposite the top section 180, a length extending from the top section 180 toward the bottom section 190, and an outlet 195 extending from the bottom section. Additionally, the fluidized bed reactor 110 may be coupled to a gas source 130. In this manner, the gas source 130 may be coupled to a gas phase mixture (e.g., methane (CH4), methane (CH5), methane (CH6), methane (CH7), methane (CH8), methane (CH9), methane (CH4 ... 41 for simplicity) to the interior 112 of the fluidized bed reactor 110. For example, in some examples, the gas phase mixture may include one or more of a pure gas or a mixture of two or more gases. In some examples, the gas inlet valve 134 may be connected and / or in fluid communication with the gas source 130. In this manner, the gas inlet valve 134 may be opened, closed, and / or closed to correspondingly regulate the flow of the gas phase mixture to the interior 112 of the fluidized bed reactor 110. In one embodiment, the gas-solid separator 116 may be disposed upstream of the gas inlet valve 134 in the fluidized bed reactor 110. The gas-solid separator 116 may function, for example, to separate solids from gases in the mixture being processed in the interior 112 of the fluidized bed reactor 110. The outlet of the fluidized bed reactor may discharge the gas phase mixture or other gases associated with the operation of the fluidized bed reactor (not shown in FIG. 1 for simplicity) and / or the post-treated particles 160. For example, the gas phase mixture may have a pressure between 1 milliTorr (mTorr) and 760 Torr. During operation, the carbon nanoparticles 118 may be suspended in the fluidized bed region 114 of the interior 112 of the fluidized bed reactor 110. In this manner, at least a portion of the carbon nanoparticles 118 may be treated and / or post-treated by the gases and / or plasma species generated upon energetic excitation of the gases in the interior 112. The post-treatment operation may, for example, grow additional carbon on the exposed surfaces of the carbon nanoparticles 118, thereby providing carbon-carbon growth. Other post-treatment operations may also be supported by the fluidized bed reactor 110 and are described elsewhere in this disclosure.

[0021] In some other embodiments, the fluidized bed reactor 110 may be formed as an elongated tube 111 (e.g., a cylindrical tube) that may include a main section having a first cross-sectional diameter (not shown in FIG. 1 for simplicity) and a tapered section connected to the main section. The tapered section may have at least a second cross-sectional diameter that may be different from the first cross-sectional diameter. For example, in some embodiments, the tapered section may at least temporarily confine the carbon nanoparticles 118 preloaded in the fluidized bed region 114 prior to operation of the fluidized bed reactor 110. Additionally, the tapered section may include a constriction region (not shown in FIG. 1 for simplicity) that may increase the fluid velocity associated with the insertion of the gas phase mixture. In this manner, the gas phase mixture may prevent the carbon nanoparticles 118 from escaping the fluidized bed reactor 110. Additionally, in some embodiments, the fluidized bed reactor 110 may have a cross-sectional area (not shown in FIG. 1 for simplicity) that is formed as one of a rectangle, a square, a bell-shape, a circle, or an ellipse.

[0022] In some embodiments, the carbon nanoparticles 118 may be prepared in a powder form and introduced into the fluidized bed region prior to operation of the fluidized bed reactor. In some examples, the carbon nanoparticles 118 may include one or more non-hollow carbon sphere (NHCS) particles as described elsewhere in this disclosure. As such, the carbon nanoparticles 118 may be fluidized above the gas-solid separator 116 based on the gas-phase mixture flowing into the fluidized bed region 114. Additionally, the carbon nanoparticles 118 may be electromagnetically excited initiated by the energy source 120 and / or the coil 122. Additionally, in some examples, a pressure control assembly 150 may be coupled to the fluidized bed reactor 110 to control the pressure and / or gas velocity associated with the fluidization of the carbon nanoparticles 118 within the fluidized bed region 114. In some other examples, the system 100 may be configured to be coupled to a plasma source 140 by a plasma supply line 142 controlled by a plasma pressure control 144, the plasma source 140 being capable of generating one or more plasma-based species (e.g., methyl radicals, CH 3In this manner, additional amounts of energetic material, such as plasma-based species stored in the plasma source, can be added to the gas entering the fluidized bed region 114, providing additional tunability for the system 100.

[0023] Further, with regard to the process tunability of the system 100, the system can include an energy source 120, which can operate in either a pulsed or continuous mode. For example, the energy source 120 can be or include an inductively coupled plasma source, a capacitively coupled plasma source, a microwave coupled plasma torch, a microwave coupled surface wave source, a direct current coupled plasma source, a direct current coupled arc source, or a pulsed direct current plasma source. In some examples, the energy source 120 can be configured as a microwave coupled plasma torch, and the plasma torch can operate at a pressure between 1 milliTorr (mTorr) and 760 Torr. Furthermore, the microwave coupled plasma torch can be positioned along one or more sides of the fluidized bed reactor or adjacent to the gas source (e.g., by coil 122). The microwave coupled plasma torch can distribute additional amounts of multiple, e.g., plasma phase mixtures (not shown in FIG. 1 for simplicity) inside the fluidized bed reactor 110. In this manner, multiple additional amounts of the plasma phase mixture may energetically excite one or more of the gas phase mixture, the plasma phase mixture, or the carbon nanoparticles 118, such as in connection with post-processing. In some examples, the interior of the fluidized bed reactor may hold one or more of the gas phase mixture or the plasma phase mixture. Additionally, in some examples, the inductively coupled plasma source may be formed as a coil 122 surrounding the fluidized bed reactor.

[0024] In some aspects, the energy source 120 may be located at one or more locations (not shown in FIG. 1 for simplicity) relative to the gas inlet valve 134 and / or may be located remotely from the fluidized bed reactor 110. In some other aspects, the energy source 120 may be located at one or more locations including downstream of the gas inlet valve 134, upstream of the fluidized bed region 114, next to the fluidized bed region 114, or downstream of the fluidized bed region 114. In one embodiment, the energy source 120 may be coupled to the fluidized bed reactor 110. In this manner, the energy source may electromagnetically excite the gas phase mixture to generate a plasma phase mixture. In some aspects, the plasma phase mixture may be formed in a plasma region (not shown in FIG. 1 for simplicity) adjacent to or located within the interior 112 of the fluidized bed reactor 110. The plasma region may be characterized by one or more of gas temperature, electron temperature and velocity, or fluid flow rate.

[0025] In some examples, a vacuum pump 198 may be coupled to the fluidized bed reactor 110 to control the formation of the fluidized bed region 114. The vacuum pump 198 is shown coupled to the plasma source 140 in FIG. 1, although other arrangements and / or configurations are possible. In the exemplary configuration shown in FIG. 1, the vacuum pump 198 may be housed within the plasma source 140 and regulate the flow of an additional amount of plasma-based species through the plasma feed line 142 into the upper section 180 of the fluidized bed reactor 110. In one or more alternative configurations, the vacuum pump 198 may be coupled to the energy source 120, the gas source 130, and / or the pressure control assembly 150 and may operate in conjunction with the gas inlet valve 134 and / or the gas feed line 132 to regulate the flow of plasma and / or gas species into the interior of the fluidized bed reactor 110. For example, in one embodiment, the vacuum pump 198 and / or the energy source 120 may control the energy characteristics of the plasma phase mixture in the fluidized bed reactor 110. In some embodiments, the energy source 120 may generate the plasma phase mixture as one or more of a thermal equilibrium plasma phase mixture or a non-thermal equilibrium plasma phase mixture. Additionally, the control knob 199 may be coupled to the fluidized bed reactor 110. In this manner, the control knob 199 may set a thermal equilibrium setting of the plasma phase mixture. For example, the thermal equilibrium setting may generate either a thermal equilibrium plasma phase mixture or a non-thermal equilibrium plasma phase mixture. Additionally, the thermal equilibrium setting may control an energy characteristic associated with one or more of the plasma phase mixture or the gas phase mixture. For example, in some examples, the energy characteristic may include an energy transfer rate between the plasma phase mixture and the gas phase mixture. In some other examples, the energy characteristic may include a plasma-material interaction based on an interaction between the plasma phase mixture and the carbon nanoparticles 118.

[0026] In some examples, the energy management device 170 may be located remotely from the fluidized bed reactor 110. The energy management device 170 may include a power source 172 and a matching network 174. The power source 172 may provide power to the energy source 120. The matching network 174 may energetically excite the gas-phase mixture using the energy source 120. Additionally, a side port (not shown in FIG. 1 for simplicity) may be formed in the fluidized bed reactor. In this manner, the side port may provide additional gas-phase mixture to the fluidized bed reactor. In some examples, a fluidized bed region may be associated with a fluidized bed structure, thereby controlling the residence time associated with the operation of the power source and the matching network. In general, a fluidized bed architecture may refer to a physical phenomenon that occurs when solid particulate matter (usually present in a holding vessel) is under certain conditions such that it behaves like a fluid. A fluidized bed (e.g., the fluidized bed region 114) may be achieved by pumping a pressurized fluid through the particles (e.g., carbon nanoparticles). The resulting medium may have the properties and characteristics of a normal fluid, such as the ability to flow freely under gravity or to be pumped using fluidic techniques.

[0027] In this manner, the fluidized bed reactor 110 can change the particle morphology of one or more carbon nanoparticles, change the crystal structure of one or more carbon nanoparticles, and chemically modify one or more exposed surfaces of at least one carbon nanoparticle. In addition, the fluidized bed reactor 110 can deposit one or more materials on one or more exposed surfaces of at least one carbon nanoparticle. Furthermore, in some embodiments, the fluidized bed reactor 110 can be associated with performing one of the following: post-treatment by reactive ion etching, heteroatom doping of at least some of the carbon nanoparticles, and / or carbon-carbon growth on at least some of the carbon nanoparticles. In some other embodiments, the fluidized bed reactor 110 can be associated with performing one of plasma activation of at least some of the carbon nanoparticles, metal decoration of at least some of the carbon nanoparticles, and plasma-based etching of at least some of the carbon. In addition, the fluidized bed reactor 110 can be associated with forming and growing carbides on at least some of the carbon nanoparticles, sp of the carbon phase of at least some of the carbon nanoparticles, and / or sp of the carbon phase of at least some of the carbon nanoparticles. 2 Phase to sp 3 The fluidized bed reactor 110 may be associated with performing either a phase change or carbon-carbon grafting to at least some of the carbon nanoparticles. In this manner, the fluidized bed reactor 110 may homogenize at least some of the carbon nanoparticles in powder form.

[0028] 2A illustrates an exemplary configuration 200A of the fluidized bed reactor 110 shown in FIG. 1 according to some embodiments. The exemplary configuration 200A may be referred to as "adjacent plasma." In some examples, the plasma feed gas 210 may be fed to a plasma applicator 220 disposed adjacent to the fluidized bed reactor section 240, which may be one example of the fluidized bed reactor 110 shown in FIG. 1. In this manner, the plasma applicator may inject the plasma volume 230A into the fluidized bed region 260 disposed above the gas-solid separator 216, thereby generating a gas chemistry zone 250 extending longitudinally along the fluidized bed reactor section 240. A fluidizing gas 270 may flow into the fluidized bed reactor section 240 and contact one or more of the plasma volume 230A, the gas chemistry zone 250, and / or the fluidized bed region 260. For example, at least a portion of the fluidizing gas 270 may at least partially suspend one or more of the carbon nanoparticles 118 of Figure 1 (not shown in Figure 2A for simplicity) and allow the plasma volume 230A to contact the carbon nanoparticles 118 suspended in the fluidized bed region 260. In this manner, the carbon nanoparticles 118 may be post-processed in one or more of the specific enumerated methods, such as, for example, carbon-carbon growth, by adjusting their positioning and / or orientation as the plasma volume 230 enters the fluidized bed region 260.

[0029] 2B illustrates another exemplary configuration 200B of the fluidized bed reactor 110 shown in FIG. 1 according to some embodiments. The exemplary configuration 200A may be referred to as a "remote plasma." Configuration 200B may be an example of configuration 200A of FIG. 2A, except for the location of plasma volume 230B. Instead of entering the fluidized bed region 260, plasma volume 230 may be located adjacent to the fluidized bed reactor section 240, corresponding to post-treatment material suspended within the fluidized bed region 260.

[0030] FIG. 3 illustrates another exemplary configuration 300 of the fluidized bed reactor 110 shown in FIG. 1 according to some embodiments. The exemplary configuration 300 may be referred to as "direct plasma." The configuration 300 may include a fluidized bed reactor section 340, which may be an example of the fluidized bed reactor 110 of FIG. 1. The fluidized bed reactor section 340 may be adjacent to a plasma applicator 350 on multiple sides of the fluidized bed reactor section 340. In this manner, the plasma applicator 350 may energetically excite a fluidizing gas and plasma feed 370 that is fed to the fluidized bed region 260 of the fluidized bed reactor section 240 to generate a plasma zone 330 and / or a gas chemistry zone 375, as illustrated in FIG. 3. Additionally, at least a portion of the fluidizing gas and plasma feed 370 may leak through a gas outlet 372 located opposite the inlet of the fluidizing gas and plasma feed 370.

[0031] FIG. 4 illustrates another exemplary configuration 400 of the fluidized bed reactor 110 shown in FIG. 1 according to some embodiments. The configuration 400 may be an example of the configuration 300 of FIG. 3, except that the plasma zone 430 may be generated below the frit region 410. As such, the exemplary configuration 400 may be referred to as a "remote plasma under frit." In some examples, the frit region 410 may be suitable for the formation of one or more compositions, including ceramic compositions that may be melted, quenched, and / or granulated, as well as mixing of species provided by the fluidizing gas and plasma supply 470. In this manner, the configuration 400 may generate a gas chemistry zone 475 suitable for post-processing of carbon nanoparticles 118 (not shown in FIG. 4) within the fluidized bed region 460 located above the plasma zone 430.

[0032] 5 illustrates another exemplary configuration 500 of the fluidized bed reactor 110 shown in FIG. 1, according to some embodiments. The configuration 500 may be one example of the configuration 400 of FIG. 4, except that the plasma zone 530 may be generated above the gas-solids region 510. Additionally, the configuration 500 may include plasma applicators 550 located on either side of the fluidized bed reactor section 540 to generate a plasma zone 530 above the fluidized bed region 560, and a gas chemical zone 575 extending away from the plasma zone 530 toward a gas outlet 572.

[0033] 6 illustrates an exemplary recirculating bed configuration 600 of the fluidized bed reactor 110 shown in FIG. 1 according to some embodiments. In some examples, the configuration 600 can be an example of the fluidized bed reactor 110 of FIG. 1. For example, the configuration 600 can include a recycle section 610, which can extend outward from the main section 605. In this manner, the carbon nanoparticles can be suspended within the configuration 600 and move in a fluidization direction 660 into the recycle section 610. Here, the carbon nanoparticles can be energetically excited by the plasma applicator 650 and return to the main section, where they can be suspended above the gas-solid separator 616 and optionally recycled back to the recycle section 610.

[0034] FIG. 7 illustrates an exemplary reactor 700, according to some embodiments. In some examples, the reactor 700 may be an example of the fluidized bed reactor 110 of FIG. 1. Additionally or alternatively, the reactor 700 may be implemented as a plasma torch. The reactor 700 may include a microwave energy source 710, an input gas inlet 715, a reaction vessel 720, an electric potential source 730, and a metal substrate 740. The reaction vessel 720 may include a reaction chamber 722, a downstream region 724, and a collector 726. The reaction chamber 722 has a length L along a direction 702 parallel to the reaction chamber 722. The input gas inlet 715 may be coupled between the reaction vessel 720 and a processing material source (not shown for simplicity) and may be used to flow or provide material 705 (one or more gases, liquids, particles, etc.) to the reaction chamber 722. For example, in some examples, the material 705 may include various structured carbons, such as (but not limited to) CNTs, fullerenes, etc.

[0035] The microwave energy source 710 can generate microwave energy 712 that can excite the material 705 to generate a plasma that can dissociate or extract carbon-based radicals. In some examples, the microwave energy source 710 can generate pulsed microwave energy, as described in commonly owned U.S. Patent Nos. 9,767,992 and 10,314,512. In other examples, the microwave energy source 710 can generate continuous microwave energy. The microwave energy source 710 can include control circuitry that can adjust various characteristics of the microwave energy 712 based on one or more control signals (CTRL). For example, the CTRL signals can determine one or more of a pulse duration, a pulse frequency, a duty cycle, an instantaneous power level, or an average power level of the microwave energy 712. In this manner, reactor 700 may configure the size, number, and concentration of graphene layers of FLG nanoplatelets formed on substrate 750, for example, by adjusting the pulse duration, pulse frequency, duty cycle, instantaneous power level, and / or average power level of the microwave energy 712 generated to create the non-thermal equilibrium plasma in reaction chamber 722. The ability to control the energy applied to the non-thermal equilibrium plasma allows targeted reactions to occur and promotes distribution of FLG nanoplatelets and other particles throughout substrate 750.

[0036] In some embodiments, a mixture of a hydrocarbon gas and silane may flow into the reaction chamber 722 through the input gas inlet 715 at a suitable flow rate. The hydrocarbon gas may be any suitable carbon-containing gas, such as (but not limited to) methane gas. The silane may be any suitable silane gas or silane-containing liquid precursor. In some embodiments, the silane may flow into the reaction chamber 722 at a flow rate between about 1 standard liter per minute (slm) and 10 slm / min. In some embodiments, an additive may be provided to the reaction chamber 722, for example, at the same time as the mixture is flowing into the reaction chamber 722. In some examples, the additive may include an alkali metal (such as lithium, sodium, potassium, calcium, fluorine, or bromine), a transition metal (such as copper or iron), or any combination thereof. In other examples, the additive may include lithium, nickel, manganese, copper, trimethylaluminum (TMA), trimethylgallium (TMG), sulfur, or any combination thereof. The additive may flow into the reactor at a flow rate between about 1% and 75% of the flow rate of the hydrocarbon gas.

[0037] Microwave energy 712 generated by microwave energy source 710 can be directed to a portion of reaction chamber 722 containing a mixture of hydrocarbon gas and silane. The microwave energy 712, which can have a power level of about 300 watts (W) to 25 kilowatts (kW), can excite the mixture of hydrocarbon gas and silane to generate a non-thermal equilibrium plasma. In some aspects, microwave energy source 710 can be a klystron or a traveling wave tube amplifier (TWTA). The non-thermal equilibrium plasma can include carbon-based radicals (such as methyl radicals), positively charged particles, ionized inert gas particles, or any combination thereof. In various embodiments, the carbon-based radicals, positively charged particles, and / or ionized inert gas particles 760 output from reaction chamber 722 via collector 726 can be directed to the surface / air interface of substrate 750 by bombardment and / or injection. Substrate 750 may be bombarded with carbon-based radicals, positively charged particles, and / or ionized inert gas particles to form, strengthen, and / or reinforce one or more portions of substrate 750. Portions of substrate 750 that are formed, strengthened, or reinforced in accordance with the techniques disclosed herein may have improved compressive strength, tensile strength, and fracture toughness, and therefore be more resilient to cracks and surface defects than conventional substrates such as, for example, glass materials.

[0038] More specifically, the surface / air interface of the substrate 750 may be bombarded by carbon-based radicals and ionized inert gas particles separated from the non-thermal equilibrium plasma of the reaction chamber 722. The ionized inert gas particles may penetrate the surface / air interface of the substrate 750 and form microcracks, microvoids, and / or surface defects in the portion of the substrate 750 below the surface / air interface. In some embodiments, the microcracks, microvoids, and / or surface defects formed by ion bombardment of the substrate 750 may define an interphase region of the substrate 750. The carbon-based radicals that penetrate the surface / air interface of the substrate 750 may be implanted into the interphase region.

[0039] In some embodiments, an external electric field can be applied to the reaction chamber 722 to accelerate the positively charged particles through the reaction chamber 722 along the direction 704 toward the substrate 750, thereby increasing the velocity and energy with which the positively charged particles can impact the surface / air interface of the substrate 750. For example, the electric potential source 730 can generate a negative electric field or potential that can accelerate the positively charged particles along the direction 704 toward the substrate 750 located at the metal substrate 740. In some embodiments, the negative electric potential generated by the electric potential source 730 can be configured to extract or separate the positively charged gas particles from the non-thermal equilibrium plasma based on the electrical polarity. In this manner, the negative electric field or potential can enable the positively charged particles as well as the ionized inert gas particles and carbon-based radicals to penetrate deeper into the interphase region of the substrate 750.

[0040] In various embodiments, reactor 700 can be cylindrical in shape with a diameter of up to 1 inch. In some embodiments, reactor 700 can be configured as a Gaussian reactor, while in other embodiments, reactor 700 can be configured as a non-Gaussian reactor (e.g., plasmas generated in non-Gaussian reactors typically exhibit better energy dissipation and energy distribution than plasmas generated in Gaussian reactors).

[0041] FIG. 8 illustrates another exemplary reactor 800, which may be an example of the reactor 700 of FIG. 7 and / or the fluidized bed reactor 110 of FIG. 1. The reactor 800 may be similar to the reactor 700 of FIG. 7 in some aspects and may differ from the reactor 700 of FIG. 7 in other aspects. For example, the reactor 800 may include a microwave energy source 710, an input gas inlet 715, a reaction chamber 820, an electric potential source 830, a metal substrate 740, and a current collector 726. In one aspect in which the reactor 800 differs from the reactor 700, rather than having an electric potential source 730 for generating an electric field within one or more portions of the reaction chamber 820, the reactor 800 includes a plurality of electrodes 828 positioned on opposite sides of one or more portions of the reaction chamber 820. The electrodes 828 may be configured to generate an internal electric field (e.g., based on a current and / or a voltage provided by a power source) capable of accelerating a plurality of positively charged particles. Additionally or alternatively, reactor 800 may also include an additional potential source (not shown for simplicity) positioned to generate a negative potential across reaction chamber 822 along direction 804, inducing current flow 832 along an inward-facing wall of reaction chamber 822. The induced current flow 832 within reaction chamber 822 may create a magnetic field capable of attracting and accelerating at least positively charged gas particles that are output through reaction chamber 822 from collector 726 toward substrate 750.

[0042] In addition to the methane gas added to reactor 700 and reactor 800 to generate carbon-based radicals, the carbon-containing precursor may include any known carbon particle or structure, such as those disclosed in ISO / TS 80004-13:2017(en) entitled "Nanotechnologies - Vocabulary - Part 13: Graphene and related two-dimensional (2D) materials."

[0043] In some embodiments, the hydrocarbon gas flowing into reactor 800 can be a short chain hydrocarbon gas, while in other embodiments, the hydrocarbon gas flowing into reactor 800 can be a long chain hydrocarbon gas. Specifically, the hydrocarbon gas can be methane (CH 4) and / or butane (C 4 H 10 In various embodiments, the generation of suitable carbon-based radicals from a non-thermal equilibrium plasma may be based on one or more of the following:

[0044] Input carbon-containing gas flow rate of 100 standard cubic centimeters per minute (sccm)-5 standard liters per minute (slm).

[0045] A lower flow rate typically results in improved fidelity and tunability, and therefore may contribute to accelerating the carbon-based species through reaction chamber 722 and reaction chamber 810. This may result in a slower doping rate of the additive.

[0046] Higher flow rates typically result in higher power output, but may reduce the fidelity and / or directionality of the FLG nanoplatelets.

[0047] Silane, and / or silane-containing liquid precursors such as hexamethyldisiloxane (HMDSO) or hexamethyldisilazane (HMDSN), as well as pure silane, may flow into reactor 700 and reactor 800 to provide a variety of suitable silicon source flow rates. In some embodiments, the silicon source flow rate may be one of 1-10 liters / minute, 11-20 liters / minute, 21-30 liters / minute, 31-40 liters / minute, 41-50 liters / minute, 51-60 liters, 61-70 liters / minute, 71-80 liters / minute, 81-90 liters / minute, 91-100 liters / minute, 101-200 liters / minute, or 201-530 liters / minute, with higher flow rates allowing for coating of additional additive material in response to accelerated ionized particles 716 and 816.

[0048] Gas species including lithium (Li), nickel (Ni), manganese (Mn), copper (Cu), trimethylaluminum (TMA), trimethylgallium (TMg), and sulfur (S) may flow into reactor 700 and reactor 800 to provide a silicon source flow rate of one of 1-10 liters / min, 11-20 liters / min, 21-30 liters / min, 31-40 liters / min, 41-50 liters / min, 51-60 liters / min, 61-70 liters / min, 71-80 liters / min, 81-90 liters / min, 91-100 liters / min, 101-200 liters / min, or 201-530 liters / min, where a higher flow rate may allow for a thicker coating of the additive on the FLG nanoplatelets.

[0049] The additive containing silica may flow into reactor 700 and reactor 800 at a rate of about 1% to 75% of the flow rate of the methane gas and / or may be dispersed in particulate form.

[0050] The additive may be configured to coat and / or decorate the accelerated ionized particles 760.

[0051] A preferred chemistry for the carbon-containing substrate 750 may include approximately 0.1%-5% additives and approximately 65%-99% silica, with the remainder attributable to carbon-containing materials (such as FLG nanoplatelets).

[0052] 9 illustrates an exemplary FLG nanoplatelet 900 according to some embodiments. The FLG nanoplatelet 900 can be produced and / or post-processed, for example, by the fluidized bed reactor 110 of FIG. 1 to produce the post-processed particles 160. For example, the FLG nanoplatelet 900 can be fused with additional instances of the FLG nanoplatelet 900 to produce one or more of the post-processed particles 160. In some examples, the FLG nanoplatelet 900 can have a structure in which a group of carbon-carbon bonded atoms bend or fold in response to an external force, pressure, or load.

[0053] In the example of FIG. 9, FLG nanoplatelet 900 is shown to include four graphene layers 901-904 stacked (e.g., vertically or substantially vertically) on top of one another. In other implementations, FLG nanoplatelet 900 may include other numbers of graphene layers. The number of graphene layers in FLG nanoplatelet 900 may affect one or more properties of FLG nanoplatelet 900. These properties may include, but are not limited to, the ability to absorb or dissipate energy, the ability to conduct electricity, and the ability to self-heal cracks formed in one or more materials.

[0054] FIG. 10 illustrates the synthesis of sulfuric acid (H ) from graphite, according to some embodiments. 2 SO 4 1 shows a micrograph 1000 of graphene material 1005 produced by exfoliation. In some embodiments, at least some of the graphene material 1005 fuses with one or more additional instances of graphene material 1005 to produce at least some of the carbon nanoparticles 118 and / or post-treatment particles 160 shown in FIG. 1. In some other embodiments, the shape and / or morphology of at least some of the graphene material 1005 is and / or resembles a flat nanoplatelet. Additionally, at least some of the graphene material 1005 may have a “wavy” or “wrinkled” morphology 1010, which may indicate that at least some of the flat nanoplatelets are joined at one or more defined angles (rather than straight, flat, or at a 180° angle). This may result in a relatively higher surface area to volume ratio per unit volume compared to non-wavy or non-wrinkled graphene material.

[0055] 11 illustrates a micrograph 1100 of microwave energy based wavy and / or wrinkled graphene 1105 according to some embodiments. In some examples, at least some of the microwave energy based wavy and / or wrinkled graphene 1105 may fuse with one or more additional instances of itself to produce at least some of the carbon nanoparticles 118 and / or post-processed particles 160 shown in FIG. 1. Additionally, at least some of the microwave energy based wavy and / or wrinkled graphene 1105 may be an example of the graphene material 1005 of FIG. 10. In some embodiments, the graphene nanoplatelets of at least some of the microwave energy based wavy and / or wrinkled graphene 1105 may be adjacent to one another to define various ridges and valleys 1115. In this manner, at least some of the ridges and valleys 1115 create regions of increased flexibility in the wavy and / or wrinkled graphene 1105 upon microwave energy, which may be suitable for infiltration, for example, by a polymeric material (e.g., PPgMA, etc.). 3 Hybridized polymer chains (e.g., polyethylene, PE) are sp 2 Compared to -C chain conjugate polymers (eg, poly(p-phenylene)), they may exhibit increased flexibility.

[0056] FIG. 12 shows a micrograph of an exemplary carbon particle 1205 according to some embodiments. In some aspects, at least some of the carbon particles 1205 can be an example of one or more of the carbon nanoparticles 118 and / or post-processed particles 160 shown in FIG. 1, respectively. Additionally, at least some of the carbon particles 1205 can be formed upon aggregation of some examples of the graphene material 1005 of FIG. 10 and / or the microwave energy-based wavy and / or wrinkled graphene 1105 of FIG. 11. In some examples, the carbon particles 1205 can be separated from one another by a first plurality of pores 1210 formed between adjacent examples of the carbon particles 1205. As shown in FIG. 12, each of the carbon particles 1205 can be a porous structure containing additional pores (e.g., including a second plurality of pores 1220) generated by overlapping secondary carbon particles 1215. In various embodiments, the average size of the first plurality of pores 1210 can be greater than the average size of the second plurality of pores 1220.

[0057] FIG. 13A shows a diagram of an example of a carbon particle (e.g., a tri-zone particle) shown in FIG. 12, according to some embodiments. In various embodiments, the tri-zone particle 1300A may be an example of any of the carbon nanoparticles 118 and / or post-treated particles 160 shown in FIG. 1. The tri-zone particle 1300A may include three separate zones, such as, but not limited to, a first zone 1301, a second zone 1302, and a third zone 1303. In some embodiments, each of the zones 1301-1303 surrounds and / or encapsulates the previous zone. For example, the first zone 1301 may be surrounded or encapsulated by the second zone 1302, which may be surrounded or encapsulated by the third zone 1303. The first zone 1301 may correspond to an interior region of the tri-zone particle 1300A, the second zone 1302 may correspond to a middle transition region of the tri-zone particle 1300A, and the third zone 1303 may correspond to an exterior region of the tri-zone particle 1300A. In some embodiments, the tri-zone particle 1300A may include a permeable shell 1305 that deforms in response to contact with one or more adjacent non-tri-zone particles and / or the tri-zone particle 1300A.

[0058] In some implementations, the first zone 1301 can have a relatively low density, a relatively low electrical conductivity, and a relatively high porosity, the second zone 1302 can have an intermediate density, an intermediate electrical conductivity, and an intermediate porosity, and the third zone 1303 can have a relatively high density, a relatively high electrical conductivity, and a relatively low porosity. In some embodiments, the first zone 1301 can have a density of the carbon material between about 1.5 g / cc and 5.0 g / cc, the second zone 1302 can have a density of the carbon material between about 0.5 g / cc and 3.0 g / cc, and the third zone 1303 can have a density of the carbon material between about 0.0 and 1.5 g / cc. In other embodiments, the first zone 1301 can include a pore having a width of about 0-40 nm, the second zone 1302 can include a pore having a width of about 0-35 nm, and the third zone 1303 can include a pore having a width of about 0-30 nm. In some other implementations, the second zone 1302 may not be defined for the tri-zone particle 500A. In one implementation, the first zone 1301 has a major dimension D of about 0 nm to 100 nm. 1 , the second zone 1302 has a major dimension D of about 20 nm to 150 nm. 2 , the third zone 1303 has a major dimension D of about 200 nm 3 , may be included.

[0059] Aspects of the present disclosure recognize that the unique layout of the tri-zone particle 1300A, as well as the relative dimensions, porosity, and electrical conductivity of the first zone 1301, the second zone 1302, and the third zone 1303, can be selected and / or modified to achieve a desired balance between minimizing the polysulfide shuttle effect and maximizing the specific capacity of the host battery. Specifically, in some aspects, the pores may decrease in size and volume from one zone to the other. In some embodiments, the tri-zone particle may be entirely composed of one zone with a range of pore widths and pore distributions (e.g., pore densities). In the example of FIG. 13B, the pores 1311 associated with the first zone 1301 or first porous region have a relatively large width and may be defined as macropores, the pores 1312 associated with the second zone 1302 or second porous region have a medium sized width and may be defined as mesopores, and the pores 1313 associated with the third zone 1303 or third porous region have a relatively small width and may be defined as micropores.

[0060] Groups of tri-zone particles 1300A may be joined to form aggregates (not shown for simplicity), and groups of aggregates may be joined to form agglomerates (not shown for simplicity). In some embodiments, a plurality of mesopores may be interspersed throughout the aggregates formed by each group of tri-zone particles 1300A. In some aspects, the first porosity region 1311 may be at least partially enclosed by the second porosity region 1312 such that each aggregate may include one or more mesopores and one or more macropores. In one embodiment, each mesopore has a major dimension between 3.3 nanometers (nm) and 19.3 nm, and each macropore has a major dimension between 0.1 μm and 1,000 μm. In some examples, the tri-zone particles 1300A may include carbon fragments that are intertwined with one another and separated from one another by at least a portion of the mesopores.

[0061] In some embodiments, the tri-zone particle 1300A can include a surfactant or polymer that can act as a binder to bind the groups of carbon materials together, which can include one or more of styrene-butadiene rubber, polyvinylidene fluoride, polyacrylic acid, carboxymethyl cellulose, polyvinylpyrrolidone, and / or polyvinyl acetate. In other embodiments, the tri-zone particle 1300A can include a gel or solid phase electrolyte disposed within at least some of the pores.

[0062] In some embodiments, the trizone particle 1300A is 10 2 / g~3,000m 2 / g and / or 10 m 2 / g~3,000m 2 In one embodiment, a composition including a multiplicity of tri-zone particles 1300A can have a conductivity in the range of 100 S / m to 20,000 S / m at a pressure of 12,000 pounds per square inch and a sulfur to carbon weight ratio of between about 1:5 to 10:1.

[0063] FIG. 13B shows an exemplary step function representing the tri-zone particle of FIG. 13A according to some implementations. As discussed, the pores distributed throughout the tri-zone particle 1300A may have different sizes, volumes, or distributions. In some implementations, the average pore volume may decrease based on the distance between the center of the tri-zone particle 1300A and adjacent zones, such that, for example, the pores associated with the first zone 1301 or first porosity region have a relatively large volume or pore width, the pores associated with the second zone 1302 or second porosity region have an intermediate volume, and the pores associated with the third zone 1303 or third porosity region have a relatively small volume. The interior region has a higher pore volume than the region near the periphery. The region with the higher pore volume provides high sulfur loading, while the lower pore volume outer region mitigates the movement of polysulfides during the cell cycle. In the example of FIG. 8C, the average pore volume of the inner region is about 3 cc / g, the average pore volume of the outermost region is −0.5 cc / g, and the average pore volume of the middle region is 0.5 cc / g to 3 cc / g.

[0064] FIG. 14 shows a graph 1400 illustrating an exemplary distribution of pore volume versus pore width for an exemplary carbon particle, according to some embodiments. In some examples, the exemplary carbon particle can be one of the carbon nanoparticles 118 and / or post-treated particles 160 shown in FIG. 1. As shown in graph 1400, pores associated with a relatively high pore volume can have a relatively low pore width, e.g., pore width generally increases as pore volume decreases. In some embodiments, pores having a pore width less than about 1.0 nm can be referred to as micropores, pores having a pore width between about 3 and 11 nm can be referred to as mesopores, and pores having a pore width greater than about 24 nm can be referred to as macropores.

[0065] FIG. 15A shows an electron micrograph of exemplary carbon particles, aggregates, and / or agglomerates shown in FIG. 12 and / or FIG. 13A according to some embodiments. In some aspects, the carbon particles shown in FIG. 15A may be an example of the carbon nanoparticles 118 and / or post-processed particles 160 shown in FIG. 1. In some embodiments, each of the carbon structures 1502 may have a substantially hollow core region surrounded by various monolithic carbon growths and / or layers. In some aspects, the monolithic carbon growths and / or layers may be examples of various carbon structures, growths and / or layers. In some examples, the carbon structures 1502 may include multiple concentric multi-layer fullerenes and / or similarly shaped carbon structures organized at various levels of density and / or concentration. For example, the final shape, size, and graphene configuration of each carbon structure 1502 may depend on various manufacturing processes. In some aspects, the carbon structures 1502 may exhibit poor water solubility. Thus, in some embodiments, non-covalent functionalization may be used to alter one or more dispersibility properties of the carbon structure 1502 without affecting the intrinsic properties of the underlying carbon nanomaterial. In some aspects, the underlying carbon nanomaterial is a sp 2 1. In some embodiments, each of the carbon structures 1502 may have a diameter of about 20-500 nm. In various embodiments, groups of the carbon structures 1502 may coalesce and / or assemble to form aggregates 1504. Additionally, groups of aggregates 1504 may coalesce and / or combine to form agglomerates 1506. In some embodiments, one or more of the carbon structures 1502, aggregates 1504, and / or agglomerates 1506 may be used to form one or more of the carbon nanoparticles 118 and / or post-processing particles 160 shown in FIG. 1.

[0066] FIG. 15B shows a micrograph 1550 of an aggregate formed from a carbon material, according to some embodiments. In some implementations, the aggregate 1560 can be an example of one of the aggregates 1504 of FIG. 9A. In one embodiment, the outer carbon shell-type structure 1552 can fuse with carbon provided by other carbon shell-type structures 1554 to form a carbon structure 1556. A group of carbon structures 1556 can coalesce and / or bond to form the agglomerate 1560. In some embodiments, the core region 1558 of each carbon structure 1556 can be tunable in that the core region 1558 can include various defined concentration levels of interconnected graphene structures and / or carbon particles, for example, as described in FIG. 5A and / or FIG. 5B. In some embodiments, each carbon structure 1556 can have a first concentration of interconnected carbon at or near the outer carbon shell-type structure 1552, between about 0.1 g / cc and 2.3 g / cc. Each carbon structure 1556 includes a lithium ion (Li + ) may have pores for transporting the

[0067] In some embodiments, each pore of the carbon structures 1556 can have a width or dimension of about 0.0 nm to 0.5 nm, about 0.0 to 0.1 nm, about 0.0 to 6.0 nm, or about 0.0 to 35 nm. Each carbon structure 1556 can also have a second concentration at or near the core region 1558 that is different from the first concentration. For example, the second concentration can include a plurality of relatively low density carbon regions arranged in a concentric ring. In one embodiment, the second concentration is lower than the first concentration and can be in the range of about 0.0 g / cc to 1.0 g / cc, or in the range of about 1.0 g / cc to 1.5 g / cc. In some embodiments, the relationship between the first concentration and the second concentration is determined by the relationship between the trapping of sulfur or polysulfides and the trapping of lithium cations (Li +For example, sulfur and / or polysulfides can migrate through a first concentration and be at least temporarily trapped in and / or interspersed throughout a second concentration during the operation cycle of a lithium-sulfur battery.

[0068] In some embodiments, at least a portion of the carbon structure 1556 may comprise CNO oxides organized as monolithic and / or interconnected growths and produced in a thermal reactor. For example, the carbon structure 1556 may be decorated with cobalt nanoparticles according to the following example recipe: a cobalt salt of acetate (often tetrahydrate Co(CH) 3 CO 2 ) 2 4H 2 O, which is Co(Oac) 2 4H 2 Cobalt(II) acetate (sometimes abbreviated as C0) is 4 H 6 Chief of Staff 4 ) is flowed into a thermal reactor at a ratio of about 59.60 wt%, which corresponds to 40.40 wt% carbon (referring to carbon in the form of CNO), resulting in functionalization of the active sites of the CNO oxide with cobalt, with cobalt-decorated CNO being observed at a level of 15,000 times, respectively. In some embodiments, a suitable gas mixture used to produce carbon #29 and / or cobalt-decorated CNO may include the following steps:

[0069] 30 minutes of Ar purge at 0.75 standard cubic feet per minute (scfm) Ar purge changed to 0.25scfm for running -Temperature rise from 25℃ to 300℃ in 20 minutes -Temperature rise from 300℃ to 500℃ in 15 minutes The carbon material described with reference to Figures 15A and 15B may include or be otherwise formed from one or more instances of graphene, which may include a monolayer of carbon atoms with each atom bonded to three adjacent atoms in a honeycomb structure. The monolayer may be a discrete material constrained in one dimension, such as in or at the surface of a condensed phase. For example, graphene may grow outward only in the x and y planes (but not in the z plane). Thus, graphene may be a two-dimensional (2D) material that includes one or more layers with atoms in each layer strongly bonded (such as by multiple carbon-carbon bonds) to adjacent atoms in the same layer.

[0070] In some implementations, the graphene nanoplatelets (e.g., the forming structures included in each of the charcoal structures 1556) may include multiple instances of graphene, such as a first graphene layer, a second graphene layer, and a third graphene layer, all stacked vertically on top of each other. Each of the graphene nanoplatelets, which may be referred to as GNPs, may have a thickness of 1 nm to 3 nm and may have lateral dimensions in the range of about 100 nm to 100 μm. In some implementations, the graphene nanoplatelets may be produced by roll-to-roll (R2R) production, by multiple plasma spray torches arranged in series. In some embodiments, R2R production may include deposition on successive substrates that are processed as rolled sheets, including the transfer of 2D material(s) to separate substrates. In some examples, the plasma spray torches used in the R2R process described above may spray carbon materials at different concentration levels to produce specific concentration levels of graphene nanoplatelets. Thus, the R2R process can provide a precise level of tunability to produce carbon nanoparticles 118 and / or treated particles 160 shown in FIG. 1, and / or other carbon particles as described elsewhere in this disclosure.

[0071] 16 shows a graph 1600 illustrating the cumulative pore volume versus pore width for micropores and mesopores dispersed throughout a carbon particle 1205 shown in the electron micrograph 1200 of FIG. 12, according to some embodiments. As used herein, "Carbon 1" refers to a structured carbon material that contains primarily micropores (e.g., less than 5 nm in a major dimension) and "Carbon 2" refers to a structured carbon material that contains primarily mesopores (e.g., about 20 nm to 50 nm in a major dimension). In some embodiments, an electrode suitable for use in one of the batteries disclosed herein can be prepared to have the pore width versus pore distribution shown in graph 1600.

[0072] FIG. 17 illustrates an exemplary configuration 1700 of the exemplary carbon particles illustrated in FIG. 12, according to some embodiments. In some embodiments, the configuration 1700 can be an example of one or more of the carbon nanoparticles 118 and / or post-processed particles 160 illustrated in FIG. 1. The configuration 1700 can be suitable for producing a carbon-based battery cathode, such as, for example, a carbon scaffold for incorporation into a lithium-sulfur battery. In one implementation, the cathode 1700 includes a first porous carbon region 1710 and a second porous carbon region 1720 disposed adjacent to the first porous carbon region 1710. The first porous carbon region 1710 can be formed from a first concentration level of carbon material, and the second porous carbon region 1720 can be formed from a second concentration level of carbon material that is different from the first concentration level of carbon material. For example, the second porous carbon region 1720 can have a lower concentration level of carbon material than the first porous carbon region 1710, as illustrated in FIG. 17. In some embodiments, additional porous carbon regions (not shown in FIG. 9 for simplicity) may be coupled to at least the second porous carbon region 1720.

[0073] Specifically, these additional porous carbon regions may be arranged in an order that gradually decreases the concentration level of carbon material in a direction away from the first porous carbon region 1710 to provide full tunability. That is, in one embodiment, the second porous carbon region 1720 may be oriented in the desired area and the first porous carbon region 1710 of the configuration 1700 may be arranged according to customer specifications. In this manner, a denser carbon region, such as the first porous carbon region 1710, may promote a relatively low level of material between adjacent contact points of carbon material, while a sparser carbon region, such as the second porous carbon region 1720, may promote a relatively high level of material infiltration, including. In some embodiments, the additional carbon region that is coupled with and disposed adjacent to the second porous carbon region 1720 may have a lower density of carbon material than the second porous carbon region 1720. In this manner, the lower density additional carbon region may accommodate a higher level of lithium ion transport, for example, to enable tuning of various performance characteristics of a composite material including the configuration 1700.

[0074] In one implementation, the first porous carbon region 1710 may include first non-tri-zone particles 1711. The configuration of the first non-tri-zone particles 1711 within the first porous carbon region is one exemplary configuration. Other arrangements, orientations, alignments, etc. are possible for the non-tri-zone particles. In some embodiments, each non-tri-zone particle may be one or more examples of carbon materials disclosed elsewhere in this disclosure. The first porous carbon region 1710 may also include first tri-zone particles 1711 interspersed throughout the first non-tri-zone particles 1712, as shown in FIG. 17, or positioned in any other arrangement, orientation, or configuration. Each first tri-zone particle 1712 may be an example of the tri-zone particle 1300A of FIG. 13A. Additionally or alternatively, each of the first tri-zone particles 1712 may include first carbon fragments 1713 intertwined with one another and separated from one another by mesopores 1714. Each tri-zone particle may have a first deformable perimeter 1715 configured to merge with an adjacent first non-tri-zone particle 1711 and / or first tri-zone particle 1712.

[0075] The first porous carbon region 1710 may also include first agglomerates 1716, each agglomerate including a plurality of first tri-zone particles 1712 bonded together. In one or more particular examples, each first agglomerate may have a major dimension in the range of 10 nanometers (nm) to 10 micrometers (μm). The mesopores 914 may be interspersed throughout the first plurality of agglomerates, each mesopore having a major dimension between 3.3 nanometers (nm) to 19.3 nm. Additionally, the first porous carbon region 910 may include first agglomerates 917, each agglomerate including a plurality of first agglomerates 916 bonded together. In some embodiments, each first agglomerate 917 may have a major dimension in the range of about 0.1 μm to 1,000 μm. Macropores 918 may be interspersed throughout the first aggregate 916, and each macropore may have a major dimension between 0.1 μm and 1,000 μm. In some embodiments, one or more of the carbon materials, allotropes and / or structures described above may be one or more of the examples shown in Figures 15A and 15B.

[0076] The second porous carbon may include a second non-tri-zone particle 1721, which may be an example of the first non-tri-zone particle 1711. The second porous carbon region 1720 may include second tri-zone particles 1722, which may each be an example of each of the first tri-zone particles 1712 and / or may be an example of the tri-zone particle 1300A of FIG. 13A. Additionally or alternatively, each second tri-zone particle 1322 may include second carbon fragments 1323 intertwined with each other and separated from each other by mesopores 1714. Each second tri-zone particle 1722 may have a second deformable perimeter 1725 configured to merge with one or more adjacent second non-tri-zone particles 1721 or second tri-zone particles 1722.

[0077] Additionally, the second porous carbon region 1720 may include second agglomerates 1726, each of which may include a plurality of second tri-zone particles 1722 bonded together. In one or more particular examples, each of the second agglomerates 1726 may have a major dimension in the range of 10 nanometers (nm) to 10 micrometers (μm). The mesopores 1714 may be interspersed throughout the second agglomerates 1726, each of which may have a major dimension between 3.3 nanometers (nm) to 19.3 nm. Additionally, the second porous carbon region 1720 may include second agglomerates 1727, each of which may include a plurality of second agglomerates 1726 bonded together, each of which may have a major dimension in the range of about 0.1 μm to about 1,000 μm. Macropores 918 may be interspersed throughout the second plurality of aggregates, each macropore having a major dimension between 0.1 μm and 1,000 μm. In some embodiments, one or more of the carbon materials, allotropes and / or structures described above may be one or more of the examples shown in Figures 17A and 17B.

[0078] In one implementation, the first porous carbon region 1710 and / or the second porous carbon region 1720 can include a selectively permeable shell (not shown in FIG. 9 for simplicity) that can form a separate liquid phase on the first porous carbon region 910 or the second porous carbon region 1720, respectively. An electrolyte, such as any of the electrolytes disclosed in this disclosure, can be dispersed within the first porous carbon region and / or the second porous carbon region for lithium ion transport associated with discharge-charge cycling of a lithium-sulfur battery.

[0079] In one or more specific examples, the electrical conductivity of the first porous carbon region 1710 ranges from approximately 500 S / m to 20,000 S / m at a pressure of 12,000 pounds per square inch (psi). The electrical conductivity of the second porous carbon region 920 ranges from approximately 0 S / m to 500 S / m at a pressure of 12,000 pounds per square inch (psi). The first agglomerates 1717 and / or the second agglomerates 1727 may include aggregates linked together with one or more polymer-based binders.

[0080] In some aspects, each first tri-zone particle 1712 can include a first porosity region (not shown in FIG. 17 for simplicity) located about a center of the first tri-zone particle 1712. Similarly, each second tri-zone particle 1722 can include a first porosity region (not shown in FIG. 17 for simplicity) located about a center of the second tri-zone particle 99. The first porosity region can include first pores. The second porosity region (not shown in FIG. 17 for simplicity) can surround the first porosity region. The second porosity region can include second pores. In one embodiment, the first pores can define a first pore density and the second pores can define a second pore density that is different from the first pore density.

[0081] In some embodiments, the mesopores 1714 may be grouped into first mesopores and second mesopores (both not shown in FIG. 17 for simplicity). In one or more particular examples, the first mesopores may have a first mesopore density and the second mesopores may have a second mesopore density that is different from the first mesopore density. Additionally, the macropores 1718 may be grouped into first macropores, which may have a first pore density, and second macropores, which may have a second pore density that is different from the first pore density (both not shown in FIG. 17 for simplicity).

[0082] FIG. 18 illustrates an exemplary battery 1800, according to some embodiments. In one embodiment, the battery 1800 may be implemented as a lithium-sulfur battery and includes an anode 1820 (e.g., an anode active material including a foil of lithium), a cathode 1810, and a solid electrolyte 1830. In some examples, the solid electrolyte 1830 may replace one or more of the electrolyte solution compositions provided in Examples 1-20. In some aspects, the cathode 1810 is 0.1 cubic centimeter (cm 3 In another embodiment, the cathode 1810 may be loaded with 3 milligrams (mg) of elemental sulfur per cubic centimeter (cm) suitable for maximizing the efficiency of the discharge-charge cycles of the battery 1800. 3 Other concentrations of elemental sulfur up to 3 milligrams (mg) per cubic metre may be supported. In some embodiments, the cathode 1810 may be porous and formed from a composition including a plurality of pores 1812 (not shown in FIG. 18 for simplicity). The product composition may be one example of the various carbonaceous materials and / or structures disclosed herein.

[0083] The solid electrolyte 1830 is dispersed throughout at least the pores 1812 of the cathode 1810 and may also be in contact with the anode 1820. In some embodiments, the solid electrolyte 1830 may be formed as a membrane, thereby providing the ion conducting capability associated with the separator. In one embodiment, the solid electrolyte 1830 is formed from and / or includes a polymer matrix 1831, which may be formed in a structure of interconnected glass fibers 1833. In some embodiments, the polymer matrix 1831 is ionically conductive (e.g., for lithium cations (Li +)) and includes 8 wt% to 12 wt% polyethylene oxide (PEO) 1832, 13 wt% to 17 wt% polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) 1834, 3 wt% to 7 wt% polyetheramine 2535 with repeating oxypropylene units in the backbone (not shown in FIG. 18 for simplicity), and 5 wt% to 10 wt% of one or more lithium-containing salts (not shown in FIG. 18 for simplicity) including lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (LiTFSI) or lithium iodide (LiI). In some embodiments, at least a portion of the lithium-containing salts are lithium cations (Li + ) which may aid in lithium ion transport between the anode 1820 and the cathode 1810 during discharge-charge cycles of the battery 1800.

[0084] In some examples, the battery 1800 may generate undesirable lithium-containing polysulfide species (not shown in FIG. 18 for simplicity) during discharge-charge cycles of the battery 1800. In some examples, the cathode 1810 may at least partially capture and / or retain the lithium-containing polysulfide species, thereby preventing blockage of lithium transport pathways (e.g., as shown in charge cycle flow 1825) within the solid electrolyte 1830. In some embodiments, the anode 1820 transports lithium cations (Li + ) during the discharge-charge cycle of the battery 1800. + In other embodiments, the cavity 1822 may receive lithium deposition from the cathode 1810 during a charge cycle of the battery 1800. That is, lithium cations (Li + ) may migrate from the cathode 1810 to the cavity 1822 along discharge cycle flow 1824 in the process of transferring electrons 1874 back to the battery 1800 in connection with the charging and / or recharging cycles of the battery. In this manner, the cavity 1822 is converted to the anode 1820 and becomes a lithium cation (Li +) can again be delivered to their respective electrochemically favorable locations within the cathode 1810.

[0085] In one embodiment, the composition used to form the cathode 1810 may be formed from and / or may include one or more non-tri-zone particles, tri-zone particles, aggregates, or agglomerates as disclosed herein. In some embodiments, each tri-zone particle used in the cathode 1810 may include interconnected carbon fragments. At least some of the carbon fragments may be separated from one another by mesopores. One or more adjacent non-tri-zone particles or tri-zone particles may be bonded together to define a deformable perimeter. Each aggregate may include multiple tri-zone particles bonded together, each aggregate having a major dimension in the range of 10 nanometers (nm) to 10 micrometers (μm). Mesopores may be interspersed throughout the aggregate. Each mesopore may have a major dimension of 3.3 nanometers (nm) to 19.3 nm. Each agglomerate may be formed by multiple aggregates bonded together and may have a major dimension in the range of about 0.1 μm to 1,000 μm. The macropores may be interspersed throughout the second plurality of aggregates, each macropore having a major dimension between 0.1 μm and 1,000 μm.

[0086] In some embodiments, when formed and / or deposited into a film (not shown in FIG. 18 for simplicity) on the anode 1820 surface, the ionic conductivity of the solid electrolyte 1830 may be based on the relative concentration levels of one or more lithium-containing salts doped into the polymer matrix 1831. In this manner, the ionic conductivity of the solid electrolyte 1830 may be greater than 0.97×10 at temperatures between 18° C. and 22° C. -3 Siemens per meter (S / m) ~ 1.03 x 10 -3 In another embodiment, the membrane has an ionic conductivity of 3.97×10 at a temperature between 18° C. and 22° C. -6 Siemens per meter (S / m) ~ 4.03 x 10 -6It may be coated on the anode 1820 such that it is S / m. In some embodiments, a greater amount of one or more lithium-containing salts may be associated with an increase in the ionic conductivity of the polymer matrix 1831.

[0087] In one embodiment, when the solid electrolyte 1830 is formed as a film, it may have a thickness between 10 micrometers (μm) and 50 μm and may have a uniform density throughout its thickness. For example, in some instances, the solid electrolyte 1830 may have a density of 2 grams per cubic centimeter (g / cm 3 ) to 3 g / cm 3 . In some embodiments, the film may be coated on a sacrificial polymer (not shown in FIG. 18 for simplicity), and the sacrificial polymer may be disposed on the anode 1820 facing the solid electrolyte 1830. In this way, the solid electrolyte 1830 can prevent electrons from moving from the anode 1820 through the solid electrolyte 1830 to the cathode 1810. Further, the contact point between the solid electrolyte 1830 and the anode 1820 may prevent the growth of the impedance of the battery 1800.

[0088] In one embodiment, the cathode 1810 has a thickness between 50 micrometers (μm) and 150 μm and a density of 5 grams per cubic centimeter (g / cm 3 ) to 15 g / cm 3 . In some embodiments, the solid electrolyte 2360 may be prepared without a liquid electrolyte, such as in Examples 1-20 disclosed herein. Additionally, or alternatively, the solid electrolyte 1830 may localize lithium-containing polysulfide species within the cathode 1810 and / or prevent the growth of lithium-containing dendritic structures from the anode 1820. In some embodiments, the anode 1820 may expand in volume between 5% and 20% of its initial size during the charge and discharge cycles of the battery 1800. In some instances, the solid electrolyte 1830 provides interface stability between the anode 1820 and the solid electrolyte 1830 to suppress or limit, for example, the volume expansion of the anode 1820 during the charge and discharge cycles of the battery 1800.

[0089] As used herein, a reference to "at least one" or "one or more" of a list of items refers to any combination of those items, including single members. For example, "at least one of a, b, or c" is intended to cover the possibilities of a only, b only, c only, a combination of a and b, a combination of a and c, a combination of b and c, and a combination of a, b, and c.

[0090] The various illustrative components, logic circuits, logic blocks, modules, circuits, operations, and algorithmic processes described in connection with the embodiments disclosed herein, including the structures disclosed herein and structural equivalents thereof, may be implemented as electronic hardware, firmware, software, or a combination of hardware, firmware, or software. The compatibility of hardware, firmware, and software is generally described in terms of the functionality and illustrated in the various illustrative components, blocks, modules, and processes described above. Whether such functionality is implemented in hardware, firmware, or software depends on the application and design constraints imposed on the overall system.

[0091] Various modifications to the embodiments described in this disclosure may be readily apparent to those skilled in the art, and the general principles defined herein may be applied to other embodiments without departing from the spirit or scope of the disclosure. Thus, the claims are not intended to be limited to the embodiments shown herein, but are to be accorded the widest scope consistent with this disclosure, the principles and novel features disclosed herein.

[0092] Moreover, various features described herein in the context of separate embodiments can also be implemented in combination in a single embodiment. Moreover, various features described in the context of a single embodiment can also be implemented in multiple embodiments separately or in any suitable subcombination. Thus, although features may be described above in combination with one another and may even be initially claimed as such, one or more features from a claimed combination may, in some cases, be carved out of the combination, and the claimed combination may be directed to a subcombination or variation of the subcombination.

[0093] Similarly, while operations are shown in the figures in a particular order, this should not be understood as requiring such operations to be performed in the particular order or sequential order shown, or that all of the operations shown be performed, to achieve a desired result. Additionally, the figures may generally depict another exemplary process in the form of a flow chart or flow diagram. However, other operations not shown may be incorporated into the exemplary process generally described. For example, one or more additional operations may be performed before, after, simultaneously with, or between the operations shown in the figures. In some circumstances, multitasking and parallel processing may be advantageous. Additionally, the separation of various system components in the embodiments described above should not be understood as requiring such separation in all embodiments, and it should be understood that the program components and systems described may generally be integrated together in a single product or may be included in multiple products.

Claims

1. 1. A system comprising a fluidized bed reactor, a gas source configured to flow a gas phase mixture into the interior of the fluidized bed reactor; a gas inlet valve coupled to and in fluid communication with the gas source, the gas inlet valve configured to regulate a flow of the gas phase mixture into the interior of the fluidized bed reactor; a gas-solid separator disposed in the fluidized bed reactor upstream of the gas inlet valve; an energy source configured to generate a plasma phase mixture in response to electromagnetic excitation of the gas phase mixture, the plasma phase mixture being formed within a plasma region adjacent to or within the interior of the fluidized bed reactor; a pressure control assembly configured to adjust one or more of a pressure or a velocity of at least a portion of the plurality of carbon nanoparticles supported within the fluidized bed reactor; an energy management device external to the fluidized bed reactor, the energy management device configured to control energy excitation of the gas phase mixture via the energy source.

2. 10. The system of claim 1, wherein the fluidized bed reactor is formed as an elongated tube including an outlet configured to discharge the gas phase mixture and one or more gases produced in association with generating the plasma phase mixture.

3. The system of claim 1 , wherein the energy source comprises a microwave coupled plasma torch configured to operate in either a pulsed mode or a continuous mode.

4. 4. The system of claim 3, wherein the microwave coupled plasma torch is configured to operate at a pressure between 1 milliTorr (mTorr) and 760 Torr.

5. 5. The system of claim 4, wherein the cross-sectional area of ​​the fluidized bed reactor is one of a rectangle, a square, a bell-shape, a circle, or an ellipse.

6. The system of claim 3 , wherein the microwave coupled plasma torches are positioned along one or more sides of the fluidized bed reactor.

7. 4. The system of claim 3, wherein the microwave coupled plasma torch is configured to disperse an additional amount of the plasma phase mixture into the interior of the fluidized bed reactor, the additional amount of the plasma phase mixture being configured to energetically excite one or more of the gas phase mixture, the plasma phase mixture, or the plurality of carbon nanoparticles.

8. The system of claim 1 , wherein the gas phase mixture is configured to prevent escape of the carbon nanoparticles from the fluidized bed reactor.

9. 10. The system of claim 1, further comprising a side port formed in the fluidized bed reactor, the side port configured to supply an additional gas phase mixture into the fluidized bed reactor.

10. The system of claim 1 , wherein the energy source is external to the fluidized bed reactor.

11. The system of claim 1 , wherein the fluidized bed reactor is configured to modify a crystal structure of at least a portion of the carbon nanoparticles.

12. The system of claim 1 , wherein the fluidized bed reactor is configured to chemically alter one or more exposed surfaces of at least a portion of the carbon nanoparticles.

13. The system of claim 1 , wherein the energy source is configured to generate the plasma phase mixture in either a thermal equilibrium state or a non-thermal equilibrium state in response to a control signal.

14. The system of claim 13 , wherein the thermal equilibrium condition is configured to control a plurality of energy characteristics associated with one or more of the plasma phase mixture or the gas phase mixture.

15. The system of claim 14 , wherein the plurality of energy characteristics comprises a rate of energy transfer between the plasma phase mixture and the gas phase mixture.

16. The system of claim 1 , wherein the fluidized bed reactor is configured to homogenize at least a portion of the plurality of carbon nanoparticles.

17. The system of claim 1 , wherein the plurality of carbon nanoparticles comprises one or more non-hollow carbon sphere (NHCS) particles.

18. 10. The system of claim 1, wherein the energy management device further comprises a matching network coupled to the energy source, and wherein the fluidized bed reactor is configured to control a residence time associated with the matching network.

19. 20. The system of claim 18, wherein the plurality of carbon nanoparticles are supported within a powder preloaded within the interior of the fluidized bed reactor.

20. 20. The system of claim 19, wherein the plurality of carbon nanoparticles are configured to fluidize above the gas-solid separator in response to the flow of the gas-phase mixture into the interior of the fluidized bed reactor.

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