Systems and methods for treating ammonia

Abstract

The present disclosure provides systems and methods for processing ammonia (NH). A heater may heat a reformer and an NH reforming catalyst therein. NH may be directed to the reformer from a storage tank, where the NH may be decomposed to produce a reformate stream comprising hydrogen (H) and nitrogen (N). At least a portion of the reformate stream may be used to heat the reformer. In some embodiments, a first portion of the reformate stream is made from ammonia, additional ammonia, or a combination thereof.

Description

[Technical Field]

[0001] cross reference This application claims priority to U.S. Patent Application No. 18 / 454,692, filed August 23, 2023, which is a continuation of U.S. Patent Application No. 17 / 975,184, filed October 27, 2022, which is a continuation of U.S. Patent Application No. 17 / 974,997, filed October 27, 2022, which is a continuation of U.S. Patent Application No. 17 / 974,885, filed October 27, 2022, and which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 413,717, filed October 6, 2022, each of which is incorporated by reference in its entirety for all purposes. This application also claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 423,717, filed November 8, 2022, U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 449,655, filed March 3, 2023, U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 457,740, filed April 6, 2023, U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 510,342, filed June 26, 2023, and U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 581,916, filed September 11, 2023, each of which is incorporated by reference in its entirety herein for all purposes.

[0002] Generally, the present disclosure provides systems and methods for processing ammonia (NH). In one example, the NH may contact a catalyst in a heated reformer to produce a reformate stream comprising hydrogen (H) and nitrogen (N). In this example, the reformate stream may be directed to heat the reformer. [Background technology]

[0003] Fuel sources can be used to power various systems. A fuel source can have a specific energy corresponding to the amount of energy that can be stored or extracted per unit mass of the fuel. The fuel source can be provided to various systems to enable such systems to generate energy and / or provide electricity (e.g., for travel or transportation). Fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and natural gas, remain the most widely used fuel type for powering various systems. Generally, fossil fuels are hydrocarbon materials containing carbon and hydrogen and must be burned to produce energy. Burning fossil fuels releases large amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, contributing to pollution and global warming. As the global economy aims to decarbonize by 2050, interest in zero-carbon (or carbon-neutral) energy systems is rapidly increasing. Scalable zero-emission fuels ("SZEF") are chemical fuels created using renewable, zero-carbon energy. Importantly, SZEF can replace fuels used in sectors that are difficult to decarbonize. Therefore, ammonia, particularly because it contains no carbon, is an attractive alternative energy fuel source. Summary of the Invention

[0004] Hydrogen, a scalable zero-emission fuel (SZEF), can be leveraged as clean energy to power a variety of systems. Hydrogen can be synthetically created, for example, by electrolyzing fresh water using wind and solar energy, without carbon emissions. Hydrogen may offer advantages over other chemical fuels, such as diesel, gasoline, or jet fuel, which have a specific energy of approximately 45 megajoules per kilogram (heat), and over lithium-ion batteries, which have a specific energy of approximately 0.95 megajoules (MJ) per kilogram (kg) (electrical). In contrast, hydrogen has a specific energy (heat) of over 140 MJ / kg, such that 1 kg of hydrogen can provide the same amount of energy as approximately 3 kg of gasoline or kerosene. Thus, hydrogen reduces the amount (mass) of fuel required to provide an equivalent amount of energy. Furthermore, systems that use hydrogen as a fuel source generally create benign or non-toxic byproducts, such as water, and minimize or nearly eliminate greenhouse gas (e.g., carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide) emissions, thereby reducing the environmental impact of various systems (e.g., transportation) that use hydrogen as a fuel source. Various limitations of currently available hydrogen storage and production systems are recognized herein. While hydrogen has a relatively high gravimetric density (measured in MJ / kg), fuel storage systems for compressed and liquefied hydrogen are often complex due to specialized storage requirements. For example, hydrogen storage may require tanks capable of withstanding high pressures (e.g., about 350-700 bar or about 5,000-10,000 psi) and / or may require cryogenic temperatures (due to the boiling point of hydrogen at 1 atmosphere being about −252.8°C). Additionally, hydrogen storage containers may be constructed using materials that are highly specialized, expensive, and difficult to develop, which may limit the ability to manufacture such hydrogen storage containers on a large scale. Ammonia (NH3) is a SZEF that can be used as a hydrogen storage medium. Ammonia overcomes some of the above-mentioned disadvantages of hydrogen because it can be stored at significantly lower pressures (and / or higher temperatures) than hydrogen.Additionally, various limitations of conventional ammonia processing systems are recognized herein, which typically have slow start-up times, non-ideal thermal characteristics, suboptimal ammonia conversion efficiencies, and high weight and volume requirements.

[0005] In one general aspect, the disclosure provides a method for reforming ammonia, the method comprising: (a) heating a first reformer to a first target temperature range; (b) directing the ammonia to a first reformer to produce a reformate comprising hydrogen and nitrogen; (c) burning the reformate in the fired heater to heat the second reformer to a second target temperature range; (d) directing additional ammonia to a second reformer to produce additional reformate, wherein a first portion of the reformate stream is combusted to heat the second reformer while the ammonia is being reformed in the second reformer; The reformate stream includes the reformate, the additional reformate, or a combination thereof.

[0006] In some embodiments, the first portion of the reformate stream is made up of ammonia, additional ammonia, or a combination thereof.

[0007] In some embodiments, the method further includes processing a second portion of the reformate stream in a hydroprocessing module.

[0008] In some embodiments, the hydrogen processing module is a fuel cell.

[0009] In some embodiments, the reformate stream is directed through a hydrotreating module before combusting a first portion of the reformate stream to heat a second reformer.

[0010] In some embodiments, the reformate stream from the first reformer is further reformed in a second reformer.

[0011] In some embodiments, additional reformate from the second reformer is directed to the first reformer.

[0012] In some embodiments, the additional reformate from the second reformer is further reformed in the first reformer.

[0013] In some embodiments, additional ammonia is directed to the first reformer before being directed to the second reformer.

[0014] In some embodiments, the pressure of the reformate stream is reduced when the reformate stream is directed through the hydrotreating module compared to when the reformate stream is not directed through the hydrotreating module.

[0015] In some embodiments, the threshold amount of reformate stream directed to the hydroprocessing module results in directing at least about 80% of the reformate stream to the hydroprocessing module.

[0016] In some embodiments, the amount of ammonia directed to the second reformer is increased over a period of time, the period beginning when the second reformer is heated to a second target temperature range.

[0017] In some embodiments, the amount of ammonia directed to the second reformer is increased to a first target ammonia flow rate range.

[0018] In some embodiments, the reformate stream is directed to a hydroprocessing module when the reformate stream reaches a first target ammonia flow rate range.

[0019] In some embodiments, when the ammonia flow rate reaches a first target ammonia flow rate range, it is then increased to a second target ammonia flow rate.

[0020] In some embodiments, the first portion of the reformate stream is combusted with oxygen, the oxygen being provided in a substantially constant ratio to the hydrogen in the first portion of the reformate stream.

[0021] In some embodiments, the method further includes ceasing to perform (a)-(c) after the second reformer reaches a second target temperature range.

[0022] In some embodiments, the first portion of the reformate stream is controlled such that the second reformer maintains the temperature within a second target temperature range.

[0023] In some embodiments, the combustion of the reformate stream maintains the temperature in the second reformer within a second target temperature range.

[0024] In some embodiments, the reformate stream is directed to a fired heater in thermal communication with the second reformer such that the fired heater receives at least about 90% of the reformate stream.

[0025] In some embodiments, at least a portion of the reformate stream is directed out of the fired heater.

[0026] In some embodiments, the method further includes increasing the amount of the second portion of the reformate stream that is processed in the hydroprocessing module.

[0027] In some embodiments, the method further includes increasing the amount of ammonia directed to the second reformer to a first target ammonia flow rate range.

[0028] In some embodiments, the reformate stream is combusted with a stoichiometric excess of oxygen, and the combustion is carried out at an air-to-fuel ratio greater than about 1 and less than about 5.

[0029] In some embodiments, the reformate stream, or a portion thereof, is provided to a heat recovery module.

[0030] In some embodiments, the heat recovery module generates at least one of electricity, mechanical power, or a combination thereof.

[0031] In some embodiments, the reformate stream, or a portion thereof, is provided to an auxiliary combustor configured to transfer heat to a heat recovery module, the auxiliary combustor being separate from the fired heater.

[0032] In some embodiments, directing the reformate stream, or a portion thereof, to the heat recovery module bypasses the fired heater.

[0033] In some embodiments, the first reformer is electrically heated.

[0034] In some embodiments, the first reformer is heated using combustion of a fuel.

[0035] In some embodiments, the reformate stream is combusted with a stoichiometric excess of oxygen.

[0036] In some embodiments, combusting the reformate stream with a stoichiometric excess of oxygen is carried out at an air-to-fuel ratio greater than about 1 and less than about 5.

[0037] In some embodiments, the oxygen is supplied from air.

[0038] In some embodiments, the first reformer comprises a first ammonia reforming catalyst and the second reformer comprises a second ammonia reforming catalyst.

[0039] In some embodiments, the first and second ammonia reforming catalysts are the same catalyst.

[0040] In some embodiments, the first target temperature range and the second target temperature range at least partially overlap.

[0041] In some embodiments, the method further includes directing the combustion exhaust from the fired heater to a heat recovery module.

[0042] In some embodiments, the heat recovery module generates at least one of electrical or mechanical power.

[0043] In some embodiments, the combustion exhaust comprises one or more of hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, or water.

[0044] In some embodiments, a heat recovery module recovers at least one of exhaust heat or hydrogen from the fired heater.

[0045] In some embodiments, the heat recovery module includes a hydrogen separation membrane that recovers hydrogen from the flue gas.

[0046] In some embodiments, the method further includes combusting the reformate stream in an auxiliary combustor configured to transfer heat to the heat recovery module, the auxiliary combustor being separate from the fired heater.

[0047] In some embodiments, the heat recovery module is a boiler configured to generate steam.

[0048] In some embodiments, the method further includes directing the steam to an ammonia filter configured to remove trace or residual ammonia from the reformate stream, the steam regenerating the ammonia filter by desorbing the trace or residual ammonia from the ammonia filter.

[0049] In some embodiments, the heat recovery module includes a heat exchanger.

[0050] In some embodiments, the heat exchanger comprises a shell-and-tube heat exchanger or a plate heat exchanger.

[0051] In some embodiments, the heat recovery module includes a turbocharger.

[0052] In some embodiments, the turbocharger is configured to provide mechanical power to the compressor, and the compressor is configured to compress air.

[0053] In some embodiments, air is provided to the fired heater for combustion of the reformate stream.

[0054] In some embodiments, the heat recovery module includes a turbine.

[0055] In some embodiments, the turbine is configured to generate mechanical power for propulsion of the vehicle.

[0056] In some embodiments, the turbine includes a generator configured to generate electrical power for an electric motor, the mechanical power generated by the electric motor powering the propulsion of the vehicle.

[0057] In some embodiments, the turbine includes a generator configured to generate electrical power for the battery.

[0058] In some embodiments, the hydrogen processing module is a fuel cell configured to generate electricity for an electric motor, and the mechanical power generated by the electric motor is combined with the mechanical power generated by the turbine to power the propulsion of the vehicle.

[0059] In some embodiments, the hydroprocessing module is a combustion engine configured to generate mechanical power, and the mechanical power generated by the combustion engine and the mechanical power generated by the turbine are combined to power the propulsion of the vehicle.

[0060] In some embodiments, the heat recovery module is a Rankine module including a boiler, a turbine, and a condenser, with a working fluid configured to circulate between the boiler, the turbine, and the condenser.

[0061] In some embodiments, the turbine of the Rankine module is configured to generate electrical or mechanical power.

[0062] In some embodiments, the working fluid comprises water.

[0063] In some embodiments, the reformate stream, or a portion thereof, is provided to a hydrogen separation membrane.

[0064] In some embodiments, directing the reformate stream, or a portion thereof, to a hydrogen separation membrane bypasses the fired heater.

[0065] In some embodiments, the method further includes re-igniting combustion in the fired heater based at least in part on the temperature of the combustion exhaust from the fired heater being below a threshold temperature.

[0066] In some embodiments, the method further includes re-igniting combustion in the fired heater based at least in part on the oxygen concentration of the combustion exhaust from the fired heater being above a threshold oxygen concentration.

[0067] In another general aspect, the disclosure provides a method for reforming ammonia, the method comprising: (a) directing ammonia to a reformer at an ammonia flow rate to produce a reformate stream comprising hydrogen and nitrogen; (b) combusting a first portion of the reformate stream with oxygen in a fired heater at an oxygen flow rate to heat the reformer; (c) processing a second portion of the reformate stream in a hydroprocessing module; (d) based at least in part on the stimulus; (i) varying the ammonia flow rate; (ii) varying the percentage of the reformate stream that is the first portion of the reformate stream; (iii) varying the percentage of the reformulate stream that is the second portion of the reformulate stream; or (iv) varying the oxygen flow rate.

[0068] In some embodiments, at least two of (i)-(iv) are performed.

[0069] In some embodiments, at least three of (i) through (iv) are performed.

[0070] In some embodiments, all of (i) through (iv) are performed.

[0071] In some embodiments, the stimulus comprises a change in the amount of hydrogen used by the hydrogen processing module.

[0072] In some embodiments, the stimulus includes the temperature of the reformer being outside a target temperature range.

[0073] In some embodiments, the stimulus comprises a change in the amount or concentration of ammonia in the reformate stream.

[0074] In some embodiments, one or more of (i)-(iv) is (x) the reformer temperature is within a target temperature range; and (y) Reformation is carried out such that a maximum of about 10% of the reformate is vented or flared.

[0075] In some embodiments, one or more of (i)-(iv) is achieved for at least about 95% of the operating period.

[0076] In some embodiments, the operating period is at least about 8 consecutive hours.

[0077] In some embodiments, the stimulus is based at least in part on an increased amount of hydrogen used by the hydroprocessing module.

[0078] In some embodiments, the hydrogen increase is a predicted hydrogen increase.

[0079] In some embodiments, based on the stimulus, (q) Will the ammonia flow rate increase? (r) the percentage of the reformulated stream that is the first portion of the reformulated stream is reduced; or (s) the percentage of the reformulated stream that is the second portion of the reformulated stream is increased; or

[0080] In some embodiments, the oxygen flow rate is increased when (q) is performed.

[0081] In some embodiments, the oxygen flow rate is decreased when at least one of (r) or (s) is performed.

[0082] In some embodiments, the stimulus is based at least in part on a reduced amount of hydrogen used by the hydroprocessing module.

[0083] In some embodiments, the hydrogen loss is a predicted hydrogen loss.

[0084] In some embodiments, based on the stimulus, (q) Ammonia flow rate decreases, (r) the percentage of the reformulated stream that is the first portion of the reformulated stream is increased; or (s) the percentage of the reformulated stream that is the second portion of the reformulated stream is reduced;

[0085] In some embodiments, the oxygen flow rate is decreased when (q) is performed.

[0086] In some embodiments, the oxygen flow rate is increased when at least one of (r) or (s) is performed.

[0087] In some embodiments, the stimulus includes (a) an interruption in the processing of hydrogen using the hydrogen processing module, or (b) a failure or malfunction of the hydrogen processing module.

[0088] In some embodiments, the hydrogen processing module includes a plurality of hydrogen processing modules, and the stimulus includes at least one of (a) an interruption in the processing of hydrogen using one of the plurality of hydrogen processing modules, or (b) a failure or malfunction in one of the plurality of hydrogen processing modules.

[0089] In some embodiments, the percentage of the modified stream that is the second portion of the modified stream changes to about zero percent in response to the stimulus.

[0090] In some embodiments, up to about 10% of the reformate stream is directed to the hydroprocessing module in response to the stimulus.

[0091] In some embodiments, at least about 90% of the reformate stream is directed to a fired heater in thermal communication with the reformer in response to the stimulus.

[0092] In some embodiments, a portion of the reformate stream is directed out of the fired heater in response to a stimulus.

[0093] In some embodiments, the stimulus is detected using a sensor.

[0094] In some embodiments, the stimulus is communicated to a controller.

[0095] In some embodiments, (d) is performed using a programmable computer or controller.

[0096] In some embodiments, (d) is implemented using a flow control module.

[0097] In some embodiments, the stimulus is pressure.

[0098] In some embodiments, the pressure increases in response to decreasing the flow rate to the hydroprocessing module.

[0099] In some embodiments, the pressure is the pressure of the reformate stream.

[0100] In some embodiments, the reformate stream is combusted with a stoichiometric excess of oxygen.

[0101] In some embodiments, combusting the reformate stream with a stoichiometric excess of oxygen is carried out at an air-to-fuel ratio greater than about 1 and less than about 5.

[0102] In some embodiments, the hydrogen processing module is a fuel cell.

[0103] In some embodiments, the method further includes directing the combustion exhaust from the fired heater to a heat recovery module.

[0104] In some embodiments, the heat recovery module generates at least one of electrical or mechanical power.

[0105] In some embodiments, the combustion exhaust comprises one or more of hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, or water.

[0106] In some embodiments, a heat recovery module recovers at least one of exhaust heat or hydrogen from the fired heater.

[0107] In some embodiments, the heat recovery module includes a hydrogen separation membrane that recovers hydrogen from the flue gas.

[0108] In some embodiments, the method further includes combusting the reformate stream in an auxiliary combustor configured to transfer heat to the heat recovery module, the auxiliary combustor being separate from the fired heater.

[0109] In some embodiments, the heat recovery module is a boiler configured to generate steam.

[0110] In some embodiments, the method includes directing steam to an ammonia filter configured to remove trace or residual ammonia from the reformate stream, wherein the steam regenerates the ammonia filter by desorbing the trace or residual ammonia from the ammonia filter.

[0111] In some embodiments, the heat recovery module includes a heat exchanger.

[0112] In some embodiments, the heat exchanger comprises a shell-and-tube heat exchanger or a plate heat exchanger.

[0113] In some embodiments, the heat recovery module includes a turbocharger.

[0114] In some embodiments, the turbocharger is configured to provide mechanical power to the compressor, and the compressor is configured to compress air.

[0115] In some embodiments, air is provided to the fired heater for combustion of the reformate stream.

[0116] In some embodiments, the heat recovery module includes a turbine.

[0117] In some embodiments, the turbine is configured to generate mechanical power for propulsion of the vehicle.

[0118] In some embodiments, the turbine includes a generator configured to generate electrical power for an electric motor, the mechanical power generated by the electric motor powering the propulsion of the vehicle.

[0119] In some embodiments, the turbine includes a generator configured to generate electrical power for the battery.

[0120] In some embodiments, the hydrogen processing module is a fuel cell configured to generate electricity for an electric motor, and the mechanical power generated by the electric motor is combined with the mechanical power generated by the turbine to power the propulsion of the vehicle.

[0121] In some embodiments, the hydroprocessing module is a combustion engine configured to generate mechanical power, and the mechanical power generated by the combustion engine and the mechanical power generated by the turbine are combined to power the propulsion of the vehicle.

[0122] In some embodiments, the heat recovery module is a Rankine module including a boiler, a turbine, and a condenser, with a working fluid configured to circulate between the boiler, the turbine, and the condenser.

[0123] In some embodiments, the turbine of the Rankine module is configured to generate electrical or mechanical power.

[0124] In some embodiments, the working fluid comprises water.

[0125] In some embodiments, the reformate stream, or a portion thereof, is provided to a hydrogen separation membrane.

[0126] In some embodiments, directing the reformate stream, or a portion thereof, to a hydrogen separation membrane bypasses the fired heater.

[0127] In some embodiments, the method includes re-igniting combustion in the fired heater based at least in part on the temperature of the combustion exhaust from the fired heater being below a threshold temperature.

[0128] In some embodiments, the method includes re-igniting combustion in the fired heater based at least in part on an oxygen concentration of a combustion exhaust from the fired heater being above a threshold oxygen concentration.

[0129] In yet another general aspect, the disclosure provides a method for reforming ammonia, the method comprising: (a) directing ammonia to a reformer at an ammonia flow rate to produce a reformate stream comprising hydrogen and nitrogen; (b) combusting a first portion of the reformate stream with oxygen in a fired heater at an oxygen flow rate to heat the reformer; (c) processing a second portion of the reformate stream in a hydroprocessing module; (d) measuring the temperature in the reformer or combustion heater; (e) based, at least in part, on the measured temperature being outside a target temperature range of the reformer or fired heater; (i) varying the ammonia flow rate; (ii) varying the oxygen flow rate; (ii) varying the percentage of the reformate stream that is the second portion of the reformate stream; (iv) varying the percentage of the reformulated stream that is the first portion of the reformulated stream; or (v) varying the percentage of the reformate stream that is directed out from the fired heater.

[0130] In some embodiments, the hydrogen processing module is a fuel cell.

[0131] In some embodiments, the reformer comprises an ammonia reforming catalyst.

[0132] In some embodiments, at least two of (i)-(v) are performed.

[0133] In some embodiments, at least three of (i) through (v) are performed.

[0134] In some embodiments, all of (i) through (v) are implemented.

[0135] In some embodiments, the temperature is measured using a temperature sensor.

[0136] In some embodiments, the measured temperature is communicated to a controller.

[0137] In some embodiments, (i) through (v) are implemented using a controller.

[0138] In some embodiments, at least one of (iii)-(v) is implemented using a flow control module.

[0139] In some embodiments, at least one of (iii)-(v) is performed by modifying a second portion of the reformate treated in the hydroprocessing module.

[0140] In some embodiments, the method comprises: based at least in part on the measured temperature exceeding a target temperature range; (q) increasing the ammonia flow rate; (r) increasing the percentage of the reformate stream that is the second portion of the reformate stream that is processed by the hydroprocessing module; (s) reducing the percentage of the reformulated stream that is the first portion of the reformulated stream; (t) Increasing the percentage of the reformate stream that is directed out of the fired heater; or (u) varying the oxygen flow rate.

[0141] In some embodiments, increasing the percentage of the reformate stream that is the second portion of the reformate stream reduces the first portion of the reformate stream that is combusted.

[0142] In some embodiments, the hydroprocessing module is a fuel cell and the first portion of the reformate stream is anode off-gas directed from the fuel cell to a fired heater.

[0143] In some embodiments, reducing the percentage of the reformate stream that is the first portion comprises reducing the ammonia flow rate to the reformer to create less hydrogen in the reformate stream.

[0144] In some embodiments, the hydroprocessing module is a fuel cell, and increasing the percentage of the second portion of the reformate stream that is processed by the hydroprocessing module increases the amount of power output by the fuel cell.

[0145] In some embodiments, the reformate stream is combusted with a stoichiometric excess of oxygen, and varying the oxygen flow rate increases the oxygen flow rate.

[0146] In some embodiments, the reformate stream is combusted with a stoichiometric excess of hydrogen and varying the oxygen flow rate reduces the oxygen flow rate.

[0147] In some embodiments, the method further comprises adding water to the reformate stream to reduce the temperature of the reformer or fired heater.

[0148] In some embodiments, the hydrogen processing module is a fuel cell and the water is supplied from the cathode off-gas of the fuel cell.

[0149] In some embodiments, (t) includes venting or flaring a percentage of the reformate stream that is directed outward from the fired heater.

[0150] In some embodiments, (t) includes directing a percentage of the reformate stream that is directed out of the fired heater to a heat recovery module.

[0151] In some embodiments, the method comprises: based at least in part on the measured temperature being less than the target temperature range; (q) reducing the ammonia flow rate; (r) reducing the percentage of the reformate stream that is the second portion of the reformate stream that is processed by the hydroprocessing module; (s) increasing the percentage of the reformulated stream that is the first portion of the reformulated stream; (t) reducing the percentage of the reformate stream that is directed away from the fired heater; or (v) varying the oxygen flow rate.

[0152] In some embodiments, decreasing the percentage of the second portion of the reformate stream that is the second portion increases the first portion of the reformate stream that is combusted.

[0153] In some embodiments, the hydroprocessing module is a fuel cell and the first portion of the reformate stream is anode off-gas directed from the fuel cell to a fired heater.

[0154] In some embodiments, increasing the percentage of the reformate stream that is the first portion includes increasing the ammonia flow rate to the reformer to create more hydrogen in the reformate stream.

[0155] In some embodiments, the hydroprocessing module is a fuel cell, and decreasing the percentage of the second portion of the reformate stream that is processed by the hydroprocessing module decreases the amount of power output by the fuel cell.

[0156] In some embodiments, the reformate stream is combusted with a stoichiometric excess of oxygen, and varying the oxygen flow rate reduces the oxygen flow rate.

[0157] In some embodiments, the reformate stream is combusted with a stoichiometric excess of hydrogen and the oxygen flow rate is increased by varying the oxygen flow rate.

[0158] In some embodiments, (t) includes venting or flaring a percentage of the reformate stream that is directed outward from the fired heater.

[0159] In some embodiments, (t) includes directing a percentage of the reformate stream that is directed out of the fired heater to a heat recovery module.

[0160] In some embodiments, the method comprises: (x) calculating a temperature difference between the measured temperature of the reformer or combustion heater and a set point temperature within the target temperature range; (y) varying one or more of (i)-(v) by an amount based at least in part on the temperature differential.

[0161] In some embodiments, one or more of (i)-(v) is varied by a proportionality factor.

[0162] In some embodiments, the proportionality coefficient is different for each of (i) through (v).

[0163] In some embodiments, the method further includes repeating (x) at a subsequent time to obtain a subsequent temperature difference, and repeating (y) to further vary one or more of (i)-(v) by an amount proportional to the subsequent temperature difference.

[0164] In some embodiments, (x) and (y) are repeated until the measured temperature is within the target temperature range.

[0165] In some embodiments, the temperature measured at the reformer or fired heater is a first temperature measured at a first time, and the method includes: (q) measuring a second temperature of the reformer or combustion heater at a second time subsequent to the first time; (r) calculating a period of time between the first time point and the second time point; (s) calculating a temperature difference between the first temperature and the second temperature; (t) varying one or more of (i)-(v) by an amount based at least in part on the time period and the temperature differential.

[0166] In some embodiments, the method further includes repeating (q) through (t) until the measured temperature is within the target temperature range.

[0167] In some embodiments, the reformate stream is combusted with a stoichiometric excess of oxygen.

[0168] In some embodiments, combusting the reformate stream with a stoichiometric excess of oxygen comprises combusting at an air-to-fuel ratio greater than about 1 and less than about 5.

[0169] In some embodiments, the method further includes directing the combustion exhaust from the fired heater to a heat recovery module.

[0170] In some embodiments, the heat recovery module generates at least one of electrical or mechanical power.

[0171] In some embodiments, the combustion exhaust comprises one or more of hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, or water.

[0172] In some embodiments, a heat recovery module recovers at least one of exhaust heat or hydrogen from the fired heater.

[0173] In some embodiments, the heat recovery module includes a hydrogen separation membrane that recovers hydrogen from the flue gas.

[0174] In some embodiments, the method further includes combusting the reformate stream in an auxiliary combustor configured to transfer heat to the heat recovery module, the auxiliary combustor being separate from the fired heater.

[0175] In some embodiments, the heat recovery module is a boiler configured to generate steam.

[0176] In some embodiments, the method further includes directing the steam to an ammonia filter configured to remove trace or residual ammonia from the reformate stream, the steam regenerating the ammonia filter by desorbing the trace or residual ammonia from the ammonia filter.

[0177] In some embodiments, the heat recovery module includes a heat exchanger.

[0178] In some embodiments, the heat exchanger comprises a shell-and-tube heat exchanger or a plate heat exchanger.

[0179] In some embodiments, the heat recovery module includes a turbocharger.

[0180] In some embodiments, the turbocharger is configured to provide mechanical power to the compressor, and the compressor is configured to compress air.

[0181] In some embodiments, air is provided to the fired heater for combustion of the reformate stream.

[0182] In some embodiments, the heat recovery module includes a turbine.

[0183] In some embodiments, the turbine is configured to generate mechanical power for propulsion of the vehicle.

[0184] In some embodiments, the turbine includes a generator configured to generate electrical power for an electric motor, the mechanical power generated by the electric motor powering the propulsion of the vehicle.

[0185] In some embodiments, the turbine includes a generator configured to generate electrical power for the battery.

[0186] In some embodiments, the hydrogen processing module is a fuel cell configured to generate electricity for an electric motor, and the mechanical power generated by the electric motor is combined with the mechanical power generated by the turbine to power the propulsion of the vehicle.

[0187] In some embodiments, the hydroprocessing module is a combustion engine configured to generate mechanical power, and the mechanical power generated by the combustion engine and the mechanical power generated by the turbine are combined to power the propulsion of the vehicle.

[0188] In some embodiments, the heat recovery module is a Rankine module including a boiler, a turbine, and a condenser, with a working fluid configured to circulate between the boiler, the turbine, and the condenser.

[0189] In some embodiments, the turbine of the Rankine module is configured to generate electrical or mechanical power.

[0190] In some embodiments, the working fluid comprises water.

[0191] In some embodiments, the reformate stream, or a portion thereof, is provided to a hydrogen separation membrane.

[0192] In some embodiments, directing the reformate stream, or a portion thereof, to a hydrogen separation membrane bypasses the fired heater.

[0193] In some embodiments, the method further includes re-igniting combustion in the fired heater based at least in part on the temperature of the combustion exhaust from the fired heater being below a threshold temperature.

[0194] In some embodiments, the method further includes re-igniting combustion in the fired heater based at least in part on the oxygen concentration of the combustion exhaust from the fired heater being above a threshold oxygen concentration.

[0195] In some embodiments, the reformer includes a plurality of reformers, and at least one reformer of the plurality of reformers receives a different amount of the first portion of the reformate stream compared to other reformers of the reformers based at least in part on the temperature of the at least one reformer being above or below the target temperature range.

[0196] In some embodiments, the temperature of the at least one reformer is above a target temperature range, and the method includes reducing a first portion of the reformate stream provided to the at least one reformer.

[0197] In some embodiments, the temperature of the at least one reformer is below a target temperature range, and the method includes increasing a first portion of the reformate stream provided to the at least one reformer.

[0198] In some embodiments, a first portion of the reformate stream provided to at least one reformer of the plurality of reformers is regulated using a flow control module.

[0199] In some embodiments, the plurality of reformers includes at least one electrically heated reformer and at least one combustion heated reformer.

[0200] In some embodiments, at least two reformers of the plurality of reformers are in fluid communication in series such that a reformate stream exiting one of the at least two reformers is supplied to another one of the at least two reformers.

[0201] In some embodiments, at least two reformers of the plurality of reformers are in fluid communication in parallel.

[0202] In some embodiments, the oxygen is supplied from air.

[0203] In some embodiments, the oxygen is supplied from air.

[0204] In some embodiments, the oxygen is supplied from air.

[0205] In yet another general aspect, the disclosure provides an ammonia (NH3) reforming method, the method comprising: (e) heating the first reformer to a first target temperature range; (f) reforming the NH3 stream at a first flow rate in a first reformer to produce a first reformate stream comprising hydrogen (H2) and nitrogen (N2); (g) combusting the first reformate stream to heat the second reformer to a second target temperature range; (h) reforming the NH3 stream in a second reformer at a second flow rate greater than the first flow rate to produce a second reformate stream comprising H2 and N2; (i) combusting a first portion of the second reformate stream to heat a second reformer.

[0206] In some embodiments, the method further includes increasing the second flow rate to an operating flow rate.

[0207] In some embodiments, the first flow rate is greater than about 1% and less than about 10% of the operating flow rate.

[0208] In some embodiments, the second flow rate is greater than about 5% and less than about 50% of the operating flow rate before increasing to the operating flow rate.

[0209] In some embodiments, the operating flow rate is selected prior to (a).

[0210] In some embodiments, the operating flow rate is changed after increasing the second flow rate to the operating flow rate.

[0211] In some embodiments, the operating flow rate is selected within a range of operating flow rates.

[0212] In some embodiments, the operating flow rate is changed based on an increase in H2 demand of an H2 processing module configured to process H2.

[0213] In some embodiments, the H2 processing module includes a fuel cell configured to generate electricity.

[0214] In some embodiments, the operating flow rate is selected based at least in part on the H2 processing capacity of an H2 processing module configured to process H2.

[0215] In some embodiments, the H2 processing module includes a fuel cell configured to generate electricity.

[0216] In some embodiments, the operating flow rate is selected based at least in part on the reforming capacity of the first reformer, the reforming capacity of the second reformer, or a combination thereof.

[0217] In some embodiments, the first reformate stream and the second reformate stream are separate streams.

[0218] In some embodiments, the first modified stream is combined with the second modified stream.

[0219] In some embodiments, the method further comprises purging at least one of the first reformer or the second reformer prior to (a) or (b).

[0220] In some embodiments, the method further comprises vaporizing the NH3 stream using an electric heater.

[0221] In some embodiments, the method further includes vaporizing the NH3 stream using a heat exchanger configured to exchange heat between (1) the NH3 stream and (2) one or more of the first reformate stream, the second reformate stream, or a hydro-processing module configured to generate electricity.

[0222] In some embodiments, the method further includes reducing power to an electric heater in thermal communication with the first reformer.

[0223] In some embodiments, the method further includes using the NH3 stream to cool the first reformer after reducing the power to the electric heater.

[0224] In some embodiments, the method further comprises, after (c), reducing the portion of the NH3 stream that is reformed in the first reformer.

[0225] In some embodiments, the method further comprises, after (c), ceasing reforming the NH3 stream in the first reformer.

[0226] In some embodiments, ceasing reforming the NH3 stream in the first reformer is performed after the measured temperature of the first reformer is at or below the threshold temperature.

[0227] In some embodiments, the threshold temperature is less than the first target temperature range.

[0228] In some embodiments, the method further includes reforming residual NH3 in the first reformate stream using a second reformer.

[0229] In some embodiments, the method further includes reforming residual NH3 in the second reformate stream using a first reformer.

[0230] In some embodiments, a heat exchanger exchanges heat between (1) the NH 3 stream and (2) at least one of the first reformate stream or the second reformate stream.

[0231] In some embodiments, the method further includes providing the NH3 stream to a second reformer, wherein the NH3 stream bypasses the first reformer.

[0232] In some embodiments, the NH3 stream bypasses the first reformer after (c) or before (d).

[0233] In some embodiments, a heat exchanger is disposed in parallel and in fluid communication with the first reformer.

[0234] In some embodiments, the method further includes providing the NH3 stream to a heat exchanger, wherein the NH3 stream bypasses the first reformer.

[0235] In some embodiments, the NH3 stream bypasses the first reformer after (c) or before (d).

[0236] In some embodiments, the NH3 stream is directed to the first reformer after exiting the heat exchanger, and the heat exchanger is configured to exchange heat between (1) the NH3 stream and (2) at least one of the first reformate stream or the second reformate stream.

[0237] In some embodiments, the method further includes directing the first reformate stream to a fired heater in thermal communication with the second reformer.

[0238] In some embodiments, the method further includes directing the first reformate stream to a second reformer before providing the first reformate stream to the fired heater.

[0239] In some embodiments, the method further includes directing the first reformate stream to a fired heater, wherein the first reformate stream bypasses the second reformer.

[0240] In some embodiments, the method further includes directing the first reformate stream to a heat exchanger prior to providing the first reformate stream to the fired heater, the heat exchanger configured to exchange heat between the first reformate stream and the NH3 stream.

[0241] In some embodiments, the method further includes directing the first reformate stream to an NH3 filter configured to remove residual NH3 before providing the first reformate stream to the fired heater.

[0242] In some embodiments, the method further includes filtering at least one of the first reformate stream or the second reformate stream to remove residual NH3.

[0243] In some embodiments, the method further includes providing at least one of the first reformate stream or the second reformate stream to a fired heater in thermal communication with the second reformer; At least one of the first reformate stream or the second reformate stream bypasses an NH3 filter configured to remove residual NH3.

[0244] In some embodiments, the method further includes providing a second portion of the second reformate stream to an H2 processing module.

[0245] In some embodiments, the H2 processing module includes a fuel cell configured to generate electricity.

[0246] In some embodiments, the H2 processing module includes a combustion engine configured to generate mechanical work.

[0247] In some embodiments, the method further includes providing the hydrogen-containing off-gas from the H2 processing module to a fired heater in thermal communication with the second reformer.

[0248] In some embodiments, a first portion of the second reformate stream is provided to a fired heater upstream of the H2 processing module.

[0249] In some embodiments, (1) a first portion of the second reformate stream and (2) at least a portion of the off-gas are provided simultaneously to the fired heater.

[0250] In some embodiments, at least one of (1) the first portion of the second reformate stream, or (2) at least a portion of the off-gas is not provided to the fired heater.

[0251] In some embodiments, (1) at least a portion of the off-gas is not provided to the fired heater, and (2) the remainder of the off-gas is provided to the fired heater.

[0252] In some embodiments, the H2 utilization of the H2 processing module is greater than about 10% and less than about 90% of the H2 in the second portion of the reformate stream.

[0253] In some embodiments, the H2 consumption rate of the H2 processing module is constant within an acceptable range, and the first portion of the second reformate stream is adjusted to control the temperature of the second reformer.

[0254] In some embodiments, the H2 utilization rate of the H2 processing module is constant within an acceptable range, and the first portion of the second reformate stream is adjusted to control the temperature of the second reformer.

[0255] In some embodiments, the method further includes treating at least a portion of the first reformate stream in a secondary H2 treatment module.

[0256] In some embodiments, the secondary H2 processing module includes a fuel cell configured to generate electricity.

[0257] In some embodiments, the method further includes providing the first reformate stream to an NH3 filter before providing at least a portion of the first reformate stream to the secondary H2 treatment module.

[0258] In some embodiments, the method further includes providing the hydrogen-containing off-gas from the secondary H2 processing module to a fired heater in thermal communication with the second reformer.

[0259] In some embodiments, the method further includes providing the first reformate stream, the second reformate stream, or a combination thereof to an ammonia oxidation catalyst to reduce residual ammonia.

[0260] In some embodiments, the method further includes providing the first reformate stream, the second reformate stream, or a combination thereof to an NH3 filter after providing the first reformate stream, the second reformate stream, or a combination thereof to an ammonia oxidation catalyst.

[0261] In some embodiments, the method further includes transferring heat from (1) at least one of the first reformate stream or the second reformate stream to (2) the NH 3 stream.

[0262] In some embodiments, the heat is transferred using a heat transfer fluid.

[0263] In some embodiments, the method further includes transferring heat from (1) an H2 processing module configured to process H2 to (2) the NH3 stream.

[0264] In some embodiments, the heat is transferred using a heat transfer fluid.

[0265] In some embodiments, the method further comprises transferring heat from (1) a water or air source to (2) the NH3 stream.

[0266] In some embodiments, the heat is transferred using a heat transfer fluid.

[0267] In some embodiments, the water or air source comprises seawater, fresh water, or air.

[0268] In some embodiments, the method further includes transferring heat from (1) at least one of the first reformate stream or the second reformate stream to (2) a water or air source.

[0269] In some embodiments, the heat is transferred using a heat transfer fluid.

[0270] In some embodiments, the water or air source comprises seawater, fresh water, or air.

[0271] In some embodiments, the method further includes transferring heat from (1) an H2 processing module configured to process H2 to (2) a water or air source.

[0272] In some embodiments, the heat is transferred using a heat transfer fluid.

[0273] In some embodiments, the water or air source comprises seawater, fresh water, or air.

[0274] In some embodiments, the method further includes transferring heat from (1) an H2 processing module configured to process the H2, the first reformate stream, the second reformate stream, or a combination thereof, to (2) a water or air source.

[0275] In some embodiments, the heat is transferred using a heat transfer fluid.

[0276] In some embodiments, the water or air source comprises seawater, fresh water, or air.

[0277] In some embodiments, the first reformer and the second reformer are a single reformer.

[0278] In some embodiments, a single reformer is in thermal communication with an electric heater, a fired heater, or a combination thereof.

[0279] In yet another general aspect, the disclosure provides an ammonia (NH3) reforming system, the system comprising: a first reformer configured to reform the NH3 stream at a first flow rate and at a first target temperature range to produce a first reformate stream comprising hydrogen (H2) and nitrogen (N2); a second reformer configured to reform the NH3 stream at a second flow rate and a second target temperature range to produce a second reformate stream comprising H2 and N2; a second reformer configured to be heated to a second target temperature range by combusting the first reformate stream; the second flow rate is greater than the first flow rate; A second reformer is configured to be heated by combusting a first portion of the second reformate stream.

[0280] In yet another general aspect, the disclosure provides an ammonia (NH) reforming method, the method comprising: (j) reforming the NH3 stream at a first flow rate using an NH3 reforming catalyst to produce a first reformate stream comprising hydrogen (H2) and nitrogen (N2); (k) combusting the first reformate stream to heat the NH3 reforming catalyst; (l) reforming the NH3 stream at a second flow rate greater than the first flow rate using an NH3 reforming catalyst to produce a second reformate stream comprising H2 and N2; (m) combusting a first portion of the second reformate stream to heat the NH3 reforming catalyst.

[0281] In some embodiments, the NH3 reforming catalyst is in the reformer.

[0282] In some embodiments, a first region of NH3 reforming catalyst is in the first reformer and a second region of NH3 reforming catalyst is in the second reformer.

[0283] In some embodiments, the NH3 reforming catalyst is in thermal communication with an electric heater, a combustion heater, or a combination thereof.

[0284] In some embodiments, the NH3 reforming catalyst is heated by an electric heater prior to (a).

[0285] In some embodiments, a first region of the NH3 reforming catalyst is heated by an electric heater and a second region of the NH3 reforming catalyst is heated by a combustion heater.

[0286] In some embodiments, (b) and (d) are performed using a fired heater.

[0287] In some embodiments, the NH3 reforming catalyst is heated to a target temperature range.

[0288] In some embodiments, the NH3 reforming catalyst is at a target temperature range.

[0289] In some embodiments, a first region of the NH3 reforming catalyst is heated to a first target temperature range and a second region of the NH3 reforming catalyst is heated to a second target temperature range.

[0290] In some embodiments, the first target temperature range and the second target temperature range at least partially overlap.

[0291] In some embodiments, the first target temperature range and the second target temperature range are different.

[0292] In some embodiments, the median temperature of the first target temperature range exceeds the median temperature of the second target temperature range.

[0293] In yet another general aspect, the disclosure provides an ammonia decomposition system, the system comprising: a reformer configured to reform ammonia to produce a reformate stream comprising hydrogen, nitrogen, and residual ammonia; a hydrogen processing module configured to utilize a portion of the hydrogen in the reformate stream and output an exhaust comprising water; a water extraction device configured to extract water from the exhaust air; an ammonia filter configured to reduce the concentration of residual ammonia in the reformate stream using a scrubbing fluid, the scrubbing fluid including at least a portion of the water extracted from the exhaust.

[0294] In some embodiments, the hydrogen processing module includes a fuel cell.

[0295] In some embodiments, a portion of the extracted water is used to humidify at least one of the anode or cathode of the fuel cell.

[0296] In some embodiments, the exhaust comprises a fuel cell anode exhaust or a fuel cell cathode exhaust.

[0297] In some embodiments, at least about 10% of the scrubbing fluid is extracted water.

[0298] In some embodiments, about 100% of the scrubbing fluid is extracted water.

[0299] In some embodiments, a portion of the extracted water is provided to a fired heater.

[0300] In some embodiments, an ammonia filter is configured to exhaust the scrubbing fluid.

[0301] In some embodiments, the discharged scrubbing fluid comprises at least about 5% ammonia by weight, and up to about 60% ammonia by weight.

[0302] In some embodiments, up to 10% of the water extracted from the exhaust air is vented to the outside.

[0303] In some embodiments, the scrubbing fluid comprises an acid.

[0304] In some embodiments, the acid comprises sulfuric acid or nitric acid.

[0305] In yet another general aspect, the disclosure provides an ammonia decomposition system, the system comprising: a reformer configured to reform ammonia to produce a reformate stream comprising hydrogen, nitrogen, and residual ammonia; a first NH3 filter configured to reduce the concentration of ammonia using a scrubbing fluid.

[0306] In some embodiments, ammonia is provided to the first NH3 filter from a location between the NH3 storage tank and the reformer.

[0307] In some embodiments, the position is Ammonia storage tanks and reformers, an ammonia storage tank and flow control module; or and one or more fluid lines fluidly coupling at least one of the flow control module and the reformer.

[0308] 3 In some embodiments, the ammonia is diluted with air before being provided to the first NH3 filter.

[0309] In some embodiments, the method further includes a second NH3 filter configured to reduce the concentration of residual ammonia in the reformate stream using a scrubbing fluid.

[0310] In some embodiments, the reformate stream is provided to a second NH3 filter from a location between the reformer and the H2 processing module.

[0311] In some embodiments, the position is Reformer and H2 processing module, reformer and adsorber; Adsorbent and H2 treatment module; a reformer and a first flow control module; a first flow control module and an adsorbent; an adsorbent and a second flow control module; or in one or more fluid lines fluidly coupling at least one of the second flow control module and the H2 processing module.

[0312] In some embodiments, the reformate stream is diluted with an inert gas before being provided to the second NH3 filter.

[0313] In yet another general aspect, the disclosure provides an ammonia decomposition system, the system comprising: a reformer configured to reform ammonia to produce a reformate stream comprising hydrogen and nitrogen; a reactor adjacent to the reformer configured to transfer heat to the reformer from an exothermic reaction that consumes at least a portion of the hydrogen.

[0314] In some embodiments, the exothermic reaction comprises hydrogenation of the oil.

[0315] In yet another general aspect, the disclosure provides an ammonia decomposition system, the system comprising: an electric heater configured to heat a reformer configured to reform ammonia to produce a reformate stream comprising hydrogen and nitrogen to a target temperature range; an H2 processing module configured to utilize a portion of the hydrogen in the reformate stream to generate electrical power; the utilized portion comprises at least about 80% of the hydrogen in the reformate stream; At least a portion of the electrical power generated by the H2 processing module is provided to an electric heater to heat the reformer.

[0316] In some embodiments, the hydrogen processing module includes a fuel cell.

[0317] In some embodiments, the hydroprocessing module includes a combustion engine.

[0318] In some embodiments, the electric heater is configured to receive low carbon electricity to heat the reformer.

[0319] In some embodiments, the low carbon electricity comprises: solar generators, Concentrated solar power (CSP) generators, wind turbine generators, Hydroelectric generators, Geothermal generators, biofuel-burning generators, Marine generators, nuclear power plants, or stored electricity.

[0320] In some embodiments, a portion of the hydrogen in the reformate stream is not utilized in the H2 processing module.

[0321] In some embodiments, the unutilized portion of hydrogen comprises less than about 20% of the hydrogen.

[0322] In some embodiments, the unutilized portion of the hydrogen is provided to a filter configured to remove water, ammonia, or a combination thereof.

[0323] In some embodiments, the unused portion of the hydrogen is used to purge the ammonia filter.

[0324] In some embodiments, the unutilized portion of the hydrogen is combusted to produce Reformer, NH3 filter for desorbing ammonia from the NH3 filter; a water filter for desorbing water from the water filter; Water boiler, or a heat transfer fluid.

[0325] In some embodiments, the unused portion of the hydrogen is not provided to the H2 processing module.

[0326] In yet another general aspect, the disclosure provides an ammonia reforming method, the method comprising: (a) reforming ammonia (NH) using a reformer to produce a reformate stream comprising hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N), and residual ammonia; (b) using a scrubbing fluid to reduce the concentration of residual ammonia in the reformate stream; (c) using an adsorber to further reduce the concentration of residual ammonia in the reformate stream.

[0327] In some embodiments, the method further comprises extracting water from the reformulated stream using a water extraction device.

[0328] In some embodiments, a water extraction device extracts water from the reformulated stream after (b).

[0329] In some embodiments, the water extraction device comprises a chiller or condenser.

[0330] In some embodiments, the scrubbing fluid comprises a first scrubbing fluid and a second scrubbing fluid arranged in parallel fluid communication.

[0331] In some embodiments, the first scrubbing fluid stops performing (b) and the second scrubbing fluid begins performing (b).

[0332] In some embodiments, the method further includes utilizing at least a portion of the hydrogen in the reformate stream to generate electricity using a fuel cell.

[0333] In some embodiments, the method further includes outputting an anode off-gas and a cathode off-gas from the fuel cell.

[0334] In some embodiments, the method further includes extracting water from at least one of (i) the anode off-gas or (ii) the cathode off-gas using one or more water extraction devices, and providing the extracted water to a drain tank.

[0335] In some embodiments, the extracted water is provided to the drain tank using gravity.

[0336] In some embodiments, the method further includes extracting water from a flue gas output by the fired heater configured to heat the reformer, and providing the water extracted from the flue gas to a drain tank.

[0337] In some embodiments, the method further comprises providing the extracted water to a scrubbing fluid.

[0338] In some embodiments, the method further includes removing per- and polyfluorinated substances (PFAS) from the extracted water using a PFAS filter.

[0339] In some embodiments, the method further includes draining the extracted water after filtration to remove PFAS.

[0340] In some embodiments, the extracted water is discharged based on the concentration of PFAS in the extracted water being below a threshold concentration.

[0341] In yet another general aspect, the disclosure provides an ammonia reforming method, the method comprising: (a) reforming ammonia (NH) using a reformer to produce a reformate stream comprising hydrogen (H) and nitrogen (N); (b) utilizing at least a portion of the hydrogen in the reformate stream to generate electricity using a fuel cell; (c) outputting anode off-gas and cathode off-gas from the fuel cell; (d) extracting water from at least one of (i) the anode off-gas or (ii) the cathode off-gas using one or more water extraction devices; (e) removing perfluorinated and polyfluorinated substances (PFAS) from the extracted water using a PFAS filter.

[0342] In some embodiments, the method further includes using a scrubbing fluid to reduce the concentration of residual ammonia in the reformate stream.

[0343] In some embodiments, the scrubbing fluid reduces the concentration of residual ammonia in the reformate stream after (a).

[0344] In some embodiments, the method further comprises providing the extracted water to a scrubbing fluid.

[0345] In some embodiments, the extracted water is provided to the scrubbing fluid after (d).

[0346] In some embodiments, the method further includes draining the extracted water after filtration to remove PFAS.

[0347] In some embodiments, the extracted water is discharged based on the concentration of PFAS in the extracted water being below a threshold concentration.

[0348] In yet another general aspect, the disclosure provides a method including reforming ammonia (NH) in a reformer to produce a reformate stream comprising hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N), and residual ammonia; passing the reformate stream through a scrubber comprising a scrubbing fluid to reduce a concentration of the residual ammonia in the reformate stream, thereby producing an ammonia-containing solution comprising the residual ammonia and at least a portion of the scrubbing fluid, and producing a purified reformate stream; and passing the gas stream through a stripper comprising the ammonia-containing solution to reduce the concentration of at least a portion of the residual ammonia in the ammonia-containing solution, thereby regenerating the scrubbing fluid and producing an ammonia-containing gas stream comprising at least a portion of the residual ammonia.

[0349] In some embodiments, the gas flow comprises at least one of air or an inert gas.

[0350] In some embodiments, the method further includes heating the reformer using a fired heater and transferring heat from a flue gas exhaust of the fired heater to the gas stream before the gas stream passes through the stripper.

[0351] In some embodiments, the method further comprises transferring heat from the reformate stream to the gas stream before the gas stream passes through the stripper.

[0352] In some embodiments, the method further includes heating the reformer using a fired heater and transferring heat from the combustion exhaust to the ammonia-containing solution before providing the ammonia-containing solution from the scrubber to the stripper.

[0353] In some embodiments, the method further comprises transferring heat from the reformate stream to the ammonia-containing solution stream prior to providing the ammonia-containing solution from the scrubber to the stripper.

[0354] In some embodiments, the method further comprises oxidizing at least a portion of the residual ammonia in the ammonia-containing gas stream, thereby producing a purified gas stream.

[0355] In some embodiments, at least a portion of the residual ammonia is oxidized using an ammonia oxidation catalyst.

[0356] In some embodiments, the purified gas stream is provided to a fired heater.

[0357] In some embodiments, the fired heater is configured to heat the reformer.

[0358] In some embodiments, regenerated scrubbing fluid is provided to the scrubber from the stripper.

[0359] In some embodiments, the method further includes transferring heat from the scrubbing fluid to the ammonia.

[0360] In some embodiments, heat is transferred from the scrubbing fluid to the ammonia prior to at least one of reforming the ammonia or reducing the concentration of residual ammonia in the reformed stream by passing the reformed stream through a scrubber.

[0361] In some embodiments, the method further includes transferring heat from the scrubbing fluid regenerated by the stripper to the ammonia-containing solution.

[0362] In some embodiments, the method further includes using an ammonia filter to reduce the concentration of residual ammonia residue in the purified reformate stream.

[0363] In some embodiments, the ammonia filter comprises an adsorbent.

[0364] In some embodiments, the ammonia filter comprises an ion exchange filter.

[0365] In some embodiments, the method further comprises reducing the concentration of water in the purified reformate stream using a water extraction device.

[0366] In some embodiments, the water extraction device comprises silica gel.

[0367] In some embodiments, the water extraction device comprises a membrane humidifier.

[0368] In some embodiments, the membrane humidifier is configured to humidify the purified reformate stream after the adsorber reduces the concentration of the remainder of the residual ammonia in the purified reformate stream.

[0369] In some embodiments, the membrane humidifier is configured to humidify the purified reformate stream before the ion exchange filter reduces the concentration of the remainder of the residual ammonia in the purified reformate stream.

[0370] In another general aspect, the disclosure provides an ammonia reforming system comprising: an ammonia reformer configured to reform ammonia (NH) in the reformer to produce a reformate stream comprising hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N), and residual ammonia; a scrubber comprising a scrubbing fluid configured to pass the reformate stream through the scrubber to reduce a concentration of residual ammonia in the reformate stream, thereby producing an ammonia-containing solution comprising the residual ammonia and at least a portion of the scrubbing fluid, and to produce a purified reformate stream; and a stripper configured to pass a gas stream through the stripper comprising the ammonia-containing solution to reduce a concentration of at least a portion of the residual ammonia in the ammonia-containing solution, thereby regenerating the scrubbing fluid and producing an ammonia-containing gas stream comprising at least a portion of the residual ammonia.

[0371] In another general aspect, the disclosure provides an ammonia reforming method that includes reforming ammonia (NH) in a reformer to produce a reformate stream that includes hydrogen (H) and nitrogen (N), and processing a second portion of the hydrogen in the reformate stream using a fuel cell to produce electricity.

[0372] In some embodiments, the fuel cell comprises at least one of a proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC), a solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC), a phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC), or a molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC).

[0373] In some embodiments, the method further includes transferring heat from the fuel cell to the ammonia before the ammonia is reformed in the reformer.

[0374] In some embodiments, heat is transferred from the fuel cell to the ammonia by transferring heat from at least one of: (i) the anode off-gas of the fuel cell; (ii) the cathode off-gas of the fuel cell; or (iii) a heat transfer fluid configured to cool the fuel cell.

[0375] In some embodiments, the method further includes using the heat transfer fluid to drive a turbine prior to transferring heat from the heat transfer fluid to the ammonia.

[0376] In some embodiments, the method further includes using the heated ammonia to drive a turbine before the ammonia is reformed.

[0377] In some embodiments, the method further includes transferring heat from the fuel cell to the gas stream.

[0378] In some embodiments, heat is transferred from the fuel cell to the gas stream by transferring heat from at least one of: (i) the anode off-gas of the fuel cell; (ii) the cathode off-gas of the fuel cell; or (iii) a heat transfer fluid configured to cool the fuel cell.

[0379] In some embodiments, the method further includes providing the heated gas stream to at least one of (i) a fuel cell, (ii) a fired heater configured to heat a reformer, or (iii) a stripper configured to remove at least a portion of the residual ammonia from the ammonia-containing solution.

[0380] In some embodiments, the method further includes compressing the air stream and providing the compressed air stream to a fired heater configured to heat the fuel cell and the reformer.

[0381] In some embodiments, the method further includes using the reformed stream to drive a turbine.

[0382] In some embodiments, the method further includes using the turbine to drive a compressor configured to compress the anode off-gas of the fuel cell.

[0383] In some embodiments, the method further includes transferring heat from the fuel cell to the ammonia-containing solution.

[0384] In some embodiments, heat is transferred to the ammonia-containing solution from at least one of: (i) anode off-gas of the fuel cell; (ii) cathode off-gas of the fuel cell; or (iii) a heat transfer fluid configured to cool the fuel cell.

[0385] In some embodiments, the ammonia-containing solution is produced by passing the reformate stream through a scrubber to remove at least a portion of the residual ammonia in the reformate stream.

[0386] In some embodiments, the method further includes providing the heated ammonia-containing solution to a stripper configured to remove at least a portion of the residual ammonia from the ammonia-containing solution.

[0387] In some embodiments, the method further includes generating a mixture by mixing at least two of (i) the anode off-gas of the fuel cell, (ii) the gas stream, or (iii) the first portion of the hydrogen in the reformate stream.

[0388] In some embodiments, the method further includes providing the mixture to a fired heater configured to heat a reformer.

[0389] In some embodiments, the mixture is generated using a vacuum ejector.

[0390] In some embodiments, the method further includes providing the reformate stream to a membrane configured to separate the hydrogen from the nitrogen and residual ammonia in the reformate stream. The membrane may produce a permeate stream comprising the separated hydrogen. The membrane may produce a retentate stream comprising the remaining hydrogen not separated by the membrane, the nitrogen, and the residual ammonia.

[0391] In some embodiments, the method further includes providing the permeate stream to a fuel cell.

[0392] In some embodiments, the method further includes providing an anode off-gas of the fuel cell to the permeate stream.

[0393] In some embodiments, the method further includes providing the remainder flow to a fired heater configured to heat the reformer.

[0394] In some embodiments, the method further includes providing the remainder stream to an ammonia oxidation catalyst before providing the remainder stream to the fired heater.

[0395] In some embodiments, the method further includes providing at least a portion of the anode off-gas of the fuel cell to an ammonia oxidation catalyst.

[0396] In some embodiments, the method further includes providing a first portion of the fuel cell cathode off-gas to an ammonia oxidation catalyst.

[0397] In some embodiments, the method further includes providing purified anode off-gas from the ammonia oxidation catalyst to a fired heater in thermal communication with the reformer.

[0398] In some embodiments, the method further includes providing a second portion of the fuel cell cathode off-gas to a fired heater.

[0399] In some embodiments, the method further includes transferring heat from the combustion exhaust of the fired heater to at least one of (i) an air stream provided to the fuel cell, or (ii) ammonia provided to the reformer.

[0400] In some embodiments, the method further includes using the combustion exhaust of the fired heater to drive a turbine.

[0401] In some embodiments, the method further includes using the turbine to drive a compressor configured to compress at least one of (i) an air stream provided to the fuel cell, (ii) a reformate stream produced by the reformer, or (iii) an anode off-gas of the fuel cell.

[0402] In yet another general aspect, the present disclosure provides a system comprising: a reformer configured to reform ammonia (NH) to produce a reformate stream comprising hydrogen (H) and nitrogen (N); and a fuel cell configured to process a second portion of the hydrogen in the reformate stream to produce electricity.

[0403] In yet another general aspect, the disclosure provides a method that includes oxidizing residual ammonia in a gas stream using an ammonia oxidation catalyst.

[0404] In some embodiments, the method further comprises desorbing residual ammonia from the adsorber using the gas stream prior to oxidizing the residual ammonia in the gas stream.

[0405] In some embodiments, the adsorber is configured to adsorb residual ammonia from a reformate stream comprising hydrogen (H2), nitrogen (N2), and residual ammonia.

[0406] In some embodiments, the method further includes using the gas stream to remove residual ammonia from the ammonia-contaminated scrubbing fluid, thereby regenerating the scrubbing fluid, prior to oxidizing the residual ammonia in the gas stream.

[0407] In some embodiments, the method further includes separating the residual ammonia from the reformate stream comprising hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N), and residual ammonia prior to oxidizing the residual ammonia in the gas stream, thereby producing a gas stream comprising residual ammonia.

[0408] In some embodiments, the method further comprises absorbing heat from the oxidation by reforming any remaining residual ammonia that is not oxidized using an ammonia reforming catalyst.

[0409] In some embodiments, the ammonia reforming catalyst is in thermal communication with the ammonia oxidation catalyst.

[0410] In some embodiments, the gas stream is at least one of: (i) a reformate stream comprising hydrogen and nitrogen; (ii) an inert gas; or (iii) air.

[0411] In some embodiments, the method further comprises absorbing heat from the oxidation by boiling the fluid in a boiler.

[0412] In some embodiments, a boiler is in thermal communication with the ammonia oxidation catalyst.

[0413] In some embodiments, the ammonia oxidation catalyst is configured to oxidize residual ammonia in the gas stream.

[0414] In yet another general aspect, the disclosure provides an ammonia reforming method, the method comprising: (a) heating a first reformer to a first target temperature range; (b) reforming the NH3 stream at a first flow rate in a first reformer to produce a first reformate stream comprising hydrogen (H2) and nitrogen (N2); (c) combusting at least a portion of the first reformate stream to heat the second reformer to a second target temperature range; (d) reforming the NH3 stream in a second reformer at a second flow rate greater than the first flow rate to produce a second reformate stream comprising H2 and N2; (e) combusting a first portion of the second reformate stream to heat the second reformer.

[0415] In some embodiments, the first reformer comprises a first ammonia reforming catalyst and the second reformer comprises a second ammonia reforming catalyst.

[0416] In some embodiments, the first ammonia reforming catalyst comprises at least one of Ru, Pt, Pd, Ni, Co, Mo, Fe, or Cu.

[0417] In some embodiments, the second ammonia reforming catalyst comprises at least one of Ru, Pt, Pd, Ni, Co, Mo, Fe, or Cu.

[0418] In some embodiments, the first ammonia reforming catalyst and the second ammonia reforming catalyst have the same chemical composition.

[0419] In some embodiments, the first ammonia reforming catalyst and the second ammonia reforming catalyst have at least partially the same chemical composition.

[0420] In some embodiments, the first ammonia reforming catalyst and the second ammonia reforming catalyst have different chemical compositions.

[0421] In some embodiments, the first reformer and the second reformer have different housings or vessels.

[0422] In some embodiments, the first reformer and the second reformer share a housing or vessel.

[0423] In some embodiments, the first reformer is a first region of a housing or vessel and the second reformer is a second region of the housing or vessel.

[0424] In some embodiments, the first reformer and the second reformer are in at least partial thermal communication with each other.

[0425] In some embodiments, the first reformer and the second reformer are in fluid communication.

[0426] In some embodiments, the method further includes passing at least one of (i) the NH stream at the first flow rate, (ii) the NH stream at the second flow rate, (iii) the first reformate stream, or (iv) the second reformate stream through a first reformer, a second reformer, or a combination thereof.

[0427] In some embodiments, the method further comprises passing at least three of (i)-(iv) through a first reformer, a second reformer, or a combination thereof.

[0428] In some embodiments, the method further comprises passing all of (i)-(iv) through a first reformer, a second reformer, or a combination thereof.

[0429] In some embodiments, the method further comprises stopping the passage of at least one of (i)-(iv) to the first reformer, the second reformer, or a combination thereof.

[0430] In some embodiments, the method further includes reducing the passage of at least one of (i)-(iv) to the first reformer, the second reformer, or a combination thereof.

[0431] In some embodiments, (i) or (ii) is at least partially reformed in a first reformer and subsequently reformed in a second reformer.

[0432] In some embodiments, (i) or (ii) is at least partially reformed in a second reformer and subsequently reformed in the first reformer.

[0433] In some embodiments, the method further comprises turning off or reducing heating of the first reformer.

[0434] In some embodiments, the method further includes combusting at least one of the first portion of the (1) first reformate stream or the (2) second reformate stream using a fired heater, the fired heater being in thermal communication with the second reformer.

[0435] In some embodiments, the fired heater implements at least one of (c) or (e).

[0436] In some embodiments, the combustion that heats the second reformer is fuel rich.

[0437] In some embodiments, the combustion that heats the second reformer is fuel-lean.

[0438] In some embodiments, the method further comprises heating the first reformer using an electric heater.

[0439] In some embodiments, the method further includes burning a fuel using a fired heater to heat the first reformer, the fired heater being in thermal communication with the first reformer.

[0440] In some embodiments, the fuel comprises at least one of hydrogen, ammonia, a hydrocarbon, or at least a portion of the first reformate stream.

[0441] In some embodiments, the fuel is supplied from a fuel storage tank.

[0442] In some embodiments, the combustion that heats the first reformer is fuel rich.

[0443] In some embodiments, the combustion that heats the first reformer is fuel-lean.

[0444] In yet another general aspect, the present disclosure provides an ammonia (NH) reforming system, the system comprising: a first reformer configured to reform an NH stream at a first flow rate and a first target temperature range to produce a first reformate stream comprising hydrogen (H) and nitrogen (N), the first reformer configured to be heated to the first target temperature range; and a second reformer configured to reform the NH stream at a second flow rate greater than the first flow rate and a second target temperature range to produce a second reformate stream comprising H and N, the second reformer configured to be heated to the second target temperature range by combusting the first reformate stream; A second reformer is configured to be heated by combusting a first portion of the second reformate stream.

[0445] In some embodiments, the first reformer comprises a first ammonia reforming catalyst and the second reformer comprises a second ammonia reforming catalyst.

[0446] In some embodiments, the first ammonia reforming catalyst comprises at least one of Ru, Pt, Pd, Ni, Co, Mo, Fe, or Cu.

[0447] In some embodiments, the second ammonia reforming catalyst comprises at least one of Ru, Pt, Pd, Ni, Co, Mo, Fe, or Cu.

[0448] In some embodiments, the first ammonia reforming catalyst and the second ammonia reforming catalyst have the same chemical composition.

[0449] In some embodiments, the first ammonia reforming catalyst and the second ammonia reforming catalyst have at least partially the same chemical composition.

[0450] In some embodiments, the first ammonia reforming catalyst and the second ammonia reforming catalyst have different chemical compositions.

[0451] In some embodiments, the first reformer and the second reformer have different housings or vessels.

[0452] In some embodiments, the first reformer and the second reformer share a housing or vessel.

[0453] In some embodiments, the first reformer is a first region of a housing or vessel and the second reformer is a second region of the housing or vessel.

[0454] In some embodiments, the first reformer and the second reformer are in at least partial thermal communication with each other.

[0455] In some embodiments, the first reformer and the second reformer are in fluid communication.

[0456] In some embodiments, the first reformer, the second reformer, or a combination thereof is configured to receive at least one of: (i) an NH3 stream at a first flow rate; (ii) an NH3 stream at a second flow rate; (iii) a first reformate stream; or (iv) a second reformate stream.

[0457] In some embodiments, the first reformer, the second reformer, or a combination thereof is configured to receive at least three of (i) through (iv).

[0458] In some embodiments, the first reformer, the second reformer, or a combination thereof is configured to receive all of (i) through (iv).

[0459] In some embodiments, the first reformer, the second reformer, or a combination thereof is configured to stop receiving at least one of (i)-(iv).

[0460] In some embodiments, the first reformer, the second reformer, or a combination thereof is configured to reduce reception of at least one of (i) through (iv).

[0461] In some embodiments, a first reformer is configured to partially reform (i) or (ii), and a second reformer is configured to subsequently reform (i) or (ii).

[0462] In some embodiments, the second reformer is configured to partially reform (i) or (ii), and the first reformer is configured to subsequently reform (i) or (ii).

[0463] In some embodiments, the first reformer is configured to turn off or reduce heating.

[0464] In some embodiments, the system further comprises a fired heater configured to combust at least one of (1) the first reformate stream or (2) a first portion of the second reformate stream to heat the second reformer, the fired heater being in thermal communication with the second reformer.

[0465] In some embodiments, the combustion that heats the second reformer is fuel rich.

[0466] In some embodiments, the combustion that heats the second reformer is fuel-lean.

[0467] In some embodiments, the system further comprises an electric heater configured to heat the first reformer.

[0468] In some embodiments, the system further comprises a fired heater configured to combust fuel to heat the first reformer, the fired heater in thermal communication with the first reformer.

[0469] In some embodiments, the fuel comprises at least one of hydrogen, ammonia, a hydrocarbon, or at least a portion of the first reformate stream.

[0470] In some embodiments, the fuel is supplied from a fuel storage tank.

[0471] In some embodiments, the combustion that heats the first reformer is fuel rich.

[0472] In some embodiments, the combustion that heats the first reformer is fuel-lean.

[0473] In another general aspect, the disclosure provides an ammonia (NH) reforming method, the method including: (a) reforming an NH stream at a first flow rate using an NH reforming catalyst to produce a first reformate stream comprising hydrogen (H) and nitrogen (N); (b) combusting the first reformate stream to heat the NH reforming catalyst; (c) reforming the NH stream at a second flow rate greater than the first flow rate using the NH reforming catalyst to produce a second reformate stream comprising H and N; and (d) combusting a first portion of the second reformate stream to heat the NH reforming catalyst.

[0474] In some embodiments, the NH3 reforming catalyst is in the reformer.

[0475] In some embodiments, a first region of NH3 reforming catalyst is in the first reformer and a second region of NH3 reforming catalyst is in the second reformer.

[0476] In some embodiments, the NH3 reforming catalyst is in thermal communication with an electric heater, a combustion heater, or a combination thereof.

[0477] In some embodiments, the NH3 reforming catalyst is heated by an electric heater prior to (a).

[0478] In some embodiments, a first region of the NH3 reforming catalyst is heated by an electric heater and a second region of the NH3 reforming catalyst is heated by a combustion heater.

[0479] In some embodiments, (b) and (d) are performed using a fired heater.

[0480] In some embodiments, the NH3 reforming catalyst is heated to a target temperature range.

[0481] In some embodiments, the NH3 reforming catalyst is at a target temperature range.

[0482] In some embodiments, a first region of the NH3 reforming catalyst is heated to a first target temperature range and a second region of the NH3 reforming catalyst is heated to a second target temperature range.

[0483] In some embodiments, the first target temperature range and the second target temperature range at least partially overlap.

[0484] In some embodiments, the first target temperature range and the second target temperature range are different.

[0485] In some embodiments, the median temperature of the first target temperature range exceeds the median temperature of the second target temperature range.

[0486] In some embodiments, the first region of the NH3 reforming catalyst comprises a first NH3 reforming catalyst and the second region of the NH3 reforming catalyst comprises a second NH3 reforming catalyst.

[0487] In some embodiments, the first NH3 reforming catalyst comprises at least one of Ru, Pt, Pd, Ni, Co, Mo, Fe, or Cu.

[0488] In some embodiments, the second NH3 reforming catalyst comprises at least one of Ru, Pt, Pd, Ni, Co, Mo, Fe, or Cu.

[0489] In some embodiments, the first ammonia reforming catalyst and the second ammonia reforming catalyst have the same chemical composition.

[0490] In some embodiments, the first ammonia reforming catalyst and the second ammonia reforming catalyst have at least partially the same chemical composition.

[0491] In some embodiments, the first ammonia reforming catalyst and the second ammonia reforming catalyst have different chemical compositions.

[0492] In yet another general aspect, the present disclosure provides an ammonia (NH) reforming system, the system including: (a) reforming an NH stream at a first flow rate using an NH reforming catalyst to produce a first reformate stream comprising hydrogen (H) and nitrogen (N); (b) combusting the first reformate stream to heat the NH reforming catalyst; (c) reforming the NH stream at a second flow rate greater than the first flow rate using the NH reforming catalyst to produce a second reformate stream comprising H and N; and (d) combusting a first portion of the second reformate stream to heat the NH reforming catalyst.

[0493] In some embodiments, the system further comprises a reformer comprising an NH3 reforming catalyst.

[0494] In some embodiments, the system further comprises a first reformer comprising a first region of NH3 reforming catalyst, and a second reformer comprising a second region of NH3 reforming catalyst.

[0495] In some embodiments, the NH3 reforming catalyst is in thermal communication with an electric heater, a combustion heater, or a combination thereof.

[0496] In some embodiments, the system further comprises an electric heater configured to heat the NH3 reforming catalyst prior to (a).

[0497] In some embodiments, the system further comprises an electric heater configured to heat a first region of the NH3 reforming catalyst and a fired heater configured to heat a second region of the NH3 reforming catalyst.

[0498] In some embodiments, the fired heater is configured to perform (b) and (d).

[0499] In some embodiments, the NH3 reforming catalyst is configured to be heated to a target temperature range.

[0500] In some embodiments, the NH3 reforming catalyst is configured to be in a target temperature range.

[0501] In some embodiments, a first region of the NH3 reforming catalyst is configured to be heated to a first target temperature range, and a second region of the NH3 reforming catalyst is configured to be heated to a second target temperature range.

[0502] In some embodiments, the first target temperature range and the second target temperature range at least partially overlap.

[0503] In some embodiments, the first target temperature range and the second target temperature range are different.

[0504] In some embodiments, the median temperature of the first target temperature range exceeds the median temperature of the second target temperature range.

[0505] In some embodiments, the first region of the NH3 reforming catalyst comprises a first NH3 reforming catalyst and the second region of the NH3 reforming catalyst comprises a second NH3 reforming catalyst.

[0506] In some embodiments, the first NH3 reforming catalyst comprises at least one of Ru, Pt, Pd, Ni, Co, Mo, Fe, or Cu.

[0507] In some embodiments, the second NH3 reforming catalyst comprises at least one of Ru, Pt, Pd, Ni, Co, Mo, Fe, or Cu.

[0508] In some embodiments, the first ammonia reforming catalyst and the second ammonia reforming catalyst have the same chemical composition.

[0509] In some embodiments, the first ammonia reforming catalyst and the second ammonia reforming catalyst have at least partially the same chemical composition.

[0510] In some embodiments, the first ammonia reforming catalyst and the second ammonia reforming catalyst have different chemical compositions.

[0511] In another general aspect, the disclosure provides an ammonia decomposition method, the method comprising:

[0512] (a) providing an inert gas to a first reformer;

[0513] (b) reforming the ammonia using a first reformer to produce a first reformate stream comprising hydrogen and nitrogen.

[0514] In some embodiments, (b) is performed after (a) is stopped.

[0515] In some embodiments, (a) purges the first reformer, thereby removing residual contaminants.

[0516] In some embodiments, the residual contaminants include at least one of ammonia, oxygen, water, or hydrogen.

[0517] In some embodiments, the first reformer is an electrically heated reformer, a combustion heated reformer, or a combination thereof.

[0518] In some embodiments, the method further comprises heating the first reformer during (a).

[0519] In some embodiments, the method further includes recycling the inert gas to the first reformer after (a), such that the inert gas leaving the first reformer is provided again to the first reformer.

[0520] In some embodiments, the method further comprises (c) providing an inert gas to the second reformer.

[0521] In some embodiments, the method further includes recycling the inert gas to the second reformer after (c), such that the inert gas leaving the second reformer is provided again to the second reformer.

[0522] In some embodiments, (c) is performed before (b).

[0523] In some embodiments, (c) purges the second reformer, thereby removing residual contaminants.

[0524] In some embodiments, the residual contaminants include at least one of ammonia, oxygen, water, or hydrogen.

[0525] In some embodiments, the second reformer is an electrically heated reformer, a combustion heated reformer, or a combination thereof.

[0526] In some embodiments, the method further comprises heating the second reformer during (c).

[0527] In some embodiments, the inert gas is provided from the first reformer to the second reformer, such that the inert gas leaving the first reformer is provided to the second reformer.

[0528] In some embodiments, the method further includes recycling the inert gas to the second reformer after (c), such that the inert gas leaving the first reformer and the second reformer is provided to the second reformer.

[0529] In some embodiments, the method further comprises (d) providing an inert gas to the ammonia filter.

[0530] In some embodiments, the method further includes, after (d), recycling the inert gas to the ammonia filter, such that the inert gas leaving the ammonia filter is provided back to the ammonia filter.

[0531] In some embodiments, (d) is performed before (b).

[0532] In some embodiments, the ammonia filter is at least one of an adsorber, a scrubber, or an ion exchange filter.

[0533] In some embodiments, the method further includes (e) providing the inert gas to a fired heater in thermal communication with the second reformer.

[0534]

[0535] In some embodiments, the method further includes recirculating the inert gas to the fired heater after (e), such that the inert gas leaving the fired heater is provided back to the fired heater.

[0536] In some embodiments, the method further includes (f) providing the first reformate stream to a second reformer.

[0537] In some embodiments, the method further comprises (g) providing the first reformate stream to an adsorber.

[0538] In some embodiments, the method further includes (h) combusting the first reformate stream in a fired heater in thermal communication with the second reformer.

[0539] In some embodiments, providing the first reformate stream to the fired heater bypasses the second reformer.

[0540] In some embodiments, providing the first reformate stream to the fired heater bypasses the ammonia filter.

[0541] In some embodiments, the ammonia filter is at least one of an adsorber, a scrubber, or an ion exchange filter.

[0542] In some embodiments, the method further includes providing an inert gas to the second reformer while (i)(h) is being performed.

[0543] In some embodiments, the inert gas provided to the secondary reformer facilitates heat transfer from the fired heater to the NH3 reforming catalyst in the secondary reformer.

[0544] In some embodiments, the method further includes (j) reforming the ammonia using a second reformer to produce a second reformate stream comprising hydrogen and nitrogen.

[0545] In some embodiments, (j) is performed after (b) is stopped.

[0546] In some embodiments, providing ammonia to the second reformer bypasses the first reformer.

[0547] In some embodiments, the method further comprises providing the ammonia to a heat exchanger before providing the ammonia to the second reformer.

[0548] In some embodiments, providing ammonia to the heat exchanger bypasses the first reformer.

[0549] In some embodiments, the method further includes using the gas stream to regenerate an ammonia filter and produce an ammonia-containing gas stream, and providing the ammonia-containing gas stream to the first reformer.

[0550] In some embodiments, the method further includes venting or flaring at least one of the inert gas or the first reformate stream.

[0551] In yet another general aspect, the present disclosure provides an ammonia reforming system comprising: a first reformer configured to (a) receive an inert gas; and (b) reform ammonia to produce a first reformate stream comprising hydrogen and nitrogen.

[0552] In yet another general aspect, the present disclosure provides a method for reforming ammonia, the method including: (a) directing ammonia at an ammonia flow rate to a reformer to create a reformate stream comprising hydrogen and nitrogen; (b) combusting a first portion of the reformate stream with oxygen at an oxygen flow rate to heat the reformer; (c) processing a second portion of the reformate stream in a hydroprocessing module; and (d) performing, at least in part, based on a stimulus, one or more of: (i) varying the ammonia flow rate; (ii) varying a percentage of the reformate stream that is the first portion of the reformate stream; (iii) varying a percentage of the reformate stream that is the second portion of the reformate stream; or (iv) varying the oxygen flow rate.

[0553] In some embodiments, the stimulus is, at least in part, a reduced amount of hydrogen used by the hydroprocessing module.

[0554] In some embodiments, the hydrogen loss is a predicted hydrogen loss.

[0555] In some embodiments, ammonia flux is decreased in response to a stimulus.

[0556] In some embodiments, the ammonia flow rate is reduced to about zero flow rate.

[0557] In some embodiments, the method further comprises reducing or ceasing at least one of (a), (b), or (c) after the ammonia flow rate has decreased in response to the stimulus.

[0558] In some embodiments, the method further includes (e) heating the reformer after the ammonia flow rate is reduced in response to the stimulus.

[0559] In some embodiments, an electric heater is used to heat the reformer after the ammonia flow rate is reduced in response to the stimulus.

[0560] In some embodiments, an insulated housing contains a reformer enclosed therein, and an electric heater heats the reformer enclosed within the insulated housing.

[0561] In some embodiments, the electric heater is attached, affixed, or fixed to the wall of the insulated enclosure.

[0562] In some embodiments, an electric heater is attached to or is part of the reformer.

[0563] In some embodiments, the electric heater is attached, affixed, or fixed to the wall of the reformer.

[0564] In some embodiments, the method further comprises increasing the ammonia flow rate and reducing or stopping (e).

[0565] In some embodiments, the method further comprises increasing or initiating at least one of (a), (b), or (c) after increasing the ammonia flow rate.

[0566] In some embodiments, the method further comprises increasing or initiating all of (a), (b), or (c) after increasing the ammonia flow rate.

[0567] In some embodiments, at least about 50% of the mechanical work or electricity generated by the hydroprocessing module is not used for at least one of vehicle propulsion, battery charging, or hotel loads.

[0568] In some embodiments, the hotel loads include at least one of air conditioning, communications, entertainment, lighting, refrigeration, or water supply.

[0569] In some embodiments, at least about 50% of the mechanical work or electricity generated by the hydroprocessing module is used to power at least one of: (1) an air supply unit configured to provide oxygen to the fired heater; or (2) an air supply unit configured to provide oxygen to the hydroprocessing module.

[0570] In some embodiments, the method further includes increasing the ammonia flow rate, wherein up to about 30% of the mechanical work or electricity generated by the hydroprocessing module is used to power at least one of: (1) an air supply unit configured to provide oxygen to the fired heater; or (2) an air supply unit configured to provide oxygen to the hydroprocessing module.

[0571] Unless otherwise defined, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this application belongs. Methods and materials for use in this application are described herein; other suitable methods and materials known in the art may also be used. The materials, methods, and examples are illustrative only and are not intended to be limiting. All publications, patent applications, patents, sequences, database entries, and other references mentioned herein are incorporated by reference in their entirety. In case of conflict, the present specification, including definitions, will control. Other features and advantages of the present application will be apparent from the following detailed description and drawings, and from the claims. [Brief explanation of the drawings]

[0572] The novel features of the methods, compositions, and systems described in this disclosure are set forth with particularity in the appended claims. A better understanding of the features and advantages will be obtained by reference to the following detailed description that sets forth illustrative embodiments, in which the principles of the methods, compositions, and systems are utilized, and the accompanying drawings.

[0573] [Figure 1A] FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating an ammonia reforming system according to one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. [Figure 1B] Same as above. [Figure 2] Same as above. [Figure 3] Same as above. [Figure 4A] Same as above. [Figure 4B] Same as above. [Figure 5A] FIG. 1B is a block diagram illustrating the use of a controller and sensors to control the ammonia reforming system shown in FIGS. 1A-4B, in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. [Figure 5B] Same as above. [Figure 5C] Same as above. [Figure 5D] Same as above. [Figure 5E] Same as above. [Figure 5F] Same as above. [Figure 5G] Same as above. [Figure 5H] Same as above. [Figure 5I] Same as above. [Figure 6A] FIG. 1C is a block diagram illustrating additional or alternative components and processes of the ammonia reforming system shown in FIGS. 1A-4B, in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. [Figure 6B] Same as above. [Figure 6C] Same as above. [Figure 6D] Same as above. [Figure 6E] Same as above. [Figure 6F] Same as above. [Figure 6G] Same as above. [Figure 6H]Same as above. [Figure 6I] Same as above. [Figure 6J] Same as above. [Figure 6K] Same as above. [Figure 6L] Same as above. [Figure 6M] Same as above. [Figure 6N] Same as above. [Figure 6O] Same as above. [Figure 6P] Same as above. [Figure 6Q] Same as above. [Figure 6R] Same as above. [Figure 6S] Same as above. [Figure 6T] Same as above. [Figure 7] 1 is a flowchart illustrating a start-up process for an ammonia reforming method in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. [Figure 8] Same as above. [Figure 9] Same as above. [Figure 10] Same as above. [Figure 11A] Same as above. [Figure 11B] Same as above. [Figure 11C] Same as above. [Figure 12A] 1 is a flow chart illustrating a post-start-up process of an ammonia reforming method in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. [Figure 12B] Same as above. [Figure 13] FIG. 4C is a schematic diagram illustrating the use of an oxidation-tolerant catalyst to generate reformate for purging the ammonia reforming system shown in FIGS. 1A-4B, in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. [Figure 14] FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram illustrating a combined ammonia synthesis and ammonia reforming system according to one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. [Figure 15A] FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram illustrating a multi-stage ammonia filter according to one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. [Figure 15B]15B is a plot illustrating performance calculation data for the multi-stage ammonia filter shown in FIG. 15A in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. [Figure 16A] FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating various recovery modules configured to recover waste heat and separation modules configured to separate hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, or water, in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. [Figure 16B] Same as above. [Figure 16C] Same as above. [Figure 16D] Same as above. [Figure 16E] Same as above. [Figure 16F] Same as above. [Figure 17A] 1A-1D are block diagrams illustrating various configurations of an ammonia reforming system in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. [Figure 17B] Same as above. [Figure 17C] Same as above. [Figure 17D] Same as above. [Figure 17E] Same as above. [Figure 17F] Same as above. [Figure 18] Same as above. [Figure 19] Same as above. [Figure 20A] Same as above. [Figure 20B] Same as above. [Figure 21A] 1 is a flow chart illustrating various ammonia reforming methods according to one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. [Figure 21B] Same as above. [Figure 22] FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating an ammonia filter configured to reduce ammonia concentration in a reformate stream using water extracted from a fuel cell exhaust, in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. [Figure 23] 1A-1D are block diagrams illustrating various ammonia filters according to one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. [Figure 24]FIG. 2 is a block diagram illustrating various heat sources for an ammonia reformer in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. [Figure 25] FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating heating of an ammonia reformer using an exothermic reaction in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. [Figure 26] FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating a fuel cell operating at high hydrogen utilization, according to one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. [Figure 27A] FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating the use of a scrubber to remove residual ammonia from a reformate stream, thus conserving the adsorption capacity of an adsorber, in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. [Figure 27B] Same as above. [Figure 27C] Same as above. [Figure 27D] Same as above. [Figure 28A] FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating the use of a PFAS filter to remove per- and polyfluorinated substances (PFAS) from water extracted from fuel cell exhaust, according to one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. [Figure 28B] Same as above. [Figure 29A] FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating the integration of a scrubber and stripper with an ammonia reforming system in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. [Figure 29B] Same as above. [Figure 29C] Same as above. [Figure 29D] Same as above. [Figure 29E] Same as above. [Figure 30A] FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating the integration of a fuel cell with an ammonia reforming system in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. [Figure 30B] Same as above. [Figure 30C] Same as above. [Figure 30D] Same as above. [Figure 30E] Same as above. [Figure 30F] Same as above. [Figure 30G] Same as above. [Figure 30H] Same as above. [Figure 30I] Same as above. [Figure 30J] Same as above. [Figure 30K] Same as above. [Figure 30L] Same as above. [Figure 30M] Same as above. [Figure 30N] Same as above. [Figure 30O] Same as above. [Figure 31A] FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating the integration of an ammonia oxidation catalyst with an ammonia reforming system in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. [Figure 31B] Same as above. [Figure 31C] Same as above. [Figure 32A] 1A-1C illustrate various configurations of an ammonia reformer according to one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. [Figure 32B] Same as above. [Figure 32C] Same as above. [Figure 33A] FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating the start-up of an ammonia reforming system using an inert gas in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. [Figure 33B] Same as above. [Figure 33C] Same as above. [Figure 33D] Same as above. [Figure 34] FIG. 2 is a block diagram illustrating the heating of a reformer inside an insulated enclosure in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. [Figure 35] FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating the use of mechanical work or electricity generated by a hydrogen processing module to power an air supply unit, in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. [Figure 36] FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating an example computer system that may be programmed or otherwise configured to implement the methods and systems provided herein. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

[0574] While various embodiments of methods, compositions, and systems have been shown and described herein, it will be apparent to those skilled in the art that such embodiments are provided by way of example only. Numerous variations, changes, and substitutions may occur to those skilled in the art without departing from the present disclosure. It should be understood that various alternatives to the method, composition, and system embodiments described herein may be employed. It should be understood that any of the embodiments, configurations, and / or components described with respect to a particular figure may be combined with other embodiments, configurations, and / or components described with respect to other figures.

[0575] The terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only and is not intended to be limiting of example embodiments. The disclosure may be divided into sections using headings. The headings should not be construed as limiting the disclosure but are merely present for purposes of organization and clarity.

[0576] As used herein, the singular forms "a," "an," and "the" are intended to include the plural forms as well (and vice versa), unless the context clearly indicates otherwise. For example, "a," "an," and "the" can be interpreted as "one or more."

[0577] The phrases "at least one of A and B" and "at least one of A or B" may be interpreted to mean at least A, at least B, or at least A and B (i.e., a set that includes A and B, which may include one or more additional elements). The term "A and / or B" may be interpreted to mean A only, B only, or both A and B.

[0578] The phrases "at least about A, B, and C" and "at least about A, B, or C" can be interpreted to mean at least about A, at least about B, or at least about C. The phrases "up to about A, B, and C" and "up to about A, B, or C" can be interpreted to mean up to about A, up to about B, or up to about C. Similarly, the phrase "about A, B, or C" can be interpreted to mean about A, about B, or about C.

[0579] The expression "between about A and B, C and D, and E and F" can be interpreted as meaning between about A and about B, between about C and about D, and between about E and about F. The expression "between about A and B, C and D, or E and about F" can be interpreted as meaning between about A and about B, between about C and about D, or between about E and about F.

[0580] Any ranges set forth in this disclosure may also describe subranges within the range. For example, a range described as "greater than about 10% and less than about 90%" may also describe "greater than about 20% and less than about 80%" and "greater than about 30% and less than about 70%."

[0581] As used herein, the terms "module" and "unit" are used interchangeably and are not limited to a single component, part, section, or individual unit.

[0582] The terms "decompose," "dissociate," "reform," "cracking," and "chemically transform," as well as grammatical variations thereof, can be construed interchangeably. For example, the expression "decomposition of ammonia" can be interchangeable with "dissociation of ammonia," "reforming of ammonia," "cracking of ammonia," etc.

[0583] The terms "ammonia conversion," "ammonia conversion rate," and "ammonia conversion efficiency," and grammatical variations thereof, can be interpreted as the percentage of ammonia that is converted to hydrogen and nitrogen and can be interpreted interchangeably. For example, "90% ammonia conversion efficiency" can indicate that 90% of the ammonia is converted to hydrogen and nitrogen.

[0584] The term "autothermal reforming" can be interpreted as a condition in which the ammonia decomposition reaction (2NH3 → N2 + 3H2; endothermic reaction) is heated by a hydrogen combustion reaction (2H2 + O2 → 2H2O; exothermic reaction) that uses at least a portion of the hydrogen produced by the ammonia decomposition reaction itself.

[0585] In some cases, the term "autothermal reforming" can be interpreted as a condition in which the ammonia decomposition reaction is heated by a hydrogen combustion reaction using at least a portion of the hydrogen produced by the ammonia decomposition reaction itself, electrical heating, or a combination of both (which can result in an overall positive electrical and / or chemical energy output). For example, when "autothermal reforming" is carried out using a hydrogen combustion reaction and / or electrical heating, the hydrogen produced from the ammonia decomposition reaction can be sufficient to drive the combustion fuel and the hydrogen combustion reaction and / or provide electrical energy for electrical heating by a hydrogen-to-electricity conversion device (e.g., a fuel cell, a combustion engine, etc.).

[0586] In some cases, the hydrogen supplied for the hydrogen combustion reaction and / or electrical heating may or may not use hydrogen from the ammonia decomposition reaction (e.g., the hydrogen may be supplied by another hydrogen source, the electricity may be supplied from a battery or the power grid, etc.).

[0587] In some cases, "autothermal reforming" can be interpreted as a condition in which the ammonia decomposition reaction is heated by a combustion reaction (e.g., ammonia combustion, hydrocarbon combustion, etc.), electrical heating, or a combination of both, which may result in an overall positive electrical and / or chemical energy output. For example, when "autothermal reforming" is carried out using a combustion reaction and / or electrical heating, the chemical energy (e.g., lower heating value) from the hydrogen produced from the ammonia decomposition reaction may be higher than the chemical energy (e.g., lower heating value) of the combusted fuel and / or may be sufficient to provide the electrical energy for electrical heating by a hydrogen-to-electricity conversion device (e.g., fuel cell, combustion engine, etc.).

[0588] In some cases, start-up mode may be interpreted as a process in which the ammonia reforming system is commencing operation (e.g., heating one or more reformers to a target temperature range). In some cases, operating mode may be interpreted as a process in which the ammonia reforming system is producing electrical power output (using one or more fuel cells) or producing hydrogen output (for various chemical or industrial processes) while maintaining autothermal reforming. In some cases, high temperature standby mode may be interpreted as a process in which autothermal reforming of the ammonia reforming system is maintained while electrical power output (using one or more fuel cells) and / or hydrogen output (supplied to various chemical or industrial processes) is reduced (e.g., to zero or to an amount that is less than in operating mode).

[0589] Ammonia Reforming System 1A-4B are block diagrams illustrating an ammonia reforming system 100 according to one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. The ammonia reforming system 100 includes an NH3 storage tank 102, a heat exchanger 106, one or more combustion-heated reformers 108, a combustion heater 109, one or more electrically heated reformers 110, an electric heater 111, an air supply unit 116, an ammonia filter 122, and a fuel cell 124.

[0590] The NH3 storage tank 102 may be configured to store NH3 under pressure (e.g., 7-9 bar absolute) and / or at low temperature (e.g., about -30°C). The NH3 storage tank 102 may include a metallic material (e.g., steel) that is resistant to corrosion by ammonia. The storage tank 102 may include one or more layers of insulation (e.g., perlite or glass wool). Optionally, additional heaters may be positioned near, adjacent to, at, or within the NH3 storage tank 102 to heat and / or pressurize the NH3 stored therein.

[0591] The heat exchanger 106 may be configured to exchange heat between various input and output fluid streams. For example, the heat exchanger 106 may be configured to exchange heat between an inlet ammonia stream 104 (e.g., relatively cool liquid ammonia) provided by the storage tank 102 and a reformate stream 120 (e.g., relatively hot H2 / N2 mixture) provided by the reformers 108 and 110. The heat exchanger 106 may be a plate heat exchanger, a shell-and-tube heat exchanger, or a tube-in-tube heat exchanger, although the present disclosure is not limited thereto.

[0592] The reformers 108 and 110 may be configured to produce and output a reformate stream 120 comprising a mixture of at least hydrogen (H) and nitrogen (N) (at a molar ratio of H to N of about 3:1 at high ammonia conversion). The H / N mixture may be produced by contacting the inlet ammonia stream 104 with an NH reforming catalyst 130 positioned within each of the reformers 108 and 110. The reformers 108 and 110 may be heated to a temperature range sufficient to promote ammonia reforming (e.g., about 400°C to about 650°C).

[0593] In some embodiments, the reformers 108 and 110 may comprise multiple reformers that may be in fluid communication in various series and / or parallel arrangements. For example, the electrically heated reformer 110 may be in fluid communication with the combustion heated reformer 108 in series or parallel (or vice versa) as a pair of reformers 108-110. Such a pair of reformers 108-110 may be in fluid communication with another reformer 108-110 or pair of reformers 108-110 in parallel (so that the pair of reformers 108-110 combine their outputs into a single reformate stream 120), or may be in fluid communication with another reformer 108-110 or pair of reformers 108-110 in series.

[0594] In some embodiments, the number of combustion-heated reformers 108 may be the same as the number of electrically heated reformers 110, and the reformers 108-110 may be in fluid communication in various series and / or parallel arrangements. For example, two electrically heated reformers 110 may be in fluid communication in series with two combustion-heated reformers 108 (or vice versa).

[0595] In some embodiments, the number of combustion-heated reformers 108 may differ from the number of electrically heated reformers 110, and the reformers 108-110 may be in fluid communication in various series and / or parallel arrangements. For example, two electrically heated reformers 110 may be in fluid communication in series with four combustion-heated reformers 108 (or vice versa).

[0596] The fired heater 109 may be in thermal communication with the combustion-heated reformer 108 to heat the NH reforming catalyst 130 within the reformer 108. The fired heater 109 may react at least a portion of the reformate stream 120 (e.g., H in an H / N mixture) with the air stream 118 (e.g., at least oxygen (O)). Heat from the exothermic combustion reaction within the fired heater 109 may be transferred to the NH reforming catalyst 130 within the reformer 108. For example, the hot combustion product gases 114 may contact the walls of the reformer 108, and the hot combustion product gases 114 may then be output from the fired heater 109 as the combustion exhaust 114. The fired heater 109 may comprise a separate component from the reformer 108 (and may be slidably insertable or removable within the reformer 108). In some cases, the fired heater 109 is a unitary structure with the fired reformer 108 (and both the reformer 108 and the heater 109 may be manufactured via 3D printing and / or casting).

[0597] Air supply unit 116 (e.g., one or more pumps and / or compressors) may be configured to provide air flow 118 (which may be sourced from atmospheric air and may include at least about 20% oxygen by mole fraction). Air flow 118 may include pure oxygen by mole fraction or substantially pure oxygen by mole fraction (e.g., at least about 99% pure oxygen).

[0598] The electric heater 111 may be in thermal communication with the electrically heated reformer 110 to heat the NH3 reforming catalyst 130 in the reformer 110. The electric heater 111 may heat the NH3 reforming catalyst 130 in the electrically heated reformer 110 by resistive heating or Joule heating. In some cases, the electric heater 111 may include at least a heating element (e.g., nichrome or ceramic) that transfers heat to the catalyst 130 in the electrically heated reformer 110. In some cases, the electric heater 111 may include metal electrodes (e.g., copper or steel electrodes) that pass an electric current through the catalyst 130 to heat the catalyst 130 in the reformer 110.

[0599] The ammonia filter 122 may be configured to filter or remove trace amounts of ammonia in the reformate stream 120. The ammonia filter 122 may be configured to reduce the concentration of NH3 in the reformate stream 120, for example, from greater than about 10,000 ppm to less than about 100 ppm. The ammonia filter 122 may include a fluidized bed including a plurality of particles or pellets. The ammonia filter 122 may be cartridge-based (e.g., for simple replacement after the ammonia filter 122 becomes saturated with ammonia).

[0600] The ammonia filter 122 may include an adsorbent (e.g., bentonite, zeolite, clay, biochar, activated carbon, silica gel, metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), and other nanostructured materials). The adsorbent may include pellets and may be stored in one or more columns or towers. In some cases, the ammonia filter 122 may include an adsorbent, a solvent-based material, and / or a chemical solvent.

[0601] In some embodiments, the ammonia filter 122 comprises a multi-stage ammonia filtration system (e.g., water-based) including multiple filtration stages. Water-based sorbent replacement can be performed for continuous operation. Multi-stage ammonia filters are described in detail with reference to Figures 15A and 15B.

[0602] In some embodiments, the ammonia filter 122 includes a selective ammonia oxidation (SAO) reactor that includes an oxidation catalyst configured to react trace ammonia in the reformate stream 120 with oxygen (O) to produce nitrogen (N) and water (H2O). The air stream 118 (or a separate oxygen source) may be provided to the SAO reactor to provide oxygen for the oxidation reaction.

[0603] In some embodiments, the ammonia filter 122 may include an acidic ammonia removal agent (e.g., in addition to the adsorbent), which may include an acidic solid or solution. The acidic ammonia removal agent may be regenerated (to desorb the ammonia trapped therein) by passing an electric current through the acidic ammonia removal agent.

[0604] The fuel cell 124 may include an anode, a cathode, and a membrane between the anode and cathode. The fuel cell 124 may include, but is not limited to, a polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell (PEMFC), a solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC), a molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC), a phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC), or an alkaline fuel cell (AFC). The fuel cell 124 may process H in the reformate stream 120 at the anode and O in an air stream at the cathode to generate electricity (for powering an external electrical load). The fuel cell 124 may be configured to receive hydrogen (e.g., at least a portion of the reformate stream 120) through one or more anode inlets and oxygen (e.g., at least a portion of the air stream 118 or a separate air stream) through one or more cathode inlets.

[0605] In some embodiments, fuel cell 124 may output unconsumed hydrogen (e.g., as anode off-gas) through one or more anode outlets and / or unconsumed oxygen (e.g., as cathode off-gas) through one or more cathode outlets. The anode off-gas and / or cathode off-gas may be provided to fired heater 109 as reactants for a combustion reaction carried out therein.

[0606] 1A and 1B, the storage tank 102 may be in fluid communication (e.g., using one or more lines or conduits) with the combustion-heated reformer 108 and / or the electrically-heated reformer 110. The storage tank 102 may provide the inlet ammonia stream 104 (e.g., by actuating a valve). In some cases, the heat exchanger 106 may facilitate heat transfer from the (relatively hot) reformate stream 120 to the (relatively cold) inlet ammonia stream 104 to preheat and / or vaporize (change the phase of the ammonia stream 104 from liquid to gas) the inlet ammonia stream 104. The inlet ammonia stream 104 may then enter the reformers 108 and 110 and be reformed into hydrogen and nitrogen.

[0607] In some embodiments, the influent ammonia stream 104 may first be partially reformed by the electrically heated reformer 110 into a partially cracked reformate stream 120 (e.g., comprising at least about a 10% H / N mole fraction mixture) (e.g., during a start-up or startup process). The partially cracked reformate stream 120 may then be further reformed in the combustion-heated reformer 108 to produce a substantially cracked reformate stream (e.g., comprising less than about 10,000 ppm residual or trace ammonia by volume and / or greater than about a 99% H / N mole fraction mixture). Passing the ammonia stream 104 first through the electrically heated reformer 110 and then through the combustion-heated reformer 108 may advantageously result in more complete ammonia conversion (e.g., greater than about 99%).

[0608] In some embodiments, the influent ammonia stream 104 may first be partially reformed by the combustion-heated reformer 108 into a partially cracked reformate stream 120 (e.g., comprising at least about a 10% H / N mole fraction mixture). The partially cracked reformate stream 120 may then be further reformed in the electrically heated reformer 110 to produce a substantially cracked reformate stream (e.g., comprising less than about 10,000 ppm residual or trace ammonia by volume and / or greater than about a 99% H / N mole fraction mixture). Passing the ammonia stream 104 first through the combustion-heated reformer 108 and then through the electrically heated reformer 110 may advantageously result in more complete ammonia conversion (e.g., greater than about 99%).

[0609] Optionally, the influent ammonia stream 104 may first be preheated by flue gas 114 and / or fired heater 109. Optionally, the preheated influent ammonia stream 104 may enter reformers 108 and 110 and be reformed into hydrogen and nitrogen.

[0610] In some embodiments, the influent ammonia stream 104 may first be reformed by the electrically heated reformer 110 (e.g., during a start-up or startup process) to produce a partially or substantially cracked reformate stream 120. At least a portion of the partially or substantially cracked reformate stream 120 produced by the electrically heated reformer 110 may then be combusted as combustion fuel to heat at least one fired heater 109 of one or more combustion-heated reformers 108.

[0611] In some cases, the electrically heated reformer 110 may be configured to preheat or vaporize the influent ammonia stream 104 (to avoid reforming liquid ammonia). In some cases, the electrically heated reformer 110 may reform or crack the influent ammonia stream 104 with an ammonia conversion efficiency of at least about 10, about 15, about 20, about 25, about 30, about 35, about 40, about 45, about 50, about 55, about 60, about 65, about 70, about 75, about 80, about 85, about 90, about 95, about 99, or about 99.5%. In some cases, the electrically heated reformer 110 may reform or crack the influent ammonia stream 104 at an ammonia conversion efficiency of up to about 10, about 15, about 20, about 25, about 30, about 35, about 40, about 45, about 50, about 55, about 60, about 65, about 70, about 75, about 80, about 85, about 90, about 95, about 99, or 99.5%. In some cases, the electrically heated reformer 110 may reform or crack the influent ammonia stream 104 at an ammonia conversion efficiency of about 10 to about 30, about 20 to about 40, about 30 to about 50, about 40 to about 60, about 50 to about 70, about 60 to about 80, about 70 to about 90, about 80 to about 99, or about 90 to about 99.5%.

[0612] In some cases, the power input to the electric heater 111 of the electrically heated reformer 110 may be reduced or turned off entirely based on the temperature of the combustion heated reformer 108 and / or the combustion heater 109 being at or above a target temperature (e.g., within a target temperature range). In some cases, the power input to the electric heater 111 of the electrically heated reformer 110 may be reduced or turned off entirely based on the flow rate of the influent ammonia stream 104 being at or above a target flow rate range. In some cases, the power input to the electric heater 111 of the electrically heated reformer 110 may be turned on or increased during the entire operation of the ammonia reforming system 100 (e.g., during the start-up mode, operating mode, and / or hot standby mode described in this disclosure). In some cases, the power input to the electric heater 111 of the electrically heated reformer 110 may be turned on or off or intermittently increased during operation of the ammonia reforming system 100 (e.g., turned on or increased during start-up mode and / or high temperature standby mode, and turned off or decreased during operating mode).

[0613] In some cases, the power input to the electric heater 111 may be controlled so that the temperature of the electrically heated reformer 110 and / or the electric heater 111 increases or decreases at a target temperature ramp rate (Δ temperature / Δ time, e.g., °C / min). In some cases, the target temperature ramp rate is at least about 5, 10, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, or 100 °C / min. In some cases, the target temperature ramp rate is at most about 5, 10, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, or 100 °C / min.

[0614] 2, the ammonia filter 122 may be configured to remove trace ammonia in the reformate stream 120 and output a filtered reformate stream 123. The filtered reformate stream 123 may then be provided to the fired heater 109 for combustion to heat the reformer 108 (i.e., by autothermal reforming).

[0615] 3, the filtered reformate stream 123 may be provided to a fuel cell 124 to generate electricity 126. An external load (e.g., an electric motor for powering a transportation vehicle or a fixed electrical grid) may utilize the electricity 126. The fuel cell 124 may provide an anode off-gas 128 (e.g., including unconsumed or unconverted hydrogen) to a fired heater 109 for combustion for self-heating.

[0616] In some embodiments, the ammonia reforming system 100 includes a battery (so the system 100 is a hybrid fuel cell system). The battery may be configured to power an external load in addition to the fuel cell 124. The fuel cell 124 may be configured to charge the battery (e.g., based on the charge of the battery being below a threshold charge).

[0617] 4A, a pressure swing adsorber (PSA) 127 may be configured to adsorb NH and / or N in the filtered reformate stream 123 (or reformate stream 120) to further purify the filtered reformate stream 123. The PSA may be configured to increase the mole fraction of H and decrease the mole fraction of NH and / or N in the filtered reformate stream 123 (or reformate stream 120). The PSA exhaust stream 128b containing H (and may additionally contain NH and / or N) may then be provided to the fired heater 109 for combustion to self-heat the reformer 108 (i.e., via autothermal reforming). Additionally, the purified reformate stream 129 may be provided to the fuel cell 124 to generate a power output 126.

[0618] 4B, a flow diverter 115 can be configured to distribute at least a portion 128c of the reformate stream 120 (or the filtered reformate stream 123) to the fired heater 109 as combustion fuel. The flow diverter 130 can include, for example, one or more flow control units (e.g., one or more valves, one or more pumps, one or more flow regulators, etc.). The remaining reformate stream 117 can be provided to various chemical or industrial processes, including, but not limited to, steel or iron processing, combustion engines, combustion turbines, hydrogen storage, hydrogen for chemical processes, hydrogen fueling stations, etc. In some cases, the remaining reformate stream 117 can be supplied to a combustion engine or combustion turbine as pilot, auxiliary, or primary fuel.

[0619] In some embodiments, the reformate stream 120, the filtered reformate stream 123, the purified reformate stream 129, and / or the remaining reformate stream 117 may be provided to an internal combustion engine (ICE). Heat emitted by the ICE may be used to heat the reformer 108 and / or the reformer 110 (e.g., using a heat exchanger).

[0620] In some embodiments, the reformate stream 120, the filtered reformate stream 123, the purified reformate stream 129, and / or the remaining reformate stream 117 may be used directly in chemical or industrial processes (e.g., to reduce iron), in storage (e.g., hydrogen storage), and / or in hydrogen fueling stations.

[0621] 1A-4B, the fuel cell 124 may be absent, and at least a portion of the reformate 120 may be combusted to support the autothermal reforming process. The remaining reformate 120 (uncombusted) may be provided for chemical or industrial processes, storage (e.g., hydrogen storage), and / or hydrogen fueling stations. In some cases, the remaining reformate stream 120 is provided to an ICE. In some cases, heat radiated by the ICE may provide at least some or all of the heat required for ammonia reforming in the reformer 108 and / or reformer 110. Any of the embodiments, configurations, and / or components described with respect to FIGS. 1A-4B may be powered in part or completely by exhaust heat from a combustion engine.

[0622] Controllers and Sensors 5A-5I are block diagrams illustrating the use of a controller 200 (e.g., a computer or computing device), sensors P1-P10, T1-T11, FM1-FM11, AC1-AC10, HC1-HC5, and flow control units FCU1-FCU11 to control the ammonia reforming system 100 shown in FIGS. 1A-4B in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure.

[0623] 5A, the controller 200 may include one or more processors 202 and memory 204. The one or more processors 202 may include one or more processing or logic elements (e.g., one or more microprocessor devices, one or more central processing units (CPUs), one or more graphics processing units (GPUs), one or more application specific integrated circuits (ASIC) devices, one or more field programmable gate arrays (FPGAs), or one or more digital signal processors (DSPs)) and may be configured to execute, perform, or implement algorithms, modules, processes, and / or instructions (e.g., program instructions stored in memory). The one or more processors 202 may be embodied in an embedded system (e.g., as part of a ground vehicle, aircraft, marine vehicle, stationary device, etc.). The memory 204 may be configured to store program instructions executable, executable, or implementable by the associated one or more processors 202. For example, memory medium 204 may include non-transitory memory media, including, but not limited to, read-only memory (ROM), random access memory (RAM), magnetic or optical memory devices (e.g., disks), magnetic tape, solid-state drives, etc.

[0624] The controller 200 may be in electronic communication with at least one of the sensors P1-P10, T1-T11, FM1-FM11, AC1-AC10, HC1-HC5, and flow control units FCU1-FCU11 to monitor, measure, and / or control one or more characteristics or parameters of the ammonia reforming system 100. For example, the controller 200 may be connected to the sensors P1-P10, T1-T11, FM1-FM11, AC1-AC10, and HC1-HC5, and the flow control units FCU1-FCU11 via wires or wirelessly.

[0625] Module 214 stored in memory 204 may be configured to start or stop monitoring or measuring ammonia reforming system 100. Module 216 may be configured to control components of ammonia reforming system 100 based on the monitored data (e.g., by adjusting the heating power to heaters 109 and 111, by adjusting the power output of fuel cell 124, etc.). Modules 214 and / or 216 may be implemented using a graphical user interface so that a user of controller 200 can view the monitored data (e.g., via one or more tables or charts) and / or manually control ammonia reforming system 100. In some embodiments, modules 214 and / or 216 may automatically control ammonia reforming system 100 based on measurements made on the monitored data. Note that modules 214 and 216 may be the same module (e.g., rather than different modules).

[0626] Flow sensors FM1-FM11 may be configured to monitor or measure the flow rate (e.g., unit volume or unit mass per unit time) of a fluid (liquid or gas) within any component of the ammonia reforming system 100 and transmit data associated with the flow rate measurements that are stored in memory 204.

[0627] Temperature sensors T1-T11 may be configured to detect the temperature (e.g., in degrees Celsius or Kelvin) of any component of the ammonia reforming system 100 (e.g., the walls of the reformers 108-110 or the walls of the heaters 109-111), or may be configured to detect the temperature of a fluid (liquid or gas) within any component of the ammonia reforming system 100 and transmit data associated with the temperature measurement that is stored in memory 204.

[0628] Pressure sensors P1-P10 may be configured to detect the pressure (e.g., gauge pressure (barg) or absolute pressure (bara)) of a fluid stream (liquid or gas) within any component of ammonia reforming system 100 and transmit data associated with the pressure measurement that is stored in memory 204.

[0629] Concentration sensors AC1-AC10 and HC1-HC5 may be configured to detect the concentration (e.g., parts per million) of a fluid (liquid or gas) in any component of the ammonia reforming system 100 and transmit data associated with the concentration measurement that is stored in memory 204.

[0630] 5B, pressure sensors P1-P10 may be positioned in various components and / or fluid lines of the ammonia reforming system 100. Pressure sensor P1 may be configured to measure the pressure of ammonia stored in tank 102. Pressure sensor P2 may be configured to measure the pressure of the incoming ammonia stream 104 before it enters heat exchanger 106. Pressure sensor P3 may be configured to measure the pressure of the incoming ammonia stream 104 after it exits heat exchanger 106. Pressure sensor P4 may be configured to measure the pressure of the air stream 118 after it exits air supply unit 116. Pressure sensor P5 may be configured to measure the pressure of one or more inlets, one or more outlets, and / or fluids within reformers 108-110 and / or fired heater 109. For example, pressure sensor P5 may be configured to measure the pressure of the inlet ammonia stream 104 at the inlet of the reformer 108-110, the partially cracked reformate stream 120 in the reformer 108-110, and / or the substantially cracked reformate stream 120 at the outlet of the reformer 108-110. In another example, pressure sensor P5 may be configured to measure the pressure of the reformate stream 120 and / or the air stream 118 at the inlet of the fired heater 109, the combustion product gases 114 inside the fired heater 109, and / or the combustion exhaust 114 at the outlet of the fired heater 109. Pressure sensor P6 may be configured to measure the pressure of the reformate stream 120 after it exits the reformer 108-110 and before it enters the heat exchanger 106. Pressure sensor P7 may be configured to measure the pressure at one or more inlets, one or more outlets, and / or inside the ammonia filter 122. Pressure sensor P8 may be configured to measure the pressure of the filtered reformate stream 123 before it enters the fuel cell 124. Pressure sensor P9 may be configured to measure the pressure at one or more inlets, one or more outlets, and / or the interior of the fuel cell 124. Pressure sensor P10 may be configured to measure the pressure of the anode off-gas 128 after it exits the fuel cell 124 and / or before it enters the fired heater 109.

[0631] 5C , temperature sensors T1-T11 may be positioned in various components and / or fluid lines of the ammonia reforming system 100. Temperature sensor T1 may be configured to measure the temperature of the ammonia stored in tank 102. Temperature sensor T2 may be configured to measure the temperature of the incoming ammonia stream 104 before it enters heat exchanger 106. Temperature sensor T3 may be configured to measure the temperature of the incoming ammonia stream 104 after it exits heat exchanger 106. Temperature sensor T4 may be configured to measure the temperature of air stream 118 after it exits air supply unit 116. Temperature sensor T5 may be configured to measure the temperature of one or more inlets, one or more outlets, and / or fluids within reformers 108-110 and / or fired heater 109. For example, temperature sensor T5 may be configured to measure the temperature of the inlet ammonia stream 104 at the inlet of the reformer 108-110, the partially cracked reformate stream 120 in the reformer 108-110, and / or the substantially cracked reformate stream 120 at the outlet of the reformer 108-110. In another example, temperature sensor T5 may be configured to measure the temperature of the reformate stream 120 and / or the air stream 118 at the inlet of the fired heater 109, the combustion product gas 114 inside the fired heater 109, and / or the combustion exhaust 114 at the outlet of the fired heater 109. Temperature sensor T6 may be configured to measure the temperature of the reformate stream 120 after it exits the reformer 108-110 and before it enters the heat exchanger 106. Temperature sensor T7 may be configured to measure the temperature of one or more inlets, one or more outlets, and / or the interior of the ammonia filter 122. Temperature sensor T8 may be configured to measure the temperature of the filtered reformate stream 123 before it enters the fuel cell 124. Temperature sensor T9 may be configured to measure the temperature of one or more inlets, one or more outlets, and / or the interior of the fuel cell 124. Temperature sensor T10 may be configured to measure the temperature of the anode off-gas 128 after it exits the fuel cell 124 and before it enters the fired heater 109.Temperature sensor T11 may be configured to measure the temperature of one or more inlets, one or more outlets, and / or the interior of heat exchanger 106).

[0632] It should be noted that temperature sensors T1-T11 may be configured to measure the temperature of components of the ammonia reforming system 100 and / or the walls of the fluid lines (as opposed to directly measuring the temperature of the fluid passing therethrough, e.g., by having the sensor in physical contact with the fluid stream).

[0633] 5D , flow sensors FM1-FM11 (e.g., comprising flow meters or flow controllers) may be positioned in various components and / or fluid lines of ammonia reforming system 100. FM1-FM11 may include one or more valves, one or more regulators, or one or more flow sensors configured to monitor and / or control the flow rates of fluid streams in ammonia reforming system 100. Flow meter FM1 may be configured to measure the flow rate of the incoming ammonia stream 104 before it enters heat exchanger 106. Flow meter FM2 may be configured to measure the flow rate of the incoming ammonia stream 104 after it exits heat exchanger 106. Flow meter FM3 may be configured to measure the flow rate of air stream 118 at or within air supply unit 116. Flow meter FM4 may be configured to measure the flow rate of air stream 118 after it exits air supply unit 116. Flow meter FM5 may be configured to measure the flow rate of a fluid at one or more inlets, one or more outlets, and / or within the reformers 108-110 and / or fired heater 109. For example, flow meter FM5 may be configured to measure the flow rate of the inlet ammonia stream 104 at the inlet of the reformer 108-110, the partially cracked reformate stream 120 within the reformer 108-110, and / or the substantially cracked reformate stream 120 at the outlet of the reformer 108-110. In another example, flow meter FM5 may be configured to measure the flow rate of the reformate stream 120 or anode off-gas 128 and / or air stream 118 at the inlet of the fired heater 109, the combustion product gases 114 within the fired heater 109, and / or the combustion exhaust 114 at the outlet of the fired heater 109. Flow meter FM6 may be configured to measure the flow rate of the reformate stream 120 after it exits the reformers 108-110 and before it enters the heat exchanger 106. Flow meter FM7 may be configured to measure the flow rate at one or more inlets, one or more outlets, and / or within the ammonia filter 122. Flow meter FM8 may be configured to measure the flow rate of the filtered reformate stream 123 before it enters the fuel cell 124.Flow meter FM9 may be configured to measure the flow rate at one or more inlets, one or more outlets, and / or within fuel cell 124. Flow meter FM10 may be configured to measure the flow rate of anode off-gas 128 after off-gas 128 exits fuel cell 124 and before off-gas 128 enters fired heater 109. Flow meter FM11 may be configured to measure one or more flow rates at one or more inlets, one or more outlets, or one or more locations within heat exchanger 106.

[0634] It should be noted that in some embodiments, flow meters FM1-FM11 may include pumps, valves, blowers, compressors, or other fluid supply devices, and the respective flow rate measurements may be performed by correlating a parameter of the fluid supply device with the flow rate. For example, flow meter FM3 may be the air supply unit 116 itself. If the air supply unit 116 includes a valve, the flow rate may be measured by correlating the size of the valve opening and / or one or more pressure measurements within the air supply unit 116. If the air supply unit includes a pump or compressor, the flow rate may be measured, at least in part, by correlating the revolutions per minute (RPM) of the pump or compressor.

[0635] 5E, ammonia sensors AC1-AC10 may be positioned in various components and / or fluid lines of ammonia reforming system 100. Ammonia sensor AC1 may be configured to measure the concentration of ammonia in storage tank 102. Ammonia sensor AC2 may be configured to measure the concentration of ammonia in incoming ammonia stream 104 before it enters heat exchanger 106. Ammonia sensor AC3 may be configured to measure the concentration of ammonia in incoming ammonia stream 104 after it exits heat exchanger 106. Ammonia sensor AC4 may be configured to measure the concentration of ammonia at one or more inlets, one or more outlets, and / or within reformers 108-110 and / or fired heater 109. For example, ammonia sensor AC4 may be configured to measure the concentration of ammonia in the inlet ammonia stream 104 at the inlet of the reformer 108-110, the partially cracked reformate stream 120 in the reformer 108-110, and / or the substantially cracked reformate stream 120 at the outlet of the reformer 108-110. In another example, ammonia sensor AC4 may be configured to measure the concentration of ammonia in the reformate stream 120 and / or the air stream 118 at the inlet of the fired heater 109, the combustion product gas 114 inside the fired heater 109, and / or the combustion exhaust 114 at the outlet of the fired heater 109. Ammonia sensor AC5 may be configured to measure the concentration of ammonia in the reformate stream 120 after it exits the reformer 108-110 and before it enters the heat exchanger 106. Ammonia sensor AC6 may be configured to measure the concentration of ammonia at one or more inlets, one or more outlets, and / or inside the ammonia filter 122. Ammonia sensor AC7 may be configured to measure the concentration of ammonia in the filtered reformate stream 123 before it enters the fuel cell 124. Ammonia sensor AC8 may be configured to measure the concentration of ammonia at one or more inlets, one or more outlets, and / or inside the fuel cell 124.Ammonia sensor AC9 may be configured to measure the concentration of ammonia in anode off-gas 128 after it exits fuel cell 124 and before it enters fired heater 109. Ammonia sensor AC10 may be configured to measure the concentration of ammonia at one or more inlets, one or more outlets, and / or inside heat exchanger 106.

[0636] 5F, hydrogen concentration sensors HC1-HC5 were located in various components and / or fluid lines of ammonia reforming system 100. Hydrogen concentration sensor HC1 may be configured to measure the concentration of hydrogen at one or more inlets, one or more outlets, and / or within reformers 108-110 and / or fired heater 109. For example, hydrogen concentration sensor HC1 may be configured to measure the concentration of hydrogen in the incoming ammonia stream 104 at the inlet of a reformer 108-110, the partially cracked reformate stream 120 within the reformer 108-110, and / or the substantially cracked reformate stream 120 at the outlet of the reformer 108-110. In another example, hydrogen concentration sensor HC1 may be configured to measure the concentration of hydrogen in the reformate stream 120 at the inlet of the fired heater 109, the fuel cell off-gas 128, and / or the air stream 118, the combustion product gases 114 inside the fired heater 109, and / or the combustion exhaust 114 at the outlet of the fired heater 109. Hydrogen concentration sensor HC2 may be configured to measure the concentration of hydrogen in the reformate stream 120 after it exits the reformers 108-110 and before it enters the heat exchanger 106. Hydrogen concentration sensor HC3 may be configured to measure the concentration of hydrogen in the filtered reformate stream 123 before it enters the fuel cell 124. Hydrogen concentration sensor HC4 may be configured to measure the concentration of hydrogen at one or more inlets, one or more outlets, and / or inside the fuel cell 124. Hydrogen concentration sensor HC5 may be configured to measure the concentration of hydrogen in anode off-gas 128 after off-gas 128 exits fuel cell 124 and before off-gas 128 enters fired heater 109.

[0637] 5G, flow control units FCU1-FCU11 may be positioned in various components and / or fluid lines of ammonia reforming system 100. FCU1-FCU11 may be configured to monitor and / or control (i.e., increase, decrease, adjust, or maintain) one or more flow rates and / or one or more pressures of ammonia reforming system 100. FCU1-FCU11 may include one or more pressure reduction elements configured to reduce pressure, one or more pumps, one or more check valves, one or more one-way valves, one or more three-way valves, one or more restrictive orifices, one or more valves, one or more flow regulators, one or more pressure regulators, one or more backpressure regulators, one or more pressure reducing regulators, one or more backflow regulators, one or more flow meters, one or more flow controllers, or any combination thereof. In some cases, flow control units FCU1-FCU11 may be controlled manually, automatically, or electronically.

[0638] Flow control unit FCU1 may be configured to measure and / or control the flow rate and / or pressure of the incoming ammonia stream 104 before it enters the heat exchanger 106. Flow control unit FCU2 may be configured to measure and / or control the flow rate and / or pressure of the incoming ammonia stream 104 after it exits the heat exchanger 106. Flow control unit FCU3 may be configured to measure and / or control the flow rate and / or pressure of the air stream 118 at or within the air supply unit 116. Flow control unit FCU4 may be configured to measure and / or control the flow rate and / or pressure of the air stream 118 after it exits the air supply unit 116. Flow control unit FCU5 may be configured to measure and / or control the flow rate and / or pressure of fluids at one or more inlets, one or more outlets, and / or within the reformers 108-110 and / or fired heater 109. For example, the flow control unit FCU5 may be configured to measure and / or control the flow rate and / or pressure of the inlet ammonia stream 104 at the inlet of the reformer 108-110, the partially cracked reformate stream 120 within the reformer 108-110, and / or the substantially cracked reformate stream 120 at the outlet of the reformer 108-110. In another example, the flow control unit FCU5 may be configured to measure and / or control the flow rate and / or pressure of the reformate stream 120 or the anode off-gas 128 and / or the air stream 118 at the inlet of the fired heater 109, the combustion product gases 114 within the fired heater 109, and / or the combustion exhaust 114 at the outlet of the fired heater 109. The flow control unit FCU6 may be configured to measure and / or control the flow rate and / or pressure of the reformate stream 120 after it exits the reformer 108-110 and before it enters the heat exchanger 106. Flow control unit FCU7 may be configured to measure and / or control the flow rate and / or pressure at one or more inlets, one or more outlets, and / or within the ammonia filter 122. Flow control unit FCU8 may be configured to measure and / or control the flow rate and / or pressure of the filtered reformate stream 123 before it enters the fuel cell.Flow control unit FCU9 may be configured to measure and / or control the flow rate and / or pressure at one or more inlets, one or more outlets, and / or within fuel cell 124. Flow control unit FCU10 may be configured to measure and / or control the flow rate and / or pressure of anode off-gas 128 after off-gas 128 exits fuel cell 124 and before off-gas 128 enters fired heater 109. Flow control unit FM11 may be configured to measure and / or control the flow rate and / or pressure at one or more inlets, one or more outlets, and / or within heat exchanger 106.

[0639] It should be noted that in some embodiments, flow control units FCU1-FCU11 may include pumps, valves, blowers, compressors, or other fluid supply devices, and the respective flow rate measurements may be performed by correlating parameters of the fluid supply devices with flow rates. For example, flow control unit FCU3 may be the air supply unit 116 itself. If the air supply unit 116 includes a valve, the flow rate may be measured by correlating the size of the valve opening and / or one or more pressure measurements within the air supply unit 116. If the air supply unit 116 includes a pump or compressor, the flow rate may be measured, at least in part, by correlating the revolutions per minute (RPM) of the pump or compressor. In some cases, flow control units FCU1-FCU11 and flow meters FM1-FM11 may be interchangeable and / or have one or more of the same or similar functions.

[0640] In some cases, the flow control units FCU1-FCU11 and / or flow meters FM1-FM11 can maintain the flow rate at a target flow rate within a selected tolerance range. In some cases, the selected tolerance range can be at least about 1, about 5, about 10, about 20, about 30, about 40, about 50, about 60, about 70, about 80, or about 90%. In some cases, the selected tolerance range can be up to about 1, about 5, about 10, about 20, about 30, about 40, about 50, about 60, about 70, about 80, or about 90%. In some cases, the selected tolerance range can be about 1-90, about 5-80, about 10-70, about 20-60, about 30-50, or about 40-90%. In some cases, the selected tolerance range can be less than about 20%.

[0641] In some cases, the flow control units FCU1-FCU11 and / or flow meters FM1-FM11 may increase the flow rate to the target flow rate at a predetermined rate (within a selected tolerance range). In some cases, the selected tolerance range may be at least about 1, about 5, about 10, about 20, about 30, about 40, about 50, about 60, about 70, about 80, or about 90%. In some cases, the selected tolerance range may be up to about 1, about 5, about 10, about 20, about 30, about 40, about 50, about 60, about 70, about 80, or about 90%. In some cases, the selected tolerance range may be about 1 to about 90, about 5 to about 80, about 10 to about 70, about 20 to about 60, about 30 to about 50, or about 40 to about 90%. In some cases, the selected tolerance range may be less than about 20%.

[0642] In some cases, the flow control units FCU1-FCU11 and / or flow meters FM1-FM11 may decrease the flow rate to the target flow rate at a predetermined rate (within a selected tolerance range). In some cases, the selected tolerance range may be at least about 1, about 5, about 10, about 20, about 30, about 40, about 50, about 60, about 70, about 80, or 90%. In some cases, the selected tolerance range may be up to about 1, about 5, about 10, about 20, about 30, about 40, about 50, about 60, about 70, about 80, or 90%. In some cases, the selected tolerance range may be about 1 to about 90, about 5 to about 80, about 10 to about 70, about 20 to about 60, about 30 to about 50, or about 40 to about 90%. In some cases, the selected tolerance range may be less than about 20%.

[0643] 5H , one or more pressure regulators may be positioned in various components and / or fluid lines of the ammonia reforming system 100. For example, backpressure regulator BPR1 (or pressure reduction regulator PRR1) may be configured to maintain the pressure of the reformate stream 120 after it exits the reformers 108-110, after (or before) it enters the heat exchanger 106, or before it enters the ammonia filter 122. Backpressure regulator BPR2 (or pressure reduction regulator PRR2) may be configured to maintain the pressure of the filtered reformate stream 123 after it exits the ammonia filter 122. Backpressure regulator BPR3 (or check valve CV1) may be configured to maintain the pressure of the anode off-gas 128.

[0644] Fault Detection 5I, the fault detection module 214 may be stored in the memory 204 of the controller 200 and may be configured to detect one or more faults in the ammonia reforming system 100 (e.g., by utilizing sensors P1-P10, T1-T11, FM1-FM11, AC1-AC10, and HC1-HC5). The faults may include major faults or minor faults.

[0645] An example of a fault may include a rupture in and / or a leak from the reactor vessel (e.g., a rupture in the reformers 108-110 or heater 109). The rupture and / or leak may be detected after pressure sensors P1-P10 measure a sudden drop in the pressure of the reformate stream 120 in the fired heater 109 or a sudden drop in the pressure of the inlet ammonia stream 104 (or partially cracked reformate stream 120) in the fired reformer 108 or electrically heated reformer 110. For example, the sudden drop in pressure may include a pressure drop of more than 50% (e.g., 10 bara to 5 bara or less) within a predetermined time period. The predetermined time period may be at least about 1, about 5, about 10, about 20, about 30, about 40, about 50, about 60, about 70, about 80, or about 90 minutes. In some cases, the predetermined time period can be up to about 1, about 5, about 10, about 20, about 30, about 40, about 50, about 60, about 70, about 80, or about 90 minutes.

[0646] Another example of a fault may include an ammonia leak above a predetermined leak level. An ammonia leak may be detected after ammonia concentration sensors AC1-AC10 detect a concentration of ammonia above a threshold concentration (e.g., about 25 ppm) adjacent to or near any component or fluid line of ammonia reforming system 100. In some cases, ammonia concentration sensors AC1-AC10 may be located outside the walls or vessels of components or fluid lines of ammonia reforming system 100 to detect leaks.

[0647] An example of a fault may include a temperature offset from the target temperature range (e.g., by a tolerance of about 10% or more). For example, the target temperature range for the reformers 108-110 may include about 400 to about 600°C, and the temperature sensors T1-T11 may measure a temperature less than about 360°C or greater than about 660°C, indicating a temperature offset fault. In some cases, the reformer 108 and / or the reformer 110 may be maintained at a target temperature range of at least about 300, about 350, about 400, about 450, about 500, about 550, about 600, about 650, about 700, about 750, or about 800°C, and up to about 400, about 450, about 500, about 550, about 600, about 650, about 700, about 750, about 800, or about 900°C. In some cases, the target temperature range is about 300 to about 900, 350 to about 800, about 400 to about 750, about 450 to about 700, about 500 to about 650, or about 550 to about 600° C. In some cases, the target temperature range of reformer 108 and the target temperature range of reformer 110 may at least partially overlap.

[0648] In some cases, the temperature offset is defined by a selected tolerance range of the target temperature (or a lower limit of the target temperature range, or an upper limit of the target temperature range). The selected tolerance range can be at least about 1, about 5, about 10, about 20, about 30, about 40, about 50, about 60, about 70, about 80, about 90, or about 100% of the target temperature. The selected tolerance range can be up to about 1, about 5, about 10, about 20, about 30, about 40, about 50, about 60, about 70, about 80, about 90, or about 100% of the target temperature. In some cases, the selected tolerance range can be about 1 to about 100, about 5 to about 90, about 10 to about 80, about 20 to about 70, about 30 to about 60, or about 40 to about 50% of the target temperature.

[0649] In other examples, the fuel cell target temperature includes between about ambient temperature and about 100° C., between about 100° C. and about 150° C., or between about 120° C. and about 200° C. For example, based on a target fuel cell temperature between about 120° C. and about 200° C., a temperature offset fault may be detected after temperature sensors T1-T11 measure a fuel cell temperature below about 108° C. or above about 220° C.

[0650] An example of a fault may include a pressure offset from a target pressure range (e.g., by a tolerance of about 10% or more). For example, the target pressure range for the reformers 108-110 may include about 1 to about 5 bar absolute (bara), about 3 to about 8 bara, about 5 to about 10 bara, or about 10 to about 20 bara. For example, if the target pressure range in the reformers is about 10 to about 20 bara, pressure sensors P1-P10 may measure a pressure less than about 9 bara or greater than about 22 bara, indicating a pressure offset fault.

[0651] In some cases, the pressure offset is defined by a selected tolerance range of the target pressure (or a lower limit of the target pressure range, or an upper limit of the target pressure range). The selected tolerance range can be at least about 1, about 5, about 10, about 20, about 30, about 40, about 50, about 60, about 70, about 80, about 90, or about 100% of the target pressure. The selected tolerance range can be up to about 1, about 5, about 10, about 20, about 30, about 40, about 50, about 60, about 70, about 80, about 90, or about 100% of the target pressure. In some cases, the selected tolerance range can be about 1 to 100, about 5 to about 90, about 10 to about 80, about 20 to about 70, about 30 to about 60, or about 40 to about 50% of the target pressure. The target pressure (or target pressure range) may be the pressure (or pressure range) at the outlet or inside the NH3 storage tank 102, the inlet, outlet, or inside the combustion-heated reformer 108, the inlet, outlet, or inside the combustion heater 109, the inlet, outlet, or inside the electrically heated reformer 110, the inlet, outlet, or inside the heat exchanger 106, the inlet, outlet, or inside the ammonia filter 122, or the inlet, outlet, or inside the fuel cell 124.

[0652] Examples of faults may include a concentration offset (e.g., by a tolerance of about 10% or more) from a target concentration range (or a lower limit of the target concentration range, or a tolerance range for the upper limit of the target concentration range). Target ammonia concentration ranges for filtered reformate stream 123 may include about 0.001 to about 0.01 ppm, about 0.01 to about 0.1 ppm, about 0.1 to about 1 ppm, and about 0.1 ppm to about 100 ppm. For example, if the target ammonia concentration range is about 0.1 ppm to about 100 ppm, ammonia concentration sensors AC1-AC10 may measure a concentration greater than about 110 ppm, indicating a concentration offset fault.

[0653] In some cases, the concentration offset is defined by a selected tolerance range of the target concentration. The selected tolerance range can be at least about 1, about 5, about 10, about 20, about 30, about 40, about 50, about 60, about 70, about 80, about 90, or about 100% of the target concentration. The selected tolerance range can be up to about 1, about 5, about 10, about 20, about 30, about 40, about 50, about 60, about 70, about 80, about 90, or about 100% of the target concentration. In some cases, the selected tolerance range can be about 1 to about 100, about 5 to about 90, about 10 to about 80, about 20 to about 70, about 30 to about 60, or about 40 to about 50% of the target concentration.

[0654] After a fault is detected using the fault detection module 214, in some cases the controller 200 may perform or implement corrective actions. For example, after a fault is detected, the controller may perform or implement a complete shutdown of the ammonia reforming system 100 by shutting down the flow rate of the inlet NH3 stream 104, the power provided to the heaters 109-111, and / or the fuel cell 124. In another example, after a fault is detected, the controller may perform or implement a partial shutdown of the ammonia reforming system 100 by reducing the power provided to the heaters 109-111 and / or the fuel cell 124.

[0655] In some cases, after a fault is detected by the fault detection module 214, the combustion-heated reformer 108 may operate in a high-temperature standby mode to maintain the temperature of the combustion-heated reformer 108 within a target temperature range (high-temperature standby mode is described in further detail with respect to FIG. 6L). In some cases, the high-temperature standby mode (e.g., the fuel cell does not output power) may be maintained until a shutdown process is performed. In some cases, the high-temperature standby mode (e.g., the fuel cell does not output power) may be maintained until the fuel cell's power output is resumed.

[0656] Anode and cathode off-gas as reactants in fired heaters 6A is a block diagram illustrating the use of anode off-gas 503 and cathode off-gas 504 directed from fuel cell 124 (e.g., via one or more outlet ports of fuel cell 124) as reactants for combustion in fired heater 109. Anode off-gas 503 can be substantially similar to or substantially identical to off-gas 128 described with respect to FIGS. 1A-4B.

[0657] The fuel cell may receive an anode input 501 (at least, for example, hydrogen in the reformate stream 120) and a cathode input 502 (at least, for example, oxygen in the air stream 118), for example, via one or more inlet ports of the fuel cell.

[0658] Unconsumed hydrogen (e.g., not consumed by fuel cell 124) may be provided as anode off-gas 503, and unconsumed oxygen (e.g., not consumed by fuel cell 124) may be provided as cathode off-gas 504 (as a reactant for the combustion reaction in fired heater 109). In some cases, water may be removed from anode off-gas 503 and / or cathode off-gas 504 (e.g., using a condenser or filter) before anode off-gas 503 and / or cathode off-gas 504 are provided to fired heater 109.

[0659] Flue gas for regenerating the adsorber 6B is a block diagram illustrating the use of heat from the combustion exhaust 114 (released by the fired heater 109) (e.g., via temperature swing adsorption) to regenerate the ammonia filter 122. The desorbed ammonia 505 can be vented to the atmosphere, combusted in the fired heater 109, or mixed with water and vented to the outside.

[0660] In some cases, the combustion exhaust stream 114 is used to regenerate the ammonia filter 122 by directly contacting the combustion exhaust stream 114 with the ammonia filter 122 (i.e., directly purging the filter material). In some cases, the combustion exhaust stream 114 is used to regenerate the ammonia filter 122 by transferring heat to the ammonia filter 122 via a heat exchanger (and / or an intermediate fluid such as glycol and / or water).

[0661] Reduction of NOx in combustion exhaust FIG. 6C shows the nitrogen oxides (NO ) in the combustion exhaust 114 emitted by the fired heater 109. x 1 is a block diagram illustrating the reduction of NO, NO2, N2O, etc. A selective catalytic reduction (SCR) catalyst 506, such as platinum or palladium, reduces NO x A reducing agent, such as anhydrous ammonia (NH), aqueous ammonia (NHOH), or urea (CO(NH)) solution, may be added to the exhaust 114 to convert NO to H2O and N2. x The purified exhaust 507 can then be vented to the atmosphere. x This elimination of emissions advantageously reduces harm to the environment and living organisms.

[0662] Anode and cathode off-gases for regenerating the adsorber 6D is a block diagram illustrating the use of anode off-gas 503 and / or cathode off-gas 504 (e.g., via temperature swing adsorption) to regenerate ammonia filter 122. Desorbed ammonia 508 can be vented to the atmosphere or mixed with water and discharged to the outside. In some cases, combustion of hydrogen in anode off-gas 503 can provide heat to regenerate ammonia filter 122. In some cases, low-temperature catalytic combustion of hydrogen in anode off-gas 503 can provide heat to regenerate ammonia filter 122.

[0663] Oxidation of NH3 in the reformate stream 6E is a block diagram illustrating the oxidation of trace or residual NH in the reformate stream 120 output by the combustion-heated reformer 108 and / or the electrically heated reformer 110. A selective ammonia oxidation (SAO) catalyst 509, such as tungsten, may be used to convert trace or residual NH to N and HO. Air (containing at least oxygen, e.g., air stream 118) may be provided to the SAO catalyst 509 to react with the NH. The purified reformate stream 510 may be provided to the fuel cell 124 (to generate electricity) or the fired heater 109 (combusted to self-heat the reformer 108). When combined with the ammonia filter 122, the SAO catalyst 509 may advantageously reduce the size (e.g., volume and weight) of the ammonia filter 122 and may reduce the need to periodically replace (or periodically regenerate) the cartridge in the ammonia filter 122. In some cases, introducing air (containing at least oxygen) may combust and remove at least a portion of the residual NH3 and H2 (by converting to N2 and H2O) without the SAO catalyst 509.

[0664] induction heater 6F is a block diagram illustrating heating of the electrically heated reformer 110 using an induction heater 511. The induction heater 511 may include a magnetically sensitive material in contact with the NH reforming catalyst in the electrically heated reformer 110, in addition to a magnetic device (e.g., an electric coil or other magnet) that generates a magnetic field to heat the magnetically sensitive material (e.g., via electromagnetic interaction).

[0665] heat pump 6G is a block diagram illustrating the use of a heat pump 514 to transfer heat 513 from a relatively cool component 512 to a relatively warm component 515. The heat pump 514 may be electrically (e.g., vapor compression cycle) powered, or thermally (e.g., adsorption refrigeration) powered, or a combination of both.

[0666] Components 512 and 514 may be any of the components of the ammonia reforming system 100 described in this disclosure. For example, heat pump 514 may transfer heat from the ammonia filter 122 to the reformate stream 120. Other examples include, but are not limited to, liquefying ammonia gas, condensing water from the cathode off-gas or combustion exhaust, removing heat from one or more heat exchangers, or removing heat from one or more fuel cells. In some cases, the refrigerant for heat pump 514 may include ammonia, water, or a mixture of both.

[0667] Fluid pump 6H is a block diagram illustrating the use of a fluid pump 516 to pressurize the incoming ammonia stream 104 provided by the storage tank 102. The storage tank 102 and / or the pump 516 may use heat provided by one or more of the electric heater, the combustion-heated reformer 108, the combustion-heated heater 109, and / or the electric-heated reformer 110 to pressurize or vaporize the incoming ammonia stream 104. In some embodiments, the pump 516 may be electrically powered and / or controlled.

[0668] Controlling pressure, flow rate, and gas velocity in fuel cells FIG. 6I is a block diagram illustrating the use of a flow control unit 517 to control the pressure, flow rate, and / or gas velocity of a fluid stream within the ammonia reforming system 100. The flow control unit 517 may be substantially similar to or substantially identical to the flow control units FCU1-10 described with respect to FIG. 5G. The flow control unit 517 may include one or more pressure drop elements, one or more pumps, one or more check valves, one or more one-way valves, one or more three-way valves, one or more restrictive orifices, one or more valves, one or more flow regulators, one or more pressure regulators, one or more backpressure regulators, one or more pressure reduction regulators, one or more backflow regulators, one or more flow meters, one or more flow controllers, or any combination thereof. The flow control unit 517 may be controlled manually, automatically, or electronically.

[0669] For example, the fuel cell 124 may draw the reformate stream 120 at a pressure maintained within a selected tolerance (e.g., about 1%, about 5%, or about 10%) at the inlet of the fuel cell 124. The target pressure may be at least about 1, about 2, about 3, about 4, about 5, about 6, about 7, about 8, about 9, about 10, about 15, about 20, about 25, about 30, about 35, or about 40 bar absolute (bara) at the inlet of the fuel cell 124. The target pressure may be up to about 1, about 2, about 3, about 4, about 5, about 6, about 7, about 8, about 9, about 10, about 15, about 20, about 25, about 30, about 35, or about 40 bara at the inlet of the fuel cell 124. In some cases, the target pressure can be about 1 to 40, about 2 to about 35, about 3 to about 30, about 4 to about 25, about 5 to about 20, or about 10 to about 15 bara at the inlet of the fuel cell 124. In some cases, the target pressure range is about 2 to about 5 bara at the inlet of the fuel cell 124.

[0670] In some cases, the selected tolerance range can be at least about 1, about 5, about 10, about 20, about 30, about 40, about 50, about 60, about 70, about 80, about 90, or about 100% of the target pressure at the inlet of the fuel cell 124. In some cases, the selected tolerance range can be up to about 1, about 5, about 10, about 20, about 30, about 40, about 50, about 60, about 70, about 80, about 90, or about 100% of the target pressure at the inlet of the fuel cell 124. In some cases, the selected tolerance range can be about 1 to about 100, about 5 to about 90, about 10 to about 80, about 20 to about 70, about 30 to about 60, or about 40 to about 50% of the target concentration at the inlet of the fuel cell 124.

[0671] To maintain this pressure of the reformate stream 120 at the inlet of the fuel cell 124 (within a selected tolerance), the flow control unit 517 may be controlled to adjust the pressure of the ammonia stream 104 (before the ammonia stream 104 enters the reformers 108-110), or the flow control unit 517 may be controlled to adjust the pressure of the reformate stream 120 (before the reformate stream 120 enters the fuel cell 124). As the fuel cell 124 consumes more reformate stream 120 and increases its output power, the pressure of the reformate stream 120 may be measured at the fuel cell inlet (using pressure sensors P1-P10), and the flow control unit 517 may be adjusted (e.g., based on the pressure measured by pressure sensors P1-P10) to increase the flow rate of the ammonia stream 104 or the reformate stream 120 (to maintain the pressure of the reformate stream 120 at the fuel cell inlet within a selected tolerance).

[0672] In some embodiments, one or more pressure regulators (e.g., back-pressure regulators BPR1 or BPR2, or pressure-reducing regulators PRR1 or PRR2, as described with respect to FIG. 5H) may be configured to maintain the pressure of the reformate stream 120 at the inlet of the fuel cell 124 within a selected tolerance range.

[0673] In some embodiments, the fuel cell 124 may draw the reformate stream 120 at a flow rate maintained within a selected tolerance at the inlet of the fuel cell 124 (e.g., a tolerance of about 1%, about 5%, or about 10%). In some cases, the selected tolerance may be at least about 1, about 5, about 10, about 20, about 30, about 40, about 50, about 60, about 70, about 80, about 90, or about 100% of the target flow rate at the inlet of the fuel cell 124. In some cases, the selected tolerance may be up to about 1, 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, or 100% of the target flow rate at the inlet of the fuel cell 124. In some cases, the selected tolerance may be about 1-100, 5-90, 10-80, 20-70, 30-60, or 40-50% of the target flow rate at the inlet of the fuel cell 124.

[0674] To maintain this flow rate of the reformate stream 120 at the inlet of the fuel cell 124 (within a selected tolerance), the flow rate of the reformate stream 120 may be measured at the fuel cell inlet (using flow sensors FM1-FM11), or the flow control unit 517 may be controlled to adjust the flow rate of the ammonia stream 104 (based on the flow rate measured by flow sensors FM1-FM11) (before the ammonia stream 104 enters the reformers 108-110), or the flow control unit 517 may adjust the flow rate of the reformate stream 120 (based on the flow rate measured by flow sensors FM1-FM11) (before the stream 120 enters the fuel cell 124).

[0675] In some embodiments, the flow control unit 517 may be configured to adjust the gas velocity of the reformate stream 120 at the inlet of the fuel cell 124. In some cases, the hydrogen and / or nitrogen in the reformate stream 120 may purge liquid water in the fuel cell 124 by directing the liquid water out of the fuel cell 124. The gas velocity of the reformate stream 120 may be adjusted based on the concentration or volume of liquid water in the fuel cell 124 (which may be measured, for example, using one or more humidity sensors in the fuel cell 124 in communication with the controller 200 described with reference to FIG. 5A ). For example, in response to the measured concentration or volume of water in the fuel cell 124 exceeding a threshold concentration or volume, the gas velocity of the reformate stream 120 may be increased to facilitate purging of the water in the fuel cell 124 (or vice versa).

[0676] In some embodiments, at least a portion of the reformate stream 120 is recirculated within the fuel cell 124, and the recirculated portion may be adjusted based on the concentration or volume of liquid water within the fuel cell 124, the H consumption rate of the fuel cell 124, the N concentration within the fuel cell 124, the humidity within the fuel cell 124, the flow rate of the reformate stream 120 at the inlet of the fuel cell 124, or the power output of the fuel cell 124.

[0677] Non-linear startup sequence 6J is a block diagram illustrating a nonlinear start-up sequence for the ammonia reforming system 100. The first reformer set 520 may include multiple electrically heated reformers (e.g., each substantially similar to or substantially identical to the electrically heated reformer 110 described with reference to FIGS. 1A-4B). The second reformer set 521 and the third reformer set 522 may include multiple combustion heated reformers (e.g., each substantially similar to or substantially identical to the combustion heated reformer 108 described with reference to FIGS. 1A-4B). It is contemplated that the number of reformers in the second set 521 may exceed the number of reformers in the first set 520, and similarly, it is contemplated that the number of reformers in the third set 522 may exceed the number of reformers in the second set 521. In this manner, a larger number of reformers may be heated in stages at each step of the nonlinear start-up sequence. For example, the first reformer set 520 may include two reformers, the second reformer set 521 may include four reformers, the third reformer set 522 may include eight reformers, and so on.

[0678] The nonlinear start-up sequence may be implemented by decomposing ammonia (e.g., ammonia stream 104) using a first reformer set 520 to produce a first reformate stream (e.g., reformate stream 120). The reformate stream produced by the first reformer set 520 may then be combusted to heat a second reformer set 521 to produce a second reformate stream. The second reformate stream produced by the second reformer set 521 may then be combusted to heat a third reformer set 522 to produce a third reformate stream.

[0679] It should be noted that the non-linear start-up sequences described herein may include any number of reformer sets (e.g., at least two reformer sets), and each reformer set may include any number of reformers (e.g., at least one reformer). It should also be noted that the non-linear start-up sequence may be initiated using the controller 200 (e.g., by starting the heating of the electrically heated reformer of the first reformer set 520).

[0680] purge 6K is a block diagram illustrating purging of ammonia reforming system 100. Purge gas 523 may purge ammonia reforming system 100 of residual gases (e.g., before starting up ammonia reforming system 100 or after shutting down ammonia reforming system 100). Purge gas 523 may direct residual ammonia in ammonia reforming system 100 (e.g., residual ammonia in reformers 108-110) to water or a scrubber.

[0681] The purge gas 523 may include an inert or noble gas (e.g., nitrogen or argon). In some cases, the purge gas 523 includes hydrogen and may be flared or vented to the atmosphere. The purge gas 523 may be stored in a dedicated tank or may be generated by reforming ammonia. Purging of the ammonia reforming system may be initiated using the controller 200 (e.g., by adjusting a valve that directs the purge gas 523 into the reformers 108-110).

[0682] High temperature standby mode 6L is a block diagram illustrating the initiation of high temperature standby mode of ammonia reforming system 100. High temperature standby mode may advantageously reduce the time required to return to operating mode, for example, by avoiding the shutdown (or reduction in temperature) of combustion reformer 108 and / or combustion heater 109. In addition, high temperature standby mode may advantageously allow system 100 to regulate and respond to power demands at the fuel cell and / or hydrogen demands at the hydrogen processing module. In addition, high temperature standby mode may advantageously allow maintenance on the fuel cell and / or hydrogen processing module (e.g., due to a fault in the fuel cell and / or hydrogen processing module) without shutting down (or reducing the temperature of) combustion reformer 108 and / or combustion heater 109. In some cases, high temperature standby mode allows system 100 to operate for stationary or mobile hydrogen and / or power generation applications.

[0683] In an operating mode of the ammonia reforming system 100, the flow control unit 524 may direct the reformate stream 120 to an H2 processing module 535 (e.g., as an H2 process stream 119). The H2 processing module 535 may be configured to generate power and / or supply H2 to various chemical or industrial processes, including, but not limited to, steel or iron processing, combustion engines, combustion turbines, hydrogen storage, hydrogen for chemical processes, hydrogen fueling stations, etc. The H2 processing module 535 may include one or more fuel cells 124, one or more PSAs 127, one or more flow dividers 115, or one or more membrane hydrogen separation devices 527 (described with respect to Figures 1A-4B and 6S). The remaining reformate stream 536 (e.g., unconsumed H2 from the fuel cell 124 or H2 not supplied to the chemical or industrial process) may then be supplied to the fired heater 109 as a reactant for the combustion reaction. The retentate stream 536 may include the filtered reformate stream 123, the anode off-gas 128, the anode off-gas 503, the PSA exhaust stream 128b, the hydrogen separation device retentate stream 532, or the portion 128c of the reformate stream 120 that was split by the splitter 115.

[0684] In some cases, the flow control unit 524 may be configured to monitor and / or regulate one or more flow rates and / or one or more pressures. In some cases, the flow control unit 524 may include one or more pressure reduction elements configured to reduce pressure, one or more pumps, one or more valves, one or more check valves, one or more one-way valves, one or more three-way valves, one or more restrictive orifices, one or more flow regulators, one or more pressure regulators, one or more backpressure regulators, one or more pressure reduction regulators, one or more backflow regulators, one or more flow meters, one or more flow controllers, or any combination thereof. In some cases, the flow control unit 524 may be controlled manually, automatically, or electronically.

[0685] After initiating high temperature standby operation, power output by one or more fuel cells 124 or the supply of H to various chemical or industrial processes may be reduced or shut down entirely (by adjusting flow control unit 524 to direct at least a portion of reformate stream 120 to fired heater 109 for combustion therein), thereby maintaining combustion-heated reformer 108 within a target temperature range. Excess hydrogen may be vented or flared after passing through fired heater 109 (due to a fuel-rich condition of fired heater 109). In some cases, the excess hydrogen may be directed to a heat recovery module configured to recover hydrogen and / or heat from the combustion exhaust.

[0686] The high temperature standby mode may be terminated by adjusting the flow control unit 524 to redirect the reformate flow 120 to the H2 processing module 535 (e.g., by increasing the flow rate or pressure of the H2 processing inlet stream 119 at the inlet of the fuel cell 124), thereby initiating or increasing the power output by the H2 processing module 535 and / or the H2 supplied to it.

[0687] The high temperature standby mode may advantageously maintain a target temperature range within combustion-heated reformer 108 while H2 processing module 535 reduces or shuts down the power output or H2 supply to the chemical or industrial process (in other words, turning off combustion-heated reformer 108 may be avoided). Thus, during a fault condition (e.g., a fault associated with fuel cell 124), a complete shutdown of ammonia reforming system 100 may be prevented and the time required to start up ammonia reforming system 100 (and increase the power output by H2 processing module 535 and / or increase the H2 supplied to H2 processing module 535) may be reduced.

[0688] In some cases, the flow rate of the inlet NH3 stream 104 may (or may not) be configured to be the same during the operating mode and the high temperature standby mode. In some cases, the flow rate of the inlet NH3 stream 104 during the high temperature standby mode may be configured to be within a selected tolerance range of the flow rate of the inlet NH3 stream 104 during the operating mode. The selected tolerance range may be at least about 1, about 5, about 10, about 20, about 30, about 40, about 50, about 60, about 70, about 80, or about 90%. The selected tolerance range may be up to about 1, about 5, about 10, about 20, about 30, about 40, about 50, about 60, about 70, about 80, or about 90%. In some cases, the selected tolerance range may be about 1 to about 90, about 5 to about 80, 10 to about 70, about 20 to about 60, about 30 to about 50, or about 40 to about 90%. In some instances, the selected tolerance range is from about 5 to about 20%.

[0689] In some cases, the high temperature standby mode can be maintained without substantially reducing or increasing the flow rate of the influent NH3 stream 104 (or the flow rate of the reformate stream 120). In some cases, during the high temperature standby mode, the flow rate of the influent NH3 stream 104 (or the flow rate of the reformate stream 120) can be maintained within a selected tolerance range of the target flow rate. The selected tolerance range can be up to about 1, about 5, about 10, about 20, about 30, about 40, about 50, about 60, about 70, about 80, or about 90%. The selected tolerance range can be at least about 1, about 5, about 10, about 20, about 30, about 40, about 50, about 60, about 70, about 80, or about 90%. In some cases, the selected tolerance range can be between about 1 and about 90, between about 5 and about 80, between about 10 and about 70, between about 20 and about 60, between about 30 and about 50, or between about 40 and 90%. In some cases, the selected tolerance range may be from about 5 to about 20%.

[0690] In some cases, during high temperature standby mode, the combustion characteristics of fired heater 109 may be fuel-rich, and flare combustion may be observed in flue gas 114. In some cases, high temperature standby mode is maintained by adjusting the flow rate of air flow 118 (e.g., using air supply unit 116) so that the amount of H combusted in fired heater 109 is regulated or controlled (which may prevent excessive H combustion and overheating of fired heater 109 and / or fired reformer 108).

[0691] 6M is a plot illustrating system pressure (e.g., the pressure in the inlet ammonia stream 104, the reformate stream 120, the reformers 108-110, the heat exchanger 106, or the ammonia filter 122) over time during a start-up mode, an operating mode, and a high temperature standby mode of the ammonia reforming system 100. The system pressure (e.g., the pressure in the inlet ammonia stream 104, the reformate stream 120, the reformers 108-110, the heat exchanger 106, or the ammonia filter 122) during the high temperature standby mode may be higher than the system pressure during the operating mode. The system pressure may be measured, for example, using at least one of the pressure sensors P1-P10.

[0692] In some embodiments, the flow control unit 524 may be configured to initiate the high temperature standby mode by increasing the system pressure. The flow control unit 524 may initiate the flow of the reformate stream 120 to the fired heater 109 when the pressure of the reformate stream 120 (before reaching the flow control unit 524) is equal to or greater than a threshold pressure.

[0693] In one example, system pressure may increase if the H process inlet stream 119 is at least partially blocked or shut off (while maintaining the flow rate of the influent ammonia stream 104 within a selected tolerance range). The flow rate of the influent ammonia stream 104 may be maintained within a selected tolerance range of at least about 1, 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, or 90%. The flow rate of the influent ammonia stream 104 may be maintained within a selected tolerance range of up to about 1, 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, or 90%. In some cases, the flow rate of the influent ammonia stream 104 may be maintained within a selected tolerance range of about 1-90, 5-80, 10-70, about 20-60, about 30-50, or about 40-90%. In some cases, the flow rate of the influent ammonia stream 104 may be maintained within a selected tolerance range of about 5-20%.

[0694] If the pressure of the reformate stream 120 before the flow control unit 524 is equal to or greater than a threshold pressure (within a selected tolerance range), the flow control unit 524 may direct some or all of the reformate stream 120 to the fired heater 109 (thereby transitioning to a high temperature standby mode). The selected tolerance range of the threshold pressure may be at least about 1, about 5, about 10, about 20, about 30, about 40, about 50, about 60, about 70, about 80, or about 90%. The selected tolerance range of the threshold pressure may be up to about 1, about 5, about 10, about 20, about 30, about 40, about 50, about 60, about 70, about 80, or about 90%. In some cases, the selected tolerance range of the threshold pressure may be about 1 to 90, about 5 to about 80, about 10 to about 70, about 20 to about 60, about 30 to about 50, or about 40 to about 90%. In some instances, the selected tolerance range is from about 5 to about 20%.

[0695] In some embodiments, the high temperature standby mode may be terminated and the operating mode may be initiated by reducing the system pressure (e.g., the pressure in the inlet ammonia stream 104, the reformate stream 120, the reformers 108-110, the heat exchanger 106, or the ammonia filter 122).

[0696] In one example, system pressure can be reduced (while maintaining the flow rate of the influent ammonia stream 104 within a selected tolerance range) by increasing or initiating the H process inlet flow 119 to the H process module 535. The flow rate of the influent ammonia stream 104 can be maintained within a selected tolerance range of at least about 1, about 5, about 10, about 20, about 30, about 40, about 50, about 60, about 70, about 80, or about 90%. The flow rate of the influent ammonia stream 104 can be maintained within a selected tolerance range of at most about 1, about 5, about 10, about 20, about 30, about 40, about 50, about 60, about 70, about 80, or about 90%. In some cases, the flow rate of the influent ammonia stream 104 can be maintained within a selected tolerance range of about 1 to about 90, about 5 to about 80, about 10 to about 70, about 20 to about 60, about 30 to about 50, or about 40 to 90%. In some cases, the flow rate of the influent ammonia stream 104 may be maintained within a selected tolerance range of about 5 to about 20%.

[0697] If the pressure of the reformate stream 120 before the flow control unit 524 is below the threshold pressure (within a selected tolerance), the flow control unit 524 may redirect some or all of the reformate stream 120 supplied to the fired heater 109 back to the H processing module 535. The selected tolerance range of the threshold pressure may be at least about 1, about 5, about 10, about 20, about 30, about 40, about 50, about 60, about 70, about 80, or about 90%. The selected tolerance range of the threshold pressure may be up to about 1, about 5, about 10, about 20, about 30, about 40, about 50, about 60, about 70, about 80, or about 90%. In some cases, the selected tolerance range of the threshold pressure may be about 1 to about 90, about 5 to about 80, about 10 to about 70, about 20 to about 60, about 30 to about 50, or about 40 to about 90%. In some instances, the selected tolerance range for the threshold pressure is from about 5 to about 20%.

[0698] Optionally, the remaining reformate stream 536 may be fed to the fired heater 109 (to transition into operational mode).

[0699] In some embodiments, the flow rate of the inlet NH3 flow 104 may be increased during the transition from the high temperature standby mode to the operating mode. In some embodiments, the flow rate of the inlet NH3 flow 104 may be increased after the transition from the high temperature standby mode to the operating mode (to increase the power output by the H2 processing module 535 and / or to supply more H2 to the industrial or chemical process of the H2 processing module 535).

[0700] In some embodiments, the ammonia reforming system 100 includes two or more ammonia reformers 108-110, and the high temperature standby mode may be initiated using at least one ammonia reformer 108-110, while the remaining ammonia reformers 108-110 are maintained in the operating mode.

[0701] In some embodiments, the combustion of the reformate stream 120 maintains the temperature within the combustion-heated reformer 108 within a target temperature range (eg, during a high temperature standby mode).

[0702] In some embodiments, the reformate stream 120 is directed to a fired heater 109 in thermal communication with the combustion-heated reformer 108, such that the fired heater 109 receives substantially all of the reformate stream 120 (e.g., greater than about 90, about 91, about 92, about 93, about 94, about 95, about 96, about 97, about 98, about 99, or about 99.5% of the reformate stream 120, and less than about 91, about 92, about 93, about 94, about 95, about 96, about 97, about 98, about 99, about 99.5%, or about 100% of the reformate stream 120).

[0703] In some embodiments, the amount (e.g., flow rate) of the ammonia stream 104 directed to the combustion-heated reformer 108 is such that the first portion of the reformate stream 120 (which is combusted in the fired heater 109) comprises substantially all of the reformate stream 120 (e.g., during high temperature standby mode) (e.g., greater than about 90, about 91, about 92, about 93, about 94, about 95, about 96, about 97, about 98, about 99, or about 99.5% of the reformate stream 120, and less than about 91, 92, about 93, about 94, about 95, about 96, about 97, about 98, about 99, about 99.5%, or about 100% of the reformate stream 120).

[0704] In some embodiments, the amount (e.g., flow rate) of the second portion of the reformate stream 120 (e.g., the H2 process stream 119 processed in the hydrogen processing module 535) increases (e.g., when transitioning from a high temperature standby mode to an operating mode).

[0705] In some embodiments, the amount (e.g., flow rate) of ammonia flow 104 directed to the combustion-heated reformer 108 may be increased to a first target ammonia flow rate range (e.g., during a high temperature standby mode).

[0706] In some embodiments, a second portion of the reformate stream 120 is directed out of the fired heater 109 (e.g., vented or flared or provided to a heat recovery module during the high temperature standby mode). In some cases, at least about 30, about 40, about 50, about 60, about 70, about 80, or about 90% of the reformate stream 120 can be directed out of the fired heater 109 during the high temperature standby mode. In some cases, up to about 30, about 40, about 50, about 60, about 70, about 80, or about 90% of the reformate stream 120 can be directed out of the fired heater 109 during the high temperature standby mode. In some cases, between about 30 and about 60%, between about 40 and about 70%, between about 50 and about 80%, or between about 60 and about 90% of the reformate stream 120 is directed out of the fired heater 109 during the high temperature standby mode.

[0707] Startup Mode As shown in FIG. 6M, the system pressure during the startup mode and the high temperature standby mode (e.g., the pressure in the inlet ammonia stream 104, the reformate stream 120, the reformers 108-110, the heat exchanger 106, or the ammonia filter 122) may be higher than the system pressure during the operating mode. In some cases, the system pressure during the startup mode may be the same as (or different from) the system pressure during the high temperature standby mode. In some cases, the system pressure during the startup mode and the high temperature standby mode may be higher than the system pressure during the operating mode. In some cases, the system pressure during the startup mode may be the same as the system pressure during the high temperature standby mode within a selected tolerance range. The selected tolerance range may be at least about 1, about 5, about 10, about 20, about 30, about 40, about 50, about 60, about 70, about 80, or about 90%. The selected tolerance range may be at most about 1, about 5, about 10, about 20, about 30, about 40, about 50, about 60, about 70, about 80, or about 90%. In some cases, the selected tolerance range can be from about 1 to about 90, from about 5 to about 80, from about 10 to about 70, from about 20 to about 60, from about 30 to about 50, or from about 40 to about 90%. In some instances, the selected tolerance range is from about 5% to about 20%.

[0708] In some cases, the start-up mode may involve a system configuration similar or at least partially identical to the high-temperature standby mode described with respect to FIG. 6L , e.g., some or all of the reformate stream 120 may be supplied to the fired heater 109 using one or more flow control units (e.g., flow control unit 524). In some cases, the start-up mode may be transitioned to the operating mode by reducing the system pressure (e.g., the pressure in the inlet ammonia stream 104, the reformate stream 120, the reformers 108-110, the heat exchanger 106, or the ammonia filter 122). In some cases, the system pressure may be reduced by increasing or initiating the H2 process inlet flow 119 to the H2 process module 535 using one or more flow control units (e.g., flow control unit 524). In some cases, the system pressure may be reduced by increasing or initiating the H2 process inlet flow 119 to the H2 process module 535 using one or more flow control units while maintaining the flow rate of the inlet ammonia stream 104 within a selected tolerance range. In some cases, the residual reformate stream 536 can be fed to the fired heater 109 for transition to an operational mode using one or more flow control units. In some cases, the flow control unit 524 can be used to transition from the startup mode to an operational mode by directing the H2 processing inlet stream 119 to the H2 processing module 535. The selected tolerance range can be at least about 1, about 5, about 10, about 20, about 30, about 40, about 50, about 60, about 70, about 80, or about 90%. The selected tolerance range can be up to about 1, about 5, about 10, about 20, about 30, about 40, about 50, about 60, about 70, about 80, or about 90%. In some cases, the selected tolerance range can be about 1 to about 90, about 5 to about 80, about 10 to about 70, about 20 to about 60, about 30 to about 50, or about 40 to about 90%. In some instances, the selected tolerance range is from about 5% to about 20%.

[0709] In some cases, the flow rate of the inlet NH3 stream 104 may (or may not) be configured to be the same during the start-up mode and the operating mode. In some cases, the flow rate of the inlet NH3 stream 104 during the start-up mode may be configured to be within a selected tolerance range of the flow rate of the inlet NH3 stream 104 during the operating mode. The selected tolerance range may be at least about 1, about 5, about 10, about 20, about 30, about 40, about 50, about 60, about 70, about 80, or about 90%. The selected tolerance range may be up to about 1, about 5, about 10, about 20, about 30, about 40, about 50, about 60, about 70, about 80, or about 90%. In some cases, the selected tolerance range may be about 1 to about 90, about 5 to 80, about 10 to 70, about 20 to 60, about 30 to 50, or about 40 to about 90%. In some instances, the selected tolerance range is from about 5% to about 20%.

[0710] In some embodiments, the flow rate of the inlet NH3 flow 104 may be increased during the transition from the start-up mode to the operating mode. In some embodiments, the flow rate of the inlet NH3 flow 104 may be increased after the transition from the start-up mode to the operating mode to produce more power from and / or supply more H2 to the industrial or chemical process in the H2 processing module 535.

[0711] In some embodiments, the pressure of the reformate stream 120 is reduced when the reformate stream 120 is directed through the hydrogen-treating module 535 (e.g., during an operating mode) compared to when the reformate stream 120 is not directed through the hydrogen-treating module 535 (e.g., during a start-up mode or a high-temperature standby mode).

[0712] In some embodiments, when a threshold amount of reformate stream 120 is directed to hydro-processing module 535, substantially all of reformate stream 120 is directed to hydro-processing module 535 (e.g., during an operating mode) (e.g., greater than about 80, about 85, about 90, about 91, about 92, about 93, about 94, about 95, about 96, about 97, about 98, about 99, or about 99.5% of reformate stream 120, and less than about 81, about 86, about 91, about 92, about 93, about 94, about 95, about 96, about 97, about 98, about 99, about 99.5, or about 100% of reformate stream 120).

[0713] In some embodiments, the amount (e.g., flow rate) of ammonia flow 104 directed to the combustion-heated reformer 108 is increased over a period of time (starting as the combustion-heated reformer 108 heats up to the target temperature range).

[0714] In some embodiments, the amount of ammonia flow 104 directed to the combustion-heated reformer 108 is increased to a first target ammonia flow rate range. In some embodiments, the reformate stream 120 is directed to the hydro-treating module 535 when the first target ammonia flow rate range is reached. In some embodiments, the flow rate of the ammonia flow 104 is then increased to a second target ammonia flow rate.

[0715] In some embodiments, a first portion of the reformate stream 120 is combusted with oxygen, providing the oxygen in a substantially constant ratio relative to the hydrogen in the first portion of the reformate stream 120. In some cases, the substantially constant ratio can include a constant mass ratio (e.g., mass of hydrogen to mass of oxygen) within a selected tolerance range, a constant volume ratio (e.g., volume of hydrogen to volume of oxygen) within a selected tolerance range, or a constant molar ratio (e.g., moles of hydrogen to moles of oxygen) within a selected tolerance range. In some cases, the selected tolerance range can include up to about 1, about 5, about 10, about 20, about 30, about 40, or about 50% of the target ratio. In some cases, the selected tolerance range can include between about 1 and about 10%, between about 5 and about 10%, or between about 5 and about 15% of the target ratio.

[0716] Temperature control in combustion-heated reformers 6N is a block diagram illustrating control of the temperature inside combustion-heated reformer 108 and / or combustion heater 109. Combustion-heated reformer 108 and / or combustion heater 109 may be maintained at a target temperature range of, for example, about 300°C to about 700°C. In some cases, combustion-heated reformer 108 and / or combustion heater 109 may be maintained at a target temperature range of about 400°C to about 600°C. In some cases, the combustion-heated reformer 108 and / or the combustion heater 109 may be maintained at a target temperature range of at least about 300, about 350, about 400, about 450, about 500, about 550, about 600, about 650, about 700, about 750, or about 800° C., and up to about 400, about 450, about 500, about 550, about 600, about 650, about 700, about 750, about 800, or about 900° C. In some cases, the target temperature range is about 300 to about 900, about 350 to about 800, about 400 to about 750, about 450 to about 700, about 500 to about 650, or about 550 to about 600° C. It should be noted that the electrically heated reformer 110 and / or the electric heater 111 may be maintained at the same target temperature range (or a different target temperature range) as the combustion heated reformer 108 and / or the combustion heater 109.

[0717] In response to the temperature of the combustion-heated reformer 109 being outside or deviating from the target temperature range (in other words, being below the lower limit of the temperature range or above the upper limit of the temperature range), the flow rate and / or pressure of the ammonia stream 104, the air stream 118 (containing oxygen), the reformate stream 120, and / or the anode off-gas 128 may be adjusted (e.g., using flow control unit 517 and / or flow control units FCU1-FCU10) to maintain the temperature of the combustion-heated reformer 108 and / or the combustion heater 109 within the temperature range.

[0718] For example, the flow rate and / or pressure of ammonia stream 104 may be increased to reduce the temperature of combustion-heated reformer 108 and / or fired heater 109 (thereby providing more reactants for the endothermic ammonia reforming reaction that absorbs heat). In some cases, the flow rate and / or pressure of air stream 118 may be decreased to reduce the temperature of combustion-heated reformer 108 and / or fired heater 109 (thereby providing less oxygen for the combustion reaction). In some cases, the flow rate and / or pressure of reformate stream 120 may be decreased to reduce the temperature of combustion-heated reformer 108 and / or fired heater 109 (thereby providing less hydrogen for the combustion reaction). In some embodiments, the flow rate and / or pressure of anode off-gas 128 may be decreased to reduce the temperature of combustion-heated reformer 108 and / or fired heater 109 (thereby providing less hydrogen for the combustion reaction).

[0719] In some cases, water may be added to the reformate stream 120 provided to the fired heater 109 to lower the temperature of the combustion-heated reformer 108 and / or the fired heater 109 (e.g., so that the water absorbs heat in the fired heater 109). In some cases, water is stored in a dedicated storage tank, and water may be provided from the storage tank as needed to lower the temperature in the fired heater 109. In some cases, water is supplied from the cathode off-gas 504 emitted by the fuel cell 124 (e.g., by using a condenser or filter). In some cases, water is supplied from the combustion exhaust 114 (e.g., using a condenser or filter) and stored in a dedicated storage tank. In some cases, water is supplied externally (e.g., fresh water, tap water, distilled water, deionized water, etc.). In some cases, water is supplied from the anode off-gas 128.

[0720] For example, the flow rate and / or pressure of ammonia stream 104 may be decreased (thereby providing less reactant for the endothermic ammonia reforming reaction that absorbs heat) to increase the temperature of combustion-heated reformer 108 and / or fired heater 109. In some embodiments, the flow rate and / or pressure of air stream 118 may be increased (thereby providing more oxygen and more H for the combustion reaction) to increase the temperature of combustion-heated reformer 108 and / or fired heater 109.

[0721] In some embodiments, the flow rate and / or pressure of the reformate stream 120 may be increased to increase the temperature of the combustion-heated reformer 108 and / or the fired heater 109 (thereby producing more hydrogen from the ammonia reforming process and providing more hydrogen for the combustion reaction). In some embodiments, the flow rate and / or pressure of the anode off-gas 128 may be increased to increase the temperature of the combustion-heated reformer 108 and / or the fired heater 109 (thereby providing more hydrogen for the combustion reaction).

[0722] In some cases, the rate of hydrogen consumption from fuel cell 124 may be reduced (thereby providing more hydrogen to anode off-gas 128 and fired heater 109 for the combustion reaction) to increase the temperature of combustion-heated reformer 108 and / or fired heater 109. In some cases, the rate of hydrogen consumption from fuel cell 124 may be increased (thereby providing less hydrogen to anode off-gas 128 and fired heater 109 for the combustion reaction) to decrease the temperature of combustion-heated reformer 108 and / or fired heater 109.

[0723] In some cases, the flow rate and / or pressure of airflow 118 may be increased to reduce the temperature of the combustion-heated reformer 108 and / or the fired heater 109 (thereby providing fuel-rich or air-rich conditions, with N2 absorbing at least a portion of the heat of combustion and reducing the temperature of the flame or combustion in the fired heater 109). In some cases, the fuel-rich or air-rich conditions are maintained for at least about 10, about 20, about 30, about 40, about 50, about 60, about 70, about 80, or about 90% of the operating period of the operating mode. In some cases, the fuel-rich or air-rich conditions are maintained for up to about 10, about 20, about 30, about 40, about 50, about 60, about 70, about 80, or about 90% of the operating period of the operating mode. In some cases, the fuel-rich or air-rich conditions are maintained at about 30% to about 50%, about 40% to about 60%, about 50% to about 70%, about 60% to about 80%, or about 70% to about 90% of the operating period of the operating mode.

[0724] Dynamic Control The systems and methods described herein can be dynamically controlled to achieve specific objectives. For example, the amount of ammonia reformed can be adjusted in response to a variable need for hydrogen. For example, in a constant speed offshore deployment, a vessel sailing into a headwind may require more hydrogen (e.g., to generate more power from the fuel cell) than one sailing with a tailwind.

[0725] In some embodiments, the dynamic control method may include directing an ammonia flow to a reformer at an ammonia flow rate to create a reformate stream containing hydrogen and nitrogen. The method may further include combusting a first portion of the reformate stream with oxygen to heat the reformer. A second portion of the reformate stream may be processed in a hydroprocessing module (e.g., in a fuel cell). The one or more adjustments may be made at least in part based on a stimulus (e.g., the stimulus may be a user input or an automatic input based on measurements). For example, the adjustment may include changing the ammonia flow rate (i.e., increasing or decreasing the amount of reformed ammonia). The adjustment may also include changing a percentage of the reformate stream that is the first portion of the reformate stream (i.e., increasing or decreasing the percentage combusted to heat the reformer). The adjustment may also include changing a percentage of the reformate stream that is the second portion of the reformate stream (i.e., increasing or decreasing the percentage sent to the hydroprocessing module). Adjustments may also include changing the percentage of the reformate stream that is directed out of the fired heater (e.g., increasing or decreasing the percentage that is vented in the fired heater's flue gas or flared, or increasing or decreasing the percentage that is directed to the heat recovery module).

[0726] In some cases, at least two of the adjustments are made. In some cases, at least three of the adjustments are made. In some cases, all of the adjustments are made. In some cases, the dynamic control method further includes varying the oxygen flow rate used for combustion to heat the reformer (i.e., increasing or decreasing the oxygen flow rate).

[0727] In some cases, the stimulus includes a change in the amount of hydrogen used by the hydroprocessing module (i.e., an increase or decrease in the amount of hydrogen used by the hydroprocessing module). In some cases, the stimulus includes the temperature of the reformer being outside a target temperature range. In some cases, the stimulus includes a change in the amount or concentration of ammonia in the reformate stream (i.e., an increase or decrease in the amount or concentration of ammonia in the reformate stream).

[0728] In some cases, the temperature of the fired heater 109 and / or the reformers 108 and / or 110 may be increased (to increase ammonia conversion efficiency) to decrease the amount or concentration of ammonia in the reformate stream 120. In some cases, the temperature of the fired heater 109 and / or the reformers 108 and / or 110 may be decreased (to decrease ammonia conversion efficiency) to increase the amount or concentration of ammonia in the reformate stream 120.

[0729] In some cases, ammonia conversion efficiencies are maintained at least about 80, about 85, about 90, about 93, about 95, about 97, about 98, about 99, or about 99.9%. In some cases, ammonia conversion efficiencies are maintained at up to about 80, about 85, about 90, about 93, about 95, about 97, about 98, about 99, or about 99.9%. In some cases, ammonia conversion efficiencies are maintained at about 80 to about 90%, about 97 to about 99.9%, about 95 to about 99%, about 90 to about 95%, about 97 to about 99%, or about 85 to about 90%.

[0730] In some cases, the amount or concentration of ammonia in the reformate stream 120 is maintained at at least about 100, about 500, about 1000, about 2000, about 3000, about 4000, about 5000, about 6000, about 7000, about 8000, about 9000, about 10000, about 20000, about 30000, about 40000, or about 50000 ppm. In some cases, the amount or concentration of ammonia in the reformate stream 120 is maintained at at most about 100, about 500, about 1000, about 2000, about 3000, about 4000, about 5000, about 6000, about 7000, about 8000, about 9000, about 10000, about 20000, about 30000, about 40000, or about 50000 ppm. In some cases, the target amount or concentration of ammonia in the reformate stream 120 is about 500 to about 2500 ppm, about 1000 to about 3000 ppm, about 2000 to about 4000 ppm, about 3000 to about 5000 ppm, about 4000 to about 6000 ppm, about 5000 to about 7000 ppm, about 6000 to about 8000 ppm, about 7000 to about 9000 ppm, about 8000 to about 10000 ppm, about 5000 to about 15000 ppm, or about 5000 to about 20000 ppm. In some cases, an ammonia filter 122 is used to filter residual or trace ammonia in the reformate stream 120 to create a filtered reformate stream 123.

[0731] In some cases, the amount of reformed ammonia, the amount of reformate directed to the hydroprocessing unit, the amount of reformate directed to the fired heater to heat the reformer, and / or the amount of reformate directed out of the fired heater (e.g., vented or flared from the fired heater) may be varied so that the temperature of the reformer is within a target temperature range and / or so that up to about 10% of the reformate stream is directed out of the fired heater (e.g., vented or flared from the fired heater).

[0732] In some cases, adjustments are made or achieved during at least 95% of the operating period (e.g., ammonia reforming system 100). The operating period may begin when starting heating of a startup reformer (e.g., electrically heated reformer 110), starting flow of ammonia stream 104 from storage tank 102, or starting flow of reformate stream 120 to the hydroprocessing module, and may end after the reformers 108-110, heaters 109-111, and / or fuel cell 124 are shut down. In some cases, the operating period is at least about 8 continuous hours. In some cases, the operating period is at least about 4, about 8, about 12, about 16, about 20, about 24, about 28, or about 32 continuous hours. In some cases, the operating period is at most about 4, about 8, about 12, about 16, about 20, about 24, about 28, or about 32 continuous hours.

[0733] Any suitable amount of the reformate stream may be vented or flared. In some cases, the amount of ammonia reformed to create the reformate stream exceeds the amount of reformed ammonia used by the hydroprocessing module and to heat the reformer. This excess may represent a waste of ammonia fuel when the reformate is vented or flared. However, operating without excess ammonia reforming results in a lack of a buffer for the reformate needed for processing in the hydroprocessing module and for heating the reformer. In some cases, about 20%, about 15%, about 10%, about 5%, about 3%, or about 1% of the reformate stream is vented or flared. In some cases, less than about 20%, about 15%, about 10%, about 5%, about 3%, or about 1% of the reformate stream is vented or flared.

[0734] In some cases, the vented reformate may be stored in a tank for later use (e.g., to store buffer hydrogen). In some cases, the vented reformate stored in a tank may be combusted to heat one or more reformers or provided to a hydrogen processing module.

[0735] The systems and methods described herein may operate efficiently and reliably. Efficient and reliable operation may include meeting efficiency targets over a suitably long period of time, or suitably a majority of the period of time. For example, adjustments may be made or achieved over at least about 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, or 100% of the operating period. In some cases, adjustments may be made or achieved over up to about 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, or 100% of the operating period. In some cases, the operating period is at least about 1, about 2, about 3, about 4, about 5, about 6, about 7, about 8, about 9, about 10, about 15, about 20, about 25, about 50, about 100, about 500, about 1000, or about 2000 hours. In some cases, the operating period is at most about 1, about 2, about 3, about 4, about 5, about 6, about 7, about 8, about 9, about 10, about 15, about 20, about 25, about 50, about 100, about 500, about 1000, or about 2000 hours.

[0736] In some cases, the stimulus is based at least in part on an increase in the amount of hydrogen used by the hydroprocessing module. In some cases, the increase in the amount of hydrogen is a predicted increase in the amount of hydrogen used (i.e., a predicted increase in hydrogen demand by the hydroprocessing module at a subsequent time) or a target increase in the amount of hydrogen. In some cases, based on the increase in the amount of hydrogen used by the hydroprocessing module, one or more of the following occurs: (i) an increase in the ammonia flow rate; (ii) a decrease in the percentage of the reformate stream that is the first portion of the reformate stream; (iii) an increase in the percentage of the reformate stream that is the second portion of the reformate stream; or (iv) a decrease in the percentage of the reformate stream that is directed out of the fired heater (e.g., vented or flared).

[0737] In some cases, the stimulus is based at least in part on a decrease in the amount of hydrogen used by the hydroprocessing module. In some cases, the decrease in the amount of hydrogen is a predicted decrease in the amount of hydrogen used (i.e., a predicted decrease in hydrogen demand by the hydroprocessing module at a subsequent time) or a target decrease in the amount of hydrogen. In some cases, based on the decrease in the amount of hydrogen used by the hydroprocessing module, one or more of the following occurs: (i) a decrease in the ammonia flow rate; (ii) an increase in the percentage of the reformate stream that is the first portion of the reformate stream; (iii) a decrease in the percentage of the reformate stream that is the second portion of the reformate stream; or (iv) an increase in the percentage of the reformate stream that is directed out of the fired heater (e.g., vented or flared).

[0738] In some cases, the stimulus includes (a) an interruption in the processing of hydrogen using the hydroprocessing module, or (b) a failure or malfunction of the hydroprocessing module.

[0739] In some cases, the plurality of hydrogen processing modules each include a hydrogen processing module, and the stimulus includes at least one of (a) an interruption in the processing of hydrogen using one of the plurality of hydrogen processing modules, and / or (b) a fault or malfunction in one of the plurality of hydrogen processing modules.

[0740] In some cases, the percentage of the reformate stream that is the second portion of the reformate stream (processed by the hydroprocessing module) changes to about zero percent in response to the stimulus.

[0741] In some cases, substantially no reformate stream is directed to the hydroprocessing module in response to the stimulus. In some cases, up to about 5, about 10, about 15, about 20, about 25, or about 30% of the reformate stream is directed to the hydroprocessing module in response to the stimulus.

[0742] In some cases, substantially all of the reformate stream is directed, in response to a stimulus, to at least one of the combustion-heated reformer and / or a fired heater in thermal communication with the combustion-heated reformer.

[0743] In some cases, a portion of the reformate stream is directed out of the fired heater (eg, vented, flared, or sent to a heat recovery module) in response to a stimulus.

[0744] In some cases, the stimulus is detected using a sensor. In some cases, the stimulus is communicated to a controller. In some cases, the adjustment is performed using a programmable computer or controller. In some cases, the adjustment is performed using a flow control unit.

[0745] In some cases, the stimulus is pressure. In some cases, the pressure is increased in response to reducing the flow rate to the hydroprocessing module. In some cases, the pressure is the pressure of the reformate stream.

[0746] Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Control In some embodiments, the temperature within the combustion-heated reformer 108 and / or the combustion heater 109 may be controlled using PID control with a feedback-based control loop mechanism. The PID controller may automatically apply accurate and responsive corrections to the control function. A PID controller (e.g., controller 200) may be used in conjunction with one or more sensors (e.g., temperature sensors T1-T10) to implement the PID control.

[0747] In some embodiments, the temperature within the combustion-heated reformer 108 and / or the combustion heater 109 may be controlled using proportional (P), proportional-integral (PI), or proportional-derivative (PD) control with a feedback-based control loop mechanism. A P, PI, or PD controller may automatically apply accurate and responsive corrections to the control function. A P, PI, or PD controller (e.g., controller 200) may be used in conjunction with one or more sensors (e.g., temperature sensors T1-T10 and / or a time sensor) to implement the control.

[0748] A PID controller may continuously calculate an error value (e(t)) as the difference between a desired set point (SP) and a measured process variable (PV) and may apply corrections based on proportional, integral, and derivative terms (denoted P, I, and D, respectively). A P, PI, or PD controller may accordingly apply corrections based on one or two of the proportional, integral, and derivative terms (denoted P, I, and D, respectively).

[0749] In one example, proportional control may be implemented by (a) calculating a temperature difference between the temperature measured at the combustion-heated reformer 108 or combustion heater 109 and a setpoint temperature within the target temperature range; and (b) (i) varying the ammonia flow rate (e.g., the flow rate of ammonia flow 104) by an amount based at least in part on the temperature difference, (ii) varying the oxygen flow rate (e.g., increasing or decreasing the flow rate of air flow 118) by an amount based at least in part on the temperature difference, (iii) varying the percentage of the reformate stream 120 processed by the H2 processing module 535 by an amount based at least in part on the temperature difference, (iv) varying the percentage of the reformate stream 120 combusted in the combustion heater by an amount based at least in part on the temperature difference, or (v) varying the percentage of the reformate stream 120 directed out of the combustion heater (e.g., sent to exhaust, flare combustion, or a heat recovery module) by an amount based at least in part on the temperature difference.

[0750] For example, the ammonia flow rate, the oxygen flow rate, the percentage of the reformate stream processed by the H processing module, the percentage of the reformate stream combusted in the fired heater, and / or the percentage of the reformate stream directed out of the fired heater may vary by a proportionality coefficient that is proportional to the temperature difference. The value of the proportionality coefficient may be larger when the temperature difference is larger. For example, for a setpoint temperature of approximately 450°C, the proportionality coefficient may be larger for a measured temperature of approximately 350°C (a temperature difference of approximately 100°C) compared to a measured temperature of approximately 400°C (a temperature difference of approximately 50°C).

[0751] In some embodiments, the proportionality coefficient is different for each of varying the ammonia flow rate, the oxygen flow rate, the percentage of the reformate stream processed by the H2 processing module, the percentage of the reformate stream combusted within the fired heater, and / or the percentage of the reformate stream directed out of the fired heater.

[0752] In some embodiments, calculating the temperature difference may be repeated at subsequent time points to obtain subsequent temperature differences, and varying the ammonia flow rate, the oxygen flow rate, the percentage of the reformate stream processed by the H processing module, the percentage of the reformate stream combusted in the fired heater, and / or the percentage of the reformate stream directed out of the fired heater may be repeated (by an amount proportional to the subsequent temperature difference) to further vary the ammonia flow rate, the oxygen flow rate, the percentage of the reformate stream processed by the H processing module, the percentage of the reformate stream combusted in the fired heater, and / or the percentage of the reformate stream directed out of the fired heater. The above steps may be repeated until the measured temperature is within the target temperature range.

[0753] In some embodiments, integral control may be implemented. For example, the temperature measured at the reformer 108 or the fired heater 109 may be a first temperature measured at a first time point, and integral control may be implemented by (a) measuring a second temperature of the reformer 108 or the fired heater 109 at a second time point subsequent to the first time point, (b) calculating the time period between the first and second time points, (c) calculating the temperature difference between the first and second temperatures, and (d) varying (by an amount based at least in part on the time period and the temperature difference) one or more of the ammonia flow rate, the oxygen flow rate, the percentage of the reformate stream processed by the H processing module, the percentage of the reformate stream combusted in the fired heater, and / or the percentage of the reformate stream directed out of the fired heater. In some embodiments, the above steps are repeated until the measured temperature is within the target temperature range.

[0754] Hydrogen flaring or exhaust FIG. 6O is a block diagram illustrating the flare or exhaust 525 of hydrogen in the flue gas 114 of the fired heater 109 to reduce the pressure in the reformers 108-110.

[0755] In some embodiments, hydrogen may be flared in the flue gas 114 of the fired heater 109 by adjusting the stoichiometric ratio of (1) hydrogen in the reformate stream 120 supplied to the fired heater 109 and (2) oxygen in the air stream 118 supplied to the fired heater 109.

[0756] Adjusting the stoichiometric ratio may include adjusting the flow rate and / or pressure of the air stream 118 supplied to the fired heater 109 to maintain fuel-rich or air-lean conditions for the combustion reaction (in other words, the hydrogen may be in stoichiometric excess). In some cases, adjusting the stoichiometric ratio may include adjusting the flow rate and / or pressure of the reformate stream 120 supplied to the fired heater 109 to maintain fuel-rich conditions for the combustion reaction.

[0757] In some embodiments, the temperature of the fired heater 109 may be maintained below a threshold temperature (e.g., to enable lower temperature catalytic combustion of hydrogen) by adjusting the flow rate and / or pressure of the air flow 118 supplied to the fired heater 109.

[0758] In some embodiments, the flow of airflow 118 to the fired heater 109 may be reduced or shut off entirely, which may reduce the temperature of the fired heater 109 below the combustion temperature, and thus the hydrogen may be vented (instead of being combusted).

[0759] Fuel-rich or air-lean combustion In some cases, the air-to-fuel ratio during fuel-rich or air-lean combustion (i.e., the air-to-fuel ratio divided by the stoichiometric air-to-fuel ratio; e.g., an air-to-fuel ratio of 1 is a stoichiometric air-to-fuel ratio) is between about 0.2 and about 0.99. In some cases, the air-to-fuel ratio during fuel-rich or air-lean combustion is at least about 0.2, about 0.3, about 0.4, about 0.5, about 0.6, about 0.7, about 0.8, about 0.9, or about 0.99. In some cases, the air-to-fuel ratio during fuel-rich or air-lean combustion is at most about 0.2, about 0.3, about 0.4, about 0.5, about 0.6, about 0.7, about 0.8, about 0.9, or about 0.99. In some cases, the air-to-fuel ratio during fuel-rich or air-lean combustion is from about 0.2 to about 0.4, from about 0.3 to about 0.5, from about 0.4 to about 0.6, from about 0.5 to about 0.7, from about 0.6 to about 0.8, from about 0.7 to about 0.9, or from about 0.8 to about 0.99.

[0760] In some cases, the air-to-fuel ratio of the fuel-rich or air-lean combustion during the operating mode is between about 0.5 and about 0.99. In some cases, the air-to-fuel ratio of the fuel-rich or air-lean combustion during the operating mode is at least about 0.5, about 0.6, about 0.7, about 0.8, about 0.9, or about 0.99. In some cases, the air-to-fuel ratio of the fuel-rich or air-lean combustion during the operating mode is at most about 0.5, about 0.6, about 0.7, about 0.8, about 0.9, or about 0.99. In some cases, the air-to-fuel ratio of the fuel-rich or air-lean combustion during the operating mode is at least about 0.5 to about 0.7, about 0.6 to about 0.8, about 0.7 to about 0.9, or about 0.8 to about 0.99.

[0761] In some cases, the air-to-fuel ratio of fuel-rich or air-lean combustion during the start-up mode and / or hot standby mode is between about 0.2 and about 0.8. In some cases, the air-to-fuel ratio of fuel-rich or air-lean combustion during the start-up mode and / or hot standby mode is at least about 0.2, about 0.3, about 0.4, about 0.5, about 0.6, about 0.7, or about 0.8. In some cases, the air-to-fuel ratio of fuel-rich or air-lean combustion during the start-up mode and / or hot standby mode is at most about 0.2, about 0.3, about 0.4, about 0.5, about 0.6, about 0.7, or about 0.8. In some cases, the air-to-fuel ratio of fuel-rich or air-lean combustion during the start-up mode and / or hot standby mode is between about 0.2 and about 0.4, between about 0.3 and about 0.5, between about 0.4 and about 0.6, between about 0.5 and about 0.7, or between about 0.6 and about 0.8.

[0762] Air-rich or fuel-lean combustion In some cases, the combustion reaction within the fired heater 109 may involve air-rich or fuel-lean conditions (i.e., resulting in a stoichiometric excess of oxygen). In some cases, fuel-lean combustion may increase the thermal or energy efficiency of the reforming system 100 because a substantial majority or all of the combustion fuel (e.g., reformate stream 120) is consumed. Fuel-lean combustion may allow a small amount of H in the flue gas 114 to be flared or vented (or not at all), which may reduce waste H because the flared or vented H may not be used for power generation or chemical or industrial processes. In some cases, fuel-lean combustion may prevent flammability of the flue gas 114, thus enabling safe operation of the ammonia reforming system 100.

[0763] In some cases, air-rich or fuel-lean combustion in the fired heater 109 is maintained for at least about 10, about 20, about 30, about 40, about 50, about 60, about 70, about 80, or about 90% of the operating period of the operational mode. In some cases, air-rich or fuel-lean combustion in the fired heater 109 is maintained for up to about 10, about 20, about 30, about 40, about 50, about 60, about 70, about 80, or about 90% of the operating period of the operational mode. In some cases, air-rich or fuel-lean combustion in the fired heater 109 is maintained for substantially all of the operating period of the operational mode. In some cases, air-rich or fuel-lean combustion in the fired heater 109 is maintained at a condition between about 10% and about 30%, between about 20% and about 40%, between about 30% and about 50%, between about 40% and about 60%, between about 50% and about 70%, between about 60% and about 80%, or between about 70% and about 90% of the operating period of the operating mode.

[0764] In some cases, air-rich or fuel-lean combustion in the fired heater 109 is maintained for at least about 10, about 20, about 30, about 40, about 50, about 60, about 70, about 80, or about 90% of the duration of operation in the startup mode and / or hot standby mode. In some cases, air-rich or fuel-lean combustion in the fired heater 109 is maintained for up to about 10, about 20, about 30, about 40, about 50, about 60, about 70, about 80, or about 90% of the duration of operation in the startup mode and / or hot standby mode. In some cases, air-rich or fuel-lean combustion in the fired heater 109 is maintained for substantially all of the duration of operation in the startup mode and / or hot standby mode.

[0765] In some cases, during air-rich or fuel-lean combustion in the fired heater 109, increasing the air flow rate provided to the fired heater 109 may reduce the temperature of the reformer 108 and / or fired heater 109 (e.g., by providing more air (O2 and / or N2) to absorb heat from the combustion reaction).

[0766] In some cases, during air-rich or fuel-lean combustion in the fired heater 109, reducing the airflow rate provided to the fired heater 109 may increase the temperature of the reformer 108 and / or the fired heater 109 (e.g., by providing less air to absorb heat from the combustion reaction). In some cases, the airflow rate provided to the fired heater 109 is adjusted to control the temperature of the reformer 108 and / or the fired heater 109.

[0767] In some cases, during air-rich or fuel-lean combustion in the fired heater 109, the air-to-fuel ratio (i.e., the air-to-fuel ratio divided by the stoichiometric air-to-fuel ratio, e.g., an air-to-fuel ratio of 1 is a stoichiometric air-to-fuel ratio) is between about 1.05 and about 5. In some cases, during air-rich or fuel-lean combustion in the fired heater 109, the air-to-fuel ratio is at least about 1.05, about 1.1, about 1.2, about 1.3, about 1.4, about 1.5, about 1.6, about 1.7, about 1.8, about 1.9, about 2, about 2.5, about 3, about 3.5, about 4, about 4.5, or about 5. In some cases, during air-rich or fuel-lean combustion in the fired heater 109, the air-to-fuel ratio is up to about 1.05, about 1.1, about 1.2, about 1.3, about 1.4, about 1.5, about 1.6, about 1.7, about 1.8, about 1.9, about 2, about 2.5, about 3, about 3.5, about 4, about 4.5, or about 5. In some cases, during air-rich or fuel-lean combustion in the fired heater 109, the air-to-fuel ratio is from about 1.05 to about 1.3, from about 1.1 to about 1.5, from about 1.2 to about 1.7, from about 1.3 to about 1.9, from about 1.4 to about 2, from about 1.5 to about 2, from about 1.6 to about 3, from about 2 to about 4, or from about 3 to about 5.

[0768] In some cases, the air-to-fuel ratio for the fuel-rich or air-lean combustion during the operating mode is between about 1.05 and about 3. In some cases, the air-to-fuel ratio for the air-rich or fuel-lean combustion during the operating mode is at least about 1.05, about 1.1, about 1.2, about 1.3, about 1.4, about 1.5, about 1.6, about 1.7, about 1.8, about 1.9, about 2, about 2.5, or about 3. In some cases, the air-to-fuel ratio for the air-rich or fuel-lean combustion during the operating mode is at most about 1.05, about 1.1, about 1.2, about 1.3, about 1.4, about 1.5, about 1.6, about 1.7, about 1.8, about 1.9, about 2, about 2.5, or about 3. In some cases, the air-to-fuel ratio for air-rich or fuel-lean combustion during the operating mode is from about 1.05 to about 1.3, from about 1.1 to about 1.5, from about 1.2 to about 1.7, from about 1.3 to about 1.9, from about 1.4 to about 2, from about 1.5 to about 2, from about 1.6 to about 2, or from about 2 to about 3.

[0769] In some cases, the air-to-fuel ratio for air-rich or fuel-lean combustion during the start-up mode and / or hot standby mode is from about 1 to about 5. In some cases, the air-to-fuel ratio for air-rich or fuel-lean combustion during the start-up mode and / or hot standby mode is at least about 1.05, about 1.1, about 1.2, about 1.3, about 1.4, about 1.5, about 1.6, about 1.7, about 1.8, about 1.9, about 2, about 2.2, about 2.4, about 2.6, about 2.8, about 3, about 3.5, about 4, about 4.5, or about 5. In some cases, the air-to-fuel ratio for air-rich or fuel-lean combustion during the startup mode and / or hot standby mode is at most about 1.05, about 1.1, about 1.2, about 1.3, about 1.4, about 1.5, about 1.6, about 1.7, about 1.8, about 1.9, about 2, about 2.2, about 2.4, about 2.6, about 2.8, about 3, about 3.5, about 4, about 4.5, or about 5. In some cases, the air-to-fuel ratio for air-rich or fuel-lean combustion during start-up mode and / or hot standby mode is about 1.05 to about 1.3, about 1.1 to about 1.5, about 1.2 to about 1.7, about 1.3 to about 1.9, about 1.4 to about 2, about 1.5 to about 2, about 1.6 to about 2, about 2 to about 2.5, about 2.2 to about 2.7, about 2.4 to about 2.9, about 2.6 to about 3.1, about 3 to about 3.5, about 3.5 to about 4, or about 4 to about 5.

[0770] Combustion ignition In some cases, combustion in the fired heater 109 may be extinguished and thus require re-ignition. Re-ignition may be accomplished using an ignition source such as, for example, a spark plug or a heating element. In some cases, re-ignition may be based at least in part on the temperature of the combustion exhaust 114 being below a threshold combustion exhaust temperature (indicating a lack of flame in the fired heater 109), the oxygen concentration in the combustion exhaust 114 exceeding a threshold combustion exhaust oxygen concentration (indicating unreacted oxygen leaving the fired heater 109), or the hydrogen concentration in the combustion exhaust 114 exceeding a threshold hydrogen concentration (indicating unreacted hydrogen leaving the fired heater 109). In some cases, the threshold combustion exhaust temperature is at least about 300, about 350, about 400, about 450, about 500, about 550, about 600, about 650, about 700, about 750, about 800, about 850, or about 900°C. In some cases, the threshold combustion exhaust temperature is at most about 300, about 350, about 400, about 450, about 500, about 550, about 600, about 650, about 700, about 750, about 800, about 850, or about 900° C. In some cases, the threshold combustion exhaust oxygen concentration is at least about 1, about 3, about 5, about 8, about 10, about 15, about 20, or about 25% by volume or mass. In some cases, the threshold combustion exhaust oxygen concentration is at most about 1, about 3, about 5, about 8, about 10, about 15, about 20, or about 25% by volume or mass.

[0771] Ammonia as a combustion fuel In some cases, instead of combusting the reformate stream 120, the fired heater 109 may combust ammonia to heat the combustion-heated reformer 108. In some cases, at least a portion of the ammonia stream 104 may be directed from the storage tank 102 to the fired heater 109 to combust the ammonia stream 104 to heat the reformer 108. In some cases, an additional ammonia stream (separate from the ammonia stream 104) may be directed from an additional storage tank (separate from the storage tank 102) to the fired heater 109 to combust the additional ammonia stream to heat the reformer 108.

[0772] In some cases, a pure ammonia stream (i.e., containing only ammonia) may be directed to the fired heater 109 for combustion. In some cases, an ammonia stream mixed with a pilot fuel (i.e., a promoter fuel that promotes combustion) may be directed to the fired heater 109 for combustion. The pilot fuel may include a lower flash point compared to ammonia and may include a higher flame speed when combusted compared to ammonia. The pilot fuel may include hydrogen (e.g., hydrogen in the reformate stream 120). In some cases, the pilot fuel is a hydrocarbon (e.g., may be produced using renewable energy).

[0773] For any embodiment of the present disclosure in which the reformate stream 120 is directed for combustion in the fired heater 109, it is contemplated that the reformate stream 120 may instead include ammonia for combustion in the fired heater 109. Accordingly, it is also contemplated that the amount of ammonia for combustion may be controlled (e.g., the flow rate of ammonia may be increased or decreased) based on a stimulus (e.g., the temperature of the reformer 108 and / or the fired heater 109).

[0774] Pressure Drop Element 6P-6R are block diagrams illustrating pressure drop elements 526a-c configured to maintain an even distribution of fluid pressure to multiple components of ammonia reforming system 100. Pressure drop elements 526a-c may comprise, for example, restricted orifices or openings positioned within fluid lines and / or manifolds of ammonia reforming system 100. In some cases, pressure drop element 526a may be smaller in size (e.g., radius of orifice or opening) than pressure drop element 526b, which in turn may be smaller in size than pressure drop element 526c. By homogenizing or equalizing the pressure of the fluid provided to each of the components, the potential output of each respective component may be maximized.

[0775] In some cases, the pressure drop across pressure drop element 526a may be different from the pressure drop across pressure drop elements 526b and / or 526c. In some cases, the pressure drop across pressure drop element 526a may be the same as the pressure drop across pressure drop elements 526b and / or 526c within a selected tolerance. The selected tolerance may be less than 20%.

[0776] For example, as shown in Figure 6P, the pressure drop elements 526a-c can be configured to evenly distribute the ammonia stream 104 to multiple reformers 108-110 (or a set of reformers 108-110). As shown in Figure 6Q, the pressure drop elements 526a-c can be configured to evenly distribute the reformate stream 120 to multiple fired heaters 109. As shown in Figure 6R, the pressure drop elements 526a-c can be configured to evenly distribute the reformate stream 120 to multiple fuel cells 124.

[0777] 6P-6R may distribute fluid flow to each of the reformers 108-110, fired heater 109, or fuel cell 124 within a selected tolerance range of the target flow rate. In some cases, the selected tolerance range is at least about 1, about 5, about 10, about 20, about 30, about 40, about 50, about 60, about 70, about 80, about 90, or about 100% of the target flow rate, and up to about 1, about 5, about 10, about 20, about 30, about 40, about 50, about 60, about 70, about 80, about 90, or about 100%. In some cases, the selected tolerance range may be about 1 to about 100, about 5 to about 90, about 10 to about 80, about 20 to about 70, about 30 to about 60, or about 40 to about 50%. For example, if the target flow rate to a reformer in a set of three reformers is about 100 slpm (standard liters per minute) within a selected tolerance of about 10%, each of the three reformers will receive a flow rate of about 90 to about 110 slpm.

[0778] In some cases, the pressure drop across one or more pressure drop elements may be changed or adjusted manually or electronically (e.g., using voltage and / or current signals). In some cases, one or more pressure drop elements, one or more valves, one or more pumps, one or more regulators, or any combination thereof, may adjust or maintain the flow rate to one or more fuel cells 124 within a selected tolerance range of a target flow rate. In some cases, the selected tolerance range is at least about 1, about 5, about 10, about 20, about 30, about 40, about 50, about 60, about 70, about 80, about 90, or about 100%, and up to about 1, about 5, about 10, about 20, about 30, about 40, about 50, about 60, about 70, about 80, about 90, or about 100%. In some cases, the selected tolerance range can be about 1 to about 100, about 5 to about 90, about 10 to about 80, about 20 to about 70, about 30 to about 60, or about 40 to about 50%. In some cases, the selected tolerance range is less than about 20%.

[0779] In some cases, one or more pressure drop elements illustrated in Figures 6P-6R may be at least partially replaced by one or more flow control units (or may include one or more additional flow control units), including one or more pumps, one or more check valves, one or more one-way valves, one or more three-way valves, one or more restrictive orifices, one or more valves, one or more flow regulators, one or more pressure regulators, one or more backpressure regulators, one or more pressure reducing regulators, one or more backflow regulators, one or more flow meters, one or more flow controllers, or any combination thereof. In some cases, the one or more flow control units may be manually, automatically, or electronically controlled. The one or more flow control units may maintain a desired flow distribution to one or more reformers, one or more combustion heaters, or one or more fuel cells. The flow distribution may be uniform (or unequal) depending on the predetermined flow handling capabilities of the one or more reformers, one or more combustion heaters, or one or more fuel cells.

[0780] In some cases, one or more flow control units may distribute flow to the reformers 108-110, fired heater 109, or fuel cell 124 within a selected tolerance range of a target flow rate. In some cases, the selected tolerance range is at least about 1, about 5, about 10, about 20, about 30, about 40, about 50, about 60, about 70, about 80, about 90, or about 100%, and up to about 1, about 5, about 10, about 20, about 30, about 40, about 50, about 60, about 70, about 80, about 90, or about 100%. In some cases, the selected tolerance range may be about 1 to about 100, about 5 to about 90, about 10 to about 80, about 20 to about 70, about 30 to about 60, or about 40 to about 50%. For example, if the target flow rate to one reformer in a set of three reformers is about 100 slpm (standard liters per minute) with a selected tolerance of about 10%, each of the three reformers will receive a flow rate of about 90 to about 110 slpm. In some cases, the selected tolerance is less than about 20%.

[0781] Hydrogen separation membrane 6S is a block diagram illustrating a hydrogen separation device 527 configured to separate hydrogen from the reformate stream 120. The hydrogen separation device 527 may include a retentate chamber 528, a membrane 529, and a permeate chamber 530. The hydrogen separation device 527 may increase the hydrogen purity of the reformate stream 120, which may increase the hydrogen consumption rate or output voltage of the fuel cell 124 when a high hydrogen purity reformate stream 120 is supplied to the fuel cell 124.

[0782] As the reformate stream 120 passes through the retentate chamber 528, hydrogen may diffuse across the membrane 529 into the permeate chamber 530. The membrane 529 may comprise platinum (Pt), palladium (Pd), vanadium (V), niobium (Nb), tantalum (Ta), alloys thereof, or any combination thereof, although the present disclosure is not limited thereto. The permeate stream 531 (containing separated hydrogen, e.g., 99% or more hydrogen) then exits the hydrogen separation device 527 (via the outlet of the permeate chamber 530) and may be provided to the fuel cell 124 for power generation. Optionally, the retentate stream 532, containing at least a portion of the hydrogen from the reformate stream 120, may be supplied to the fired heater 109 as combustion fuel.

[0783] Reforming of ammonia to provide hydrogen for internal combustion engines 6T is a block diagram illustrating an internal combustion engine (ICE) 533 configured to combust (i.e., combust hydrogen therein) the reformate stream 120 to generate mechanical (or electrical) power. The ICE 533 may include a reciprocating piston engine or a gas turbine.

[0784] In some embodiments, the ICE 533 may be configured to combust the reformate stream 120 (e.g., so that hydrogen is the sole or primary fuel). In some cases, the reformate stream 120 may be co-fired or co-combusted with an additional fuel (e.g., an auxiliary or secondary fuel) such that the hydrogen in the reformate stream 120 advantageously serves as a pilot fuel (promoter fuel) to promote the combustion of the additional fuel in the ICE 533.

[0785] The additional fuel may include ammonia, which is difficult to burn without a promoter fuel due to its low flame speed and high ignition chamber. The additional fuel including ammonia may be provided from storage tank 102 (described with respect to FIGS. 1A-4B) for co-combustion with reformate stream 120 in ICE 533. In some cases, the additional ammonia may be provided from a dedicated secondary storage tank separate from storage tank 102.

[0786] In some embodiments, the additional fuel comprises a hydrocarbon fuel, such as gasoline, diesel, biodiesel, methane, biomethane, methanol, biomethanol, fatty acid methyl esters (FAME), water-treated recycled diesel (HVO), Fischer-Tropsch (FT) diesel, marine oil, heavy fuel oil (HFO), marine diesel oil (MDO), and / or dimethyl ether (DME).

[0787] In some embodiments, the additional fuel includes a synthetic renewable fuel (e.g., scalable zero-emission fuel (SZEF)) created using at least one of carbon capture, renewable electricity, or renewable hydrogen.

[0788] In some embodiments, a heat exchanger 534 may be utilized to transfer heat from the exhaust of the ICE 533 to the combustion-heated reformer 108 and / or the electrically-heated reformer 110. This heat transfer may increase the overall energy efficiency of the ammonia reforming system 100.

[0789] How to Start Ammonia Reforming 7-11C are flowcharts illustrating various methods of initiating ammonia reforming (e.g., a start-up process for ammonia reforming system 100). Note that the method steps described with respect to FIGS. 7-11C may be implemented using a controller (e.g., by executing program instructions using controller 200) in response to a stimulus. The stimulus may include a manual input (e.g., a user input) and / or an automatic input. The automatic input may include a sensor measurement (e.g., as measured by P1-P10, T1-T11, FM1-FM11, and AC1-AC10) exceeding or being below a threshold value (e.g., a threshold temperature, a threshold pressure, a threshold flow rate, etc.).

[0790] For example, the controller may direct a fluid (e.g., ammonia stream 104, reformate stream 120, air stream 118, anode off-gas 128) by operating a flow control unit (e.g., opening or closing a valve) to increase or decrease the flow rate of the fluid (in response to, or based on, a manual or automatic input). In another example, the controller may increase or decrease the heating power to an electric heater (e.g., electric heater 111) (in response to, or based on, a manual or automatic input). In another example, the controller may increase or decrease the load on a fuel cell (e.g., fuel cell 124) (in response to, or based on, a manual or automatic input).

[0791] First method to start ammonia reforming FIG. 7 is a flow chart illustrating a method 600 for initiating ammonia reforming.

[0792] In step 601, an electrically heated reformer (e.g., electrically heated reformer 110) may be heated (e.g., using electric heater 111) to a target temperature (e.g., within a target temperature range of about 400 to about 600°C). The electrically heated reformer may be heated by starting the supply of power to the electric heater.

[0793] In step 602, ammonia (e.g., influent ammonia stream 104) may be directed to an electrically heated reformer, where the ammonia may be reformed using an NH reforming catalyst within the electrically heated reformer to produce hydrogen and nitrogen (e.g., H / N mixture, reformate stream 120).

[0794] In step 603, at least a portion of the reformate stream (produced by the electrically heated reformer) may be reacted with air (e.g., air stream 118) in a combustion reaction (e.g., in the fired heater 109) to heat the combustion heated reformer (e.g., the combustion heated reformer 109).

[0795] In step 604, the electrically heated reformer may optionally be turned off or ramped down (e.g., after the combustion heated reformer reaches a target temperature range). The electrically heated reformer may be turned off or ramped down by reducing the power supply to the electric heater.

[0796] In step 605, the flow rate of the inlet ammonia stream may be increased to a predetermined flow rate (eg, to produce a target flow rate of the H2 / N2 mixture in the reformate stream).

[0797] In some cases, step 601 and step 602 may be performed in sequence or in parallel. In some cases, at least two steps in steps 601-605 may be performed in sequence or in parallel. Once step 605 is performed, if self-sustaining autothermal reforming is maintained (i.e., steady-state conditions or predetermined operating conditions), the ammonia flow rate may be further increased above a predetermined rate while maintaining autothermal reforming, depending on the operating requirements (e.g., fuel cell output power, electrically heated reformer temperature, combustion heated reformer temperature, reactor pressure, ammonia flow rate, etc.). Step 604 may or may not be performed depending on the combustion heated reformer temperature and ammonia conversion efficiency.

[0798] In some embodiments, instead of a combustion-heated reformer, an electrically heated reformer may provide most or all of the hydrogen and nitrogen in the reformate stream (e.g., greater than about 50% of the hydrogen and nitrogen by volume).

[0799] Second method for initiating ammonia reforming FIG. 8 is a flow chart illustrating another method 700 for initiating ammonia reforming.

[0800] In step 701, an electrically heated reformer (e.g., electrically heated reformer 110) may be heated (e.g., using electric heater 111) to a target temperature (e.g., within a target temperature range of about 400 to about 600°C). The electrically heated reformer may be heated by starting the supply of power to the electric heater.

[0801] In step 702, ammonia (e.g., influent ammonia stream 104) may be directed to an electrically heated reformer, where the ammonia may be reformed using an NH reforming catalyst within the electrically heated reformer to produce hydrogen and nitrogen (e.g., a H / N mixture, reformate stream 120).

[0802] In step 703, at least a portion of the reformate stream (produced by the electrically heated reformer) and air (eg, air stream 118) may be directed to a fired heater.

[0803] In step 704, the reformate stream may react with air in a combustion reaction (in fired heater 109) to heat a combustion-heated reformer (e.g., combustion-heated reformer 109). An ignition device (e.g., a spark plug) may be activated to ignite the reformate and air in the combustion heater. The flow of air to the combustion heater may be adjusted to increase the temperature of the combustion-heated reformer. In some cases, the flow of air is adjusted to maintain a target temperature ramp rate of the combustion-heated reformer.

[0804] In step 705, ammonia (e.g., influent ammonia stream 104) may be reformed using an NH reforming catalyst in a combustion-heated reformer (after the combustion-heated reformer reaches a target temperature range) to produce hydrogen and nitrogen (e.g., H / N mixture, reformate stream 120). In some cases, the combustion-heated reformer may be in series or parallel fluid communication with an electrically heated reformer (e.g., as shown in FIG. 13).

[0805] In step 706, heating of the electrically heated reformer may optionally be turned off or reduced (e.g., after the combustion heated reformer reaches a target temperature range). The electrically heated reformer may be turned off or reduced by reducing the power supply to the electric heater.

[0806] In step 707, the flow rate of the incoming ammonia stream may be gradually increased to a predetermined flow rate (e.g., to produce a target flow rate of the H2 / N2 mixture in the reformate stream). Simultaneously, the flow rate of the air stream (to the fired heater) may be increased. By simultaneously increasing both the flow rate of the incoming ammonia stream and the flow rate of the air stream, the fired reformer may be maintained within a target temperature range.

[0807] In step 708, the reformate produced by the combustion-heated reformer (and optionally, the reformate produced by the electrically heated reformer) may be directed (e.g., using one or more flow control units, pumps, valves, and / or regulators) to a fuel cell (e.g., fuel cell 124).

[0808] In step 709, the fuel cell may generate an electrical power output (to supply an electrical load, for example, an electrical grid, a battery, or a vehicle motor).

[0809] In step 710, anode off-gas from the fuel cell (e.g., anode off-gas 128) can optionally be directed to a fired heater for combustion. For example, a three-way valve can direct reformate from (1) being provided directly to the fired heater to (2) being provided to the fuel cell (which can then provide the anode off-gas to the fired heater). In some cases, step 710 can be performed before or simultaneously with step 709.

[0810] In step 711, the flow rate of the inlet ammonia stream and the flow rate of the air stream may be adjusted to maintain a target temperature in the combustion-heated reformer.

[0811] In step 712, the ammonia reforming method (or system) may achieve a predetermined operating condition (steady state condition).

[0812] It should be noted that step 706 may or may not be performed based on the combustion-heated reformer temperature. For example, step 706 may not be performed based on the combustion-heated reformer temperature being below a predetermined threshold temperature. Step 709 may be performed at any time after step 708.

[0813] A third way to start ammonia reforming FIG. 9 is a flow chart illustrating another method 800 for initiating ammonia reforming.

[0814] In step 801, an electrically heated reformer (e.g., electrically heated reformer 110) may be heated (e.g., using electric heater 111) to a target temperature (e.g., within a target temperature range of about 400 to about 600°C). The electrically heated reformer may be heated by starting the supply of power to the electric heater.

[0815] In step 802, ammonia (e.g., influent ammonia stream 104) may be directed to an electrically heated reformer, where the ammonia may be reformed using an NH reforming catalyst within the electrically heated reformer to produce hydrogen and nitrogen (e.g., a H / N mixture, reformate stream 120).

[0816] In step 803 , at least a portion of the reformate stream (produced by the electrically heated reformer) may be directed to the fuel cell 124 .

[0817] In step 804, anode off-gas from the fuel cell (e.g., anode off-gas 128) may optionally be directed to a fired heater for combustion with air (e.g., airflow 118). An ignition device (e.g., a spark plug) may be activated to ignite the anode off-gas and air in the fired heater. The flow rate of air to the fired heater may be adjusted to increase the temperature of the fired reformer.

[0818] In step 805, the fuel cell may generate an electrical power output (to supply an electrical load, e.g., a vehicle motor). In some cases, step 805 may be performed before or simultaneously with step 804.

[0819] In step 806, ammonia (e.g., influent ammonia stream 104) may be reformed using an NH reforming catalyst in a combustion-heated reformer (after the combustion-heated reformer reaches a target temperature range) to produce hydrogen and nitrogen (e.g., an H / N mixture, reformate stream 120). In some cases, the combustion-heated reformer may be in series or parallel fluid communication with an electrically heated reformer (e.g., as shown in FIG. 13).

[0820] In step 807, heating of the electrically heated reformer may optionally be turned off or reduced (e.g., after the combustion heated reformer reaches a target temperature range). The electrically heated reformer may be turned off or reduced by reducing the power supply to the electric heater.

[0821] In step 808, the flow rate of the incoming ammonia stream may be gradually increased to a predetermined flow rate (e.g., to produce a target flow rate of the H2 / N2 mixture in the reformate stream). Simultaneously, the flow rate of the air stream (to the fired heater) may be increased. By simultaneously increasing both the flow rate of the incoming ammonia stream and the flow rate of the air stream, the fired reformer may be maintained within a target temperature range.

[0822] In step 809, optionally, the flow rate of the inlet ammonia stream and the flow rate of the air stream may be further adjusted to maintain a target temperature in the combustion-heated reformer.

[0823] In step 810, the ammonia reforming method (or system) may achieve a predetermined operating condition (steady state condition).

[0824] It should be noted that step 807 may or may not be performed based on the combustion-heated reformer temperature. For example, step 807 may not be performed based on the combustion-heated reformer temperature being below a predetermined threshold temperature. Step 805 may be performed at any time after step 803.

[0825] The fourth way to start ammonia reforming FIG. 10 is a flow chart illustrating another method 900 for initiating ammonia reforming.

[0826] In step 901, an electrically heated reformer (e.g., electrically heated reformer 110) may be heated (e.g., using electric heater 111) to a target temperature (e.g., within a target temperature range of about 400 to about 600°C). The electrically heated reformer may be heated by starting the supply of power to the electric heater.

[0827] In step 902, ammonia (e.g., influent ammonia stream 104) may be directed to an electrically heated reformer, where the ammonia may be reformed using an NH reforming catalyst within the electrically heated reformer to produce hydrogen and nitrogen (e.g., an H / N mixture, reformate stream 120).

[0828] In step 903, at least a portion of the reformate stream (produced by the electrically heated reformer) and air (eg, air stream 118) may be directed to a fired heater.

[0829] In step 904, the reformate stream may react with air in a combustion reaction (in fired heater 109) to heat a combustion-heated reformer (e.g., combustion-heated reformer 109). An ignition device (e.g., a spark plug) may be activated to ignite the reformate and air in the combustion heater. The flow rate of air to the combustion heater may be adjusted to increase the temperature of the combustion-heated reformer.

[0830] In step 905, ammonia (e.g., influent ammonia stream 104) may be reformed using an NH reforming catalyst in a combustion-heated reformer (after the combustion-heated reformer reaches a target temperature range) to produce hydrogen and nitrogen (e.g., an H / N mixture, reformate stream 120). In some cases, the combustion-heated reformer may be in series or parallel fluid communication with an electrically heated reformer (e.g., as shown in FIG. 13).

[0831] In step 906, the flow rate of the incoming ammonia stream may be gradually increased to a predetermined flow rate (e.g., to produce a target flow rate of the H2 / N2 mixture in the reformate stream). Simultaneously, the flow rate of the air stream (to the fired heater) may be increased. By simultaneously increasing both the flow rate of the incoming ammonia stream and the flow rate of the air stream, the fired reformer may be maintained within a target temperature range.

[0832] In step 907, the ammonia reforming method (or system) may achieve a predetermined operating condition (steady state condition).

[0833] How to Start an Ammonia Reforming System 11A-11C are flow charts illustrating various methods for starting an ammonia reforming system (e.g., ammonia reforming system 100) to power a device. The device may be a load powered by the ammonia reforming system's fuel cell (e.g., an electric motor for a mobile vehicle, a fixed data center, a cell phone tower, or a charging station) or an internal combustion engine powered by the reformate produced by the ammonia reforming system.

[0834] How to start an ammonia reforming system using a battery FIG. 11A is a flow chart illustrating a method for starting an ammonia reforming system (to power a device) using a battery.

[0835] In step 1001, a device may be started. For example, an electric vehicle or device may be turned on.

[0836] In step 1002, the ammonia reforming system may be started using a battery. For example, an electric heater may receive power from the battery to heat an electrically heated reformer, and ammonia may be reformed in the electrically heated reformer using an NH3 reforming catalyst.

[0837] In step 1003, the ammonia reforming system may further operate, for example, any of the steps described in connection with Figures 7-10 may be performed or implemented.

[0838] In step 1004, a device may be shut down. For example, an electric vehicle or device may be turned off.

[0839] In step 1005, the ammonia reforming system may charge the battery (e.g., by providing fuel cell power to the battery). In some embodiments, the electrical grid (e.g., an external electrical grid) may charge the battery.

[0840] Method for starting an ammonia reforming system using stored hydrogen FIG. 11B is a flow chart illustrating a method for starting an ammonia reforming system (to power a device) using stored hydrogen.

[0841] In step 1101, a device may be started. For example, an electric vehicle or device may be turned on.

[0842] In step 1102, the ammonia reforming system may be started using stored hydrogen (e.g., stored in a hydrogen storage tank). For example, a combustion heater may combust hydrogen and air to heat a combustion-heated reformer, and ammonia may be reformed in the combustion-heated reformer using an NH3 reforming catalyst.

[0843] In step 1103, the ammonia reforming system may further operate, for example, any of the steps described in connection with Figures 7-10 may be performed or implemented.

[0844] In step 1104, a device may be shut down. For example, an electric vehicle may be turned off.

[0845] In step 1105, the ammonia reforming system produces hydrogen and may store the hydrogen (e.g., in a hydrogen storage tank). Note that the reformate (e.g., a hydrogen / nitrogen mixture) may be stored in the hydrogen storage tank.

[0846] How to Start an Ammonia Reforming System Using an Electrical Grid FIG. 11C is a flow chart illustrating a method for starting an ammonia reforming system (to power a device) using an electrical grid.

[0847] In step 1201, a device may be started. For example, a cell phone tower or a charging device may be turned on.

[0848] In step 1202, the ammonia reforming system may be started using power from the electrical grid. For example, an electric heater may receive power from the electrical grid to heat an electrically heated reformer, and ammonia may be reformed in the electrically heated reformer using an NH3 reforming catalyst.

[0849] In step 1203, the ammonia reforming system may further operate, for example, any of the steps described in connection with Figures 7-10 may be performed or implemented.

[0850] In step 1204, a device may be deactivated. For example, a cell phone tower or a charging device may be switched off.

[0851] Method of operation of an ammonia reforming system FIG. 12A is a flow chart illustrating a method of operating an ammonia reforming system (eg, ammonia reforming system 100) in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure.

[0852] In step 1301, for a given set of system operating parameters, self-sustaining autothermal operating conditions may be predetermined (e.g., minimum and maximum NH3 flow rates, corresponding fuel cell (FC) power and hydrogen consumption rates, minimum and maximum battery state of charge (SOC), minimum and maximum air flow rates, etc.).

[0853] In step 1302, operating parameters may be maintained and / or adjusted to maintain and / or adjust fuel cell power output (and self-sustaining autothermal reforming).

[0854] In step 1303, the method may include monitoring the power output of the fuel cell and automatically or manually adjusting (increasing or decreasing) the power output (e.g., based on an electrical load coupled to the fuel cell). The method may adjust various operating parameters including the flow rate of the air flow to the fired heater, the flow rate of the inlet ammonia flow, the hydrogen consumption rate of the fuel cell, and / or the power to the electric heater. In some cases, the controller may control the NH flow rate, control the air flow rate, control the NH flow pressure, control the air flow pressure, control a valve, control the FC power output, control the battery power output, control the E reformer power input, control the FC hydrogen consumption rate, or any combination thereof. In some cases, the one or more sensors may measure temperature, pressure, fuel cell power output, battery power output, battery SOC, fuel cell hydrogen consumption rate, NH conversion efficiency, or any combination thereof.

[0855] In step 1304, based on the fuel cell power being less than the electrical load power, the method may include increasing the power output of the fuel cell. The hydrogen consumption rate of the fuel cell may be compared to a predetermined threshold consumption rate (the threshold consumption rate may be a particular value or range).

[0856] In step 1305, based on the hydrogen consumption rate being less than the predetermined threshold, the method may include increasing the power output of the fuel cell by increasing the hydrogen consumption rate (while still maintaining the hydrogen consumption rate below the predetermined threshold). The method may then proceed to step 1301.

[0857] In step 1306, based on the hydrogen consumption rate of the fuel cell being equal to or greater than the predetermined threshold, the method may include comparing the ammonia flow rate into the system to a predetermined ammonia flow rate. In some cases, the predetermined ammonia flow rate may be a maximum ammonia flow rate for the system.

[0858] In step 1307, the method may include increasing the ammonia flow rate (based on the flow rate of the incoming ammonia flow being less than the predetermined ammonia flow rate). The method may then proceed to step 1301.

[0859] In step 1308, the method may include maintaining the ammonia flow rate (based on the flow rate of the incoming ammonia flow exceeding the predetermined ammonia flow rate).

[0860] In step 1309, the method may include maintaining the power output of the fuel cell (based on the flow rate of the inlet ammonia stream being equal to or greater than the predetermined ammonia flow rate). In some cases, the power output of the fuel cell may be the maximum power output of the fuel cell. The method may then proceed to step 1301.

[0861] In step 1310, based on the fuel cell power exceeding the electrical load power, the method may include decreasing the power output of the fuel cell. Otherwise, the fuel cell power may not be decreased and the method may proceed to step 1301.

[0862] In step 1311, the method may include comparing the flow rate of the incoming ammonia stream to a predetermined ammonia flow rate. In some cases, the predetermined ammonia flow rate may be a minimum ammonia flow rate. In some cases, the method may proceed to step 1301 regardless of whether the flow rate of the incoming ammonia stream is equal to or greater than the minimum ammonia flow rate.

[0863] In step 1312, the method may include reducing the flow rate of the incoming ammonia stream (based on the flow rate of the incoming ammonia stream exceeding a predetermined ammonia flow rate). The method may then proceed to step 1301.

[0864] In step 1313, the method may include maintaining the flow rate of the incoming ammonia flow (based on the flow rate of the incoming ammonia flow being less than or equal to a predetermined ammonia flow rate).

[0865] In step 1314, the method may include maintaining the power output of the fuel cell (based on the flow rate of the incoming ammonia stream being less than or equal to the predetermined ammonia flow rate). The method may then proceed to step 1301.

[0866] Optionally, in step 1311, the method may or may not include comparing the flow rate of the incoming ammonia stream to a predetermined ammonia flow rate. Regardless of whether the flow rate of the incoming ammonia stream is less than, equal to, or greater than the predetermined ammonia flow rate, the method may further include maintaining the flow rate of the incoming ammonia stream and proceeding to step 1301. Optionally, the predetermined ammonia flow rate may be a minimum ammonia flow rate. In this manner, the fuel cell power is reduced to maintain the incoming ammonia flow rate, or at least within a desired range.

[0867] Optionally, the method may or may not include comparing the flow rate of the incoming ammonia stream to a predetermined ammonia flow rate in step 1311. Regardless of whether the flow rate of the incoming ammonia stream is less than, equal to, or greater than the predetermined ammonia flow rate, the method may further include maintaining the flow rate of the incoming ammonia stream and proceeding to step 1301.

[0868] In some cases, the predetermined ammonia flow rate may be a minimum ammonia flow rate, in which case the fuel cell power is reduced to maintain the inlet ammonia flow rate, or at least within a desired range.

[0869] In some cases, the method can include implementing or executing a high temperature standby mode. In some cases, implementing or executing a high temperature standby mode can include reducing the ammonia flow rate, the air flow rate, and / or the fuel cell power to zero.

[0870] Method for operating an ammonia reforming system using a battery FIG. 12B is a flow chart illustrating a method of operating ammonia reforming (eg, ammonia reforming system 100) using a battery, according to one or more embodiments of the present disclosure.

[0871] In step 1401, for a given set of system operating parameters, self-sustaining autothermal operating conditions may be predetermined (e.g., minimum and maximum NH3 flow rates, corresponding FC power and hydrogen consumption rates, minimum and maximum battery state of charge (SOC), minimum and maximum air flow rates, etc.).

[0872] In step 1402, operating parameters may be maintained and / or adjusted to maintain and / or adjust fuel cell power output (and self-sustaining autothermal reforming).

[0873] In step 1403, the method may include monitoring the power output of the fuel cell and automatically or manually adjusting (increasing or decreasing) the power output (e.g., based on an electrical load coupled to the fuel cell). The method may adjust various operating parameters including the flow rate of the air flow to the fired heater, the flow rate of the inlet ammonia flow, the hydrogen consumption rate of the fuel cell, and / or the power to the electric heater. In some cases, the one or more controllers may control the NH flow rate, control the air flow rate, control the NH flow pressure, control the air flow pressure, control the valves, control the FC power output, control the battery power output, control the E reformer power input, control the FC hydrogen consumption rate, or any combination thereof. In some cases, the one or more sensors may measure temperature, pressure, fuel cell power output, battery power output, battery SOC, fuel cell hydrogen consumption rate, and NH conversion efficiency.

[0874] In step 1404, based on the fuel cell power being less than the electrical load power, the method may include comparing the FC hydrogen consumption rate to a predetermined threshold FC hydrogen consumption rate. In some cases, the predetermined threshold FC hydrogen consumption rate may be a maximum consumption rate.

[0875] In step 1405, based on the hydrogen consumption rate being less than the predetermined threshold, the method may include increasing the power output of the fuel cell by increasing the hydrogen consumption rate (while still maintaining the hydrogen consumption rate below the predetermined threshold). The method may then proceed to step 1401.

[0876] In step 1406, based on the hydrogen consumption rate of the fuel cell being equal to or greater than a predetermined threshold, the battery may be used to provide power to an electrical load.

[0877] In step 1407, the battery state of charge (SOC) may be compared to a predetermined minimum threshold.

[0878] In step 1408, the flow rate of the incoming ammonia flow may be compared to a predetermined ammonia flow rate based on the battery SOC being below a predetermined minimum threshold. In some cases, the predetermined ammonia flow rate may be a maximum ammonia flow rate for the system.

[0879] In step 1409, the method may include increasing the flow rate of the incoming ammonia flow (based on the flow rate of the incoming ammonia flow being less than the predetermined ammonia flow rate). The method may then proceed to step 1401.

[0880] In step 1410, the method may include maintaining the flow rate of the incoming ammonia flow (based on the flow rate of the incoming ammonia flow being greater than or equal to the predetermined ammonia flow rate).

[0881] In step 1411, the method may include shedding an electrical load associated with the power demand. The method may then proceed to step 1401.

[0882] In step 1412, the method may include reducing the power output of the fuel cell and comparing the battery SOC to a predetermined threshold.

[0883] In step 1413, based on the battery SOC being equal to or greater than the predetermined threshold, the method may include comparing the flow rate of the incoming ammonia flow to a predetermined ammonia flow rate. In some cases, the predetermined ammonia flow rate may be a minimum ammonia flow rate. Based on the flow rate of the incoming ammonia flow being less than the predetermined ammonia flow rate, the method may then proceed to step 1401.

[0884] Optionally, in step 1413, regardless of whether the flow rate of the incoming ammonia flow is greater than or equal to the minimum ammonia flow rate, the method may include reducing the fuel cell power output and proceed to step 1401. In this manner, the fuel cell power is reduced and the incoming ammonia flow rate is maintained, or at least within a desired range.

[0885] In step 1414, the method may include reducing the flow rate of the incoming ammonia stream (based on the flow rate of the incoming ammonia stream exceeding a predetermined ammonia flow rate). The method may then proceed to step 1401.

[0886] In step 1415, based on the battery SOC being less than the predetermined threshold, the method may include charging the battery using power generated by the fuel cell.

[0887] In step 1416, the method may include determining whether the battery is fully charged. Based on the battery being fully charged, the method may proceed to step 1413 or step 1401. Based on the battery being less than fully charged, the method may proceed to step 1401.

[0888] In some cases, the method may include a shutdown process, which may include reducing any one or combination of the ammonia flow rate, the air flow rate, and the fuel cell power to zero.

[0889] In some cases, the method can include implementing or executing a high temperature standby mode. In some cases, implementing or executing a high temperature standby mode can include reducing the ammonia flow rate, the air flow rate, and / or the fuel cell power to zero.

[0890] 12A and 12B, the method may include a fuel cell providing power to a battery, which may provide power to an electrical load. In some cases, the fuel cell may provide power to charge a battery, which may provide power for the electrical load. In some cases, if the battery SOC is near, equal to, or above a predetermined threshold maximum SOC, the system may execute a high temperature standby mode or shut down the ammonia reforming system. In some cases, if the battery SOC is below the threshold maximum SOC, the system may not execute a high temperature standby mode and may generate power from the fuel cell.

[0891] Oxidation-resistant catalyst for purging FIG. 13 is a schematic diagram illustrating the use of an oxidation-resistant catalyst 1501 to generate reformate for purging the ammonia reforming system 100 shown in FIGS. 1A-4B in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure.

[0892] In some cases, the electrically heated reformer 110 may include therein an oxidation-resistant catalyst 1501. The electric heater 111 may heat the electrically heated reformer 110 and the catalyst 1501 to a target temperature range (e.g., about 400 to about 600° C.). The oxidation-resistant catalyst 1501 may be configured to resist oxidation in the target temperature range.

[0893] The ammonia may then be reformed using an oxidation-resistant catalyst 1501 at a target temperature range to produce a reformate stream 1502 comprising hydrogen (H2) and nitrogen (N2).

[0894] The reformate stream 1502 may then be provided to a reformer 108 that is filled with an oxidation-sensitive catalyst 1503. In contrast to the oxidation-resistant catalyst 1501, the oxidation-sensitive catalyst 1503 may be susceptible to oxidation in a target temperature range (e.g., about 400 to about 600°C) and / or in an oxygen-containing environment. The reformate stream 1502 (purge gas) may purge any residual gases (e.g., residual ammonia) in the reformer 108.

[0895] It should be noted that the oxidation-tolerant catalyst 1501 may be configured to produce reformate for purging residual gas in any type of reactor, and the present disclosure is not limited to purging residual gas in the reformers 108 and / or 110. For example, the oxidation-tolerant catalyst 1501 may be used to produce reformate for purging a steam methane reforming (SMR) reactor, a methanol reforming reactor, or any other type of reactor.

[0896] Renewable energy system combining ammonia synthesis and ammonia reforming FIG. 14 is a schematic diagram illustrating a combined ammonia synthesis and ammonia reforming renewable energy system 1600 according to one or more embodiments of the present disclosure.

[0897] The storage tank 1601 (e.g., storage tank 102) may be configured to store ammonia. The ammonia power pack 1602 (e.g., ammonia reforming system 100) may include a reformer (e.g., reformers 108 and 110) configured to convert the ammonia into reformate hydrogen (H) and reformate nitrogen (N). The fuel cell may be configured to react the reformate H with oxygen (O) to produce water (H0) and power output to the electrical grid.

[0898] The gas recovery module 1606 may include a water condenser 1607 configured to extract HO from the fuel cell cathode exhaust 1604 and a nitrogen separator or liquefier 1608 configured to extract the reformed product N from the fuel cell anode exhaust 1605. In some cases, HO may be extracted from both the cathode exhaust 1604 and the anode exhaust 1605. In some cases, HO may be extracted from the anode exhaust 1605. In some cases, N may be extracted from both the cathode exhaust 1604 and the anode exhaust 1605. In some cases, N may be extracted from the cathode exhaust 1604.

[0899] The water tank 1610 may be configured to store extracted H2O and / or external H2O provided from one or more external water sources 1609 (e.g., fresh water, distilled water, deionized water, etc.).

[0900] The electrolyzer 1611 may be configured to convert extracted HO and / or external HO (stored in the water tank 1610) into renewably generated H (i.e., green H) using power input from the electrical grid.

[0901] The air separator 1617 may be configured to separate air 1618 (e.g., from atmospheric air) to produce air-separated N. Additionally, the air separator 1617 may be configured to produce O for the fuel cell.

[0902] The ammonia synthesis reactor 1613 may be configured to react renewably produced H and air-separated N to produce synthesized NH 1614 (e.g., via the Haber-Bosch process). The synthesized NH may then be stored in the ammonia storage tank 1601 (e.g., reformed by the ammonia power pack 1602). The ammonia synthesis reactor 1613 may be powered (i.e., heated) using electrical power input from the electrical grid.

[0903] Optionally, nitrogen tank 1615 is configured to receive and store N2 from liquefier or separator 1608 and provide the N2 to ammonia synthesis reactor 1613 to react with renewably produced H2.

[0904] In some cases, a controller (e.g., controller 200) is operably connected to an external network (e.g., the Internet). The controller may be configured to determine the electrical demand of the electrical grid (e.g., using grid data received from the external network).

[0905] Based on the electrical demand exceeding a threshold electrical demand (in other words, a low supply of electricity in the electrical grid), the fuel cell of the ammonia power pack 1602 can be directed to react the reformed product H with O to produce HO and output electricity to the electrical grid 1603. In some cases, instead of outputting electricity to the electrical grid 1603, the ammonia power pack 1602 can transport hydrogen to an external recipient 1603.

[0906] In some cases, based on power demand being below a threshold power demand (in other words, high supply of electricity in the grid), electrolyzer 1611 may be directed to convert extracted HO and / or external HO to renewableally produced H using input electricity from the grid, and / or ammonia synthesis reactor 1613 may be directed to react renewableally produced H and air-separated N (and / or reformed product N) to synthesize ammonia 1614.

[0907] In some cases, the power output of the fuel cell is at least about 1 kilowatt (kW) to a maximum of about 100 megawatts (MW). In some cases, the power output of the fuel cell is at least about 1 kW, about 5 kW, about 10 kW, about 50 kW, about 100 kW, about 500 kW, about 1 MW, about 5 MW, about 10 MW, about 50 MW, or about 100 MW. In some cases, the power output of the fuel cell is at most about 1 kW, about 5 kW, about 10 kW, about 50 kW, about 100 kW, about 500 kW, about 1 MW, about 5 MW, about 10 MW, about 50 MW, or about 100 MW. In some cases, the power output of the fuel cell is between about 1 kW and about 100 MW, between about 5 kW and about 50 MW, between about 10 kW and about 10 MW, between about 50 kW and about 5 MW, between about 100 kW and about 1 MW, between about 50 kW and about 5 MW, between about 100 kW and about 1 MW, or between about 500 kW and about 100 MW. The renewable energy system may include a start-up time of at least about 10 minutes to up to about 3 hours, a steady-state operation time (e.g., of the power pack 1602, electrolyzer 1611, and / or ammonia synthesis reactor 1613) of at least about 10 minutes to up to about 50 hours, and a shutdown time of at least about 10 minutes to up to about 3 hours. In some cases, the start-up time is at least about 10 minutes, 0.5, about 1, about 1.5, about 2, about 2.5, about, or about 3 hours. In some cases, the start-up time is up to about 10 minutes, 0.5, about 1, about 1.5, about 2, about 2.5, or about 3 hours. In some cases, the start-up time is about 10 minutes to about 3 hours, about 0.5 hours to about 2.5 hours, about 1 hour to about 2 hours, or about 1.5 hours to 3 hours. In some cases, the steady-state operating time is at least about 10 minutes, 0.5, about 1, about 5, about 10, about 15, about 20, about 25, about 30, about 35, about 40, about 45, or about 50 hours. In some cases, the steady-state operating time is at most about 10 minutes, 0.5, about 1, about 5, about 10, about 15, about 20, about 25, about 30, about 35, about 40, about 45, or about 50 hours. In some cases, the steady-state operating time is about 10 minutes to 50 hours, 30 minutes to 45 hours, 1 hour to 40 hours, 5 hours to 35 hours, 10 hours to 30 hours, 15 hours to 25 hours, or 20 hours to 50 hours. In some cases, the shutdown time is at least about 10 minutes, 0.5, about 1, about 1.5, about 2, about 2.5, or about 3 hours. In some cases, the shutdown time is up to about 10 minutes, 0.5, about 1, about 1.5, about 2, about 2.5, or about 3 hours.In some cases, the shutdown time is from about 10 minutes to 3 hours, 30 minutes to about 2.5 ho...

Claims

1. 1. A method for reforming ammonia, comprising: (a) heating a first reformer to a first target temperature range; (b) directing ammonia to the first reformer to produce a reformate comprising hydrogen and nitrogen; (c) combusting the reformate in a fired heater to heat the second reformer to a second target temperature range; (d) directing additional ammonia to the second reformer to produce additional reformate, wherein a first portion of the reformate stream is combusted to heat the second reformer while ammonia is being reformed in the second reformer.

2. The method of claim 1 further comprising directing the reformate stream or a portion thereof to a heat recovery module.

3. The method of claim 2 , wherein the heat recovery module generates at least one of electrical or mechanical power.

4. The method of any one of claims 1 to 3, further comprising directing combustion exhaust from the fired heater to a heat recovery module.

5. The method of any one of claims 2 to 4, wherein the heat recovery module generates at least one of electrical or mechanical power.

6. The method of any one of claims 2 to 5, wherein the heat recovery module is a boiler configured to generate steam.

7. 1. A method for reforming ammonia, comprising: (a) directing ammonia to a reformer at an ammonia flow rate to produce a reformate stream comprising hydrogen and nitrogen; (b) combusting a first portion of the reformate stream with oxygen in a fired heater at an oxygen flow rate to heat the reformer; (c) processing a second portion of the reformate stream in a hydroprocessing module; (d) based at least in part on the stimulus; (i) varying the ammonia flow rate; (ii) varying the percentage of the reformate stream that is the first portion of the reformate stream; (iii) varying the percentage of the reformate stream that is the second portion of the reformate stream; or (iv) performing one or more of varying the oxygen flow rate.

8. The method of claim 7, wherein at least two of (i) to (iv) are performed.

9. The method of claim 7 or 8, wherein at least three of (i) to (iv) are performed.

10. The method of any one of claims 7 to 9, wherein all of (i) to (iv) are performed.

11. The method of any one of claims 7 to 10, wherein the stimulus comprises a change in the amount of hydrogen used by the hydrogen processing module.

12. The method of any one of claims 7 to 11, wherein the stimulus comprises the temperature of the reformer being outside a target temperature range.

13. The method of any one of claims 7 to 12, wherein the stimulus comprises a change in the amount or concentration of ammonia in the reformate stream.

14. One or more of (i) to (iv) is (x) the temperature of the reformer is within a target temperature range; and (y) The method of any one of claims 7 to 13, wherein the method is carried out such that at most about 10% of the reformate is vented or flared.

15. 15. The method of any one of claims 7 to 14, wherein one or more of (i) to (iv) is achieved for at least about 95% of the operating period.

16. The method of any one of claims 7 to 15, wherein the period of operation is at least about 8 consecutive hours.

17. The method of any one of claims 7 to 16, wherein the stimulation is based at least in part on an increased amount of the hydrogen used by the hydrogen processing module.

18. The method of any one of claims 7 to 17, wherein the hydrogen increase is a predicted hydrogen increase.

19. Based on the stimulus, (q) the ammonia flow rate is increased; (r) the percentage of the reformate stream that is the first portion of the reformate stream is decreased; or The method of any one of claims 7 to 18, wherein one or more of: (s) the percentage of the reformulate stream that is the second portion of the reformulate stream is increased; or

20. 20. The method of claim 19, wherein the oxygen flow rate is increased when (q) is performed.

21. 20. The method of claim 19, wherein the oxygen flow rate is decreased when at least one of (r) or (s) is performed.

22. The method of any one of claims 7 to 21, wherein the stimulation is based at least in part on a decrease in the amount of hydrogen used by the hydrogen processing module.

23. The method according to any one of claims 7 to 22, wherein the hydrogen loss is a predicted hydrogen loss.

24. Based on the stimulus, (x) the ammonia flow rate is reduced; (y) the percentage of the reformate stream that is the first portion of the reformate stream increases; or (z) the percentage of the reformate stream that is the second portion of the reformate stream is decreased; or

25. 25. The method of claim 24, wherein the oxygen flow rate is decreased when (x) is performed.

26. 25. The method of claim 24, wherein the oxygen flow rate is increased when at least one of (y) or (z) is performed.

27. The method of any one of claims 7 to 26, wherein the stimulus comprises (a) an interruption in the processing of hydrogen using the hydrogen processing module, or (b) a failure or malfunction of the hydrogen processing module.

28. 28. The method of any one of claims 7 to 27, wherein the hydrogen-processing module comprises a plurality of hydrogen-processing modules, and the stimulus comprises at least one of (a) an interruption in the processing of the hydrogen using one of the plurality of hydrogen-processing modules, or (b) a fault or malfunction in one of the plurality of hydrogen-processing modules.

29. 29. The method of any one of claims 7 to 28, wherein the percentage of the modified stream that is the second portion of the modified stream changes to about zero percent in response to the stimulus.

30. 30. The method of any one of claims 7 to 29, wherein up to about 10% of the reformate stream is directed to the hydroprocessing module in response to the stimulus.

31. 31. The method of any one of claims 7 to 30, wherein at least about 90% of the reformate stream is directed to a fired heater in thermal communication with the reformer in response to the stimulus.

32. The method of any one of claims 7 to 31, wherein a portion of the reformate stream is directed out of the fired heater in response to the stimulus.

33. The method of any one of claims 7 to 32, wherein the stimulus is detected using a sensor.

34. The method of any one of claims 7 to 33, wherein the stimulus is communicated to a controller.

35. The method of any one of claims 7 to 34, wherein (d) is implemented using a programmable computer or controller.

36. The method of any one of claims 7 to 35, wherein (d) is performed using a flow control module.

37. The method according to any one of claims 7 to 36, wherein the stimulus is pressure.

38. The method of any one of claims 7 to 37, wherein the pressure is increased in response to decreasing the flow rate to the hydroprocessing module.

39. The method of any one of claims 7 to 38, wherein the pressure is the pressure of the reformate stream.

40. 40. The method of any one of claims 7 to 39, wherein the reformate stream is combusted with a stoichiometric excess of oxygen.

41. 41. The method of any one of claims 7 to 40, wherein combusting the reformate stream with a stoichiometric excess of oxygen is carried out at an air-to-fuel ratio greater than about 1 and less than about 5.

42. The method of any one of claims 7 to 41, wherein the hydrogen processing module is a fuel cell.

43. 1. A method for reforming ammonia, comprising: (a) directing ammonia to a reformer at an ammonia flow rate to produce a reformate stream comprising hydrogen and nitrogen; (b) combusting a first portion of the reformate stream with oxygen in a fired heater at an oxygen flow rate to heat the reformer; (c) processing a second portion of the reformate stream in a hydroprocessing module; (d) measuring the temperature in the reformer or the combustion heater; (e) based, at least in part, on the measured temperature being outside a target temperature range for the reformer or the fired heater; (i) varying the ammonia flow rate; (ii) varying the oxygen flow rate; (ii) Varying the percentage of the reformate stream that is the second portion of the reformate stream; (iv) varying the percentage of the reformate stream that is the first portion of the reformate stream; or (v) varying the percentage of the reformate stream that is directed outward from the fired heater.

44. 44. The method of claim 43, wherein the hydrogen processing module is a fuel cell.

45. 45. The method of claim 43 or 44, wherein the reformer comprises an ammonia reforming catalyst.

46. 46. ​​The method of any one of claims 43 to 45, wherein at least two of (i) to (v) are performed.

47. 47. The method of any one of claims 43 to 46, wherein at least three of (i) to (v) are performed.

48. 48. The method of any one of claims 43 to 47, wherein all of (i) to (v) are performed.

49. The method of any one of claims 43 to 48, wherein the temperature is measured using a temperature sensor.

50. 50. The method of claim 49, wherein the measured temperature is communicated to a controller.

51. 51. The method of any one of claims 43 to 50, wherein (i) to (v) are performed using a controller.

52. 52. The method of any one of claims 43 to 51, wherein at least one of (iii) to (v) is implemented using a flow control module.

53. 53. The method of any one of claims 43-52, wherein at least one of (iii)-(v) is performed by altering the second portion of the reformate treated in the hydroprocessing module.

54. The method comprises: based at least in part on the measured temperature exceeding the target temperature range; (q) increasing the ammonia flow rate; (r) increasing the percentage of the reformate stream that is the second portion of the reformate stream that is processed by the hydroprocessing module; (s) decreasing the percentage of the reformate stream that is the first portion of the reformate stream; (t) increasing the percentage of the reformate stream that is directed outward from the fired heater; or 54. The method of any one of claims 43 to 53, further comprising performing one or more of: (u) varying the oxygen flow rate.

55. 55. The method of claim 54, wherein increasing the percentage of the reformate stream that is the second portion of the reformate stream decreases the first portion of the reformate stream that is combusted.

56. 56. The method of any one of claims 43 to 55, wherein the hydroprocessing module is a fuel cell and the first portion of the reformate stream is an anode off-gas directed from the fuel cell to the fired heater.

57. 55. The method of claim 54, wherein decreasing the percentage of the reformate stream that is the first portion comprises decreasing the ammonia flow rate to the reformer to create less hydrogen in the reformate stream.

58. 55. The method of claim 54, wherein the hydroprocessing module is a fuel cell, and wherein increasing the percentage of the second portion of the reformate stream that is processed by the hydroprocessing module increases the amount of power output by the fuel cell.

59. 59. The method of any one of claims 43 to 58, wherein the reformate stream is combusted with a stoichiometric excess of oxygen and varying the oxygen flow rate increases the oxygen flow rate.

60. 60. The method of any one of claims 43 to 59, wherein the reformate stream is combusted with a stoichiometric excess of hydrogen and varying the oxygen flow rate decreases the oxygen flow rate.

61. 61. The method of any one of claims 43 to 60, further comprising adding water to the reformate stream to reduce the temperature of the reformer or the fired heater.

62. 62. The method of any one of claims 43 to 61, wherein the hydrogen processing module is a fuel cell and the water is supplied from cathode off-gas of the fuel cell.

63. 55. The method of claim 54, wherein (t) comprises venting or flaring the percentage of the reformate stream that is directed outward from the fired heater.

64. 55. The method of claim 54, wherein (t) comprises directing the percentage of the reformate stream directed out of the fired heater to a heat recovery module.

65. The method comprises: based at least in part on the measured temperature being less than the target temperature range; (f) decreasing the ammonia flow rate; (g) decreasing the percentage of the reformate stream that is the second portion of the reformate stream that is processed by the hydroprocessing module; (h) increasing the percentage of the reformate stream that is the first portion of the reformate stream; (i) reducing the percentage of the reformate stream that is directed out of the fired heater; or (j) varying the oxygen flow rate.

66. 66. The method of claim 65, wherein decreasing the percentage of the second portion of the reformate stream that is the second portion increases the first portion of the reformate stream that is combusted.

67. 67. The method of any one of claims 43 to 66, wherein the hydroprocessing module is a fuel cell and the first portion of the reformate stream is an anode off-gas directed from the fuel cell to the fired heater.

68. 66. The method of claim 65, wherein increasing the percentage of the reformate stream that is the first portion comprises increasing the ammonia flow rate to the reformer to create more hydrogen in the reformate stream.

69. 66. The method of claim 65, wherein the hydroprocessing module is a fuel cell, and wherein decreasing the percentage of the second portion of the reformate stream that is processed by the hydroprocessing module decreases the amount of power output by the fuel cell.

70. 70. The method of any one of claims 43 to 69, wherein the reformate stream is combusted with a stoichiometric excess of oxygen and varying the oxygen flow rate decreases the oxygen flow rate.

71. 71. The method of any one of claims 43 to 70, wherein the reformate stream is combusted with a stoichiometric excess of hydrogen and varying the oxygen flow rate increases the oxygen flow rate.

72. 66. The method of claim 65, wherein (i) comprises venting or flaring the percentage of the reformate stream that is directed outward from the fired heater.

73. 66. The method of claim 65, wherein (i) comprises directing the percentage of the reformate stream that is directed out of the fired heater to a heat recovery module.

74. 74. The method of any one of claims 43 to 73, wherein the reformate stream is combusted with a stoichiometric excess of oxygen.

75. 75. The method of claim 74, wherein combusting the reformate stream with a stoichiometric excess of oxygen comprises combusting at an air-to-fuel ratio greater than about 1 and less than about 5.

76. Ammonia (NH ３ ) A modification method comprising the steps of: (a) heating a first reformer to a first target temperature range; (b) generating NH at a first flow rate in the first reformer; ３ The stream is reformed to produce hydrogen (H ２ ) and nitrogen (N ２ generating a first reformate stream comprising: (c) combusting the first reformate stream to heat a second reformer to a second target temperature range; (d) reacting the NH 3 in the second reformer at a second flow rate greater than the first flow rate. ３ Modifying the flow, H ２ and N ２ generating a second reformate stream comprising: (e) combusting a first portion of the second reformate stream to heat the second reformer.

77. 77. The method of claim 76, further comprising increasing the second flow rate to an operating flow rate.

78. 78. The method of claim 77, wherein the first flow rate is greater than about 1% and less than about 10% of the operating flow rate.

79. 79. The method of claim 77 or 78, wherein the second flow rate is greater than about 5% and less than about 50% of the operating flow rate before increasing to the operating flow rate.

80. 80. The method of any one of claims 77 to 79, wherein the operating flow rate is selected prior to (a).

81. A method according to any one of claims 77 to 80, wherein the operating flow rate is changed after increasing the second flow rate to the operating flow rate.

82. A method according to any one of claims 77 to 81, wherein the operating flow rate is selected within a range of operating flow rates.

83. The operating flow rate is H ２ H configured to process ２ Processing module H ２ 83. The method of any one of claims 77 to 82, wherein the method is modified based on an increase in demand.

84. The H ２ 84. The method of claim 83, wherein the processing module comprises a fuel cell configured to generate electricity.

85. The operating flow rate is H ２ H configured to process ２ Processing module H ２ 85. The method of any one of claims 77 to 84, selected at least in part based on processing power.

86. The H ２ 86. The method of claim 85, wherein the processing module comprises a fuel cell configured to generate electricity.

87. 87. The method of any one of claims 77 to 86, wherein the operating flow rate is selected based at least in part on the reforming capacity of the first reformer, the reforming capacity of the second reformer, or a combination thereof.

88. 88. The method of any one of claims 76 to 87, further comprising purging at least one of the first reformer or the second reformer prior to (a) or (b).

89. Using an electric heater, ３ The method of any one of claims 76 to 88, further comprising vaporizing the stream.

90. (1) Said NH ３ (2) converting the NH4 into the NH4 using a heat exchanger configured to exchange heat between the NH4 stream and one or more of the first reformate stream, the second reformate stream, or a hydro-processing module configured to generate electricity. ３ 90. The method of any one of claims 76 to 89, further comprising vaporizing the stream.

91. 91. The method of any one of claims 76 to 90, further comprising reducing power to an electric heater in thermal communication with the first reformer.

92. Said NH ３ 92. The method of any one of claims 76 to 91, further comprising using a stream to cool the first reformer after reducing power to the electric heater.

93. After (c), the NH reformed in the first reformer. ３ 93. The method of any one of claims 76 to 92, further comprising reducing a portion of the flow.

94. After (c), the NH ３ 94. The method of any one of claims 76 to 93, further comprising ceasing modifying the stream.

95. In the first reformer, the NH ３ 95. The method of claim 94, wherein ceasing reforming the stream occurs after the measured temperature of the first reformer is at or below a threshold temperature.

96. 96. The method of claim 95, wherein the threshold temperature is less than the first target temperature range.

97. The second reformer is used to remove residual NH3 in the first reformate stream. ３ 97. The method of any one of claims 76 to 96, further comprising modifying

98. Reducing residual NH in the second reformate stream using the first reformer. ３ 98. The method of any one of claims 76 to 97, further comprising modifying

99. The heat exchanger includes (1) the NH ３ 99. The method of any one of claims 76 to 98, further comprising exchanging heat between (a) the first reformate stream and (b) at least one of the first reformate stream or the second reformate stream.

100. Said NH ３ providing a stream to the second reformer, ３ The method of any one of claims 76 to 99, wherein the stream bypasses the first reformer.

101. Said NH ３ The method of any one of claims 76 to 100, wherein the stream bypasses the first reformer after (c) or before (d).

102. A method according to any one of claims 76 to 101, wherein a heat exchanger is disposed in parallel and in fluid communication with the first reformer.

103. Said NH ３ providing a stream to the heat exchanger, ３ 103. The method of claim 102, wherein the stream bypasses the first reformer.

104. Said NH ３ The method of any one of claims 76 to 103, wherein the stream bypasses the first reformer after (c) or before (d).

105. Said NH ３ The stream is directed to the first reformer after exiting the heat exchanger, and the heat exchanger is configured to: (1) convert the NH ３ 105. The method of any one of claims 76-104, wherein the method is configured to exchange heat between (1) the first reformate stream and (2) at least one of the first reformate stream or the second reformate stream.

106. The method of any one of claims 76 to 105, further comprising directing the first reformate stream to a fired heater in thermal communication with the second reformer.

107. 107. The method of claim 106, further comprising directing the first reformate stream to the second reformer prior to providing the first reformate stream to the fired heater.

108. 107. The method of claim 106, further comprising directing the first reformate stream to the fired heater, wherein the first reformate stream bypasses the second reformer.

109. and directing the first reformate stream to a heat exchanger prior to providing the first reformate stream to the fired heater, the heat exchanger separating the first reformate stream and the NH ３ 107. The method of claim 106, configured to exchange heat with the flow.

110. Prior to providing the first reformate stream to the fired heater, the first reformate stream is treated with a residual NH ３ configured to remove NH ３ 107. The method of claim 106, further comprising directing the filter.

111. filtering at least one of the first reformate stream or the second reformate stream to remove residual NH ３ The method of any one of claims 76 to 110, further comprising removing

112. providing at least one of the first reformate stream or the second reformate stream to a fired heater in thermal communication with the second reformer; the at least one of the first reformate stream or the second reformate stream has residual NH ３ configured to remove NH ３ A method according to any one of claims 76 to 110, which bypasses a filter.

113. a second portion of the second reformate stream to H ２ The method of any one of claims 76 to 112, further comprising providing to a processing module.

114. The H ２ 114. The method of claim 113, wherein the processing module includes a fuel cell configured to generate electricity.

115. The H ２ 114. The method of claim 113, wherein the processing module includes a combustion engine configured to generate mechanical work.

116. The off-gas containing hydrogen is ２ 114. The method of claim 113, further comprising providing a fired heater in thermal communication with the second reformer from a process module.

117. The first portion of the second reformate stream is ２ 117. The method of claim 116, wherein the fired heater is provided upstream of a treatment module.

118. 117. The method of claim 116, wherein (1) the first portion of the second reformate stream and (2) at least a portion of the off-gas are provided to the fired heater simultaneously.

119. 117. The method of claim 116, wherein at least one of (1) the first portion of the second reformate stream, or (2) at least a portion of the off-gas is not provided to the fired heater.

120. 117. The method of claim 116, wherein: (1) at least a portion of the off-gas is not provided to the fired heater; and (2) a remainder of the off-gas is provided to the fired heater.

121. The H ２ Processing module H ２ The utilization rate is the H ２ 114. The method of claim 113, wherein the β-glucan is greater than about 10% and less than about 90%.

122. The H ２ Processing module H ２ 114. The method of claim 113, wherein the consumption rate is constant within an acceptable range and the first portion of the second reformate stream is adjusted to control the temperature of the second reformer.

123. The H ２ Processing module H ２ 114. The method of claim 113, wherein utilization is constant within an acceptable range and the first portion of the second reformate stream is adjusted to control the temperature of the second reformer.

124. Secondary H ２ The method of any one of claims 76 to 123, further comprising treating at least a portion of the first modified stream in a treatment module.

125. The secondary H ２ 125. The method of claim 124, wherein the processing module includes a fuel cell configured to generate electricity.

126. At least the portion of the first reformate stream is converted into the secondary H ２ Prior to providing the first modified stream to the processing module, ３ 125. The method of claim 124, further comprising providing a filter.

127. The hydrogen-containing off-gas is ２ 125. The method of claim 124, further comprising providing a fired heater in thermal communication with the second reformer from a process module.

128. 128. The method of any one of claims 76 to 127, further comprising providing the first reformate stream, the second reformate stream, or a combination thereof, to an ammonia oxidation catalyst to reduce residual ammonia.

129. providing the first reformate stream, the second reformate stream, or a combination thereof to the ammonia oxidation catalyst, and then oxidizing the first reformate stream, the second reformate stream, or a combination thereof with NH ３ 129. The method of claim 128, further comprising providing a filter.

130. (1) from at least one of the first reformate stream or the second reformate stream; and (2) from the NH ３ 130. The method of any one of claims 76 to 129, further comprising transferring heat to the stream.

131. 131. The method of claim 130, wherein the heat is transferred using a heat transfer fluid.

132. (1) H ２ H configured to process ２ (2) from the processing module ３ 132. The method of any one of claims 76 to 131, further comprising transferring heat to the stream.

133. 133. The method of claim 132, wherein the heat is transferred using a heat transfer fluid.

134. (1) from a water or air source; (2) from the NH ３ 134. The method of any one of claims 76 to 133, further comprising transferring heat to the stream.

135. 135. The method of claim 134, wherein the heat is transferred using a heat transfer fluid.

136. 135. The method of claim 134, wherein the water or air source comprises seawater, fresh water, or air.

137. 137. The method of any one of claims 76-136, further comprising transferring heat from (1) at least one of the first reformate stream or the second reformate stream to (2) a water or air source.

138. 138. The method of claim 137, wherein the heat is transferred using a heat transfer fluid.

139. 138. The method of claim 137, wherein the water or air source comprises seawater, fresh water, or air.

140. (1) H ２ H configured to process ２ 140. The method of any one of claims 76 to 139, further comprising transferring heat from the treatment module to (2) a water or air source.

141. 141. The method of claim 140, wherein the heat is transferred using a heat transfer fluid.

142. 142. The method of claim 141, wherein the water or air source comprises seawater, fresh water, or air.

143. (1) H ２ , the first reformate stream, the second reformate stream, or a combination thereof. ２ 143. The method of any one of claims 76 to 142, further comprising transferring heat from a treatment module to (2) the water or air source.

144. 144. The method of claim 143, wherein the heat is transferred using a heat transfer fluid.

145. 144. The method of claim 143, wherein the water or air source comprises seawater, fresh water, or air.

146. The method of any one of claims 76 to 145, wherein the first reformer and the second reformer are a single reformer.

147. 147. The method of claim 146, wherein the single reformer is in thermal communication with an electric heater, a fired heater, or a combination thereof.

148. 78. The method of claim 77, wherein the operating flow rate is changed after increasing the second flow rate to the operating flow rate.

149. 1. A method for reforming ammonia, comprising: (a) directing ammonia to a reformer at an ammonia flow rate to produce an a14 reformate stream comprising hydrogen and nitrogen; (b) combusting a first portion of the reformate stream with oxygen in a fired heater at an oxygen flow rate to heat the reformer; (c) processing a second portion of the reformate stream in a hydroprocessing module; (d) based at least in part on the stimulus; (i) varying the ammonia flow rate; (ii) varying the percentage of the reformate stream that is the first portion of the reformate stream; (iii) varying the percentage of the reformate stream that is the second portion of the reformate stream; or (iv) performing one or more of varying the oxygen flow rate.

150. 150. The method of claim 149, wherein the stimulus is, at least in part, a decrease in the amount of hydrogen used by the hydroprocessing module.

151. 151. The method of claim 149 or 150, wherein the hydrogen reduction is a predicted hydrogen reduction.

152. 152. The method of any one of claims 149 to 151, wherein the ammonia flow rate is decreased in response to the stimulus.

153. 153. The method of any one of claims 149 to 152, wherein the ammonia flow rate is reduced to about zero.

154. 154. The method of any one of claims 149-153, further comprising reducing or ceasing at least one of (a), (b), or (c) after the ammonia flow rate has decreased in response to the stimulus.

155. 155. The method of any one of claims 149 to 154, further comprising: (e) heating the reformer after the ammonia flow rate is reduced in response to the stimulus.

156. 156. The method of claim 155, wherein an electric heater is used to heat the reformer after the ammonia flow rate is reduced in response to the stimulus.

157. 157. The method of claim 156, wherein an insulated housing includes the reformer enclosed therein, and the electric heater heats the reformer enclosed within the insulated housing.

158. 158. The method of claim 156 or 157, wherein the electric heater is attached, affixed or fixed to a wall of the insulated enclosure.

159. 157. The method of claim 156, wherein the electric heater is attached to or is part of the reformer.

160. 157. The method of claim 156, wherein the electric heater is attached, affixed, or fixed to a wall of the reformer.

161. 161. The method of any one of claims 155 to 160, further comprising increasing the ammonia flow rate and reducing or stopping (e).

162. 162. The method of any one of claims 155-161, further comprising increasing or initiating at least one of (a), (b), or (c) after increasing the ammonia flow rate.

163. 163. The method of any one of claims 155-162, further comprising increasing or initiating all of (a), (b), and (c) after increasing the ammonia flow rate.

164. 164. The method of any one of claims 149-163, wherein at least about 50% of the mechanical work or electricity generated by the hydroprocessing module is not used for at least one of vehicle propulsion, battery charging, or hotel loads.

165. 165. The method of claim 164, wherein the hotel loads include at least one of air conditioning, communications, entertainment, lighting, refrigeration, or water supply.

166. 166. The method of any one of claims 149-165, wherein at least about 50% of the mechanical work or electricity generated by the hydroprocessing module is used to power at least one of: (1) an air supply unit configured to provide the oxygen to the fired heater; or (2) an air supply unit configured to provide oxygen to the hydroprocessing module.

167. 167. The method of any one of claims 149-166, wherein up to about 30% of the mechanical work or electricity generated by the hydrogen processing module is used to power at least one of: (1) the air supply unit configured to provide the oxygen to the fired heater; or (2) the air supply unit configured to provide oxygen to the hydrogen processing module.

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