Energy generating devices, systems, and methods of using them

Abstract

Disclosed herein are devices, systems, and methods that use aluminum activated with a liquid metal catalyst stored in one or more shipping containers or shipping container-like boxes to generate hydrogen and, if necessary, induce heat. Methods, systems, and devices are provided that are suitable for the use of alternative, carbon-neutral fuels that are energy-dense, safe, and easily transportable. Enabling the transportation of renewable energy is key to making the renewable energy transition more feasible and effective.

Description

[Technical Field]

[0001] CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims the benefit of and priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 63 / 422,704, filed November 4, 2022, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. [Background technology]

[0002] Climate change poses a major threat to the environment and human society. Fossil fuels are used as the main energy source around the world. These fuels are energy-dense, cheap, and easy to handle, but when burned, they emit large amounts of CO2, which is one of the main causes of climate change.

[0003] Renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind, hydroelectric, and geothermal energy, have the potential to provide the energy needed to reduce or replace fossil fuel dependence. Renewable energy technologies have developed rapidly in recent years and are becoming economically competitive with fossil fuels. As a result of technological advances, improving economics, and many large-scale renewable energy projects around the world, today almost 10% of humanity's energy needs are met by renewable energy sources.

[0004] While renewable energy offers a suitable solution for electricity production and can be supplied directly to the grid or to electricity consumers, there are still many other energy consumers that cannot be directly connected to the grid or are geographically far from renewable sources. These applications require a sufficiently energy-dense, inexpensive, stable, and secure method for storing and transporting renewable energy from the point of generation (e.g., remote solar power plants or wind turbines) to the point of use. The geographic locations where renewable energy sources are most efficient and easily available (e.g., wide-open fields) are often far from large urban centers, leaving some countries interested in utilizing renewable energy sources with few viable options. For example, the shipping industry consumes a large amount of energy, yet ships require power when navigating vast bodies of water, making fixed power sources impossible. For these vessels, the small footprint and intermittent nature of solar and wind power often preclude on-site capture of renewable energy, creating operational challenges. Summary of the Invention [Means for solving the problem]

[0005] Provided herein are methods, systems, and devices suitable for the use of alternative, energy-dense, safe, and easily transportable carbon-neutral fuels. Currently, most energy transportation is accomplished by transporting fossil fuels, either as raw materials (e.g., coal, petroleum, etc.) or as refined fuel products, from oil or gas wells to their destinations. Electrochemical batteries (e.g., lithium-ion) simply lack the energy density or price point to play a similar role in the renewable energy transition. Several alternatives currently exist, the most promising of which are various forms of storage and transportation of hydrogen (H2), which can be produced by splitting water using renewable electricity (e.g., using an electrolyzer). However, the most common methods for storing hydrogen (gaseous or liquid hydrogen, or liquid ammonia or methanol) present numerous operational challenges, including higher costs and lower volumetric energy densities compared to liquid hydrocarbons, as well as safety concerns due to their explosive or flammable nature. Indeed, hydrogen-powered vehicles are not permitted in certain high-traffic areas across the United States. Therefore, it is crucial to make renewable energy more accessible to end users who currently rely on fossil fuels. Addressing this need requires the ability to transport renewable energy from the point of generation to the point of use.

[0006] Fortunately, renewable energy is already available in a highly energy-dense, stable, and cost-effective form factor for global transportation in the form of aluminum metal. Aluminum's volumetric energy density is twice that of liquid hydrocarbons, ten times that of liquid hydrogen, and five times that of other liquid hydrogen carriers such as ammonia and methanol. Furthermore, the production of aluminum via the standard Hall-Héroult process consumes electricity to reduce aluminum oxide to pure aluminum, effectively storing the input electrical energy. When a renewable energy source is used to provide that energy, the resulting aluminum stores renewable energy that can later be released by oxidation. One way to release this energy is through the reaction of aluminum with water, which allows the release of heat and hydrogen gas via one or both of the following chemical reactions: Al + 2H2O → 1.5H2 + AlO(OH) + Q 反応 (Reaction 1) Al + 3H2O → 1.5H2 + Al(OH)3 + Q 反応 (Reaction 2)

[0007] By transporting aluminum instead of hydrogen using the aforementioned alternative methods, users can save 5-10 times the volume and up to 50% by weight. Aluminum metal is also much more stable and safer than these alternatives due to a naturally occurring oxide layer that forms on the surface of aluminum when exposed to oxygen. This allows hydrogen and heat to be produced on demand, even in locations far from the production source. The technology that enables this process, described herein, is critical to making the renewable energy transition more feasible and effective by enabling the transportation of renewable energy.

[0008] In one aspect, provided herein is an energy generation apparatus, the energy generation apparatus comprising: a reactor comprising a reaction chamber containing aluminum, activated by a liquid metal catalyst or in an unactivated form, for an aluminum-water reaction, the reactor further comprising a water inlet, a catalyst inlet, a reaction outlet, and a reactor outlet, each in fluid communication with the reaction chamber; a process gas outlet in fluid communication with the reactor outlet; and a catalyst separator comprising a catalyst separator chamber in fluid communication with the reaction inlet and catalyst outlet of the catalyst separator, the reaction inlet in fluid communication with the reaction outlet of the reactor, and the process gas outlet configured to receive process gas from the reactor outlet, the process gas comprising steam and hydrogen produced by the aluminum-water reaction.

[0009] In some embodiments, the apparatus does not include a steam separator.

[0010] In another aspect, provided herein is an energy generation apparatus, the energy generation apparatus comprising: a reactor comprising a reaction chamber containing aluminum, activated by a liquid metal catalyst or in an unactivated form, for an aluminum-water reaction, the reactor further comprising: a water inlet, a catalyst inlet, a reaction outlet, and a reactor outlet, each in fluid communication with the reaction chamber; a steam separator comprising a steam separator chamber in fluid communication with a steam separator inlet, a steam outlet, and a hydrogen outlet, the steam separator inlet being in fluid communication with the reactor outlet; and a catalyst separator comprising: a catalyst separator chamber in fluid communication with the reaction inlet and catalyst outlet of the catalyst separator, the reaction inlet being in fluid communication with the reaction outlet of the reactor; the steam separator configured to: i) receive steam and hydrogen produced by the aluminum-water reaction into the steam separator chamber through the reactor outlet and the steam separator inlet; ii) substantially separate the steam from the hydrogen produced by the aluminum-water reaction; iii) direct the steam to the steam outlet; and iv) direct the hydrogen to the hydrogen outlet.

[0011] In some embodiments, the aluminum in the reaction chamber is activated aluminum. In some embodiments, the water inlet is in fluid communication with a water source, the water inlet configured to allow water from the water source to enter the reaction chamber of the reactor for the aluminum-water reaction. In some embodiments, the apparatus includes a water pump in fluid communication with the water source and with the water inlet of the reactor, the water pump configured to pump water from the water source to the water inlet.

[0012] In some embodiments, for about 120 kg / hour of aluminum introduced into the reaction chamber, about 15 kg / hour of hydrogen and about 750 kg / hour of steam are produced. In some embodiments, for about 100 kg / hour of aluminum introduced into the reaction chamber, about 15 kg / hour of hydrogen and about 750 kg / hour of steam are produced. In some embodiments, for about 80 kg / hour of aluminum introduced into the reaction chamber, about 15 kg / hour of hydrogen and about 750 kg / hour of steam are produced. In some embodiments, for about 50 kg / hour of aluminum introduced into the reaction chamber, about 15 kg / hour of hydrogen and about 750 kg / hour of steam are produced.

[0013] In some embodiments, the apparatus includes a hydrogen fuel cell, the hydrogen fuel cell including a hydrogen inlet in fluid communication with the steam separator or its hydrogen outlet or in fluid communication with the process gas outlet, a water outlet in fluid communication with the reaction chamber, and an electrical power outlet, the hydrogen fuel cell configured to convert hydrogen from the steam separator into electrical power and deliver the electrical power to the electrical power outlet of the hydrogen fuel cell.

[0014] In some embodiments, the apparatus includes a catalyst pump in fluid communication with the reactor's reaction outlet and the catalyst separator's reaction inlet, the catalyst pump configured to pump the catalyst composition from the reactor to the catalyst separator. In some embodiments, the catalyst pump is electrically connected to the hydrogen fuel cell's power outlet. In some embodiments, the catalyst separator is configured to a) receive the aluminum-water reaction catalyst composition into a catalyst separator chamber through the reactor's reaction outlet and the catalyst separator's reaction inlet, and b) substantially separate the liquid metal catalyst from the catalyst composition within the catalyst separator chamber.

[0015] In some embodiments, the apparatus includes a catalyst collector, the catalyst collector including a collector inlet and a collector outlet, each in fluid communication with the catalyst collector, the collector inlet being in fluid communication with the catalyst outlet of the catalyst separator, and the collector outlet being in fluid communication with the catalyst inlet of the second energy generation device to form active aluminum in the second energy generation device. In some embodiments, the collector outlet is in fluid communication with the catalyst inlet of the third energy generation device to form active aluminum in the third energy generation device. In some embodiments, the collector outlet of the first energy generation device is in fluid communication with the catalyst inlets of the plurality of energy generation devices and is configured to distribute catalyst to the aluminum in the reactor of each energy generation device of the plurality of energy generation devices. In some embodiments, the plurality of energy generation devices includes between 2 and 1,000 energy generation devices.

[0016] In some embodiments, the steam separator is configured to separate at least 5% of the steam from the hydrogen gas produced by the aluminum-water reaction within the reactor. In some embodiments, the steam separator is configured to separate at least 10% of the steam from the hydrogen gas produced by the aluminum-water reaction within the reactor. In some embodiments, the steam separator is configured to separate at least 25% of the steam from the hydrogen gas produced by the aluminum-water reaction within the reactor. In some embodiments, the steam separator is configured to separate at least 50% of the steam from the hydrogen gas produced by the aluminum-water reaction within the reactor. In some embodiments, the steam separator is configured to separate at least 75% of the steam from the hydrogen gas produced by the aluminum-water reaction within the reactor. In some embodiments, the steam separator is configured to separate at least 90% of the steam from the hydrogen gas produced by the aluminum-water reaction within the reactor. In some embodiments, the steam separator is configured to separate at least 95% of the steam from the hydrogen gas produced by the aluminum-water reaction within the reactor. In some embodiments, the steam separator is configured to separate at least 99% of the steam from the hydrogen gas produced by the aluminum-water reaction within the reactor. In some embodiments, the steam separator is configured to separate at least 99.999% of the steam from the hydrogen gas produced by the aluminum-water reaction within the reactor. In some embodiments, the steam separator is configured to separate the steam and hydrogen produced by the aluminum-water reaction within the reaction chamber of the reactor using a gas separation process including pressure swing adsorption, vacuum swing adsorption, membrane separation, temperature swing adsorption, or cryogenic distillation, or any variation thereof.

[0017] In some embodiments, the apparatus is configured to fit within an interior volume of a shipping container. In some embodiments, the shipping container includes a container wall including one or more openings that fluidly connect the first energy-generating apparatus to at least a second energy-generating apparatus. In some embodiments, the interior volume of the shipping container is about 1 m 3 ~about 33m 3 In some embodiments, the shipping container has a length of about 10 feet to about 40 feet, a width of about 5 feet to about 10 feet, and a height of about 1.5 feet to about 10 feet.

[0018] In some embodiments, the hydrogen outlet is in fluid communication with a hydrogen manifold, and the hydrogen manifold is in fluid communication with a hydrogen outlet of at least a second energy generation device. In some embodiments, the hydrogen outlet is in fluid communication with a hydrogen manifold, and the hydrogen manifold is in fluid communication with a hydrogen outlet of at least a third energy generation device.

[0019] In some embodiments, the steam outlet is in fluid communication with a steam manifold, and the steam manifold is in fluid communication with a steam outlet of at least a second energy generating device. In some embodiments, the steam outlet is in fluid communication with a steam manifold, and the steam manifold is in fluid communication with a steam outlet of at least a third energy generating device.

[0020] In some embodiments, the process gas outlet is in fluid communication with a process gas manifold, and the process gas manifold is in fluid communication with a process gas outlet of at least a second energy generating device. In some embodiments, the process gas outlet is in fluid communication with a process gas manifold, and the process gas manifold is in fluid communication with a process gas manifold of at least a third energy generating device.

[0021] In some embodiments, the water inlet is in fluid communication with a water manifold, the water manifold being in fluid communication with a water inlet of at least a second energy generating device and in fluid communication with a water source. In some embodiments, the water inlet is in fluid communication with a water manifold, the water manifold being in fluid communication with a water inlet of at least a second energy generating device and in fluid communication with a water source.

[0022] In some embodiments, the hydrogen outlet is configured to provide hydrogen to an internal combustion engine, an external hydrogen fuel cell, a calciner, a furnace, a Haber-Bosch plant, an oil refinery, a fertilizer plant, a methanol plant, a methane blending power plant, an alumina smelter, or a metal recycling plant.

[0023] In some embodiments, the process gas outlet is configured to provide process gas to an internal combustion engine, an external hydrogen fuel cell, a calciner, a furnace, a Haber-Bosch plant, an oil refinery, a fertilizer plant, a methanol plant, or a methane blending power plant, an alumina smelter, or a metal recycling plant.

[0024] In some embodiments, the process gas outlet is configured to provide the process gas to an alumina refinery.

[0025] In some embodiments, the reactor comprises a catalyst composition and aluminum for use in the aluminum-water reaction. In some embodiments, the catalyst composition comprises a liquid metal catalyst. In some embodiments, the catalyst composition comprises a liquid metal catalyst and an ionic compound. In some embodiments, the catalyst composition comprises a liquid metal catalyst and a chelating compound. In some embodiments, the liquid metal catalyst comprises gallium and / or indium.

[0026] In some embodiments, the reactor is configured to produce hydrogen at a rate of about 5.5 kg / hr to about 305 kg / hr when water is introduced into the reaction chamber after aluminum is activated by the liquid metal catalyst. In some embodiments, the reactor is configured to produce steam at a rate of about 300 kg / hr to about 6000 kg / hr when water is introduced into the reaction chamber after aluminum is activated by the liquid metal catalyst. In some embodiments, the reactor is configured to produce a continuous thermal power output of about 50 kW to about 10 MW when water is introduced into the reaction chamber after aluminum is activated by the liquid metal catalyst.

[0027] In some embodiments, the apparatus includes a thermal jacket mounted around the reaction chamber in thermal communication with the reaction chamber and fluidly isolated from the reactor.

[0028] In some embodiments, the apparatus is in fluid communication with an aluminum waste container. In some embodiments, the aluminum waste container includes a filter, strainer, sieve, settling chamber, and / or compressor. In some embodiments, the steam separator includes a steam outlet and a steam output line in fluid communication with a water inlet of at least a reaction chamber of a second energy generation device. In some embodiments, the steam manifold includes a steam output line in fluid communication with a water inlet of at least a reaction chamber of a second energy generation device.

[0029] In another aspect, provided herein is a system including a plurality of any of the energy generating devices provided herein. In some embodiments, each of the energy generating devices in the plurality of energy generating devices are in fluid communication with each other. In some embodiments, each of the energy generating devices in the plurality of energy generating devices are fluidly isolated from each other. In some embodiments, the plurality of energy generating devices includes between 2 and 1,000 devices. In some embodiments, fewer than all of the energy generating devices in the plurality of energy generating devices are in fluid communication with each other.

[0030] In some embodiments, the catalyst collector of a first of the plurality of energy generating devices is in fluid communication with the catalyst inlet of the reactor of at least a second of the plurality of energy generating devices. In some embodiments, the catalyst collector of a first of the plurality of energy generating devices is in fluid communication with the catalyst inlet of the reactor of at least a third of the plurality of energy generating devices. In some embodiments, the catalyst collector of a first of the plurality of energy generating devices is in fluid communication with the catalyst inlet of the reactor of each of the plurality of energy generating devices.

[0031] In some embodiments, the system includes a pelletizing apparatus including an aluminum scrap inlet, an aluminum scrap chipper, a compactor, and a pellet outlet, the chipper configured to provide aluminum chips to the compactor, the compactor configured to apply a compressive force to each of the aluminum chips to form a plurality of aluminum pellets, the pellet outlet accessing a reactor of at least a first energy generation apparatus of the plurality of energy generation apparatuses via a conduit connecting the pellet outlet to the reactor, and the aluminum pellets being aluminum within the first energy generation apparatus.

[0032] In some embodiments, the system includes a controller electrically connected to each of the plurality of energy generation devices. In some embodiments, the controller is configured to regulate the hydrogen output, steam output, and / or process gas output of the system. In some embodiments, the controller is configured to direct the plurality of energy generation devices to function in a sequential mode. In some embodiments, the controller is configured to direct the plurality of energy generation devices to function in a parallel mode.

[0033] In another aspect, provided herein is a method of using aluminum as an energy carrier, the method including reacting activated aluminum with water using any of the devices or systems described herein; collecting aluminum oxide hydroxide produced as waste from the device or system; subjecting the aluminum oxide hydroxide to calcination to form aluminum oxide; and electrochemically reducing the aluminum oxide to form aluminum, wherein the aluminum is suitable for use in any of the devices or systems described herein.

[0034] In another aspect, provided herein is a method of providing hydrogen and steam, the method comprising delivering an energy generation device from a first location to a hydrogen and / or steam consuming facility having a steam inlet and a hydrogen inlet, the device being pre-charged with aluminum, the energy generation device comprising: a reactor having a reaction chamber containing aluminum, activated by a liquid metal catalyst or in an unactivated form, for an aluminum-water reaction, the reactor further comprising a water inlet, a catalyst inlet, a reaction outlet, and a reactor outlet, each in fluid communication with the reaction chamber; and a steam separator having a steam separator chamber in fluid communication with a steam separator inlet, a steam outlet, and a hydrogen outlet, the steam separator inlet a catalyst separator having a catalyst separator chamber in fluid communication with the reactor outlet, the catalyst separator having a reaction inlet and a catalyst outlet of the catalyst separator, the reaction inlet being in fluid communication with the reaction outlet of the reactor, wherein the steam separator is configured to: i) receive steam and hydrogen produced by the aluminum-water reaction into the steam separator chamber through the reactor outlet and the steam separator inlet; ii) substantially separate the steam from the hydrogen produced by the aluminum-water reaction; iii) direct the steam to the steam outlet; and iv) direct the hydrogen to the hydrogen outlet; and providing instructions for carrying out the aluminum-water reaction by introducing water into the water inlet.

[0035] In another aspect, provided herein is a method of providing a process gas, the method including: delivering an energy generation device from a first location to a hydrogen and / or steam consuming facility having a process gas inlet, the device being pre-charged with aluminum, the energy generation device comprising: a reactor having a reaction chamber containing aluminum, either activated by a liquid metal catalyst or in an unactivated form, for an aluminum-water reaction, the reactor further comprising a water inlet, a catalyst inlet, a reaction outlet, and a reactor outlet, each in fluid communication with the reaction chamber; a process gas outlet in fluid communication with the reactor outlet; and a catalyst separator comprising a catalyst separator chamber in fluid communication with the reaction inlet and the catalyst outlet of the catalyst separator, the reaction inlet in fluid communication with the reaction outlet of the reactor, the process gas outlet being configured to receive process gas produced by the aluminum-water reaction from the reactor outlet; and providing instructions to perform the aluminum-water reaction by introducing water into the water inlet.

[0036] In some embodiments, the method includes providing instructions to activate the aluminum in the reaction chamber using a liquid metal catalyst at a hydrogen and / or steam and / or process gas consumption facility to produce activated aluminum if the aluminum is delivered in an inactive form. In some embodiments, the method includes activating the aluminum at a first location prior to delivery of the energy generation device to the hydrogen and / or steam and / or process gas consumption facility.

[0037] In some embodiments, the method includes activating aluminum in a reaction chamber having a catalyst to aluminum weight ratio of about 1% to about 10%. In some embodiments, the activated aluminum includes a plurality of aluminum pieces of different sizes and shapes. In some embodiments, the aluminum includes aluminum pieces of a first size and at least a second size. In some embodiments, the aluminum includes aluminum pieces of a first shape and at least a second shape.

[0038] In some embodiments, the method includes providing instructions that include placing an aluminum piece within a reaction chamber of the reactor in a configuration that is oversized relative to the water inlet and / or catalyst inlet of the reactor.

[0039] In some embodiments, a first size range of aluminum pieces to be placed in the reaction chamber has a diameter of about 10 μm to about 1,000 μm as determined by sieve sorting, screen sorting, or gravity sorting. In some embodiments, a second size range of aluminum pieces to be placed in the reaction chamber has a diameter of about 0.1 mm to about 10 mm as determined by sieve sorting, screen sorting, or gravity sorting. In some embodiments, a third size range of aluminum pieces to be placed in the reaction chamber has a diameter of about 0.1 cm to about 10 cm as determined by sieve sorting, screen sorting, or gravity sorting.

[0040] In some embodiments, the method includes providing instructions to fluidly connect a hydrogen outlet of the energy generating device to a hydrogen inlet of the hydrogen and / or steam consuming facility prior to carrying out the aluminum-water reaction.

[0041] In some embodiments, the method includes fluidly connecting a steam outlet of the energy generating device to a steam inlet of the hydrogen and / or steam consuming facility prior to carrying out the aluminum-water reaction.

[0042] In some embodiments, the method includes fluidly connecting a process gas outlet of the energy generating device to a process gas inlet of a process gas consuming facility prior to carrying out the aluminum-water reaction.

[0043] In some embodiments, the method includes providing at least one additional energy generation device to form a plurality of energy generation devices and instructions for carrying out an aluminum-water reaction on the plurality of energy generation devices.

[0044] In some embodiments, at least two, at least three, at least four, at least five, at least six, at least seven, at least eight, at least nine, at least ten, at least fifteen, at least twenty, at least twenty-five, at least thirty, at least fifty, all, up to two, up to three, up to four, up to five, up to six, up to seven, up to eight, up to nine, up to ten, up to fifteen, up to twenty, up to twenty-five, up to thirty, up to fifty, or zero of the plurality of energy generating devices are fluidly connected to a shared water source.

[0045] In some embodiments, the method includes directing the sequencing and / or execution of aluminum-water reactions in series by introducing water to two or more devices at separate times or over non-overlapping time periods.

[0046] In some embodiments, the method includes directing the sequencing and / or execution of aluminum-water reactions in parallel by introducing water to two or more devices substantially simultaneously or over overlapping time periods.

[0047] In some embodiments, the method includes sourcing the aluminum from a source of recycled scrap aluminum. In some embodiments, the method includes sourcing the aluminum from aluminum chips. In some embodiments, the method includes sourcing the aluminum from compressed aluminum chips in the form of aluminum pellets. In some embodiments, the aluminum pellets have a diameter of about 1 cm to about 30 cm and a height of about 1 cm to about 10 cm, as determined by sieve sorting, screen sorting, or gravity sorting.

[0048] In some embodiments, the method includes introducing water to the water inlet to carry out an aluminum-water reaction comprising interacting aluminum, a catalyst composition, and water. In some embodiments, the liquid metal catalyst comprises gallium and / or indium. In some embodiments, the plurality of energy generating devices comprises between 2 and 1,000 devices.

[0049] In some embodiments, the method includes generating hydrogen at a rate of about 5.5 kg / hr to about 110 kg / hr using a plurality of energy generation devices when water is introduced into the reaction chamber after aluminum has been activated by the liquid metal catalyst. In some embodiments, the method includes generating steam at a rate of about 300 kg / hr to about 6000 kg / hr using a plurality of energy generation devices when water is introduced into the reaction chamber after aluminum has been activated by the liquid metal catalyst. In some embodiments, the method includes generating a continuous thermal power output of about 50 kW to about 10 MW using a plurality of energy generation devices when water is introduced into the reaction chamber after aluminum has been activated by the liquid metal catalyst. In some embodiments, the hydrogen and / or steam and / or process gas consumer is selected from the list including an internal combustion engine, an external hydrogen fuel cell, a calciner, a furnace, a Haber-Bosch plant, an oil refinery, a fertilizer plant, a methanol plant, a methane blending power plant, a metals recycling plant, an alumina refinery, a power plant, a port terminal, or an offshore vessel.

[0050] In another aspect, provided herein is a method for producing hydrogen and steam, the method comprising receiving an energy generation device from a first location to a hydrogen and / or steam consuming facility having at least one steam inlet and at least one hydrogen inlet, the device being pre-charged with aluminum, the energy generation device comprising: a reactor having a reaction chamber containing aluminum, activated by a liquid metal catalyst or in an unactivated form, for an aluminum-water reaction, the reactor further comprising a water inlet, a catalyst inlet, a reaction outlet, and a reactor outlet, each in fluid communication with the reaction chamber; and a steam separator having a steam separator chamber in fluid communication with a steam separator inlet, a steam outlet, and a hydrogen outlet. a steam separator, the steam separator inlet in fluid communication with the reactor outlet; and a catalyst separator, the catalyst separator having a catalyst separator chamber in fluid communication with the reaction inlet and catalyst outlet of the catalyst separator, the reaction inlet in fluid communication with the reaction outlet of the reactor, wherein the steam separator is configured to: i) receive steam and hydrogen produced by the aluminum-water reaction into the steam separator chamber through the reactor outlet and the steam separator inlet; ii) substantially separate the steam from the hydrogen produced by the aluminum-water reaction; iii) direct the steam to the steam outlet; and iv) direct the hydrogen to the hydrogen outlet; and performing an aluminum-water reaction by introducing water into the chamber through the water inlet to the aluminum.

[0051] In another aspect, provided herein is a method of generating a process gas, the method including: receiving an energy generation apparatus from a first location to a hydrogen and / or steam consuming facility having at least one process gas inlet, the apparatus being pre-charged with aluminum, the energy generation apparatus comprising: a reactor having a reaction chamber containing aluminum, activated by a liquid metal catalyst or in an unactivated form, for an aluminum-water reaction, the reactor further comprising a water inlet, a catalyst inlet, a reaction outlet, and a reactor outlet, each in fluid communication with the reaction chamber; a process gas outlet in fluid communication with the reactor outlet; and a catalyst separator comprising a catalyst separator chamber in fluid communication with the reaction inlet and catalyst outlet of the catalyst separator, the reaction inlet in fluid communication with the reaction outlet of the reactor, the process gas outlet being configured to receive steam and hydrogen produced by the aluminum-water reaction from the reactor outlet; and performing the aluminum-water reaction by introducing water into the chamber through the water inlet.

[0052] In some embodiments, the method includes activating aluminum in the reaction chamber to produce activated aluminum using a liquid metal catalyst at a hydrogen and / or steam consuming facility when the aluminum is received in an inactive form. In some embodiments, the aluminum is activated in a first location. In some embodiments, the method includes fluidly connecting a hydrogen outlet of the energy generation device to a hydrogen inlet of the hydrogen and / or steam consuming facility before conducting the aluminum-water reaction. In some embodiments, the method includes fluidly connecting a steam outlet of the energy generation device to a steam inlet of the hydrogen and / or steam consuming facility before conducting the aluminum-water reaction. In some embodiments, the method includes fluidly connecting a process gas outlet of the energy generation device to a process gas inlet of the process gas consuming facility before conducting the aluminum-water reaction. In some embodiments, the method includes fluidly connecting a water inlet of the energy generation device to a water source.

[0053] In some embodiments, the method includes delivering water from a water source through a water inlet into a reaction chamber, thereby carrying out an aluminum-water reaction. In some embodiments, the method includes producing heat, hydrogen, and one or more additional reaction products, thereby producing steam from the heat and water.

[0054] In some embodiments, the method includes passing the hydrogen and steam to a steam separator, substantially separating the hydrogen from the steam, passing the hydrogen through a hydrogen outlet, and passing the steam through a steam outlet.

[0055] In some embodiments, the method includes pumping the catalyst composition from a reaction outlet of the reactor to a reaction inlet of a catalyst separator and into a catalyst separator chamber after completion of the aluminum-water reaction in the reactor, hi some embodiments, the method includes substantially separating the liquid metal catalyst from the catalyst composition in the catalyst separator chamber and directing the liquid metal catalyst to a catalyst outlet of the catalyst separator.

[0056] In some embodiments, the method includes passing the liquid metal catalyst from the catalyst outlet through a collector inlet of the catalyst collector to a catalyst collector. In some embodiments, the catalyst collector includes a collector outlet and a collector chamber all in fluid communication with the collector inlet.

[0057] In some embodiments, the method includes passing the liquid metal catalyst from a catalyst collector to at least a second energy generation device. In some embodiments, the method includes passing the liquid metal catalyst from a collector outlet to a catalyst inlet of a reactor of at least a second energy generation device.

[0058] In some embodiments, the method includes drawing hydrogen from the hydrogen outlet of the steam separator to a hydrogen fuel cell and converting the hydrogen in the hydrogen fuel cell to electricity and water.

[0059] In some embodiments, the method includes directing water produced by the hydrogen fuel cell to a water inlet of the reactor.

[0060] In some embodiments, the method includes directing electrical power generated by the hydrogen fuel cell toward an electrical power outlet.

[0061] In some embodiments, the activated aluminum comprises a plurality of aluminum pieces of different sizes and shapes. In some embodiments, the aluminum comprises aluminum pieces of a first size and at least a second size. In some embodiments, the aluminum comprises aluminum pieces of a first shape and at least a second shape. In some embodiments, the method comprises disposing the aluminum pieces in a reaction chamber of the reactor in a configuration in which the aluminum pieces are larger in size than the water inlet and / or catalyst inlet of the reactor. In some embodiments, the aluminum pieces disposed in the reaction chamber have a first size range of about 10 μm to about 1,000 μm in diameter as determined by sieve sorting, screen sorting, or gravity sorting.

[0062] In some embodiments, the method includes a second size range of aluminum pieces placed in the reaction chamber having a diameter of about 0.1 mm to about 10 mm as determined by sieve sorting, screen sorting, or gravity sorting. In some embodiments, a third size range of aluminum pieces placed in the reaction chamber includes a diameter of about 0.1 cm to about 10 cm as determined by sieve sorting, screen sorting, or gravity sorting.

[0063] In some embodiments, the method includes at least one additional energy generation device to form a plurality of energy generation devices, and conducting an aluminum-water reaction on the plurality of energy generation devices. In some embodiments, at least two, at least three, at least four, at least five, at least six, at least seven, at least eight, at least nine, at least ten, at least fifteen, at least twenty, at least twenty-five, at least thirty, at least fifty, all, up to two, up to three, up to four, up to five, up to six, up to seven, up to eight, up to nine, up to ten, up to fifteen, up to twenty, up to twenty-five, up to thirty, up to fifty, or zero of the plurality of energy generation devices are fluidly connected to a shared water source.

[0064] In some embodiments, the method includes conducting aluminum-water reactions in series by introducing water to two or more devices at separate times or over non-overlapping time periods. In some embodiments, the method includes conducting aluminum-water reactions in parallel by introducing water to two or more devices at substantially the same time or over overlapping time periods.

[0065] In some embodiments, the method includes sourcing the aluminum from a source of recycled scrap aluminum. In some embodiments, the method includes sourcing the aluminum from aluminum chips. In some embodiments, the method includes sourcing the aluminum from compressed aluminum chips in the form of aluminum pellets. In some embodiments, the aluminum pellets have a diameter of about 1 cm to about 30 cm and a height of about 1 cm to about 10 cm, as determined by sieve sorting, screen sorting, or gravity sorting.

[0066] In some embodiments, the method includes introducing water to the water inlet to carry out an aluminum-water reaction comprising interacting aluminum, a catalyst composition, and water. In some embodiments, the liquid metal catalyst comprises gallium and / or indium. In some embodiments, the plurality of energy generating devices comprises between 2 and 1,000 devices.

[0067] In some embodiments, the method includes generating hydrogen at a rate of about 5.5 kg / hr to about 110 kg / hr using a plurality of energy generation devices when water is introduced into the reaction chamber after the aluminum has been activated by the liquid metal catalyst. In some embodiments, the method includes generating steam at a rate of about 300 kg / hr to about 6000 kg / hr using a plurality of energy generation devices when water is introduced into the reaction chamber after the aluminum has been activated by the liquid metal catalyst. In some embodiments, the method includes generating a continuous thermal power output of about 50 kW to about 10 MW using a plurality of energy generation devices when water is introduced into the reaction chamber after the aluminum has been activated by the liquid metal catalyst.

[0068] In some embodiments, the hydrogen and / or steam and / or process gas consuming facility is selected from the list including an internal combustion engine, an external hydrogen fuel cell, a calciner, a furnace, a Haber-Bosch plant, an oil refinery, a fertilizer plant, a methanol plant, a methane blending power plant, a metal recycling plant, an alumina refinery, a power plant, a port terminal, or an offshore vessel.

[0069] In another aspect, provided herein is a method of providing renewable energy, the method including: producing an energy-dense metal using a renewable energy source; introducing the metal and a catalyst into an energy generation apparatus including a reactor; transporting the reactor from a production site to a hydrogen and / or steam and / or process gas consumption facility; introducing water into the reactor; and extracting energy from the metal in the form of hydrogen, steam, and / or heat.

[0070] In some embodiments, the energetically dense metal comprises aluminum, hi some embodiments, producing aluminum comprises electrochemically reducing aluminum oxide using solar energy, wind energy, hydrothermal energy, water energy, tidal energy, geothermal energy, biomass energy, nuclear energy, electricity, or any combination thereof.

[0071] In some embodiments, the catalyst comprises gallium and / or indium.

[0072] In some embodiments, the hydrogen and / or steam and / or process gas consuming facility is selected from the list including an internal combustion engine, an external hydrogen fuel cell, a Haber-Bosch plant, an oil refinery, a fertilizer plant, a methanol plant, a methane blending power plant, a metal recycling plant, a power plant, a port terminal, or an offshore vessel.

[0073] In some embodiments, extracting energy from the metal comprises an exothermic aluminum-water reaction. In some embodiments, the reactor comprises a reaction chamber containing aluminum, activated by a liquid metal catalyst or in an unactivated form, for the aluminum-water reaction, and the reactor further comprises a water inlet, a catalyst inlet, a reaction outlet, and a reactor outlet, each in fluid communication with the reaction chamber.

[0074] In some embodiments, the energy generation apparatus comprises a steam separator comprising a steam separator chamber in fluid communication with a steam separator inlet, a steam outlet, and a hydrogen outlet, the steam separator inlet in fluid communication with a reactor outlet, and / or a catalyst separator comprising a catalyst separator chamber in fluid communication with a reaction inlet and a catalyst outlet of the catalyst separator, the reaction inlet in fluid communication with the reaction outlet of the reactor, the steam separator configured to: i) receive steam and hydrogen produced by the aluminum-water reaction into the steam separator chamber through the reactor outlet and the steam separator inlet; ii) substantially separate the steam from the hydrogen produced by the aluminum-water reaction; iii) direct the steam to the steam outlet; and iv) direct the hydrogen to the hydrogen outlet.

[0075] In some embodiments, the energy generating device is configured to fit within the interior volume of the shipping container.

[0076] In some embodiments, the method includes drawing hydrogen from the hydrogen outlet of the steam separator to a hydrogen fuel cell and converting the hydrogen in the hydrogen fuel cell to electricity and water.

[0077] In some embodiments, the method includes pumping water produced by the hydrogen fuel cell to a water inlet of the reactor. In some embodiments, the method includes pumping electrical power produced by the hydrogen fuel cell to an electrical power outlet. In some embodiments, the method includes pumping water from a water source to a water inlet of the reactor using a water pump. In some embodiments, the method includes pumping a catalyst composition from the reactor to a catalyst separator using a catalyst pump.

[0078] In another aspect, provided herein is a method including: providing activated aluminum within a reactor having a reaction chamber containing aluminum activated by a liquid metal catalyst for an aluminum-water reaction, the reactor further comprising a water inlet, a catalyst inlet, a reaction outlet, and a reactor outlet, each in fluid communication with the reaction chamber; delivering water to the activated aluminum through the water inlet; contacting the water with the activated aluminum to produce heat, hydrogen gas, and one or more additional reaction products, thereby producing steam from the heat and water; substantially separating the steam from the hydrogen gas; directing the steam to the steam outlet; and directing the hydrogen gas to the hydrogen outlet.

[0079] In another aspect, provided herein is a method including: providing activated aluminum within a reactor having a reaction chamber containing aluminum activated by a liquid metal catalyst for an aluminum-water reaction, the reactor further comprising a water inlet, a catalyst inlet, a reaction outlet, and a reactor outlet, each in fluid communication with the reaction chamber; delivering water to the activated aluminum through the water inlet; contacting the water with the activated aluminum to produce heat, a process gas comprising hydrogen gas and steam, and one or more additional reaction products; and directing the process gas to the process gas outlet.

[0080] In some embodiments, the method includes directing the steam to a steam outlet. In some embodiments, the method includes consuming the hydrogen gas in a fuel cell. In some embodiments, the method includes generating electrical power using the steam or the process gas. In some embodiments, the method includes using the steam or the process gas to power a turbine. In some embodiments, the method includes using the steam or the process gas for ambient heating. In some embodiments, the method includes using the process gas to power an alumina smelting plant. In some embodiments, the method includes separating the liquid metal catalyst from the activated aluminum. In some embodiments, the method includes condensing the steam in a heat exchanger (e.g., a condenser) after the steam is separated from the hydrogen by a steam separator. In some embodiments, the method includes condensing the steam in a steam separator, thereby separating the steam from the hydrogen.

[0081] In some embodiments, the method includes delivering a liquid metal catalyst to an interior of a second reactor through a second catalyst inlet, the second reactor including aluminum, a second water inlet, a second reaction outlet, a second reactor outlet, and a second reaction chamber; delivering water to the activated aluminum through the second water inlet; contacting the water with the activated aluminum to form heat, hydrogen gas, and one or more additional reaction products, thereby producing steam from the heat and water; substantially separating the steam from the hydrogen gas; directing the steam to a second steam outlet; and directing the hydrogen to a second hydrogen outlet.

[0082] In some embodiments, the method includes delivering a liquid metal catalyst through a second catalyst inlet into a second reactor, the second reactor including aluminum, a second water inlet, a second reaction outlet, a second reactor outlet, and a second reaction chamber; delivering water to the activated aluminum through the second water inlet; contacting the water with the activated aluminum to form heat, a process gas including hydrogen gas and steam, and one or more additional reaction products; and directing the process gas to a process gas outlet.

[0083] In another aspect, provided herein is an energy generation apparatus, the energy generation apparatus comprising: a reactor, the reactor comprising a reaction chamber containing aluminum, either activated by a liquid metal catalyst or in an unactivated form, for an aluminum-water reaction, the reactor further comprising: a water inlet, a catalyst inlet, a reaction outlet, and a reactor outlet, each in fluid communication with the reaction chamber; a steam separator comprising a steam separator chamber in fluid communication with a steam separator inlet and a hydrogen outlet, the steam separator inlet in fluid communication with the reactor outlet; and a catalyst separator comprising a catalyst separator chamber in fluid communication with the reaction inlet and catalyst outlet of the catalyst separator, the reaction inlet in fluid communication with the reaction outlet of the reactor, the steam separator configured to: i) receive steam and hydrogen produced by the aluminum-water reaction into the steam separator chamber through the reactor outlet and the steam separator inlet; ii) substantially separate the steam from the hydrogen produced by the aluminum-water reaction; and iii) direct the hydrogen to the hydrogen outlet.

[0084] These and other features, aspects, and advantages of some embodiments will become better understood with regard to the following description and accompanying drawings. [Brief explanation of the drawings]

[0085] [Figure 1] 2 is a schematic diagram illustrating an embodiment of an energy generation apparatus 100a including a reactor 200a, a catalyst separator 400a, a catalyst collector 500a, a water pump 700a, and a catalyst pump 800a.

[0086] [Figure 2] 2 is a schematic diagram illustrating an embodiment of an energy generation apparatus 100b including a reactor 200b, a vapor separator 300b, a catalyst separator 400b, a catalyst collector 500b, a hydrogen fuel cell 600b, a water pump 700b, and a catalyst pump 800b.

[0087] [Figure 3]1 is a schematic diagram illustrating a system 1000 in which three energy generating devices 100a and / or 100b (see FIGS. 1 and 2), designated 100a / b-1, 100a / b-2, and 100a / b-3, respectively, are arranged in a vertical stack and housed within a shipping container.

[0088] [Figure 4] FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram illustrating the end-to-end process of processing aluminum, loading the energy generating unit 100a or 100b with aluminum, loading the energy generating unit onto a vessel, discharging the energy generating unit to power the vessel, unloading the discharged energy generating unit from the vessel, removing the aluminum hydroxide waste, and sending the aluminum hydroxide waste for processing.

[0089] [Figure 5] 1 is a schematic diagram illustrating an end-to-end circular process of processing aluminum, loading an energy generating unit 100a or 100b with aluminum, loading the energy generating unit onto a vessel, discharging the energy generating unit to power the vessel, unloading the discharged energy generating unit from the vessel, removing aluminum hydroxide oxide waste, processing the aluminum hydroxide waste, sending the aluminum hydroxide waste to processing, and using the aluminum hydroxide waste to smelt aluminum using a renewable energy source.

[0090] [Figure 6] FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram showing a containerized system for producing aluminum pellets. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

[0091] The devices, systems, and methods described herein can be used in many markets and contexts, with applications provided herein as non-limiting examples for use as a thermal energy source for industrial processes, for power generation in remote locations or areas lacking suitable renewable energy sources, or for producing hydrogen as a fuel or chemical feedstock (e.g., for ammonia synthesis) for industrial or domestic use.

[0092] Further energy can be extracted from aluminum via the aluminum-water reaction represented by Reaction 1 or similar to produce aluminum oxide hydroxide (AlOOH), or alumina trihydrate (Al(OH)3) via Reaction 2 or similar, which have a variety of uses including pharmaceuticals, plastics manufacturing, flame retardants, and wastewater treatment, and are also the main component of bauxite ore, which supplies major aluminum smelting industries.

[0093] Provided herein are devices, systems, and methods of their use that utilize the exothermic aluminum-water reaction of Reaction 1 or Reaction 2 to provide energy in the form of hydrogen, steam, and heat. Using this device, the steam and hydrogen can be separated, and the catalyst used in the aluminum-water reaction can be separated, collected, and distributed as needed to all fluidly connected energy generating devices in the system.

[0094] definition Terms used in the claims and specification, unless otherwise specified, are defined as set forth below.

[0095] It must be noted that as used herein, the singular forms "a," "an," and "the" include plural referents unless the context clearly dictates otherwise.

[0096] The term "and / or," as used in the specification and claims, should be understood to mean "either or both" of the elements so conjoined, i.e., elements that are present conjunctively in some cases and disjunctively in other cases. Multiple elements listed with "and / or" should be construed in the same manner, i.e., "one or more" of the elements so conjoined. Other elements other than the elements specifically identified by the "and / or" clause may optionally be present, whether related or not to the elements specifically identified. Thus, as a non-limiting example, when used in conjunction with open-ended language such as "comprising," a reference to "A and / or B" can, in one embodiment, refer to A only (optionally including elements other than B), in another embodiment to B only (optionally including elements other than A), and in yet another embodiment to both A and B (optionally including other elements).

[0097] As used in this specification and claims, "or" should be understood to have the same meaning as "and / or" as defined above. For example, when separating items in a list, "or" or "and / or" shall be interpreted as inclusive, that is, including not only at least one of a number or list of elements, but also a plurality of elements, optionally including additional unlisted items. Only terms clearly indicating the contrary, such as "only one of" or "exactly one of," or, when used in the claims, "consisting of," shall refer to the inclusion of exactly one element of a number or list of elements. In general, the use of the term "or" shall only be interpreted as indicating exclusive alternatives (i.e., "one or the other, but not both") when preceded by terms of exclusion, such as "either," "one of," "only one of," or "exactly one of."

[0098] As used herein, the term "about" means approximately, within, roughly, or around. Unless otherwise specified with a stated numerical value, when the term "about" is used in conjunction with a numerical range, it modifies that range by extending its boundaries above and below the stated numerical value. Unless otherwise specified with a stated numerical value, the term "about" is used herein to modify a numerical value by a variance of 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, or 50% above and below the stated value. As a non-limiting example, a range of "about 2 to about 20" can mean 1.98 to 22, or 1 to 30, or other ranges therebetween. Unless otherwise specified with a stated percentage range, when the term "about" is used in conjunction with a percentage range, it modifies that range by extending its boundaries above and below the stated percentage. Unless otherwise specified with respect to a stated percentage, the term "about" is used herein to modify the stated percentage by 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, or 50% above or below the stated percentage (which may be limited as an absolute value, i.e., to 0% as a minimum value), or by 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, or 50% of that percentage. As a non-limiting example, the range "about 2% to about 20%" can mean 1% to 21%, or 0% to 70%, or other ranges therebetween, or 1.98% to 22%, or 1% to 30% (as a percentage of that percentage range). As a non-limiting example, a percentage value of "about 30%" can mean 29% to 31%, or 0% to 80%, or other ranges therebetween, or 27% to 33%, or 15% to 45% (as a percentage of that percentage value), or other ranges therebetween.Unless a numerical range is otherwise stated, numerical ranges recited herein by endpoints include all numbers and fractions subsumed within that range (e.g., 1 to 5 includes 1, 1.5, 2, 2.75, 3, 3.90, 4, and 5). It is also understood that all numbers and fractions thereof are presumed to be modified by the term "about."

[0099] As used herein, the term "generator" refers to a machine that converts rotational motion (or rotational energy) into current and / or voltage (or electrical energy).

[0100] As used herein, the phrase "mechanical connection" means the physical connection of two or more elements through the transmission of force.

[0101] As used herein, the phrase "fluid communication" means that a fluid can connect the designated areas. As used herein, the phrase "fluidically isolated" means that a fluid cannot connect the designated areas.

[0102] As used herein, the term "work" refers to energy transferred by a system or from a material (e.g., aluminum metal) to its surroundings (e.g., a turbine).

[0103] As used herein, the phrase "aluminum-water reaction" refers to an oxidation reaction represented by either / both of the following chemical reactions: Al + 2H2O → 1.5H2 + AlO(OH) + Q 反応 (Reaction 1) Al + 3H2O → 1.5H2 + Al(OH)3 + Q 反応 (Reaction 2) Here, Q 反応represents the heat released as a product of the reaction. Whether reaction 1 or reaction 2 occurs depends on the environmental conditions of the reaction, such as pressure, temperature, and pH. Throughout this disclosure, various terms are used interchangeably to describe the aluminum-containing products of reaction 1 and / or reaction 2, including the terms "aluminum oxide hydroxide," "aluminum oxide hydroxide," "aluminum hydroxide," and "alumina trihydrate."

[0104] As used herein, the term "water" refers to H2O in the liquid state. As used herein, the term "steam" refers to H2O in the gaseous state.

[0105] As used herein, the term "eutectic" refers to a mixture of substances that freezes below the freezing points of the individual components. In certain embodiments, the term "eutectic" is used to describe a mixture of indium and gallium.

[0106] As used herein, the term "process gas" refers to a gas mixture that includes hydrogen and steam.

[0107] As used herein, the term "subset" refers to a group of all or fewer than all of the elements of a set (e.g., a subset of devices). The term may be used to encompass groups ranging from 1% of all elements up to all elements (100%).

[0108] The term "substantially" as used herein is a broad term and is given its ordinary and customary meaning to those skilled in the art (not limited to a special or customized meaning), and refers to, without limitation, what is mostly, but not necessarily completely, specified. For example, the term "substantially separate" as used herein refers to the complete or partial removal of undesired components from a mixture of two or more components (e.g., 1% or more, 5% or more, 10% or more, 20% or more, 30% or more, 40% or more, 50% or more, 60% or more, 70% or more, 80% or more, 90% or more, 95% or more, 96% or more, 97% or more, 98% or more, 99% or more, or 99.9% removal).

[0109] As used herein, the term "at least a second" refers to a plurality, including a third, fourth, fifth, up to 1,000 items, or any number in between. For example, as used herein, the term "at least a second energy generating device" refers to at least a second, third, fourth, fifth, up to 1,000 devices, or any number of devices in between.

[0110] Energy Generator Provided herein are energy generation devices useful for providing hydrogen, steam, and thermal energy. By way of non-limiting example, an embodiment of the energy generation device 100a, also referred to herein as an "device," is useful for providing hydrogen, process gas, and thermal energy. In some embodiments, the device 100a includes a reactor, a process gas outlet, and a catalyst separator. In some embodiments, the reactor includes a water inlet, a catalyst inlet, a reaction outlet, a reactor outlet, and a reaction chamber, each in fluid communication with the reaction chamber. In some embodiments, the reaction chamber includes aluminum in activated or unactivated form. In some embodiments, the reaction chamber includes aluminum activated by a liquid metal catalyst. In some embodiments, the process gas outlet is in fluid communication with the reactor outlet. In some embodiments, the catalyst separator includes a catalyst separator chamber in fluid communication with the reaction inlet and catalyst outlet of the catalyst separator. In some embodiments, the reaction inlet is in fluid communication with the reaction outlet of the reactor. In some embodiments, the catalyst separator is configured to: i) receive the catalyst composition for the aluminum-water reaction into the catalyst separator chamber through the reactor's reaction outlet and the catalyst separator's reaction inlet; and ii) substantially separate the liquid metal catalyst from the catalyst composition within the catalyst separator chamber. In some embodiments, the apparatus 100a includes aluminum for the aluminum-water reaction (e.g., Reaction 1 and / or Reaction 2), a hydrogen fuel cell, a water outlet, a power outlet, a water pump, a catalyst pump, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the apparatus includes any combination of the above components.

[0111] Also provided herein are energy generation devices useful for providing hydrogen, steam, and thermal energy. As a non-limiting example, an embodiment of energy generation device 100b, also referred to herein as "device," is useful for providing hydrogen, steam, and thermal energy. In some embodiments, device 100b includes a reactor, a steam separator, and a catalyst separator. In some embodiments, the reactor includes a water inlet, a catalyst inlet, a reaction outlet, a reactor outlet, and a reaction chamber, each in fluid communication with the reaction chamber. In some embodiments, the reaction chamber includes activated or unactivated aluminum. In some embodiments, the reaction chamber includes aluminum activated by a liquid metal catalyst. In some embodiments, the steam separator includes a steam separator chamber in fluid communication with the steam separator inlet, the steam outlet, and the hydrogen outlet. In some embodiments, the steam separator inlet is in fluid communication with the reactor outlet. In some embodiments, the catalyst separator includes a catalyst separator chamber in fluid communication with the reaction inlet and catalyst outlet of the catalyst separator. In some embodiments, the reaction inlet is in fluid communication with the reaction outlet of the reactor. In some embodiments, the steam separator is configured to: i) receive steam and hydrogen produced by the aluminum-water reaction into the steam separator chamber through the reactor outlet and the steam separator inlet; ii) substantially separate the steam from the hydrogen produced by the aluminum-water reaction; iii) direct the steam to the steam outlet; and iv) direct the hydrogen to the hydrogen outlet. In some embodiments, the catalyst separator is configured to: i) receive a catalyst composition for the aluminum-water reaction into the catalyst separator chamber through the reactor outlet and the catalyst separator inlet; and ii) substantially separate the liquid metal catalyst from the catalyst composition within the catalyst separator chamber. In some embodiments, the apparatus 100b includes aluminum for the aluminum-water reaction (e.g., Reaction 1 and / or Reaction 2), a hydrogen fuel cell, a water outlet, an electrical power outlet, a water pump, a catalyst pump, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the apparatus includes any combination of the above-described components.

[0112] In some embodiments, the energy generation apparatus provided and described herein does not include a steam separator. In some embodiments, the energy generation apparatus provided and described herein includes a process gas outlet. In some embodiments, the process gas outlet provides a mixed gas stream of hydrogen and steam. In some embodiments, the energy generation apparatus provided herein includes: a) a reactor having a reaction chamber containing aluminum activated by a liquid metal catalyst or in an unactivated form for an aluminum-water reaction, the reactor further including a water inlet, a catalyst inlet, a reaction outlet, and a reactor outlet, each in fluid communication with the reaction chamber; b) a process gas outlet in fluid communication with the reactor outlet; and c) a catalyst separator including a catalyst separator chamber in fluid communication with the reaction inlet and catalyst outlet of the catalyst separator, the reaction inlet in fluid communication with the reaction outlet of the reactor.

[0113] In some embodiments, the energy generation devices provided and described herein include a steam separator that does not include a steam outlet. In some embodiments, the steam separator condenses steam in the steam separator chamber to form liquid water. In some embodiments, the liquid water is sent to a reaction chamber to sustain the aluminum-water reaction or is discharged to a water outlet of the steam separator. In some embodiments, an energy generation apparatus provided herein comprises: a) a reactor comprising a reaction chamber containing aluminum, activated by a liquid metal catalyst or in an unactivated form, for an aluminum-water reaction, the reactor further comprising a water inlet, a catalyst inlet, a reaction outlet, and a reactor outlet, each in fluid communication with the reaction chamber; b) a steam separator comprising a steam separator chamber in fluid communication with a steam separator inlet and a hydrogen outlet, the steam separator inlet being in fluid communication with the reactor outlet; and c) a catalyst separator comprising a catalyst separator chamber in fluid communication with the reaction inlet and catalyst outlet of the catalyst separator, the reaction inlet being in fluid communication with the reaction outlet of the reactor, the steam separator being configured to: i) receive steam and hydrogen produced by the aluminum-water reaction into the steam separator chamber through the reactor outlet and the steam separator inlet; ii) substantially separate the steam from the hydrogen produced by the aluminum-water reaction; and iii) direct the hydrogen to the hydrogen outlet.

[0114] In some embodiments, the device 100a or 100b is configured to fit within the interior volume of a shipping container (FIGS. 1 and 2). In some embodiments, the interior volume of the shipping container is approximately 1 m 3 ~about 33m 3 (For example, about 1 m 3 , about 2m 3 , about 3m 3 , about 4m 3 , about 5m 3 , about 6m 3 , about 7m 3 , approximately 8m 3 , approximately 9m 3 , about 10m 3 , about 11m 3 , about 12m 3 , about 13m 3 , approximately 14m 3 , about 15m3 , about 16m 3 , about 17m 3 , about 18m 3 , about 19m 3 , about 20m 3 , about 21m 3 , about 22m 3 , about 23m 3 , about 24m 3 , about 25m 3 , about 26m 3 , about 27m 3 , about 28m 3 , about 29m 3 , about 30m 3 , about 31m 3 , about 32m 3 , or approximately 33 m 3). In some embodiments, the shipping container comprises a container wall. In some embodiments, the container wall comprises one or more (e.g., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10) holes or openings that allow fluid communication between the first energy generation apparatus and the at least second energy generation apparatus. In some embodiments, the container wall comprises one or more openings that fluidly connect a steam outlet of the first energy generation apparatus to a water inlet of the at least second energy generation apparatus. In some embodiments, the container wall comprises one or more openings that fluidly connect a hydrogen outlet of the first energy generation apparatus to a hydrogen inlet of the at least second energy generation apparatus. In some embodiments, the container wall comprises one or more openings that fluidly connect a steam outlet of the first energy generation apparatus to a water inlet of the at least second energy generation apparatus. In some embodiments, the container wall comprises one or more openings that fluidly connect a process gas outlet of the first energy generation apparatus to a process gas inlet of the at least second energy generation apparatus. In some embodiments, the container wall includes one or more openings fluidly communicating a water outlet of the hydrogen fuel cell of the first energy generation device with a water inlet of at least a second energy generation device. In some embodiments, the container wall includes one or more openings and / or conduits fluidly communicating a collector outlet of the catalyst collector of the first energy generation device with a catalyst inlet of the reactor of at least a second energy generation device. In some embodiments, the container wall includes one or more openings fluidly communicating a steam outlet of the first energy generation device with a steam manifold in fluid communication with at least a second energy generation device. In some embodiments, the container wall includes one or more openings fluidly communicating a hydrogen outlet of the first energy generation device with a hydrogen manifold in fluid communication with at least a second energy generation device. In some embodiments, the container wall includes one or more openings fluidly communicating a process gas outlet of the first energy generation device with a process gas manifold in fluid communication with at least a second energy generation device.

[0115] In some embodiments, the shipping container is about 10 feet to about 40 feet in length (e.g., about 10 feet, about 11 feet, about 12 feet, about 13 feet, about 14 feet, about 15 feet, about 16 feet, about 17 feet, about 18 feet, about 19 feet, about 20 feet, about 21 feet, about 22 feet, about 23 feet, about 24 feet, about 25 feet, about 26 feet, about 27 feet, about 28 feet, about 29 feet, about 30 feet, about 31 feet, about 32 feet, about 33 feet, about 34 feet, about 35 feet, about 36 feet, about 37 feet, about 38 feet, about 39 feet, or about 40 feet). In some embodiments, the shipping container is about 10 feet, about 20 feet, or about 40 feet in length. In some embodiments, the width of the shipping container is between about 5 feet and about 10 feet (e.g., about 5.1 feet, about 5.2 feet, about 5.3 feet, about 5.4 feet, about 5.5 feet, about 5.6 feet, about 5.7 feet, about 5.8 feet, about 5.9 feet, about 6 feet, about 6.1 feet, about 6.2 feet, about 6.3 feet, about 6.4 feet, about 6.5 feet, about 6.6 feet, about 6.7 feet, about 6.8 feet, about 6.9 feet, about 7 feet, about 7.1 feet, about 7.2 feet, about 7.3 feet, about 7.4 feet, about 7.5 feet, about 7.6 feet, about 7.7 feet, about 7.8 feet, about 7.9 feet, about 8 feet, about 8.1 feet, about 8.2 feet, about 8.3 feet, about 8.4 feet, about 8.5 feet, about 8.6 feet, about 8.7 feet, about 8.8 feet, about 8.9 feet, about 9 feet, about 9.1 feet, about 9.2 feet, about 9.3 feet, about 9.4 feet, about 9.5 feet, about 9.6 feet, about 9.7 feet, about 9.8 feet, about 9.9 feet, or about 10 feet). In some embodiments, the width of the shipping container is about 7 feet, about 8 feet, or about 9 feet.In some embodiments, the height of the shipping container is between about 1.5 feet and about 10 feet (e.g., about 1.5 feet, about 1.6 feet, about 1.7 feet, about 1.8 feet, about 1.9 feet, about 2 feet, about 2.1 feet, about 2.2 feet, about 2.3 feet, about 2.4 feet, about 2.5 feet, about 2.6 feet, about 2.7 feet, about 2.8 feet, about 2.9 feet, about 3 feet, about 3.1 feet, about 3.2 feet, Approximately 3.3 feet, approximately 3.4 feet, approximately 3.5 feet, approximately 3.6 feet, approximately 3.7 feet, approximately 3.8 feet, approximately 3.9 feet, approximately 4 feet, approximately 4.1 feet, approximately 4.2 feet, approximately 4.3 feet, approximately 4.4 feet, approximately 4.5 feet, approximately 4.6 feet, approximately 4.7 feet, approximately 4.8 feet, approximately 4.9 feet, approximately 5 feet, approximately 5.1 feet, approximately 5.2 feet, approximately 5.3 feet, approximately 5.4 feet, approximately 5.5 feet , approximately 5.6 feet, approximately 5.7 feet, approximately 5.8 feet, approximately 5.9 feet, approximately 6 feet, approximately 6.1 feet, approximately 6.2 feet, approximately 6.3 feet, approximately 6.4 feet, approximately 6.5 feet, approximately 6.6 feet, approximately 6.7 feet, approximately 6.8 feet, approximately 6.9 feet, approximately 7 feet, approximately 7.1 feet, approximately 7.2 feet, approximately 7.3 feet, approximately 7.4 feet, approximately 7.5 feet, approximately 7.6 feet, approximately 7.7 feet, approximately 7.8 feet about 7.9 feet, about 8 feet, about 8.1 feet, about 8.2 feet, about 8.3 feet, about 8.4 feet, about 8.5 feet, about 8.6 feet, about 8.7 feet, about 8.8 feet, about 8.9 feet, about 9 feet, about 9.1 feet, about 9.2 feet, about 9.3 feet, about 9.4 feet, about 9.5 feet, about 9.6 feet, about 9.7 feet, about 9.8 feet, about 9.9 feet, or about 10 feet).

[0116] In some embodiments, the energy generating device 100a or 100b is configured in fluid and / or electrical communication with at least one separate energy generating device 100a or 100b to create a system 1000 of energy generating devices as provided and described herein (FIG. 3). In some embodiments, each of the multiple energy generating devices described herein are in fluid communication. In some embodiments, the plurality of energy generating devices comprises 2 to 1,000 (e.g., 2 to 1,000, 3 to 1,000, 4 to 1,000, 5 to 1,000, 6 to 1,000, 7 to 1,000, 8 to 1,000, 9 to 1,000, 10 to 1,000, 20 to 1,000, 30 to 1,000, 40 to 1,000, 50 to 1,000, 60 to 1,000, 70 to 1,000, 80 to 1,000, 90 to 1,000, 100 to 1,000, 200 to 1,000, 300 to 1,000, 400 to 1,000, In some embodiments, the energy generating devices may include 1,000, 500-1,000, 600-1,000, 700-1,000, 800-1,000, 900-1,000, 2-900, 2-800, 2-700, 2-600, 2-500, 2-400, 2-300, 2-200, 2-100, 2-90, 2-80, 2-70, 2-60, 2-50, 2-40, 2-30, 2-20, 2-10, 2-9, 2-8, 2-7, 2-6, 2-5, 2-4, or 2-3, or even 2 energy generating devices. In some embodiments, the energy generating devices are vertically stackable. In some embodiments, multiple devices are connectable horizontally. In some embodiments, a first device and a second device are operated and / or arranged separately, in parallel, or in series. The first device and second device can be operated and / or arranged separately, in parallel, and / or in series with additional devices, which in some embodiments can be up to 1, up to 2, up to 3, up to 4, up to 5, up to 10, up to 15, up to 50, or up to 100 or more devices, or any number in between.In some embodiments, one or more of the reactor, steam separator, catalyst separator, catalyst collector, hydrogen fuel cell, water outlet, steam outlet, power outlet, water pump, and catalyst pump of the first apparatus are shared with the second apparatus. In some embodiments, one or more of the reactor, steam separator, catalyst separator, catalyst collector, hydrogen fuel cell, water outlet, steam outlet, power outlet, water pump, and catalyst pump of the first apparatus are shared with the second apparatus, the third apparatus, and any one or more additional devices.

[0117] In some embodiments, the energy generation device 100b includes one or more (e.g., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10) hydrogen outlets. In some embodiments, the hydrogen outlets are in fluid communication with a hydrogen manifold, which is in fluid communication with the hydrogen outlet of at least a second energy generation device. In some embodiments, the hydrogen outlets are in fluid communication with a hydrogen manifold, which is in fluid communication with the hydrogen outlet of at least a third energy generation device. In some embodiments, the one or more hydrogen outlets are configured to fluidly connect to and supply hydrogen to a hydrogen consuming device, including an internal combustion engine, an external hydrogen fuel cell, a kiln, a furnace, a Haber-Bosch plant, an oil refinery, a fertilizer plant, a methanol plant, a metal recycling plant, an alumina refinery, or a methane blending power plant, and / or a marine vessel (e.g., a cargo ship, a container ship, a tanker, an oil tanker, a merchant ship, or any variation thereof). In some embodiments, the one or more hydrogen outlets are configured to fluidly connect to a hydrogen receiving terminal of an internal combustion engine or an external hydrogen fuel cell. In some embodiments, the energy generating apparatus 100b includes one or more (e.g., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10) steam outlets. In some embodiments, the steam outlets are in fluid communication with a steam manifold, which is in fluid communication with a steam outlet of at least a second energy generating apparatus. In some embodiments, the steam outlets are in fluid communication with a steam manifold, which is in fluid communication with a steam outlet of at least a third energy generating apparatus. In some embodiments, the energy generating apparatus 100a includes one or more (e.g., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10) process gas outlets 350a. In some embodiments, the process gas outlets are in fluid communication with a process gas manifold, which is in fluid communication with a process gas outlet of at least a second energy generating apparatus. In some embodiments, the process gas outlets are in fluid communication with a process gas manifold, which is in fluid communication with a process gas outlet of at least a third energy generating apparatus.

[0118] In some embodiments, the water inlet is in fluid communication with a water source (e.g., seawater, polluted runoff, domestic wastewater, commercial wastewater, industrial brine, brackish discharge, groundwater, or other natural water stream). In some embodiments, the water inlet is configured to allow water from the water source to enter the reaction chamber of the reactor for the aluminum-water reaction. In some embodiments, the water inlet is in fluid communication with a water manifold, which is in fluid communication with a water inlet of at least a second energy generation device and in fluid communication with the water source. In some embodiments, the water inlet is in fluid communication with a water manifold, which is in fluid communication with a water inlet of at least a second energy generation device and in fluid communication with the water source.

[0119] In some embodiments, the energy generation apparatus 100a or 100b includes a thermal jacket attached around the reaction chamber of the reactor 200a or 200b. In some embodiments, the thermal jacket is in thermal communication with the reaction chamber and fluidly isolated from the reactor. In some embodiments, heat generated by the exothermic aluminum-water reaction is transferred to the thermal jacket to generate steam independently of the steam generated by the reaction. In some embodiments, the apparatus includes a heat exchanger thermally connecting the reactor to the thermal jacket.

[0120] In some embodiments, the apparatus is in fluid communication with an aluminum waste container, hi some embodiments, the aluminum waste container comprises a filter, strainer, sieve, settling chamber, and / or compressor.

[0121] reactor Provided herein, in some embodiments, is an energy generation apparatus including reactor 200a (FIG. 1) or 200b (FIG. 2). In some embodiments, reactor 200a or 200b includes a reaction chamber, a water inlet, a catalyst inlet, a reaction outlet, and a reactor outlet, each in fluid communication with the reaction chamber. In some embodiments, the reaction chamber contains reactants (e.g., water, aluminum, and a catalyst composition) for the aluminum-water reaction of Reaction 1 and / or Reaction 2. In some embodiments, the reaction chamber includes aluminum in an inactive form (e.g., not activated by a liquid metal catalyst). In some embodiments, the reaction chamber includes activated aluminum activated by a liquid metal catalyst (e.g., indium and / or gallium). In some embodiments, reactor 200a or 200b includes aluminum and a catalyst composition for use in the aluminum-water reaction (Reaction 1 and / or Reaction 2). In some embodiments, the catalyst composition includes a liquid metal catalyst. In some embodiments, the catalyst composition includes a liquid metal catalyst and water. In some embodiments, the catalyst composition includes a liquid metal catalyst, water, and one or more ionic compounds (e.g., salts). In some embodiments, the catalyst composition includes a liquid metal catalyst, water, one or more salts, and a caffeine-type compound. In some embodiments, the catalyst composition includes a chelating compound. In some embodiments, the liquid metal catalyst includes gallium and / or indium. In some embodiments, reactor 200a or 200b includes one or more (e.g., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10) water inlets 210a or 210b. In some embodiments, the one or more water inlets 210a or 210b are in fluid communication with a water source (e.g., seawater, polluted runoff, domestic wastewater, commercial wastewater, industrial brine, brackish discharge, groundwater, or other natural water stream). In some embodiments, water inlet 210a or 210b is configured to allow water from the water source to enter the reaction chamber of reactor 200a or 200b for the aluminum-water reaction.In some embodiments, water inlet 210a or 210b is in fluid communication with the water inlets of one or more (e.g., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10) of at least the second reactors. In some embodiments, water inlet 210a or 210b is in fluid communication with a water manifold that is in fluid communication with a shared water source configured to supply water to two or more reactors 200a or 200b. In some embodiments, the water manifold is in fluid communication with the water inlets of at least the first, at least the second, or at least the third energy generation devices.

[0122] In some embodiments, reactor 200a or 200b includes one or more (e.g., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10) reactor outlets 220a or 220b. In some embodiments, the reactor outlets are configured to direct hydrogen and steam from the reaction chamber to a steam separator and / or a process gas outlet. In some embodiments, the reactor outlets are in fluid communication with the steam separator inlet and / or the process gas outlet.

[0123] In some embodiments, reactor 200a or 200b includes a reaction outlet in fluid communication with a reaction inlet of catalyst separator 400a or 400b. In some embodiments, reactor 200a or 200b includes one or more catalyst inlets. In some embodiments, the one or more catalyst inlets are configured to receive a catalyst composition. In some embodiments, one or more reactor outlets are in fluid communication with steam separator 300b. In some embodiments, the reactor outlets are in fluid communication with the steam separator inlets.

[0124] In some embodiments, the reaction chamber of the reactor contains from about 1 gallon (gal) to about 200 gal (e.g., from about 1 gal to about 190 gal, from about 1 gal to about 180 gal, from about 1 gal to about 170 gal, from about 1 gal to about 160 gal, from about 1 gal to about 150 gal, from about 1 gal to about 140 gal, from about 1 gal to about 130 gal, from about 1 gal to about 120 gal, from about 1 gal to about 110 gal, from about 1 gal to about 100 gal, from about 1 gal to about 90 gal, from about 1 gal to about 80 gal, from about 1 gal to about 70 gal, from about 1 gal to about 60 gal, from about 1 gal to about 50 gal, from about 1 gal to about 40 gal, from about 1 gal to about 30 gal, from about 1 gal to about 20 gal, from about 1 gal to about 10 gal, or from about 10 gal). The volume capacity is about 1 to about 200 gal, about 20 gal to about 200 gal, about 30 gal to about 200 gal, about 40 gal to about 200 gal, about 50 gal to about 200 gal, about 60 gal to about 200 gal, about 70 gal to about 200 gal, about 80 gal to about 200 gal, about 90 gal to about 200 gal, about 100 gal to about 200 gal, about 110 gal to about 200 gal, about 120 gal to about 200 gal, about 130 gal to about 200 gal, about 140 gal to about 200 gal, about 150 gal to about 200 gal, about 160 gal to about 200 gal, about 170 gal to about 200 gal, about 180 gal to about 200 gal, or about 190 gal to about 200 gal. In some embodiments, the reactor is fluidly connected to an external tank containing water, aluminum scrap, catalyst, or any combination thereof, hi some embodiments, the reactor is replenished at the end of each operating cycle.

[0125] In some embodiments, the reactor may be configured to transfer hydrogen produced in the reaction chamber of the reactor to a hydrogen consuming device (e.g., a fuel cell) or to two or more (e.g., 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56 , 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, or 100) energy generation devices 100b. In some embodiments, one or more (e.g., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10) hydrogen outlets are in fluid communication with one or more (e.g., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10) hydrogen outlets of at least the second reactor.

[0126] In some embodiments, the reactor may be configured to convert the process gas generated in the reaction chamber of the reactor into two or more (e.g., 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 9, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, or 100) process gas outlets 350a configured to be directed to process gas consuming devices connected to the energy generating devices 100a. In some embodiments, one or more (e.g., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10) process gas outlets are in fluid communication with one or more (e.g., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10) process gas outlets of at least the second reactor.

[0127] In some embodiments, reactor 200a or 200b includes a reaction chamber containing aluminum for the aluminum-water reaction. In some embodiments, the reaction chamber is pre-loaded with activated aluminum. In some embodiments, the reaction chamber is pre-loaded with aluminum that is activated in a hydrogen and / or steam-consuming facility. In some embodiments, the aluminum is activated with a liquid metal catalyst (e.g., indium or gallium) to form activated aluminum. In some embodiments, the aluminum in the reaction chamber is activated with a liquid metal catalyst having a catalyst-to-aluminum mass ratio of about 1% to about 10% (e.g., about 1%, about 2%, about 3%, about 4%, about 5%, about 6%, about 7%, about 8%, about 9%, or about 10%). Water is typically added during operation to control the rate of hydrogen production via the aluminum-water reaction. The devices and systems provided herein, in some embodiments, utilize aluminum as a starting material for the aluminum-water reaction. An efficient reaction requires the destruction of aluminum oxide, which is typically present on exposed aluminum surfaces and prevents the aluminum from reacting with water. The destruction of aluminum oxide is achieved by treating the aluminum surface with a low-melting point liquid metal alloy, which penetrates the grain boundary network of the aluminum and rapidly decomposes the aluminum upon exposure to water, allowing it to subsequently react with water at unoxidized sites along the exposed grains. A method for producing aluminum that may be used in the methods provided herein is described in International PCT Publication No. WO2016196718, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. A method for recycling aluminum scrap metal for use in the methods provided herein is described in U.S. Patent Publication No. US20220074023, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

[0128] In some embodiments, water is introduced into the reaction chamber through a water inlet of the reactor. In some embodiments, water added to the reaction chamber containing activated aluminum produces hydrogen and heat, which causes the water to produce steam. In some embodiments, the hydrogen and water vapor produced by the aluminum-water reaction exit the reaction chamber through one or more reactor outlets and are sent to a steam separator and / or a process gas outlet.

[0129] In some embodiments, the purity of the aluminum is about 80% to about 100%, about 82% to about 100%, about 84% to about 100%, about 86% to about 100%, about 88% to about 100%, about 90% to about 100%, about 92% to about 100%, about 94% to about 100%, about 96% to about 100%, about 98% to about 100%, about 80% to about 98%, about 80% to about 96%, about 80% to about 94%, about 80% to about 92%, about 80% to about 90%, about 80% to about 88%, about 80% to about 86%, about 80% to about 84%, or about 80% to about 82%. In some embodiments, the purity of the aluminum is about 80%, about 82%, about 84%, about 86%, about 88%, about 90%, about 92%, about 94%, about 96%, about 98%, or about 100%. In some embodiments, the activated aluminum is recycled from scrap aluminum. In some embodiments, the activated aluminum is produced from aluminum chips. In some embodiments, the activated aluminum chips are compressed to produce aluminum pellets.

[0130] In some embodiments, the aluminum is recycled from a scrap aluminum source. In some embodiments, the aluminum is in the form of a slurry. In some embodiments, the slurry comprises oil. In certain embodiments, the oil is mineral oil. In some embodiments, the slurry comprises fumed silica. In certain embodiments, the slurry comprises mineral oil and fumed silica.

[0131] In some embodiments, the catalyst composition comprises an ionic salt, a hydroxide, an acid, a low-melting-point liquid metal alloy (e.g., gallium and / or indium), or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the low-melting-point liquid metal alloy is present in the catalyst composition in an amount of about 2 wt.% to about 20 wt.%, about 2 wt.% to about 18 wt.%, about 2 wt.% to about 16 wt.%, about 2 wt.% to about 14 wt.%, about 2 wt.% to about 12 wt.%, about 2 wt.% to about 10 wt.%, about 2 wt.% to about 8 wt.%, or about 2 wt.% to about 4 wt.%. In some embodiments, the low-melting-point liquid metal alloy is present in the catalyst composition in an amount of about 50%, about 60%, about 70%, about 80%, about 90%, about 95%, about 99%, or about 100%. In some embodiments, the catalyst composition consists of a low-melting-point liquid metal alloy. In some embodiments, the low melting point liquid metal alloy is present in the aluminum in an amount of about 1%, about 2%, about 3%, about 4%, about 5%, about 6%, about 7%, about 8%, about 9%, about 10%, about 11%, about 12%, about 13%, about 14%, about 15%, about 16%, about 17%, about 18%, about 19%, or about 20%. In some embodiments, the low melting point liquid metal alloy is recoverable after reacting the aluminum with water. In some embodiments, the low melting point liquid metal alloy is recoverable in an amount of about 50%, about 55%, about 60%, about 65%, about 70%, about 75%, about 80%, about 85%, about 90%, about 95%, or about 100%.

[0132] In some embodiments, reactor 200a or 200b has a maximum operating pressure of about 50 kW to about 10 MW (e.g., about 100 kW to about 10 MW, about 200 kW to about 10 MW, about 300 kW to about 10 MW, about 400 kW to about 10 MW, about 500 kW to about 10 MW, about 600 kW to about 10 MW, about 700 kW to about 10 MW, about 800 kW to about 10 MW, about 900 kW to about 10 MW, about 1 MW to about 10 MW, about 2 MW to about 10 MW, about 3 MW to about 10 MW, about 4 MW to about 10 MW, about 5 MW to about 10 MW, about 6 MW to about 10 MW, about 7 MW to about 10 MW, and configured to generate a continuous thermal output of about 10 MW, about 8 MW to about 10 MW, about 9 MW to about 10 MW, about 50 kW to about 9 MW, about 50 kW to about 8 MW, about 50 kW to about 7 MW, about 50 kW to about 6 MW, about 50 kW to about 5 MW, about 50 kW to about 4 MW, about 50 kW to about 3 MW, about 50 kW to about 2 MW, about 50 kW to about 1 MW, about 50 kW to about 500 kW, about 50 kW to about 400 kW, about 50 kW to about 300 kW, about 50 kW to about 200 kW, about 50 kW to about 100 kW, or about 50 kW to about 75 kW (Table 1).

[0133] In some embodiments, the energy generating device 100a or 100b is capable of peak or maximum thermal output over a discrete period of time. In some embodiments, the period is from about 10 minutes to about 1 hour (e.g., about 10 minutes, about 15 minutes, about 20 minutes, about 25 minutes, about 30 minutes, about 35 minutes, about 40 minutes, about 45 minutes, about 50 minutes, about 55 minutes, or about 1 hour). In some embodiments, the energy generating device is capable of generating 5 MW of peak thermal output per hour. In some embodiments, the energy generating device is capable of generating 1 MW of thermal output per hour. In some embodiments, the energy generating device is capable of generating 1 MW of thermal output continuously. In some embodiments, the energy generating device is capable of generating 10 MW of thermal output per hour. In some embodiments, the energy generating device is capable of generating 10 MW of thermal output continuously. In some embodiments, the energy generating device 100a or 100b is configured to generate thermal output in continuous mode. In some embodiments, an energy generating device operating in continuous mode generates no more than 50 kW of thermal output. In some embodiments, the energy generating device operating in continuous mode produces as much as 10 MW of thermal power, and in some embodiments, the energy generating device operating in continuous mode produces a target thermal power of 1 MW (Table 1).

[0134] In some embodiments, the energy generation apparatus 100a or 100b recovers catalyst (e.g., gallium and / or indium) from the spent catalyst composition at an efficiency of about 97% to about 99.9% by weight. In some embodiments, the catalyst recovery efficiency is targeted at about 97%. In some embodiments, the catalyst recovery efficiency is at least about 95%. In some embodiments, the catalyst recovery efficiency is at most about 99.9% (Table 1).

[0135] In some embodiments, hydrogen produced in the reaction chamber of reactor 200b is separated by steam separator 300b to a purity of about 5% to about 99.999%. In some embodiments, energy generation device 100b and / or energy generation device system 1000 are configured to produce hydrogen at a target efficiency of 99.99% by weight. In some embodiments, device 100b and / or system 1000 produce hydrogen with a purity as low as 5% by weight. In some embodiments, device 100b and / or system 1000 produce hydrogen with a purity as high as 99.999% by weight (Table 1).

[0136] In some embodiments, the aluminum-water reaction is carried out in reactor 200a or 200b at a reaction efficiency of about 93% to about 98%. In some embodiments, energy generation apparatus 100a or 100b and / or energy generation apparatus system 1000 are configured to carry out the aluminum-water reaction at a target reaction efficiency of 97%. In some embodiments, apparatus 100a or 100b and / or system 1000 carry out the aluminum-water reaction at a reaction efficiency as low as 93% by weight. In some embodiments, apparatus 100a or 100b and / or system 1000 carry out the aluminum-water reaction at a reaction efficiency as high as 98% by weight (Table 1).

[0137] In some embodiments, the hydrogen produced within the reaction chamber of the reactor has a relative humidity (RH) of about 0.1% to about 5% by weight. In some embodiments, the energy generation apparatus 100a or 100b and / or the energy generation apparatus system 1000 are configured to produce hydrogen at a target RH of about 1% by weight. In some embodiments, the apparatus 100a or 100b and / or the system 1000 produce hydrogen at a RH as low as 0.1% by weight. In some embodiments, the apparatus 100 and / or the system 1000 produce hydrogen at a RH as high as 100% by weight (Table 1). [Table 1]

[0138] In some embodiments, reactor 200a or 200b of apparatus 100a or 100b is operable to produce a molten metal at a rate of about 50 kg / hr to about 1,000 kg / hr (e.g., about 60 kg / hr to about 1,000 kg / hr, about 70 kg / hr to about 1,000 kg / hr, about 80 kg / hr to about 1,000 kg / hr, about 90 kg / hr to about 1,000 kg / hr, about 100 kg / hr to about 1,000 kg / hr, about 150 kg / hr to about 1,000 kg / hr, or about 200 kg / hr to about 1,000 kg / hr). ,000kg / hour, about 200kg / hour to about 1,000kg / hour, about 250kg / hour to about 1,000kg / hour, about 300kg / hour to about 1,000kg / hour, about 350kg / hour to about 1,000kg / hour, about 400kg / hour to about 1,000kg / hour, about 450kg / hour to about 1,000kg / hour, about 500kg / hour to about 1,000kg / hour, about 550kg / hour to about 1,000kg / hour, Approximately 600 kg / hour to approximately 1,000 kg / hour, approximately 650 kg / hour to approximately 1,000 kg / hour, approximately 700 kg / hour to approximately 1,000 kg / hour, approximately 750 kg / hour to approximately 1,000 kg / hour, approximately 800 kg / hour to approximately 1,000 kg / hour, approximately 850 kg / hour to approximately 1,000 kg / hour, approximately 900 kg / hour to approximately 1,000 kg / hour, approximately 950 kg / hour to approximately 1,000 kg / hour, approximately 50 kg / hour to The system is configured to consume aluminum at a rate of approximately 900 kg / hr, approximately 50 kg / hr to approximately 800 kg / hr, approximately 50 kg / hr to approximately 700 kg / hr, approximately 50 kg / hr to approximately 600 kg / hr, approximately 50 kg / hr to approximately 500 kg / hr, approximately 50 kg / hr to approximately 400 kg / hr, approximately 50 kg / hr to approximately 300 kg / hr, approximately 50 kg / hr to approximately 200 kg / hr, or approximately 50 kg / hr to approximately 100 kg / hr (Table 2).

[0139] In some embodiments, reactor 200a or 200b of apparatus 100a or 100b is configured to react with a molten metal at a rate of about 2 kg / hr to about 40 kg / hr (e.g., about 2 kg / hr to about 35 kg / hr, about 2 kg / hr to about 30 kg / hr, about 2 kg / hr to about 25 kg / hr, about 2 kg / hr to about 20 kg / hr, about 2 kg / hr to about 15 kg / hr, about 2 kg / hr to about 10 kg / hr, about 2 kg / hr to about 5 kg / hr, about 3 kg / hr to about 40 kg / hr, about 4 kg / hr to about 40 kg / hr, about 5 kg / hr to about 6 kg / hr, or about 7 kg / hr to about 8 kg / hr). The catalyst consumption is configured to be about 40 kg / hour, about 6 kg / hour to about 40 kg / hour, about 7 kg / hour to about 40 kg / hour, about 8 kg / hour to about 40 kg / hour, about 9 kg / hour to about 40 kg / hour, about 10 kg / hour to about 40 kg / hour, about 15 kg / hour to about 40 kg / hour, about 20 kg / hour to about 40 kg / hour, about 25 kg / hour to about 40 kg / hour, about 30 kg / hour to about 40 kg / hour, about 35 kg / hour to about 40 kg / hour, about 38 kg / hour to about 40 kg / hour) (Table 2).

[0140] In some embodiments, device 100a or 100b is configured to consume about 15 kW to about 50 kW of electricity (e.g., about 20 kW to about 50 kW of electricity, about 25 kW to about 50 kW of electricity, about 30 kW to about 50 kW of electricity, about 35 kW to about 50 kW of electricity, about 40 kW to about 50 kW of electricity, about 45 kW to about 50 kW of electricity, about 15 kW to about 45 kW of electricity, about 15 kW to about 40 kW of electricity, about 15 kW to about 35 kW of electricity, about 15 kW to about 30 kW of electricity, about 15 kW to about 25 kW of electricity, about 15 kW to about 20 kW of electricity, about 15 kW to about 18 kW of electricity, or about 15 kW to about 17 kW of electricity) (Table 2).

[0141] In some embodiments, apparatus 100a or 100b can process between about 80 gal and about 1,800 gal of water per hour (e.g., between about 80 gal and about 1,800 gal of water per hour, between about 100 gal and about 1,800 gal of water per hour, between about 150 gal and about 1,800 gal of water per hour, between about 200 gal and about 1,800 gal of water per hour, between about 250 gal and about 1,800 gal of water per hour, between about 300 gal and about 1,800 gal of water per hour, between about 350 gal and about 1,800 gal of water per hour, between about 400 gal and about 1,800 gal of water per hour, between about 450 gal and about 1,800 gal of water per hour, between about 500 gal and about 1,800 gal of water per hour, between about 5 ... 00gal to approx. 1,800gal of water, approx. 450gal to approx. 1,800gal of water per hour, approx. 500gal to approx. 1,800gal of water per hour, approx. 550gal to approx. 1,800gal of water per hour, approx. 600gal to approx. 1,800gal of water per hour, approx. 650gal to approx. 1,800gal of water per hour, approx. 700gal to approx. 1,800gal of water per hour, approx. 750gal to approx. 1,800gal of water per hour, approx. 800gal to approx. 1,800gal of water per hour, approx. 850gal to approx. 1,80 0 gal of water, 900 gal to 1,800 gal of water per hour, 950 gal to 1,800 gal of water per hour, 1000 gal to 1,800 gal of water per hour, 1100 gal to 1,800 gal of water per hour, 1200 gal to 1,800 gal of water per hour, 1300 gal to 1,800 gal of water per hour, 1400 gal to 1,800 gal of water per hour, 1500 gal to 1,800 gal of water per hour, 1600 gal to 1,800 gal of water per hour of water, about 1700gal to about 1,800gal of water per hour, about 80gal to about 1,700gal of water per hour, about 80gal to about 1,600gal of water per hour, about 80gal to about 1,500gal of water per hour, about 80gal to about 1,400gal of water per hour, about 80gal to about 1,300gal of water per hour, about 80gal to about 1,800gal of water per hour, about 80gal to about 1,200gal of water per hour, about 80gal to about 1,100gal of water per hour, about 80gal to about 1,000 gal of water, about 80 gal to about 1,800 gal of water per hour, about 80 gal to about 900 gal of water per hour, about 80 gal to about 800 gal of water per hour, about 80 gal to about 700 gal of water per hour, about 80 gal to about 600 gal of water per hour, about 80 gal to about 500 gal of water per hour, about 80 gal to about 400 gal of water per hour, about 80 gal to about 300 gal of water per hour, about 80 gal to about 200 gal of water per hour, about 80 gal to about 150 gal of water per hour, about 80 gal to about 100 gal of water per hour (Table 2). [Table 2]

[0142] In some embodiments, the apparatus 100a or 100b is configured to produce between about 5.5 kg / hr and about 305 kg / hr of hydrogen (Table 3). In some embodiments, the apparatus is configured to produce a target output of 13 kg of hydrogen per hour. In some embodiments, the apparatus is configured to produce as little as 5.5 kg of hydrogen per hour. In some embodiments, the apparatus is configured to produce as much as 305 kg of hydrogen per hour. In some embodiments, for about 120 kg of aluminum per hour introduced into the reaction chamber, about 15 kg of hydrogen per hour and about 700 kg of steam per hour are produced.

[0143] In some embodiments, apparatus 100a or 100b is configured to produce between about 300 kg / hr and about 6,000 kg / hr of steam (Table 3). In some embodiments, the apparatus is configured to produce a target output of 695 kg of steam per hour. In some embodiments, the apparatus is configured to produce as little as 300 kg of steam per hour. In some embodiments, the apparatus is configured to produce as much as 6,000 kg of steam per hour.

[0144] In some embodiments, apparatus 100a or 100b is configured to produce between about 110 kg / hr and about 2,200 kg / hr of AlO(OH) (Table 3). In some embodiments, the apparatus is configured to produce a target output of 261 kg of AlO(OH) per hour. In some embodiments, the apparatus is configured to produce as little as 110 kg of AlO(OH) per hour. In some embodiments, the apparatus is configured to produce as much as 2,200 kg of AlO(OH) per hour.

[0145] In some embodiments, apparatus 100a or 100b is configured to generate between about 280 kg / hour and about 5,600 kg / hour of carbon credits (Table 3). In some embodiments, the apparatus is configured to generate a target output of 662 kg of carbon credits per hour. In some embodiments, the apparatus is configured to generate as little as 280 kg of carbon credits per hour. In some embodiments, the apparatus is configured to generate as much as 5,600 kg of carbon credits per hour.

[0146] In some embodiments, the apparatus provided and described herein is configured to generate about 15 kg / hr of hydrogen and about 750 kg / hr of steam for about 120 kg / hr of aluminum introduced into the reaction chamber. In some embodiments, the apparatus provided and described herein is configured to generate about 15 kg / hr of hydrogen and about 750 kg / hr of steam for about 100 kg / hr of aluminum introduced into the reaction chamber. In some embodiments, the apparatus provided and described herein is configured to generate about 15 kg / hr of hydrogen and about 750 kg / hr of steam for about 80 kg / hr of aluminum introduced into the reaction chamber. In some embodiments, the apparatus provided and described herein is configured to generate about 15 kg / hr of hydrogen and about 750 kg / hr of steam for about 50 kg / hr of aluminum introduced into the reaction chamber. [Table 3]

[0147] Steam separator Provided herein, in some embodiments, is an energy generation apparatus including a steam separator 300b. In some embodiments, the steam separator is configured to substantially separate steam from hydrogen produced by the aluminum-water reaction. In some embodiments, the steam separator includes a steam separator chamber in fluid communication with a steam separator inlet, a steam outlet, and a hydrogen outlet. In some embodiments, the steam separator inlet is in fluid communication with the reactor outlet. The steam separator may, in some embodiments, include one or more (e.g., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10) steam separator inlets 320b (FIG. 2) in fluid communication with one or more (e.g., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10) reactor outlets 220b. In some embodiments, the steam separator includes one or more (e.g., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10) steam outlets 340b (FIG. 2). In some embodiments, the steam separator includes one or more (eg, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10) hydrogen outlets 360b (FIG. 2).

[0148] In some embodiments, vapor separator 300b is configured to separate steam from the hydrogen produced in reactor 200b using any known gas separation process, including, but not limited to, pressure swing adsorption, vacuum swing adsorption, membrane separation, temperature swing adsorption, or cryogenic distillation, or any variation thereof. In some embodiments, the gas separation method used is the same as that described in Pal, N., and Agarwal, M. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, Volume 46, Issue 53, 2021, pp 27062-27087; Grande, CA, International Scholarly Research Network, Volume 2012, Article ID 982934, doi: 10.5402 / 2012 / 982934; Dehdari, L., et al., Chemical Engineering Journal, Volume 450, Part 1, 2022, https: / / doi.org / 10.1016 / j.cej.2022.137911; and Oh, H., et al., European Journal of Inorganic Chemistry, Volume 2016, Issue 27, 2016, pp 4278-4289; Chen, XY, RSC Advances, 2015, 5, 24399-24448, which are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties.

[0149] In some embodiments, the steam separator is configured to separate between about 5% and about 99.999% (e.g., about 5%, about 10%, about 15%, about 20%, about 25%, about 30%, about 35%, about 40%, about 45%, about 50%, about 55%, about 60%, about 65%, about 70%, about 75%, about 80%, about 85%, about 90%, about 95%, about 98%, about 99%, about 99.9%, about 99.99%, or about 99.999%) of the steam produced during the aluminum-water reaction in reactor 200b. Once the steam is separated from the hydrogen, the steam exits the steam separator through steam outlet 340. In some embodiments, reactor outlet 220b is connected directly to hydrogen gas outlet 360b, bypassing steam separator 300b. In some embodiments, the steam separator is configured to separate at least 10% steam from the hydrogen gas. In some embodiments, the steam separator is configured to separate at least 20% steam from the hydrogen gas. In some embodiments, the steam separator is configured to separate at least 30% steam from the hydrogen gas. In some embodiments, the steam separator is configured to separate at least 40% steam from the hydrogen gas. In some embodiments, the steam separator is configured to separate at least 50% steam from the hydrogen gas. In some embodiments, the steam separator is configured to separate at least 60% steam from the hydrogen gas. In some embodiments, the steam separator is configured to separate at least 70% steam from the hydrogen gas. In some embodiments, the steam separator is configured to separate at least 80% steam from the hydrogen gas. In some embodiments, the steam separator is configured to separate at least 85% steam from the hydrogen gas. In some embodiments, the steam separator is configured to separate at least 90% steam from the hydrogen gas. In some embodiments, the steam separator is configured to separate at least 95% of the steam from the hydrogen gas produced by the aluminum-water reaction in the reaction chamber of the reactor. In some embodiments, the steam separator is configured to separate at least 99% of the steam from the hydrogen gas produced by the aluminum-water reaction in the reaction chamber of the reactor.In some embodiments, the steam separator is configured to separate at least 99.999% of the steam from the hydrogen gas produced by the aluminum-water reaction in the reaction chamber of the reactor.

[0150] In some embodiments, the steam outlet 340b is configured to be fluidly connected to one or more (e.g., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10) steam outlets of at least the second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth, ninth, tenth, twentieth, thirtieth, or hundredth energy generating devices 100b in the system 1000 of energy generating devices.

[0151] In some embodiments, the steam separator includes a steam outlet and a steam output line (e.g., a tube, a conduit, a pipe, or any variation thereof) in fluid communication with the inlet of the reaction chamber of at least the second energy generation device. In some embodiments, the steam manifold includes a steam output line (e.g., a tube, a conduit, a pipe, or any variation thereof) in fluid communication with the water inlet of the reaction chamber of at least the second energy generation device.

[0152] In some embodiments, the steam separator is configured as a condenser that separates the steam from the hydrogen by condensing the steam, and in some embodiments, the device condenses the steam and returns it to the reaction chamber to continue the hydrogen-aluminum reaction, rather than substantially producing and consuming the steam.

[0153] In some embodiments, the steam separator is in fluid communication with a heat exchanger. In some embodiments, after the steam is separated from the hydrogen in the steam separator, the steam is sent through a heat exchanger (e.g., a condenser) to convert the steam to liquid water. In some embodiments, the liquid water is discharged from the steam separator through a steam outlet to a steam inlet of the heat exchanger. In some embodiments, the steam separator includes a liquid water outlet for directing water from the steam separator to the steam inlet of the heat exchanger. In some embodiments, the liquid water is directed to a water inlet of the reaction chamber to sustain the aluminum-water reaction.

[0154] catalyst separator Provided herein, in some embodiments, is an energy generation apparatus including a catalyst separator 400a or 400b (FIGS. 1 and 2). In some embodiments, the catalyst separator 400a or 400b includes a catalyst separator chamber in fluid communication with a reaction inlet and a catalyst outlet of the catalyst separator. In some embodiments, the reaction inlet is in fluid communication with a reaction outlet of the reactor 200a or 200b. In some embodiments, the catalyst separator 400a or 400b is in fluid communication with the reactor 200a or 200b and a catalyst collector 500a or 500b (FIGS. 1 and 2). In some embodiments, the reaction inlet of the catalyst separator is in fluid communication with a catalyst pump 800a or 800b. In some embodiments, the catalyst separator 400a or 400b is configured to receive the aluminum-water reaction catalyst composition from the reactor 200a or 200b into the catalyst separator chamber through the reaction outlet of the reactor and the reaction inlet of the catalyst separator. In some embodiments, the catalyst separator 400a or 400b is configured to receive the aluminum-water reaction catalyst composition from a catalyst pump 800a or 800b, which is in fluid communication with the reactor 200a or 200b's reaction outlet and the catalyst separator 400a or 400b's reaction inlet. In some embodiments, the catalyst separator 400a or 400b is configured to receive the aluminum-water reaction catalyst composition from the reactor 200a or 200b into a catalyst separator chamber through the reactor's reaction outlet and the catalyst separator's reaction inlet, and to substantially separate the liquid metal catalyst from the catalyst composition within the catalyst separation chamber. In some embodiments, the catalyst separator 400a or 400b substantially separates the liquid metal catalyst from the catalyst composition after the aluminum-water reaction within the reaction chamber is complete. In some embodiments, the separated liquid metal catalyst is discharged from the catalyst separator through the catalyst separator's catalyst outlet. In some embodiments, the catalyst outlet is in fluid communication with a catalyst collector via the catalyst collector's collector inlet.

[0155] In some embodiments, the catalyst separator is configured to separate about 50% to about 99.999% (e.g., about 55%, about 60%, about 65%, about 70%, about 75%, about 80%, about 85%, about 90%, about 95%, about 98%, about 99%, about 99.9%, about 99.99%, or about 99.999%) of the catalyst (e.g., gallium and / or indium) used during the aluminum-water reaction in reactor 200a or 200b. Once the catalyst is separated from the catalyst composition, the catalyst exits the catalyst separator through one or more (e.g., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10) catalyst separator outlets and is fed to catalyst collector 500a or 500b. In some embodiments, the catalyst separator is configured to separate at least 80% of the catalyst from the catalyst composition. In some embodiments, the catalyst separator is configured to separate at least 85% of the catalyst from the catalyst composition. In some embodiments, the catalyst separator is configured to separate at least 90% of the catalyst from the catalyst composition. In some embodiments, the catalyst separator is configured to separate at least 95% of the catalyst from the catalyst composition. In some embodiments, the catalyst separator is configured to separate at least 99% of the catalyst from the catalyst composition. In some embodiments, the catalyst separator is configured to separate at least 99.9% of the catalyst from the catalyst composition. In some embodiments, the catalyst separator is configured to separate at least 99.99% of the catalyst from the catalyst composition. In some embodiments, the catalyst separator is configured to separate at least 99.999% of the catalyst from the catalyst composition.

[0156] Catalyst Collector Provided herein, in some embodiments, is an energy generation apparatus including a catalyst separator 500a or 500b (FIGS. 1 and 2). In some embodiments, the catalyst collector 500a or 500b includes a collector inlet and a collector outlet, each in fluid communication with the catalyst collector. In some embodiments, the collector inlet is in fluid communication with the catalyst outlet of the catalyst separator. In some embodiments, the collector outlet is in fluid communication with the catalyst inlet of a second energy generation apparatus 100a or 100b. In some embodiments, the collector outlet is in fluid communication with the catalyst inlet of the second energy generation apparatus to form active aluminum in the second energy generation apparatus. In some embodiments, the collector outlet is in fluid communication with the catalyst inlet of a third energy generation apparatus to form active aluminum in the third energy generation apparatus. In some embodiments, the collector outlet of a first energy generation apparatus is in fluid communication with the catalyst inlets of a plurality of energy generation apparatuses and is configured to distribute catalyst to aluminum in a reactor of each energy generation apparatus of the plurality of energy generation apparatuses. In some embodiments, the catalyst collector 500a or 500b includes one or more (e.g., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10) collector inlets configured to be in fluid communication with one or more (e.g., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10) catalyst outlets of the catalyst separator. In some embodiments, the catalyst collector is configured to distribute the catalyst to one or more energy generation devices. In some embodiments, the catalyst collector includes one or more (e.g., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10) outlets in fluid communication with inlets of one or more reactors 200 or one or more energy generation devices 100a or 100b.

[0157] Water Pump Provided herein, in some embodiments, is an energy generation apparatus that includes one or more water pumps 700a or 700b that pump water from a water source (e.g., seawater, polluted runoff, domestic wastewater, commercial wastewater, industrial brine, brackish discharge, groundwater, or other natural water stream) to one or more water inlets of reactors 200a or 200b. In some embodiments, the water pumps are in fluid communication with the water source and with the water inlets of the reactors, and the water pumps are configured to pump water from the water source to the water inlets.

[0158] In some embodiments, the water pump 700a or 700b has a flow rate of about 80 gal / hour to about 1,800 gal / hour (e.g., about 90 gal / hour to about 1,800 gal / hour, about 100 gal / hour to about 1,800 gal / hour, about 150 gal / hour to about 1,800 gal / hour, about 200 gal / hour to about 1,800 gal / hour, about 250 gal / hour to about 1,800 gal / hour, about 300 gal / hour to about 1,800 gal / hour, about 350 gal / hour to about 1,800 gal / hour, Approximately 400gal / hour to approximately 1,800gal / hour, approximately 450gal / hour to approximately 1,800gal / hour, approximately 500gal / hour to approximately 1,800gal / hour, approximately 550gal / hour to approximately 1,800gal / hour, approximately 600gal / hour to approximately 1,800gal / hour, approximately 650gal / hour to approximately 1,800gal / hour, approximately 700gal / hour to approximately 1,800gal / hour, approximately 750gal / hour to approximately 1,800gal / hour, approximately 800gal / hour to approximately 1,800gal / hour, approximately 850gal / hour to approximately 1,800gal / hour, approximately 900gal / hour to approximately 1,800gal / hour, approximately 950gal / hour to approximately 1,800gal / hour, approximately 1,000gal / hour to approximately 1,800gal / hour, approximately 1,100gal / hour to approximately 1,800gal / hour, approximately 1,200gal / hour to approximately 1,800gal / hour, approximately 1,300gal / hour to approximately 1,800gal / hour, approximately 1,400gal / hour to approximately 1,800gal / hour, approximately 1,500gal / hour to approximately 1,800gal / hour, approximately 1 ,600gal / hour to approximately 1,800gal / hour, approximately 1,700gal / hour to approximately 1,800gal / hour, approximately 80gal / hour to approximately 1,700gal / hour, approximately 80gal / hour to approximately 1,600gal / hour, approximately 80gal / hour to approximately 1,500gal / hour, approximately 80gal / hour to approximately 1,400gal / hour, approximately 80gal / hour to approximately 1,300gal / hour, approximately 80gal / hour to approximately 1,200gal / hour, approximately 80gal / hour to approximately 1,100gal / hour, approximately 80gal / hour to approximately 1,000gal / hour, approximately 80gal / hour to approximately 900gal / hour, approximately 80gal / hour to approximately 800gal / hour, approximately 80gal / hour to approximately 700gal / hour, approximately 80gal / hour to approximately 600gal / hour, approximately 80gal / hour to approximately 500gal / hour, approximately 80gal / hour to approximately 450gal / hour, approximately 80gal / hour to approximately 400gal / hour, approximately 80gal / hour to approximately 350gal / hour, approximately 8 0 gal / hour to approximately 300 gal / hour, approximately 80 gal / hour to approximately 250 gal / hour, approximately 80 gal / hour to approximately 200 gal / hour, approximately 80 gal / hour to approximately 150 gal / hour, approximately 80 gal / hour to approximately 130 gal / hour, approximately 80 gal / hour to approximately 120 gal / hour, approximately 80 gal / hour to approximately 110 gal / hour, approximately 80 gal / hour to approximately 100 gal / hour, approximately 80 gal / hour to approximately 90 gal / hour al / hour, about 80gal / hour~about 85gal / hour, about 90gal / hour~about 1,700gal / hour, about 100gal / hour~about 1,600gal / hour, about 150gal / hour~about 1,500 gal / hour, approximately 200gal / hour ~ approximately 1,400gal / hour, approximately 250gal / hour ~ approximately 1,300gal / hour, approximately 300gal / hour ~ approximately 1,200gal / hour, approximately 350gal / hour ~ The reactor 200a or 200b is configured to deliver water at a rate of about 1,100 gal / hour, about 400 gal / hour to about 1,000 gal / hour, about 450 gal / hour to about 900 gal / hour, about 500 gal / hour to about 850 gal / hour, about 550 gal / hour to about 800 gal / hour, about 600 gal / hour to about 750 gal / hour, or about 650 gal / hour to about 700 gal / hour.

[0159] In some embodiments, the apparatus includes one or more shut-off valves configured to isolate one or more components of any of the systems. In some embodiments, the flow rate of water in one or more components of any of the systems can be controlled by increasing or decreasing the power supplied to water pump 700a or 700b.

[0160] Catalyst Pump Provided herein, in some embodiments, is an energy generation apparatus including one or more catalyst pumps 800a or 800b. In some embodiments, the catalyst pump 800a or 800b is in fluid communication with the reactor 200a or 200b's reaction outlet and the catalyst separator's reaction inlet. In some embodiments, the catalyst pump 800a or 800b is configured to pump the catalyst composition from the reactor 200a or 200b to the catalyst separator 400a or 400b. In some embodiments, the catalyst pump 800a or 800b is electrically connected to and draws power from the power outlet of the hydrogen fuel cell. In some embodiments, the catalyst pump 800a or 800b is electrically connected to and draws power from an external power source (e.g., a battery).

[0161] In some embodiments, catalyst pump 800a or 800b has a flow rate of about 80 gal / hour to about 1,800 gal / hour (e.g., about 90 gal / hour to about 1,800 gal / hour, about 100 gal / hour to about 1,800 gal / hour, about 200 gal / hour to about 1,800 gal / hour, about 300 gal / hour to about 1,800 gal / hour, about 400 gal / hour to about 1,800 gal / hour, about 500 gal / hour to about 1,800 gal / hour, about 600 gal / hour to about 1,800 gal / hour, or about 700 gal / hour to about 1,800 gal / hour). Approximately 800gal / hour to approximately 1,800gal / hour, approximately 800gal / hour to approximately 1,800gal / hour, approximately 1,000gal / hour to approximately 1,800gal / hour, approximately 1,100gal / hour to approximately 1,800gal / hour, approximately 1,200gal / hour to approximately 1,800gal / hour, approximately 1,300gal / hour to approximately 1,800gal / hour, approximately 1400gal / hour to approximately 1,800gal / hour, approximately 1500gal / hour to approximately 1,800gal / hour, approximately 1,600gal / hour to approximately 1,800gal / hour, approximately 1,700gal / hour to approximately 1,800gal / hour 00gal / hour, approximately 80gal / hour to approximately 1,700gal / hour, approximately 80gal / hour to approximately 1,600gal / hour, approximately 80gal / hour to approximately 1,500gal / hour, approximately 80gal / hour to approximately 1,400gal / hour, approximately 80gal / hour to approximately 1,300gal / hour, approximately 80gal / hour to approximately 1,200gal / hour, approximately 80gal / hour to approximately 1,100gal / hour, approximately 80gal / hour to approximately 1,000gal / hour, approximately 80gal / hour to approximately 900gal / hour, approximately 80gal / hour to approximately 800gal / hour, approximately 80gal / hour to approximately 7 00gal / hour, about 80gal / hour~about 600gal / hour, about 80gal / hour~about 500gal / hour, about 80gal / hour~about 400gal / hour, about 80gal / hour~about 300gal / hour, about 80gal / hour~about 200gal / hour, about 80gal / hour ~100 gal / hour, approximately 90 gal / hour ~ approximately 1,700 gal / hour, approximately 100 gal / hour ~ approximately 1,600 gal / hour, approximately 150 gal / hour ~ approximately 1,500 gal / hour, or approximately 200 gal / hour ~ approximately 1,400 gal / hour, approximately 250 gal / hour ~ approximately 1,300 gal / hour, about 300 gal / hour to about 1,200 gal / hour, about 450 gal / hour to about 1,100 gal / hour, about 500 gal / hour to about 1,000 gal / hour, about 550 gal / hour to about 900 gal / hour, about 600 gal / hour to about 800 gal / hour, about 650 gal / hour to about 750 gal / hour, or about 700 gal / hour to about 750 gal / hour) of catalyst is sent to catalyst collector 500a or 500b.

[0162] In some embodiments, the apparatus includes one or more shut-off valves configured to isolate one or more components of any of the systems. In some embodiments, the flow rate of catalyst in one or more components of any of the systems can be controlled by increasing or decreasing the power supplied to catalyst pump 800a or 800b. Waste Aluminum Oxide Hydroxide Pump

[0163] In some embodiments, apparatus 100a or 100b includes a waste pump configured to pump the discarded aluminum-water reaction product (e.g., aluminum oxide hydroxide) from the reactor to a waste container. In some embodiments, the discarded aluminum-water reaction product is mixed with water to form a pumpable slurry. In some embodiments, the waste container includes a filter, strainer, sieve, and / or settling chamber configured to separate the solid aluminum-water reaction product from the water. In some embodiments, the waste container includes a compressor configured to reduce the volume of the aluminum-water reaction product. In some embodiments, the compressor reduces the volume of the aluminum-water reaction product by about 10%, about 20%, about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about 60%, about 70%, about 80%, about 90%, or about 99% of its initial volume.

[0164] hydrogen fuel cell Provided herein, in some embodiments, is an energy generation device including a hydrogen fuel cell 600b (FIG. 2). In some embodiments, the hydrogen fuel cell 600b is integrated into the device. In some embodiments, the hydrogen fuel cell 600b is separable from the device. In some embodiments, the hydrogen fuel cell 600b is configured to fit within the interior volume of a shipping container. In some embodiments, the hydrogen fuel cell 600b includes a hydrogen inlet 620b, a water outlet 640b, and a power outlet 660b. In some embodiments, the hydrogen inlet 620b of the hydrogen fuel cell 600b is in fluid communication with one or more of the hydrogen outlets 360b of the steam separator 300b. In some embodiments, the water outlet 640b of the hydrogen fuel cell 600b is in fluid communication with the reaction chamber. In some embodiments, the hydrogen fuel cell is configured to convert hydrogen withdrawn from the steam separator after the steam and hydrogen are separated by the steam separator into electrical power. In some embodiments, the electrical power is delivered to the power outlet 660b of the hydrogen fuel cell. In some embodiments, the power outlet 660b is electrically connected to the power inlet of the catalyst pump 800b and is configured to provide power to the catalyst pump 800b and any other power-consuming components of the apparatus (e.g., a controller, computer, display screen, sensors, valves, among others).

[0165] In some embodiments, the hydrogen fuel cell 600b has a power rating of about 50 kW to about 100 MW (e.g., about 60 kW to about 100 MW, about 70 kW to about 100 MW, about 80 kW to about 100 MW, about 90 kW to about 100 MW, about 100 kW to about 100 MW, about 200 kW to about 100 MW, about 300 kW to about 100 MW, about 400 kW to about 100 MW, about 500 kW to about 100 MW, about 600 kW to about 100 MW, about 700 kW to about 100 MW, about 800 kW to about 100 MW, about 900 kW to about 100 MW, about 100 MW, or about 100 MW). W ~ about 100MW, about 2MW - about 100MW, about 3MW - about 100MW, about 4MW - about 100MW, about 5MW - about 100MW, about 6MW - about 100MW, about 7MW - about 100MW, about 7MW - about 100MW, about 8MW - about 100MW, about 9MW - about 100MW, about 10MW to about 100MW, about 15MW to about 100MW, about 20MW to about 100MW, about 25MW to about 100MW, about 30MW to about 100MW, about 35MW to about 100MW, about 40MW to about 100MW, about 45MW to about 100MW, about 5 0MW to approximately 100MW, approximately 60MW to approximately 100MW, approximately 70MW to approximately 100MW, approximately 80MW to approximately 100MW, approximately 90MW to approximately 100MW, approximately 50kW to approximately 90MW, approximately 50kW to approximately 80MW, approximately 50kW to approximately 70MW, approximately 50kW to approximately 60MW, approximately 50kW to approximately 50MW, approximately 50kW to approximately 40MW, approximately 50kW to approximately 30MW, approximately 50kW to approximately 20MW, approximately 50kW to approximately 10MW, approximately 50kW to approximately 9MW, approximately 50kW to approximately 8MW, approximately 50kW to approximately 7MW, approximately 50kW to approximately 6MW, approximately 50kW to approximately 5 MW, about 50kW to about 4 MW, about 50kW to about 3 MW, about 50kW to about 2 MW, about 50kW to about 1 MW, about 50kW to about 900kW, about 50kW to about 800kW, about 50kW to about 700kW, about 50kW to about 600kW, about 50kW to about 500kW, about 50kW to about 450kW, about 50kW to about 400kW, about 50kW to about 350kW, about 50kW to about 300kW, about 50kW to about 250kW, about 50kW to about 200kW, or about 50kW to about 100kW).

[0166] In some embodiments, a portion of the hydrogen produced in reactor 200b (eg, from the aluminum-water reaction) is used as fuel in a hydrogen fuel cell. In some embodiments, about 0.1% to about 10% (e.g., about 0.5% to about 10%, about 1% to about 10%, about 2% to about 10%, about 3% to about 10%, about 4% to about 10%, about 5% to about 10%, about 6% to about 10%, about 7% to about 10%, about 8% to about 10%, about 9% to about 10%, about 0.1% to about 9%, about 0.1% to about 8%, about 0.1% to about 7%, about 0.1% to about 6%, about 0.1% to about 5%, about 0.1% to about 4%, about 0.1% to about 3%, about 0.1% to about 2%, about 0.1% to about 1%, about 0.1% to about 0.5%) of the hydrogen produced in reactor 200 is used as fuel in a hydrogen fuel cell.

[0167] Controllers and Automation Provided herein, in some embodiments, is an energy generation device that includes a controller. In some embodiments, the controller is a computing device (e.g., a printed circuit board, a microcontroller, a desktop computer, a laptop computer, a smartphone, a tablet, a smartwatch, or any variation thereof) configured to receive one or more performance parameters of the device, process the information in the performance parameters, and adjust the output of steam and / or hydrogen. In some embodiments, the user is a human. In some embodiments, the user is an artificial intelligence program.

[0168] In some embodiments, the controller receives and / or transmits information to and / or from the device in real time, hi some embodiments, the controller receives and / or transmits information to and / or from the device at a rate of about 5 Hz to about 10 Hz (e.g., about 5 Hz, about 6 Hz, about 7 Hz, about 8 Hz, about 9 Hz, or about 10 Hz).

[0169] In some embodiments, the controller includes a software program with an instruction set for controlling performance parameters of the device, hi some embodiments, the software program includes an instruction set that facilitates remote access to device information and remote control of device performance parameters. Hydrogen and steam providing system

[0170] Provided herein, in some embodiments, is a system configured to generate hydrogen, steam, and thermal energy or heat produced by Reaction 1 or a similar exothermic aluminum-water reaction, or Reaction 2 or a similar exothermic aluminum-water reaction. In some embodiments, the system 1000 includes a plurality of energy generation devices 100a and / or 100b in fluid and electrical communication. In some embodiments, each of the energy generation devices in the plurality of energy generation devices is in fluid communication. In some embodiments, each of the energy generation devices in the plurality of energy generation devices is fluidly separated. In some embodiments, fewer than all of the energy generation devices in the plurality of energy devices are in fluid communication with each other. In some embodiments, the system comprises between 2 and 1,000 (e.g., between 2 and 1,000, between 3 and 1,000, between 4 and 1,000, between 5 and 1,000, between 6 and 1,000, between 7 and 1,000, between 8 and 1,000, between 9 and 1,000, between 10 and 1,000, between 20 and 1,000, between 30 and 1,000, between 40 and 1,000, between 50 and 1,000, between 60 and 1,000, between 70 and 1,000, between 80 and 1,000, between 90 and 1,000, between 100 and 1,000, between 200 and 1,000, between 300 and 1,000, between 400 and 1,000) , 500-1,000 units, 600-1,000 units, 700-1,000 units, 800-1,000 units, 900-1,000 units, 2-900 units, 2-800 units, 2-700 units, 2-600 units, 2-500 units, 2-400 units, 2-300 units, 2-200 units, 2-100 units, 2-90 units, 2-80 units, 2-70 units, 2-60 units, 2-50 units, 2-40 units, 2-30 units, 2-20 units, 2-10 units, 2-9 units, 2-8 units, 2-7 units, 2-6 units, 2-5 units, 2-4 units, 2-30 units, 2-20 units, 2-10 units, 2-9 units, 2-8 units, 2-7 units, 2-6 units, 2-5 units, 2-4 units, 2-30 units, 1-2 units, or 1-1.5 units).In some embodiments, a system of devices (e.g., 2 or more devices, 3 or more devices, 4 or more devices, 5 or more devices, 6 or more devices, 7 or more devices, 8 or more devices, 9 or more devices, 10 or more devices, e.g., 20 devices, 30 devices, 40 devices, 50 devices, 60 devices, 70 devices, 80 devices, 90 devices, 100 devices, 200 devices, 300 devices, 400 devices, 500 devices, 600 devices, 700 devices, 800 devices, 900 devices, or 1,000 devices) provides a total system of devices with a power consumption of about 1 MW to about 1,000 MW (e.g., about 10 MW to about 1,000 MW, about and configured to provide a maximum power output of (20 MW to about 1,000 MW, about 30 MW to about 1,000 MW, about 40 MW to about 1,000 MW, about 50 MW to about 1,000 MW, about 60 MW to about 1,000 MW, about 70 MW to about 1,000 MW, about 80 MW to about 1,000 MW, about 90 MW to about 1,000 MW, about 100 MW to about 1,000 MW, about 200 MW to about 1,000 MW, about 300 MW to about 1,000 MW, about 400 MW to about 1,000 MW, about 500 MW to about 1,000 MW, about 600 MW to about 1,000 MW, about 700 MW to about 1,000 MW, about 800 MW to about 1,000 MW, or about 900 MW to about 1,000 MW). In some embodiments, fewer than all of the energy generating devices of the plurality of energy generating devices are in fluid communication with each other.

[0171] In some embodiments, the system includes one or more pelletizers (FIG. 6). In some embodiments, one or more of the devices in the system is a pelletizer. In some embodiments, the pelletizer includes a conduit connected to a reaction chamber of one or more energy generating devices of the system.

[0172] In some embodiments, multiple energy-generating devices are connected in a horizontal configuration (e.g., a horizontal chain of energy devices). In some embodiments, multiple energy-generating devices are connected in a vertical configuration. In some embodiments, multiple devices are stacked vertically, with 2 to 10 devices. In some embodiments, multiple devices are stacked vertically, with 2 to 5 devices, as shown in FIG. 3. In some embodiments, a system of vertically stacked apparatuses (100a / b-1, 100a / b-2, 100a / b-3) includes a first apparatus (100a / b-1) having one or more components of the apparatus described herein (e.g., reactor 200a or 200b, steam separator 300b, catalyst separator 400a or 400b, catalyst collector 500a or 500b, hydrogen fuel cell 600b, or any combination thereof), and the remaining apparatuses (100a / b-2 and 100a / b-3) contain only aluminum scrap until it is contacted with the catalyst from the first apparatus (100a / b-1) to form activated aluminum, and then contacted with water to perform the aluminum-water reaction (see FIG. 3 ).

[0173] In some embodiments of the system 1000, the first apparatus 100a or 100b and the second apparatus are operated and / or arranged separately, in parallel, or in series. The first apparatus and the second apparatus can be operated and / or arranged separately, in parallel, and / or in series with additional apparatus, which in some embodiments can be up to 1, up to 2, up to 3, up to 4, up to 5, up to 10, up to 15, up to 50, up to 100, up to 500, or up to 1,000 apparatuses, or any number of apparatuses in between. In some embodiments, one or more of the reactor, steam separator, catalyst separator, catalyst collector, hydrogen fuel cell, water outlet, steam outlet, power outlet, water pump, and catalyst pump of the first apparatus are shared with the second apparatus. In some embodiments, one or more of the reactor, steam separator, catalyst separator, catalyst collector, hydrogen fuel cell, water outlet, steam outlet, power outlet, water pump, and catalyst pump of the first unit are shared with the second unit, the third unit, and any one or more additional devices. In some embodiments, some of the energy generating units in a system of energy generating units are in fluid communication.

[0174] In some embodiments, the catalyst collector of a first energy generating device of the plurality of energy generating devices is in fluid communication with the catalyst inlet of the reactor of at least a second energy generating device of the plurality of energy generating devices. In some embodiments, the catalyst collector of a first energy generating device of the plurality of energy generating devices is in fluid communication with the catalyst inlet of the reactor of at least a third energy generating device of the plurality of energy generating devices. In some embodiments, the catalyst collector of a first energy generating device of the plurality of energy generating devices is in fluid communication with the catalyst inlet of the reactor of each energy generating device of the plurality of energy generating devices. In some embodiments, the catalyst collector of a first device 100a or 100b in a system of vertically stacked devices is in fluid communication with one or more catalyst inlets of the reactor of at least a second, third, or more devices. In some embodiments, the catalyst collector of a first device 100a or 100b in a system of vertically stacked devices is in fluid communication with one or more catalyst collectors of the system. In some embodiments, the catalyst collector is in fluid communication with one or more of the devices in the vertically stacked system. In some embodiments, the catalyst collector is configured to distribute catalyst to multiple devices simultaneously, hi some embodiments, the catalyst collector is configured to distribute catalyst sequentially (e.g., one at a time, two at a time, three at a time, etc.) to 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10 or more devices in a system of vertically stacked devices.

[0175] In some embodiments, the catalyst collector of a first of the plurality of energy generating devices is in fluid communication with a catalyst inlet of a reactor of at least a second, a third, or many of the plurality of energy generating devices. In some embodiments, the catalyst collector of a first of the plurality of energy generating devices is in fluid communication with a catalyst inlet of a reactor of each of the plurality of energy generating devices.

[0176] In some embodiments, the energy generation system includes a controller electrically connected to at least one unit of the plurality of energy generation units. In some embodiments, the energy generation system includes a controller electrically connected to at least two units of the plurality of energy generation units. In some embodiments, the energy generation system includes a controller electrically connected to at least three units of the plurality of energy generation units. In some embodiments, the energy generation system includes a controller electrically connected to each unit of the plurality of energy generation units. In some embodiments, the controller is configured to regulate the hydrogen output and / or steam output of the system. In some embodiments, the controller is configured to direct the plurality of energy generation units to function in a sequential mode. In some embodiments, the controller is configured to direct the plurality of energy generation units to function in a parallel mode.

[0177] Pellet manufacturing equipment In some embodiments, the system includes a pelletizing apparatus ( FIG. 6 ), also referred to herein as a pelletizer. In some embodiments, the pelletizing apparatus includes an aluminum scrap inlet, an aluminum scrap chipper, a compactor, and a pellet outlet. In some embodiments, the chipper is configured to provide aluminum chips to the compactor, and the compactor is configured to exert a compressive force on each of the aluminum chips to form a plurality of aluminum pellets. In some embodiments, the pellet outlet accesses a reaction chamber of a reactor of an energy generating device via a conduit (e.g., a tube, a line, a pipe, a conveyor belt, or any variation thereof) to provide pellets to the energy generating device. In some embodiments, the pelletizing apparatus is configured to fit within the interior volume of a shipping container. In some embodiments, the pelletizer is fully automated. In some embodiments, the pelletizer is electrically connected to a controller of the system and configured to be remotely controlled.

[0178] In some embodiments, the pellet has a diameter of about 5 mm to about 10 cm (e.g., about 1 cm to about 10 cm, about 2 cm to about 10 cm, about 3 cm to about 10 cm, about 4 cm to about 10 cm, about 5 cm to about 10 cm, about 6 cm to about 10 cm, about 7 cm to about 10 cm, about 8 cm to about 10 cm, about 9 cm to about 10 cm, about 5 mm to about 9 cm, about 5 mm to about 8 cm, about 5 mm to about 7 cm, about 5 mm to about 6 cm, about 5 mm to about 5 cm, about 5 mm to about 4 cm, about 5 mm to about 3 cm, about 5 mm to about 2 cm, or about 5 mm to about 1 cm). In some embodiments, the pellet has a shape or form that includes a spherical, ovoid, or cylindrical shape. In some embodiments, the aluminum has a diameter of about 1 μm to about 100 μm (e.g., about 1 μm, about 2 μm, about 3 μm, about 4 μm, about 5 μm, about 6 μm, about 7 μm, about 8 μm, about 9 μm, about 10 μm, about 11 μm, about 12 μm, about 13 μm, about 14 μm, about 15 μm, about 16 μm, about 17 μm, about 18 μm, about 19 μm, about 20 μm, about 21 μm, about 22 μm, about 23 μm, about 24 μm, about 25 μm, about 26 μm, about 27 μm, about 28 μm, about 29 μm, about 30 μm, about 31 μm, about 32 μm, about 33 μm, about 34 μm, about 35 μm, about 36 μm, about 37 μm, about 38 μm, about 39 μm, about 40 μm, about 41 μm, about 42 μm, about 43 μm, about 44 μm, about 45 μm, about 46 μm, about 47 μm, about 48 μm, about 49 μm, about 50 μm, about 51 μm, about 52 μm, about 53 μm, about 54 μm, about 55 μm, about 56 μm, about 57 μm, about 58 μm, about 59 μm, about 60 μm, about 61 μm, about 62 μm, about 63 μm, about 64 μm, about 65 μm, about 66 μm, about 67 μm, about 68 μm, about 69 μm, about 70 μm, about 3μm, about 24μm, about 25μm, about 26μm, about 27μm, about 28μm, about 29μm, about 30μm, about 31μm, about 32μm, about 33μm, about 34μm, about 35μm, about 36μm, Approximately 37μm, approximately 38μm, approximately 39μm, approximately 40μm, approximately 41μm, approximately 42μm, approximately 43μm, approximately 44μm, approximately 45μm, approximately 46μm, approximately 47μm, approximately 48μm, approximately 49μm, approximately 50μ m, approximately 51μm, approximately 52μm, approximately 53μm, approximately 54μm, approximately 55μm, approximately 56μm, approximately 57μm, approximately 58μm, approximately 59μm, approximately 60μm, approximately 61μm, approximately 62μm, approximately 63μm, approximately 6 4μm, about 65μm, about 66μm, about 67μm, about 68μm, about 69μm, about 70μm, about 71μm, about 72μm, about 73μm, about 74μm, about 75μm, about 76μm, about 77μm, The composition may be provided in powder form having a powder particle size of about 78 μm, about 79 μm, about 80 μm, about 81 μm, about 82 μm, about 83 μm, about 84 μm, about 85 μm, about 86 μm, about 87 μm, about 88 μm, about 89 μm, about 90 μm, about 91 μm, about 92 μm, about 93 μm, about 94 μm, about 95 μm, about 96 μm, about 97 μm, about 98 μm, about 99 μm, or about 100 μm.

[0179] How to use Provided herein, in some embodiments, are methods that include using the energy generation devices and / or systems described herein to provide hydrogen and steam. In some embodiments, the methods provided and described herein include delivering one or more energy generation devices 100a or 100b provided and described herein from a first location to a hydrogen and / or steam and / or process gas consuming location having at least one steam inlet and / or at least one hydrogen inlet and / or at least one process gas inlet, and providing instructions for conducting an aluminum-water reaction by introducing water into a water inlet of the energy generation device. In some embodiments, the steam inlet and the hydrogen inlet are configured as a combined inlet. In some embodiments, the methods provided and described herein include introducing water into a reactor and extracting energy in the form of hydrogen, steam, and / or heat from an energetically dense metal. In some embodiments, the energetically dense metal includes aluminum.

[0180] In some embodiments, the methods provided herein include providing instructions for activating aluminum in a reaction chamber using a liquid metal catalyst to produce activated aluminum at a hydrogen and / or steam and / or process gas consumption facility when the aluminum is delivered in an inactivated form. In some embodiments, the method includes activating the aluminum at a first location prior to delivery of the energy generation device to the hydrogen and / or steam and / or process gas consumption facility. In some embodiments, the method includes activating the aluminum in a reaction chamber having a catalyst to aluminum mass ratio of about 1% to about 10%.

[0181] In some embodiments, the method includes providing instructions to fluidly connect a hydrogen outlet and / or a process gas outlet of the energy generation device to a hydrogen inlet and / or a process gas inlet of a hydrogen and / or steam and / or process gas consuming facility prior to performing the aluminum-water reaction. In some embodiments, the method includes providing instructions to fluidly connect a steam outlet of the energy generation device to a steam inlet of a hydrogen and / or steam and / or process gas consuming facility prior to performing the aluminum-water reaction.

[0182] In some embodiments, the method includes receiving one or more energy generation devices 100a or 100b as provided and described herein from a first location into a hydrogen and / or steam consuming location having at least one steam inlet, at least one hydrogen inlet, and / or at least one process gas inlet, and generating hydrogen and steam by conducting an aluminum-water reaction by introducing water to the aluminum through a water inlet into the chamber. In some embodiments, the method includes conducting an aluminum-water reaction in series by introducing water to two or more devices at separate times or over non-overlapping time periods. In some embodiments, the method includes conducting an aluminum-water reaction in parallel by introducing water to two or more devices substantially simultaneously or over overlapping time periods.

[0183] In some embodiments, the steam inlet and the hydrogen inlet are configured as a combined inlet (e.g., a process gas inlet). In some embodiments, the method includes activating aluminum in the reaction chamber to produce activated aluminum using a liquid metal catalyst at a hydrogen and / or steam and / or process gas consuming facility when the aluminum is received in an unactivated form. In some embodiments, the aluminum is activated in situ. In some embodiments, the method includes fluidly connecting a hydrogen outlet or a process gas outlet of the energy generating device to a hydrogen inlet or a process gas inlet of a hydrogen and / or steam consuming and / or process gas facility before conducting the aluminum-water reaction. In some embodiments, the method includes fluidly connecting a steam outlet of the energy generating device to a steam inlet of a hydrogen and / or steam and / or process gas consuming facility before conducting the aluminum-water reaction. In some embodiments, the method includes fluidly connecting a water inlet of the energy generating device to a water source. In some embodiments, the method includes fluidly connecting a water inlet of the energy generating device to a water source. In some embodiments, the method includes pumping water from the water source through the water inlet into the reaction chamber, thereby conducting the aluminum-water reaction. In some embodiments, the method includes producing heat, hydrogen, and one or more additional reaction products, thereby producing steam from the heat and water. In some embodiments, the method includes routing the hydrogen and steam to a steam separator, substantially separating the hydrogen from the steam, and routing the hydrogen through a hydrogen outlet and the steam through a steam outlet. In some embodiments, the method includes routing the hydrogen and steam to a process gas outlet. In some embodiments, the method includes, after completion of the aluminum-water reaction in the reactor, pumping the catalyst composition from a reaction outlet of the reactor to a reaction inlet of a catalyst separator and into a catalyst separator chamber. In some embodiments, the method includes substantially separating the liquid metal catalyst from the catalyst composition in the catalyst separator chamber and routing the liquid metal catalyst to a catalyst outlet of the catalyst separator.In some embodiments, the method includes passing the liquid metal catalyst from the catalyst outlet through a collector inlet of the catalyst collector to a catalyst collector. In some embodiments, the catalyst collector includes a collector outlet and a collector chamber, all in fluid communication with the collector inlet. In some embodiments, the method includes passing the liquid metal catalyst from the catalyst collector to at least a second energy generation device. In some embodiments, the method includes passing the liquid metal catalyst from the collector outlet to a catalyst inlet of a reactor of at least a second energy generation device.

[0184] In some embodiments, the method includes drawing hydrogen from a hydrogen outlet of the steam separator to a hydrogen fuel cell and converting the hydrogen to electricity and water in the hydrogen fuel cell. In some embodiments, the method includes routing water produced by the hydrogen fuel cell to a water inlet of the reactor. In some embodiments, the method includes routing electricity produced by the hydrogen fuel cell to an electricity outlet.

[0185] In some embodiments, the apparatus is pre-loaded with a batch of activated aluminum. In some embodiments, the batch of activated aluminum is about 1 ton to about 25 tons (e.g., about 1 ton to about 24 tons, about 1 ton to about 23 tons, about 1 ton to about 22 tons, about 1 ton to about 21 tons, about 1 ton to about 20 tons, about 1 ton to about 19 tons, about 1 ton to about 18 tons, about 1 ton to about 17 tons, about 1 ton to about 16 tons, about 1 ton to about 15 tons, about 1 ton to about 14 tons, about 1 ton to about 13 tons, about 1 ton to about 12 tons, about 1 ton to about 11 tons, about 1 ton to about 10 tons, about 1 ton to about 9 tons, about 1 ton to about 8 tons, about 1 ton to about 7 tons, about 1 ton to about 6 tons, about 1 ton to about 5 tons, about 1 ton to about 4 tons, about 1 ton to about 5 tons, about 1 ton to about 6 tons, about 1 ton to about 7 tons, about 1 ton to about 8 tons, about 1 ton to about 9 ...10 tons, about 1 ton The weight is about 3 tons, about 2 tons to about 24 tons, about 3 tons to about 24 tons, about 4 tons to about 24 tons, about 5 tons to about 24 tons, about 6 tons to about 24 tons, about 7 tons to about 24 tons, about 8 tons to about 24 tons, about 9 tons to about 24 tons, about 10 tons to about 24 tons, about 11 tons to about 24 tons, about 12 tons to about 24 tons, about 13 tons to about 24 tons, about 14 tons to about 24 tons, about 15 tons to about 24 tons, about 16 tons to about 24 tons, about 17 tons to about 24 tons, about 18 tons to about 24 tons, about 19 tons to about 24 tons, about 20 tons to about 24 tons, about 21 tons to about 24 tons, about 22 tons to about 24 tons, or about 23 tons to about 24 tons.

[0186] In some embodiments, the units are pre-loaded with any amount of aluminum described herein and delivered to a site of consumption (e.g., a hydrogen and / or steam and / or process gas consumption facility). In some embodiments, after delivery of the energy generation device and / or system, the aluminum in each unit is subsequently contacted with a catalyst composition to form active aluminum. In some embodiments, after receiving the energy generation device and / or system, the aluminum in each unit is contacted with a catalyst composition to form active aluminum.

[0187] In some embodiments, the method includes delivering at least one additional energy generation device to form a plurality of energy generation devices and providing instructions for carrying out an aluminum-water reaction on the plurality of energy generation devices. In some embodiments, the method includes receiving at least one additional energy generation device to form a plurality of energy generation devices and carrying out an aluminum-water reaction on the plurality of energy generation devices. In some embodiments, the plurality of energy generation devices includes between 2 and 1,000 devices. In some embodiments, the plurality of devices are in fluid communication with a shared water source (e.g., a main water pipe connected to a manifold that delivers water to all of the inlets of the reactors in the plurality of devices). In some embodiments, at least two, at least three, at least four, at least five, at least six, at least seven, at least eight, at least nine, at least ten, at least fifteen, at least twenty, at least twenty-five, at least thirty, at least fifty, all, up to two, up to three, up to four, up to five, up to six, up to seven, up to eight, up to nine, up to ten, up to fifteen, up to twenty, up to twenty-five, up to thirty, up to fifty, or none of the plurality of energy generation devices are fluidly connected to a shared water source. In some embodiments, the method includes producing hydrogen at a rate of about 5.5 kg / hr to about 110 kg / hr using the plurality of energy generation devices when water is introduced into the reaction chamber after aluminum is activated by the liquid metal catalyst. In some embodiments, the method includes producing steam at a rate of about 300 kg / hr to about 6000 kg / hr using the plurality of energy generation devices when water is introduced into the reaction chamber after aluminum is activated by the liquid metal catalyst. In some embodiments, the method includes generating a continuous thermal power output of about 50 kW to about 10 MW using a plurality of energy generating devices when water is introduced into the reaction chamber after the aluminum is activated by the liquid metal catalyst.

[0188] In some embodiments, the method includes directing the sequencing and / or running of aluminum-water reactions in series by introducing water to two or more devices at separate times or over non-overlapping time periods. In some embodiments, the method includes directing the sequencing and / or running of aluminum-water reactions in parallel by introducing water to two or more devices substantially simultaneously or over overlapping time periods. In some embodiments, the aluminum-water reaction is run sequentially (e.g., at a series of time points) by introducing water to a subset of devices in a system of energy generation devices. In some embodiments, the aluminum-water reaction is run simultaneously in all devices in the system.

[0189] In some embodiments, apparatus 100a or 100b and system 1000 are configured to continuously produce hydrogen and steam (e.g., continuous mode). In some embodiments, apparatus 100a or 100b and system 1000 are configured to produce hydrogen and steam in separate batches (e.g., batch mode). In some embodiments, the duration of an operating cycle of the apparatus and system is about 1 hour to about 72 hours (e.g., about 1 hour to 70 hours, about 1 hour to 60 hours, about 1 hour to 50 hours, about 1 hour to 40 hours, about 1 hour to 30 hours, about 1 hour to 20 hours, about 1 hour to 10 hours, about 1 hour to 5 hours, about 5 hours to 72 hours, about 10 hours to 72 hours, about 20 hours to 72 hours, about 30 hours to 72 hours, about 40 hours to 72 hours, about 50 hours to 72 hours, about 60 hours to 72 hours, or about 65 hours to 72 hours). In some embodiments, the system has a continuous operating time of about 48 hours.

[0190] In some embodiments, the method includes using aluminum as an energy carrier. In some embodiments, the method includes reacting activated aluminum with water using any embodiment of the energy generation device and / or system described herein. In some embodiments, the method includes collecting aluminum oxide hydroxide as a waste product of the aluminum-water reaction, subjecting the aluminum oxide hydroxide to calcination to form aluminum oxide, and electrochemically reducing the aluminum oxide to form aluminum.

[0191] In some embodiments, the methods described herein include delivering an energy generation apparatus and / or system of any embodiment described and provided herein from a first location to a hydrogen and / or steam and / or process gas consuming facility having at least one steam inlet and at least one hydrogen inlet, or at least one process gas inlet, to provide hydrogen and steam, and conducting an aluminum-water reaction by introducing water into the water inlet of the energy generation apparatus. In some embodiments, the apparatus is pre-loaded with aluminum in the reaction chamber. In some embodiments, the aluminum in the reaction chamber is activated at the first location. In some embodiments, the aluminum is activated at the hydrogen and / or steam consuming facility.

[0192] In some embodiments, the activated aluminum comprises aluminum pieces having various sizes and shapes. In some embodiments, the aluminum comprises aluminum pieces of a first shape and at least a second shape. In some embodiments, the aluminum comprises aluminum pieces of a first size and at least a second size. In some embodiments, the method includes providing instructions to arrange the aluminum pieces within a reaction chamber of a reactor in a configuration that increases in size relative to a water inlet and / or a catalyst inlet of the reactor. In some embodiments, the method includes arranging the aluminum pieces within a reaction chamber of a reactor in a configuration that increases in size relative to a water inlet and / or a catalyst inlet of the reactor. In some embodiments, arranging the aluminum pieces includes organizing the aluminum pieces in a configuration such that the smallest aluminum pieces are exposed to water first, followed by the aluminum pieces in order of increasing size. In some embodiments, a first subset of the aluminum pieces within the reactor react with water before at least a second subset of the aluminum pieces. In some embodiments, the method includes arranging a plurality of aluminum pieces in a configuration that increases in size relative to one or more reactor inlets.

[0193] In some embodiments, the first size of the aluminum pieces to be placed in the reaction chamber has a diameter determined by sieve sorting, screen sorting, or gravity sorting, of about 10 μm to about 1,000 μm (e.g., about 10 μm to about 1,000 μm, about 20 μm to about 1,000 μm, about 30 μm to about 1,000 μm, about 40 μm to about 1,000 μm, about 50 μm to about 1,000 μm, about 60 μm to about 1,000 μm, about 70 μm to about 1,000 μm, or about 80 μm to about 1,000 μm). about 1,000 μm, about 80 μm to about 1,000 μm, about 90 μm to about 1,000 μm, about 100 μm to about 1,000 μm, about 200 μm to about 1,000 μm, about 300 μm to about 1,000 μm, about 400 μm to about 1,000 μm, about 500 μm to about 1,000 μm, about 600 μm to about 1,000 μm, about 700 μm to about 1,000 μm, about 800 μm to about 1,000 μm, or about 900 μm to about 1,000 μm).

[0194] In some embodiments, the second size of the aluminum pieces to be placed in the reaction chamber has a diameter determined by sieve sorting, screen sorting, or gravity sorting, of about 0.1 mm to about 10 mm (e.g., about 0.2 mm to about 10 mm, about 0.3 mm to about 10 mm, about 0.4 mm to about 10 mm, about 0.5 mm to about 10 mm, about 0.6 mm to about 10 mm, about 0.7 mm to about 10 mm, about 0.8 mm to about 10 mm, about 0.9 mm to about 10 mm, about 1 mm to about 10 mm, about 2 mm to about 10 mm, about 3 mm to about 10 mm, about 4 mm to about 10 mm, about 5 mm to about 10 mm, about 6 mm to about 10 mm, about 7 mm to about 10 mm, about 8 mm to about 10 mm, or about 9 mm to about 10 mm).

[0195] In some embodiments, the third size of the aluminum pieces to be placed in the reaction chamber has a diameter determined by sieve sorting, screen sorting, or gravity sorting of about 0.1 cm to about 10 cm (e.g., about 0.2 cm to about 10 cm, about 0.3 cm to about 10 cm, about 0.4 cm to about 10 cm, about 0.5 cm to about 10 cm, about 0.6 cm to about 10 cm, about 0.7 cm to about 10 cm, about 0.8 cm to about 10 cm, about 0.9 cm to about 10 cm, about 1 cm to about 10 cm, about 2 cm to about 10 cm, about 3 cm to about 10 cm, about 4 cm to about 10 cm, about 5 cm to about 10 cm, about 6 cm to about 10 cm, about 7 cm to about 10 cm, about 8 cm to about 10 cm, or about 9 cm to about 10 cm).

[0196] In some embodiments, the method includes sourcing aluminum from a source of recycled scrap aluminum. In some embodiments, the method includes sourcing aluminum from aluminum chips. In some embodiments, the method includes sourcing aluminum from compressed aluminum chips in the form of aluminum pellets. In some embodiments, the aluminum pellets have a diameter of about 1 cm to about 30 cm and a height of about 1 cm to about 10 cm, as determined by sieve sorting, screen sorting, or gravity sorting. In some embodiments, the method includes introducing water to a water inlet to carry out an aluminum-water reaction comprising interacting aluminum, a catalyst composition, and water. In some embodiments, the liquid metal catalyst includes gallium and / or indium.

[0197] Provided herein, in some embodiments, are methods that include using aluminum as a renewable energy carrier. In some embodiments, the methods provided and described herein include producing an energy-dense metal (e.g., aluminum) using a renewable energy process (e.g., solar energy, wind energy, hydrothermal energy, hydroelectric energy, tidal energy, geothermal energy, biomass energy, nuclear energy, electricity, or any combination thereof). In some embodiments, producing the energy-dense metal includes electrochemically reducing aluminum oxide. In some embodiments, the hydrogen and / or steam consuming facility is selected from the list including an internal combustion engine, an external hydrogen fuel cell, a calciner, a furnace, a Haber-Bosch plant, an oil refinery, a fertilizer plant, a methanol plant, a methane blending power plant, a metal recycling plant, an alumina refinery, a power plant, a port terminal, or a marine vessel. These methods include introducing a metal and a catalyst into a reactor, transporting the reactor from the production site to the hydrogen and / or steam consuming facility, and introducing water into the reactor to extract energy from the metal in the form of hydrogen, steam, and / or heat. In some embodiments, the energetically dense metal comprises aluminum, hi some embodiments, extracting energy from the metal comprises an exothermic aluminum-water reaction.

[0198] Provided herein, in some embodiments, is a method that includes providing activated aluminum within a reactor of any embodiment of the apparatus and / or system described and provided herein, delivering water to the activated aluminum, contacting the water with the activated aluminum to produce heat, hydrogen gas, and one or more additional reaction products, thereby producing steam from the heat and water, substantially separating the steam from the hydrogen gas, and directing the hydrogen gas to a hydrogen outlet. In some embodiments, the method includes directing the steam to a steam outlet.

[0199] In some embodiments, the method includes consuming hydrogen gas produced by the aluminum-water reaction (e.g., Reaction 1 and / or Reaction 2) in a fuel cell. In some embodiments, the method includes using steam produced by the aluminum-water reaction to generate electricity, run a turbine, power ambient heating, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the method includes separating the liquid metal catalyst from the activated aluminum. In some embodiments, the method includes condensing the steam in a condenser in fluid communication with the steam outlet.

[0200] In some embodiments, the method includes delivering a liquid metal catalyst to an interior of a second reactor through a second catalyst inlet, the second reactor including aluminum, a second water inlet, a second reaction outlet, a second reactor outlet, and a second reaction chamber. In some embodiments, the method includes delivering water to activated aluminum through the second water inlet, contacting the water with the activated aluminum to form heat, hydrogen gas, and one or more additional reaction products, thereby producing steam from the heat and water, substantially separating the steam from the hydrogen gas, directing the steam to a second steam outlet, and directing the hydrogen to a second hydrogen outlet.

[0201] In some embodiments, steam produced during the aluminum-water reaction is condensed and / or directed into the reaction chamber of at least a second energy generating device to accelerate the activation of aluminum by catalytic reaction and / or to raise the temperature of the reaction chamber to an operating temperature before water is introduced into the reaction chamber.

[0202] Regardless of the specific application of the apparatus, systems, and methods provided and described herein, once the aluminum reaction is complete, the AlOOH is collected at a central processing facility and purified to an appropriate degree, potentially for resale into the global supply chain as AlOOH, Al(OH)3, or even Al2O3 (a derivative of AlOOH that is easily produced by calcination). This resale is shown as the final step in Figure 4. As shown in Figure 5, AlOOH can also be fed directly into the primary aluminum smelting process by first calcining it to Al2O3 and then electrochemically reducing it, such as using the standard Hall-Heroult process. From a global supply chain perspective, this step essentially "recharges" the material, storing a significant amount of energy per unit mass that can later be extracted for the various uses described herein. Figure 4 illustrates one application where aluminum scrap is collected, converted into modular, containerized fuel packs, and then distributed to end uses where its energy can be extracted and utilized. In this illustrated application, fuel packs are loaded onto a ship, which then uses the stored energy for propulsion, auxiliary power, heat, and any remaining energy needs of the ship. This same scenario and similar applications can alternatively be powered by primary aluminum smelted using renewable energy, as shown in Figure 5. While these figures show maritime shipping as an application of the aluminum energy storage concept, there are many other applications that would benefit from the transportation of aluminum as an energy carrier. [Example]

[0203] The invention provided and described herein may be better understood by reference to the following non-limiting examples. The following examples are presented to more fully illustrate embodiments of the devices, systems, and methods described and provided herein. However, they should in no way be construed as limiting the broad scope of the invention described and provided herein.

[0204] Example 1. Providing hydrogen and steam to a transport ship

[0205] This example describes a system for generating energy on demand in the form of hydrogen and heat on board a transport vessel. The system is comprised of an internal 15m2 vessel containing 10 tonnes of aluminium pre-treated with a liquid metal-based catalyst and other supporting subsystems. 3 The system has the general shape of a shipping container, measuring 20 feet long, 8 feet wide, and 4 feet 3 inches high, and is capable of being mounted and transported in any type of container-supported transport mode. Once the system is loaded onto the transport vessel and secured, the operator connects a seawater hose, which is supplied with water from one of the transport vessel's water pumps. The operator also connects a hydrogen hose and a steam hose to the system's outlet, which is connected to the transport vessel's system. Next, the valve controlling the seawater inlet is opened, allowing seawater to flow into the reactor and initiate the aluminum-water reaction. The system can produce 970 kg of hydrogen and a total of 75 MWh of thermal energy with an output of 0.4 to 5 MW. After the energy is consumed and the aluminum is consumed, the system is unloaded from the transport vessel and sent back for a recycling process that includes recapturing the catalyst, removing the AlOOH and / or Al(OH)3 by-product, and recharging with new aluminum.

[0206] Example 2. Providing hydrogen and steam to an ammonia synthesis plant

[0207] This example describes a system that produces energy in the form of hydrogen and heat on demand from the synthesis of ammonia. The system is comprised of an internal 15m2 reactor containing 10 tonnes of aluminium pretreated with a liquid metal-based catalyst and other supporting subsystems. 3The system is constructed of a reactor with a typical shape of a shipping container, measuring 20 feet long, 8 feet wide, and 4 feet 3 inches high, and is capable of being mounted and transported using any type of container-supported transport mode. Once the system is delivered to the ammonia synthesis facility and secured in place, the operator connects a water hose, through which water is supplied by a water pump. The operator also connects a hydrogen hose and a steam hose to the system's outlet, which is connected to the production facility. The valve controlling the water inlet is then periodically opened and closed, allowing water to flow into the reactor and initiate and control the aluminum-water reaction. The system is capable of producing 970 kg of hydrogen and a total of 75 MWh of thermal energy with an output of 0.4 to 5 MW. After the active aluminum is depleted, the system is returned for a recycling process that involves recapturing the catalyst, removing the AlOOH and / or Al(OH)3 by-products, and recharging with new aluminum.

[0208] Example 3. Providing hydrogen and steam to an aluminum smelting facility

[0209] This example describes a system that produces energy in the form of hydrogen and heat on demand from aluminum smelting or recycling. The system consists of an internal 30m2 reactor containing 20 tons of aluminum that has been pre-treated with a liquid metal-based catalyst and other supporting subsystems. 3The system is constructed of a reactor with a 20-foot-long, 8-foot-wide, and 8-foot-6-inch-high shipping container. It has the general shape of a shipping container, measuring 20 feet long, 8 feet wide, and 8 feet 6 inches high, and is capable of being loaded and transported using any type of container-supported transport mode. Once the system is delivered to the aluminum production facility and secured in place, an operator connects a water hose to which water is supplied by a water pump. The operator also connects a hydrogen hose and a steam hose to the system's outlet, which is connected to the aluminum production facility. The valve controlling the water inlet is then opened, allowing water to flow into the reactor and initiating the aluminum-water reaction. The system is capable of producing 1940 kg of hydrogen and a total of 150 MWh of thermal energy, with an output of 0.4 to 10 MW. Once the energy is depleted, the system is returned for a recycling process that involves recapturing the catalyst, extracting AlOOH and / or (Al(OH)3), and recharging with new aluminum.

[0210] Example 4. Providing hydrogen and steam to an electric power producing device

[0211] This example describes a system that produces energy in the form of hydrogen and heat on demand from power generation. The system is housed in an internal 30m2 reactor containing 20 tons of aluminum pre-treated with a liquid metal-based catalyst and other supporting subsystems. 3The system has the general shape of a shipping container, measuring 20 feet long, 8 feet wide, and 8 feet 6 inches high, and is capable of being mounted and transported using any type of container-supported transport mode. Once the system is delivered to the power production unit and secured in place, the operator connects a water hose, through which water is supplied by a water pump. The operator also connects a hydrogen hose and a steam hose to the system's outlet, which is connected to the power production unit. The valve controlling the water inlet is then opened, allowing water to flow into the reactor and initiating the aluminum-water reaction. The system can produce 1940 kg of hydrogen and a total of 150 MWh of thermal energy, with an output of 0.4 to 10 MW. After the energy is used up and the aluminum is consumed, the system is returned for a recycling process that involves recapturing the catalyst, removing the AlOOH and / or Al(OH)3 by-products, and recharging with new aluminum.

[0212] Example 5. Providing hydrogen and steam for backup power generation applications

[0213] This example describes a system that provides backup energy for power generation by generating energy in the form of hydrogen and heat on demand. The system is housed in an internal 30m2 tank containing 20 tons of aluminum pre-treated with a liquid metal-based catalyst and other supporting subsystems. 3The system has the general shape of a shipping container, measuring 20 feet long, 8 feet wide, and 8 feet 6 inches high, and is capable of being mounted and transported in any type of container-supported transport mode. Once the system is delivered to the power production unit, it can be stored unconnected indefinitely on-site until the stored energy is needed, or it can be quickly connected but left in a deactivated state until energy is needed. To connect the system, either immediately upon arrival or later when energy is needed, the system is moved into position and an operator connects a water hose, which is supplied by a water pump. The operator also connects a hydrogen hose and a steam hose to the system's outlet, which is connected to the power production unit. When energy from the system is needed, a valve controlling the water inlet opens, allowing water to flow into the reactor to initiate or continue the aluminum-water reaction. The system is capable of producing 1,940 kg of hydrogen and a total of 150 MWh of thermal energy, with an output power of 0.4 to 10 MW. After the energy is depleted, the system is sent back for a recycling process that involves recapturing the catalyst, removing the AlOOH and / or Al(OH)3 by-products, and recharging with fresh aluminum.

[0214] Example 6. Providing process gas to a power production unit

[0215] This example describes a system that produces energy in the form of hydrogen and heat on demand from power generation. The system is housed in an internal 30m2 reactor containing 20 tons of aluminum pre-treated with a liquid metal-based catalyst and other supporting subsystems. 3The system has the general shape of a shipping container, measuring 20 feet long, 8 feet wide, and 8 feet 6 inches high, and is capable of being mounted and transported using any type of container-supported transport mode. Once the system is delivered to the power production unit and secured in place, the operator connects a water hose to which water is supplied by a water pump. The operator also connects a process gas hose to the system's process gas outlet, which is connected to the power production unit's process gas inlet. The valve controlling the water inlet is then opened, allowing water to flow into the reactor and initiating the aluminum-water reaction. The resulting process gas, containing a mixture of steam and hydrogen, is supplied directly to the power production unit without first separating the two gases within the system. The system can produce 1940 kg of hydrogen and a total of 150 MWh of thermal energy, with an output of 0.4 to 10 MW. After the energy is depleted, the system is returned for a recycling process that involves recapturing the catalyst, removing the AlOOH and / or Al(OH)3 by-products, and charging new aluminum.

[0216] Example 7. Providing process gas to an alumina refinery with downstream separation of hydrogen gas and steam

[0217] This example describes a system that produces energy in the form of hydrogen and heat on demand from the smelting of alumina. The system consists of an internal 30m2 reactor containing 20 tons of aluminium that has been pre-treated with a liquid metal-based catalyst and other supporting subsystems. 3The system consists of a reactor with a 20-foot-long, 8-foot-wide, and 8-foot-6-inch-high shipping container. Aluminum can optionally be obtained from aluminum scrap collected on-site. The system has the general shape of a shipping container, measuring 20 feet long, 8 feet wide, and 8 feet 6 inches high, and is capable of being loaded and transported using any type of container-supported transportation mode. Once the system is delivered to the alumina refinery and secured in place, an operator connects a water hose to which water is supplied by a water pump. The operator also connects a process gas hose to the system's process gas outlet, which is connected to the alumina refinery's process gas inlet. The valve controlling the water inlet is then opened, allowing water to flow into the reactor and initiating the aluminum-water reaction. The resulting process gas, containing a mixture of steam and hydrogen, is directly integrated into the facility's heating system without first separating the two gases. Heat from the steam is extracted from the system using a heat exchanger within the facility and applied to one or more processes, such as bauxite digestion. The resulting steam condensate is appropriately routed and combined with the feedwater inlet. The remaining process gas contains significant amounts of hydrogen and is then fed to other downstream processes requiring hydrogen. The system is capable of producing 1940 kg of hydrogen and a total of 150 MWh of thermal energy at 0.4-10 MW output. After the energy is depleted, the system is sent back for recycling, which includes catalyst re-recovery, removal of AlOOH and / or Al(OH)3 by-product, and charging of new pre-treated aluminum. The AlOOH and / or Al(OH)3 by-product can also be recycled as a feedstock for alumina production as an alternative to bauxite digestion.

[0218] Example 8. Energy extraction from waste streams

[0219] This example describes a system for extracting energy from spent consumables and separated aluminum waste in a municipal waste stream. The system includes a 0.2-1 MW reactor located near a landfill, containing aluminum pretreated with a liquid metal-based catalyst. The aluminum is obtained from local aluminum scrap. Steam and hydrogen produced by the reactor upon addition of water to the pretreated aluminum are used to generate electricity. After energy extraction is complete, the system is returned for recycling, including recapture of the catalyst and extraction of the AlOOH and / or Al(OH)3 by-products.

[0220] Example 9. Energy extraction from aluminum scrap

[0221] This example describes a system for extracting energy from waste aluminum scrap produced at an aluminum smelter. The steam and hydrogen produced by the reactor, by adding water to the pre-treated aluminum, are used for various industrial applications within the facility that require steam and / or hydrogen. Once energy extraction is complete, the system is sent back for recycling, including re-recovery of the catalyst and extraction of the AlOOH and / or Al(OH)3 by-products.

[0222] Equivalents and Scope In the claims, articles such as "a," "an," and "the" may refer to the plural unless otherwise indicated or clear from the context. A claim or description including "or" between one or more members of a group is deemed to be satisfied if one, more than one, or all of those group members are present in, employed in, or otherwise relevant to a given product or process, unless otherwise indicated or clear from the context. Embodiments are provided herein in which exactly one member of a group is present in, employed in, or otherwise relevant to a given product or process. Embodiments are provided herein in which more than one or all of the group members are present in, employed in, or otherwise relevant to a given product or process.

[0223] Furthermore, the inventions provided herein encompass all variations, combinations, and permutations in which one or more limitations, elements, clauses, and descriptive terms from one or more of the enumerated claims are introduced into another claim. For example, any claim that depends on another claim can be amended to include one or more limitations found in any other claim that depends from the same base claim. Where elements are presented as a list, e.g., in Markush group format, each subgroup of elements is also disclosed, and any element(s) can be removed from the group. Generally, when the inventions provided and described herein, or aspects of the inventions described and provided herein, are referred to as comprising particular elements, features, etc., it is to be understood that particular embodiments of the invention or aspects of the invention consist of, or consist essentially of, such elements, features, etc. For the sake of brevity, these embodiments have not been specifically described in these terms herein. It should also be noted that the terms "comprising" and "containing" are open-ended and intended to allow for the inclusion of additional elements or steps. Where ranges are given, the endpoints are included. Furthermore, unless otherwise specified or otherwise apparent from the context and the understanding of one of ordinary skill in the art, values ​​expressed as ranges can assume any specific value or subrange within such range, up to one-tenth of the unit of the lower limit of such stated range, in different embodiments of the description of the invention described and provided herein, unless the context clearly dictates otherwise.

[0224] This application refers to various issued patents, published patent applications, journal articles, and other publications, all of which are incorporated herein by reference. In the event of a conflict between any of the incorporated references and this specification, this specification will control. Additionally, any particular embodiment that falls within the prior art may be expressly excluded from any one or more of the claims. Such embodiments are deemed to be known to those of ordinary skill in the art and may be excluded even if the exclusion is not expressly set forth herein. Any particular embodiment may be excluded from any claim for any reason, whether or not related to the existence of prior art.

[0225] Each numerical value presented herein is intended to represent the minimum or maximum value within the range of the corresponding parameter. Thus, when a numerical value is added to a claim, the numerical value provides explicit support for claiming a range that may exist above or below the numerical value in accordance with the teachings of this specification. All values ​​between the minimum and maximum values ​​within each numerical range presented herein (including minimum, nominal, and maximum values ​​set forth in any table) are contemplated and expressly supported herein, according to the number of significant digits represented in each particular range. Minimum and nominal values, nominal and maximum values, and ranges between the minimum and maximum values ​​are expressly contemplated in this application.

[0226] Those skilled in the art will recognize, or be able to ascertain using no more than routine experimentation, many equivalents to the specific embodiments described herein. The scope of the embodiments of the invention described herein is not intended to be limited to the above description, but is instead set forth in the appended claims. Those skilled in the art will recognize that various changes and modifications to this description can be made without departing from the spirit or scope of the invention, as defined in the following claims.

Claims

1. a reactor for an aluminum-water reaction, the reactor comprising a reaction chamber containing aluminum, either activated by a liquid metal catalyst or in an unactivated form, the reactor further comprising a water inlet, a catalyst inlet, a reaction outlet, and a reactor outlet, each in fluid communication with the reaction chamber; a process gas outlet in fluid communication with the reactor outlet; a catalyst separator comprising a catalyst separator chamber in fluid communication with a reaction inlet and a catalyst outlet of the catalyst separator; An energy generating device comprising: the reaction inlet is in fluid communication with the reaction outlet of the reactor, and the process gas outlet is configured to receive a process gas from the reactor outlet, the process gas comprising steam and hydrogen produced by the aluminum-water reaction.

2. 10. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the apparatus does not include a steam separator.

3. a reactor for an aluminum-water reaction, the reactor comprising a reaction chamber containing aluminum, either activated by a liquid metal catalyst or in an unactivated form, the reactor further comprising a water inlet, a catalyst inlet, a reaction outlet, and a reactor outlet, each in fluid communication with the reaction chamber; a steam separator comprising a steam separator chamber in fluid communication with a steam separator inlet, a steam outlet, and a hydrogen outlet, the steam separator inlet in fluid communication with the reactor outlet; a catalyst separator comprising a catalyst separator chamber in fluid communication with a reaction inlet and a catalyst outlet of the catalyst separator, the reaction inlet being in fluid communication with the reaction outlet of the reactor; An energy generating device comprising: the steam separator is configured to: i) receive steam and hydrogen produced by the aluminum-water reaction into the steam separator chamber through the reactor outlet and the steam separator inlet; ii) substantially separate the steam from the hydrogen produced by the aluminum-water reaction; iii) direct the steam toward the steam outlet; and iv) direct the hydrogen toward the hydrogen outlet.

4. 4. The apparatus according to claim 1, wherein the aluminum in the reaction chamber is activated aluminum.

5. 5. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the water inlet is in fluid communication with a water source, the water inlet configured to allow water from the water source to enter the reaction chamber of the reactor for the aluminum-water reaction.

6. 6. The apparatus of claim 1, further comprising a water pump in fluid communication with the water source and with the water inlet of the reactor, the water pump configured to pump water from the water source to the water inlet.

7. 7. The apparatus according to claim 1, wherein for about 120 kg / hour of aluminum introduced into the reaction chamber, about 15 kg / hour of hydrogen and about 750 kg / hour of steam are produced.

8. 7. The apparatus according to claim 1, wherein for about 100 kg / hour of aluminum introduced into the reaction chamber, about 15 kg / hour of hydrogen and about 750 kg / hour of steam are produced.

9. 7. The apparatus according to claim 1, wherein for about 80 kg / hour of aluminum introduced into the reaction chamber, about 15 kg / hour of hydrogen and about 750 kg / hour of steam are produced.

10. 7. The apparatus according to claim 1, wherein for about 50 kg / hour of aluminum introduced into the reaction chamber, about 15 kg / hour of hydrogen and about 750 kg / hour of steam are produced.

11. 11. The apparatus of any one of claims 1 to 10, comprising a hydrogen fuel cell comprising a hydrogen inlet in fluid communication with the steam separator or the hydrogen outlet thereof, or in fluid communication with the process gas outlet, a water outlet in fluid communication with the reaction chamber, and an electrical power outlet, the hydrogen fuel cell configured to convert hydrogen from the steam separator into electrical power and deliver the electrical power to the electrical power outlet of the hydrogen fuel cell.

12. 12. The apparatus of any one of claims 1 to 11, comprising a catalyst pump in fluid communication with the reaction outlet of the reactor and with the reaction inlet of the catalyst separator, the catalyst pump configured to pump a catalyst composition from the reactor to the catalyst separator.

13. 13. The apparatus of claim 12, wherein the catalyst pump is electrically connected to the power outlet of the hydrogen fuel cell.

14. 14. The apparatus according to claim 1, wherein the catalyst separator is configured to: a) receive the aluminum-water reaction catalyst composition into the catalyst separator chamber through the reaction outlet of the reactor and the reaction inlet of the catalyst separator; and b) substantially separate the liquid metal catalyst from the catalyst composition within the catalyst separator chamber.

15. 15. The apparatus of any one of claims 1 to 14, comprising a catalyst collector, the catalyst collector including a collector inlet and a collector outlet, each in fluid communication with the catalyst collector, the collector inlet in fluid communication with the catalyst outlet of the catalyst separator, and the collector outlet in fluid communication with the catalyst inlet of the second energy generation apparatus to form active aluminum in the second energy generation apparatus of any one of claims 1 to 14.

16. 16. The apparatus of claim 15, wherein the collector outlet is in fluid communication with a catalyst inlet of a third energy generating apparatus so as to form active aluminum in the third energy generating apparatus of any one of claims 1 to 15.

17. 16. The apparatus of claim 15, wherein a collector outlet of the first energy generating device is in fluid communication with a catalyst inlet of a plurality of energy generating devices of any one of claims 1 to 15 and is configured to distribute catalyst to aluminum in the reactor of each energy generating device of the plurality of energy generating devices.

18. 18. The apparatus of claim 17, wherein the plurality of energy generating devices comprises between 2 and 1,000 energy generating devices.

19. 19. The apparatus of any one of claims 3 to 18, wherein the steam separator is configured to separate at least 5% of the steam from the hydrogen gas produced by the aluminum-water reaction within the reactor.

20. 19. The apparatus of any one of claims 3 to 18, wherein the steam separator is configured to separate at least 10% of the steam from the hydrogen gas produced by the aluminum-water reaction within the reactor.

21. 19. The apparatus of any one of claims 3 to 18, wherein the steam separator is configured to separate at least 25% of the steam from the hydrogen gas produced by the aluminum-water reaction within the reactor.

22. 19. The apparatus of any one of claims 3 to 18, wherein the steam separator is configured to separate at least 50% of the steam from the hydrogen gas produced by the aluminum-water reaction within the reactor.

23. 19. The apparatus of any one of claims 3 to 18, wherein the steam separator is configured to separate at least 75% of the steam from the hydrogen gas produced by the aluminum-water reaction within the reactor.

24. 19. The apparatus of any one of claims 3 to 18, wherein the steam separator is configured to separate at least 90% of the steam from the hydrogen gas produced by the aluminum-water reaction within the reactor.

25. 19. The apparatus of any one of claims 3 to 18, wherein the steam separator is configured to separate at least 95% of the steam from the hydrogen gas produced by the aluminum-water reaction within the reactor.

26. 19. The apparatus of any one of claims 3 to 18, wherein the steam separator is configured to separate at least 99% of the steam from the hydrogen gas produced by the aluminum-water reaction within the reactor.

27. 19. The apparatus of any one of claims 3 to 18, wherein the steam separator is configured to separate at least 99.999% of the steam from the hydrogen gas produced by the aluminum-water reaction within the reactor.

28. 19. The apparatus of any one of claims 3 to 18, wherein the vapor separator is configured to separate the steam and hydrogen produced by the aluminum-water reaction in the reaction chamber of the reactor using a gas separation process including pressure swing adsorption, vacuum swing adsorption, membrane separation, temperature swing adsorption, or cryogenic distillation, or any variation thereof.

29. 29. An apparatus according to any preceding claim, configured to fit within the interior volume of a shipping container.

30. 30. The apparatus of claim 29, wherein the shipping container comprises a container wall with one or more openings that fluidly connect a first energy generating device to at least a second energy generating device.

31. 30. The apparatus of claim 29, wherein the interior volume of the shipping container is about 1 m ３ ~About 33m ３ The device.

32. 30. The apparatus of claim 29, wherein the shipping container has a length of about 10 feet to about 40 feet, a width of about 5 feet to about 10 feet, and a height of about 1.5 feet to about 10 feet.

33. 33. The apparatus of any one of claims 3 to 32, wherein the hydrogen outlet is in fluid communication with a hydrogen manifold, and the hydrogen manifold is in fluid communication with the hydrogen outlet of at least a second energy generation device of any one of claims 3 to 32.

34. 33. The apparatus of any one of claims 3 to 32, wherein the hydrogen outlet is in fluid communication with a hydrogen manifold, and the hydrogen manifold is in fluid communication with the hydrogen outlet of at least a third energy generation device of any one of claims 3 to 32.

35. 35. The apparatus of any one of claims 3 to 34, wherein the steam outlet is in fluid communication with a steam manifold, and the steam manifold is in fluid communication with the steam outlet of at least a second energy generation device of any one of claims 3 to 34.

36. 35. The apparatus of any one of claims 3 to 34, wherein the steam outlet is in fluid communication with a steam manifold, and the steam manifold is in fluid communication with the steam outlet of at least a third energy generation device of any one of claims 3 to 34.

37. 33. The apparatus of any one of claims 1, 2, 4-10, 12-18, and 29-32, wherein the process gas outlet is in fluid communication with a process gas manifold, and the process gas manifold is in fluid communication with the process gas outlet of at least a second energy generation device of any one of claims 1, 2, 4-10, 12-18, and 29-32.

38. 33. The apparatus of any one of claims 1, 2, 4-10, 12-18, and 29-32, wherein the process gas outlet is in fluid communication with a process gas manifold, and the process gas manifold is in fluid communication with the process gas manifold of at least a third energy generation apparatus of any one of claims 1, 2, 4-10, 12-18, and 29-32.

39. 39. The apparatus of any one of claims 1 to 38, wherein the water inlet is in fluid communication with a water manifold, the water manifold being in fluid communication with the water inlet of at least a second energy generation device of any one of claims 1 to 38 and in fluid communication with a water source.

40. 39. The apparatus of any one of claims 1 to 38, wherein the water inlet is in fluid communication with a water manifold, the water manifold being in fluid communication with the water inlet of at least a second energy generation device and in fluid communication with a water source.

41. 41. The apparatus of any one of claims 3-36, 39, and 40, wherein the hydrogen outlet is configured to provide hydrogen to an internal combustion engine, an external hydrogen fuel cell, a calciner, a furnace, a Haber-Bosch plant, an oil refinery, a fertilizer plant, a methanol plant, a methane blending power plant, an alumina smelter, or a metal recycling plant.

42. 40. The apparatus of any one of claims 1, 2, 4-10, 12-18, 29-32, 37, and 38, wherein the process gas outlet is configured to provide process gas to an internal combustion engine, an external hydrogen fuel cell, a calciner, a furnace, a Haber-Bosch plant, an oil refinery, a fertilizer plant, a methanol plant, a methane blending power plant, an alumina smelter, or a metal recycling plant.

43. 43. The apparatus of any one of claims 1 to 42, wherein the reactor contains a catalyst composition and aluminum for use in the aluminum-water reaction.

44. 44. The apparatus of claim 43, wherein the catalyst composition comprises a liquid metal catalyst.

45. 45. The apparatus of claim 43 or 44, wherein the catalyst composition comprises the liquid metal catalyst and an ionic compound.

46. 45. The apparatus of claim 43 or 44, wherein the catalyst composition comprises the liquid metal catalyst and a chelating compound.

47. 45. The apparatus of claim 43 or 44, wherein the liquid metal catalyst comprises gallium and / or indium.

48. 48. The apparatus of any one of claims 1 to 47, wherein the reactor is configured to produce hydrogen at a rate of about 5.5 kg / hr to about 305 kg / hr when water is introduced into the reaction chamber after the aluminum is activated by the liquid metal catalyst.

49. 49. The apparatus of any one of claims 1 to 48, wherein the reactor is configured to produce steam at a rate of about 300 kg / hr to about 6000 kg / hr when water is introduced into the reaction chamber after the aluminum has been activated by the liquid metal catalyst.

50. 50. The apparatus of any one of claims 1 to 49, wherein the reactor is configured to produce a continuous heat output of about 50 kW to about 10 MW when water is introduced into the reaction chamber after the aluminum has been activated by the liquid metal catalyst.

51. 51. The apparatus of any one of claims 1 to 50, comprising a thermal jacket mounted around the reaction chamber in thermal communication with the reaction chamber and fluidly isolated from the reactor.

52. 52. Apparatus according to any one of claims 1 to 51, in fluid communication with an aluminium waste container.

53. 53. The apparatus of claim 52, wherein the aluminum waste container comprises a filter, strainer, sieve, settling chamber, and / or compressor.

54. 54. The apparatus of any one of claims 3 to 36, 39, 40, 41, and 43 to 53, wherein the steam separator comprises a steam output line in fluid communication with the steam outlet and with the water inlet of the reaction chamber of at least a second energy generation device.

55. 36. The apparatus of claim 35, wherein the steam manifold comprises a steam output line in fluid communication with the water inlet of the reaction chamber of at least a second energy generation device.

56. A system comprising a plurality of energy generating devices according to any one of claims 1 to 55.

57. 57. The system of claim 56, wherein each of the energy generating devices of the plurality of energy generating devices are in fluid communication.

58. 57. The system of claim 56, wherein each of the energy generating devices of the plurality of energy generating devices is fluidly separated.

59. 59. The system of any one of claims 56 to 58, wherein the plurality of energy generating devices comprises between 2 and 1,000 devices.

60. 57. The system of claim 56, wherein fewer than all of the energy generating devices of the plurality of energy generating devices are in fluid communication with each other.

61. 57. The system of claim 56, wherein the catalyst collector of a first one of the plurality of energy generation devices is in fluid communication with a catalyst inlet of the reactor of at least a second one of the plurality of energy generation devices.

62. 57. The system of claim 56, wherein the catalyst collector of a first one of the plurality of energy generation devices is in fluid communication with a catalyst inlet of the reactor of at least a third one of the plurality of energy generation devices.

63. 57. The system of claim 56, wherein the catalyst collector of a first energy generation unit of the plurality of energy generation units is in fluid communication with a catalyst inlet of the reactor of each unit of the plurality of energy generation units.

64. 64. A system according to any one of claims 56 to 63, comprising a pellet manufacturing device.

65. 65. The system of claim 64, wherein the pellet manufacturing apparatus includes an aluminum scrap inlet, an aluminum scrap chipper, a compactor, and a pellet outlet, wherein the chipper is configured to provide aluminum chips to the compactor, and the compactor is configured to apply a compressive force to each of the aluminum chips to form a plurality of aluminum pellets, and the pellet outlet accesses the reactor of at least a first energy generation device of the plurality of energy generation devices via a conduit connecting the pellet outlet to the reactor, and the aluminum pellets are the aluminum in the first energy generation device.

66. 66. The system of any one of claims 56 to 65, comprising a controller electrically connected to each of the energy generating devices of the plurality of devices.

67. 67. The system of claim 66, wherein the controller is configured to regulate the hydrogen output, the steam output, and / or the process gas output of the system.

68. 67. The system of claim 66, wherein the controller is configured to instruct the plurality of energy generating devices to function in a sequential mode.

69. 67. The system of claim 66, wherein the controller is configured to instruct the plurality of energy generating devices to function in a parallel mode.

70. A method for using aluminum as an energy carrier, comprising the steps of: Reacting activated aluminum with water using an apparatus according to any one of claims 1 to 55 or a system according to any one of claims 56 to 69; collecting the aluminum hydroxide oxide produced as waste from the device or system; calcining the aluminum oxide hydroxide to form aluminum oxide; electrochemically reducing the aluminium oxide to form aluminium, the aluminium being suitable for use in an apparatus according to any one of claims 1 to 55 or a system according to any one of claims 56 to 59; The method comprising:

71. 1. A method for providing hydrogen and steam, comprising: delivering the energy generating device from a first location to a hydrogen and / or steam consuming facility having a steam inlet and a hydrogen inlet; The device is pre-filled with aluminum; The energy generating device comprises: a reactor for an aluminum-water reaction, comprising a reaction chamber containing aluminum, either activated by a liquid metal catalyst or in an unactivated form, said reactor further comprising a water inlet, a catalyst inlet, a reaction outlet, and a reactor outlet, each in fluid communication with said reaction chamber; a steam separator comprising a steam separator chamber in fluid communication with a steam separator inlet, a steam outlet, and a hydrogen outlet, the steam separator inlet in fluid communication with the reactor outlet; a catalyst separator comprising a catalyst separator chamber in fluid communication with a reaction inlet and a catalyst outlet of the catalyst separator, the reaction inlet being in fluid communication with the reaction outlet of the reactor; Equipped with the steam separator is configured to: i) receive steam and hydrogen produced by the aluminum-water reaction into the steam separator chamber through the reactor outlet and the steam separator inlet; ii) substantially separate the steam from the hydrogen produced by the aluminum-water reaction; iii) direct the steam toward the steam outlet; and iv) direct the hydrogen toward the hydrogen outlet; providing instructions for carrying out the aluminum-water reaction by introducing water into the water inlet; The method comprising:

72. 1. A method for providing a process gas, comprising: delivering the energy generating device from a first location to a hydrogen and / or steam consuming facility having a process gas inlet; The device is pre-filled with aluminum; The energy generating device comprises: a reactor for an aluminum-water reaction, comprising a reaction chamber containing aluminum, either activated by a liquid metal catalyst or in an unactivated form, said reactor further comprising a water inlet, a catalyst inlet, a reaction outlet, and a reactor outlet, each in fluid communication with said reaction chamber; a process gas outlet in fluid communication with the reactor outlet; a catalyst separator comprising a catalyst separator chamber in fluid communication with a reaction inlet and a catalyst outlet of the catalyst separator, the reaction inlet being in fluid communication with the reaction outlet of the reactor, and the process gas outlet being configured to receive process gas produced by the aluminum-water reaction from the reactor outlet; said delivering; providing instructions for carrying out the aluminum-water reaction by introducing water into the water inlet; The method comprising:

73. 73. The method of claim 71 or 72, comprising providing instructions to activate the aluminum in the reaction chamber to produce activated aluminum using the liquid metal catalyst at a consumption facility of the hydrogen and / or the steam and / or the process gas if the aluminum is delivered in an inactive form.

74. 73. The method of claim 71 or 72, comprising activating the aluminum at the first location prior to delivery of the energy generation apparatus to a consumption facility for the hydrogen and / or the steam and / or the process gas.

75. 75. The method of any one of claims 71-74, comprising activating the aluminum in the reaction chamber at a catalyst to aluminum mass ratio of about 1% to about 10%.

76. 75. The method of any one of claims 71 to 74, wherein the activated aluminum comprises a plurality of aluminum pieces of different sizes and shapes.

77. 73. The method of claim 71 or 72, wherein the aluminum comprises aluminum pieces of a first size and at least a second size.

78. 73. The method of claim 71 or 72, wherein the aluminum comprises aluminum pieces of a first shape and at least a second shape.

79. 79. The method of any one of claims 71 to 78, comprising providing instructions that comprise placing the aluminum piece within the reaction chamber of the reactor in a configuration that is oversized relative to the water inlet and / or the catalyst inlet of the reactor.

80. 80. The method of claim 79, wherein the first size range of the aluminum pieces to be placed in the reaction chamber has a diameter of about 10 μm to about 1,000 μm as determined by sieve sorting, screen sorting, or gravity sorting.

81. 80. The method of claim 79, wherein the second size range of the aluminum pieces to be placed in the reaction chamber has a diameter of about 0.1 mm to about 10 mm as determined by sieve sorting, screen sorting, or gravity sorting.

82. 80. The method of claim 79, wherein a third size range of the aluminum pieces placed in the reaction chamber has a diameter of about 0.1 cm to about 10 cm as determined by sieve sorting, screen sorting, or gravity sorting.

83. 83. The method of any one of claims 71 and 73-82, comprising providing instructions to fluidly connect the hydrogen outlet of the energy generation device to the hydrogen inlet of the hydrogen and / or steam consuming facility prior to carrying out the aluminum-water reaction.

84. 83. The method of any one of claims 71 and 73-82, comprising fluidly connecting the steam outlet of the energy generation device to the steam inlet of the hydrogen and / or steam consuming facility prior to carrying out the aluminum-water reaction.

85. 83. The method of any one of claims 72 to 82, comprising fluidly connecting the process gas outlet of the energy generation apparatus to the process gas inlet of the process gas consuming facility prior to carrying out the aluminum-water reaction.

86. 86. The method of any one of claims 71-85, comprising: at least one additional energy generation device to form a plurality of energy generation devices; and providing instructions for carrying out the aluminum-water reaction in the plurality of energy generation devices.

87. 87. The method of claim 86, wherein at least two, at least three, at least four, at least five, at least six, at least seven, at least eight, at least nine, at least ten, at least fifteen, at least twenty, at least twenty-five, at least thirty, at least fifty, all, up to two, up to three, up to four, up to five, up to six, up to seven, up to eight, up to nine, up to ten, up to fifteen, up to twenty, up to twenty-five, up to thirty, up to fifty, or zero of the plurality of energy generation devices are fluidly connected to a shared water source.

88. 88. A method according to any one of claims 71 to 87, comprising directing the sequencing and / or carrying out of the aluminium-water reaction in series by introducing water to two or more of the devices at different times or over non-overlapping time periods.

89. 88. The method of any one of claims 71 to 87, comprising directing the sequencing and / or performance of the aluminium-water reactions in parallel by introducing water to two or more of the devices substantially simultaneously or over overlapping time periods.

90. 90. A method according to any one of claims 71 to 89, comprising sourcing the aluminium from a source of recycled scrap aluminium.

91. 73. The method of claim 71 or 72, comprising sourcing the aluminum from aluminum chips.

92. 92. The method of claim 91, comprising sourcing the aluminum from compressed aluminum chips in the form of aluminum pellets.

93. 93. The method of claim 92, wherein the aluminum pellets have a diameter of about 1 cm to about 30 cm and a height of about 1 cm to about 10 cm as determined by sieve sorting, screen sorting, or gravity sorting.

94. 94. The method of any one of claims 71 to 93, comprising introducing water to the water inlet to carry out the aluminum-water reaction comprising interacting aluminum, the catalyst composition, and water.

95. 95. The method of any one of claims 71 to 94, wherein the liquid metal catalyst comprises gallium and / or indium.

96. 90. The method of any one of claims 86 to 89, wherein the plurality of energy generating devices comprises between 2 and 1,000 devices.

97. 97. The method of any one of claims 86-89 and 96, comprising producing hydrogen at a rate of about 5.5 kg / hr to about 110 kg / hr using the plurality of energy generation devices when water is introduced into the reaction chamber after the aluminum has been activated by the liquid metal catalyst.

98. 98. The method of any one of claims 86-89, 96, and 97, comprising generating steam at a rate of about 300 kg / hr to about 6000 kg / hr using the plurality of energy generating devices when water is introduced into the reaction chamber after the aluminum has been activated by the liquid metal catalyst.

99. 98. The method of any one of claims 86-89, 96, and 97, comprising generating a continuous heat output of from about 50 kW to about 10 MW using the plurality of energy generation devices when water is introduced into the reaction chamber after the aluminum has been activated by the liquid metal catalyst.

100. 100. The method of any one of claims 71 to 99, wherein the hydrogen and / or steam and / or process gas consumer is selected from the list comprising an internal combustion engine, an external hydrogen fuel cell, a kiln, a furnace, a Haber-Bosch plant, an oil refinery, a fertilizer plant, a methanol plant, a methane blending power plant, a metal recycling plant, an alumina refinery, a power plant, a port terminal, or a marine vessel.

101. 1. A method for producing hydrogen and steam, comprising: receiving the energy generating device from a first location into a hydrogen and / or steam consuming facility having at least one steam inlet and at least one hydrogen inlet; The device is pre-filled with aluminum; The energy generating device comprises: a reactor for an aluminum-water reaction, comprising a reaction chamber containing aluminum, either activated by a liquid metal catalyst or in an unactivated form, said reactor further comprising a water inlet, a catalyst inlet, a reaction outlet, and a reactor outlet, each in fluid communication with said reaction chamber; a steam separator comprising a steam separator chamber in fluid communication with a steam separator inlet, a steam outlet, and a hydrogen outlet, the steam separator inlet in fluid communication with the reactor outlet; a catalyst separator comprising a catalyst separator chamber in fluid communication with a reaction inlet and a catalyst outlet of the catalyst separator, the reaction inlet being in fluid communication with the reaction outlet of the reactor; Equipped with the steam separator is configured to: i) receive steam and hydrogen produced by the aluminum-water reaction into the steam separator chamber through the reactor outlet and the steam separator inlet; ii) substantially separate the steam from the hydrogen produced by the aluminum-water reaction; iii) direct the steam toward the steam outlet; and iv) direct the hydrogen toward the hydrogen outlet. conducting the aluminum-water reaction by introducing water into the chamber through the water inlet to the aluminum; The method comprising:

102. 1. A method for generating a process gas, comprising: receiving the energy generating device from a first location into a hydrogen and / or steam consuming facility having at least one steam inlet and at least one hydrogen inlet; The device is pre-filled with aluminum; The energy generating device comprises: a reactor for an aluminum-water reaction, comprising a reaction chamber containing aluminum, either activated by a liquid metal catalyst or in an unactivated form, said reactor further comprising a water inlet, a catalyst inlet, a reaction outlet, and a reactor outlet, each in fluid communication with said reaction chamber; a process gas outlet in fluid communication with the reactor outlet; a catalyst separator comprising a catalyst separator chamber in fluid communication with a reaction inlet and a catalyst outlet of the catalyst separator, the reaction inlet being in fluid communication with the reaction outlet of the reactor, and the process gas outlet being configured to receive steam and hydrogen produced by the aluminum-water reaction from the reactor outlet; said receiving comprising: conducting the aluminum-water reaction by introducing water into the chamber through the water inlet to the aluminum; The method comprising:

103. 103. The method of claim 101 or 102, wherein if the aluminum is received in an inactive form, the method comprises activating the aluminum in the reaction chamber to produce active aluminum using the liquid metal catalyst at the hydrogen and / or steam consuming facility.

104. 103. The method of claim 101 or 102, wherein the aluminum is activated in situ.

105. 105. The method of claim 103 or 104, comprising fluidly connecting the hydrogen outlet of the energy generation device to the hydrogen inlet of the hydrogen and / or steam consuming facility prior to carrying out the aluminum-water reaction.

106. 105. The method of claim 103 or 104, comprising fluidly connecting the steam outlet of the energy generation device to the steam inlet of the hydrogen and / or steam consuming facility prior to carrying out the aluminum-water reaction.

107. 105. The method of claim 103 or 104, comprising fluidly connecting the process gas outlet of the energy generation device to the process gas inlet of the process gas consuming facility prior to carrying out the aluminum-water reaction.

108. 108. A method according to any one of claims 101 to 107, comprising fluidly connecting the water inlet of the energy generating device to a water source.

109. 109. The method of claim 108, comprising pumping water from the water source through the water inlet into the reaction chamber, thereby carrying out the aluminum-water reaction.

110. 110. The method of claim 109, comprising producing heat, hydrogen, and one or more additional reaction products, thereby producing steam from said heat and said water.

111. 111. The method of any one of claims 101 and 103-110, comprising passing the hydrogen and the steam to the steam separator; substantially separating the hydrogen from the steam; passing the hydrogen through the hydrogen outlet; and passing the steam through the steam outlet.

112. 112. The method of any one of claims 101 to 111, comprising pumping a catalyst composition from the reaction outlet of the reactor to the reaction inlet of the catalyst separator and into the catalyst separator chamber after completion of the aluminum-water reaction in the reactor.

113. 113. The method of claim 112, comprising substantially separating the liquid metal catalyst from the catalyst composition in the catalyst separator chamber and directing the liquid metal catalyst to the catalyst outlet of the catalyst separator.

114. 114. The method of claim 113, comprising passing the liquid metal catalyst from the catalyst outlet through a collector inlet of the catalyst collector to a catalyst collector.

115. 115. The method of claim 114, wherein the catalyst collector comprises a collector outlet and a collector chamber all in fluid communication with the collector inlet.

116. 116. The method of claim 115, comprising conveying the liquid metal catalyst from the catalyst collector to at least a second energy generation device.

117. 117. The method of claim 116, comprising passing the liquid metal catalyst from the collector outlet to the catalyst inlet of the reactor of at least a second energy generation device.

118. 118. The method of claims 101 and 103-117, comprising drawing hydrogen from the hydrogen outlet of the steam separator to a hydrogen fuel cell; and converting the hydrogen in the hydrogen fuel cell to electricity and water.

119. 119. The method of claim 118, comprising directing water produced by the hydrogen fuel cell to the water inlet of the reactor.

120. 119. The method of claim 118, comprising directing the electrical power generated by the hydrogen fuel cell to an electrical power outlet.

121. 121. The method of any one of claims 103 to 120, wherein the activated aluminum comprises a plurality of aluminum pieces of different sizes and shapes.

122. 103. The method of claim 101 or 102, wherein the aluminum comprises aluminum pieces of a first size and at least a second size.

123. 103. The method of claim 101 or 102, wherein the aluminum comprises aluminum pieces of a first shape and at least a second shape.

124. 103. The method of claim 101 or 102, comprising placing the aluminum piece in the reaction chamber of the reactor in a configuration in which the aluminum piece is oversized relative to the water inlet and / or the catalyst inlet of the reactor.

125. 125. The method of claim 124, wherein the first size range of the aluminum pieces placed in the reaction chamber has a diameter of about 10 μm to about 1,000 μm as determined by sieve sorting, screen sorting, or gravity sorting.

126. 125. The method of claim 124, wherein the second size range of the aluminum pieces placed in the reaction chamber has a diameter of about 0.1 mm to about 10 mm as determined by sieve sorting, screen sorting, or gravity sorting.

127. 125. The method of claim 124, wherein a third size range of the aluminum pieces placed in the aluminum piece reaction chamber comprises sizes having diameters of about 0.1 cm to about 10 cm as determined by sieve sorting, screen sorting, or gravity sorting.

128. 128. The method of any one of claims 101 to 127, comprising at least one additional energy generation device to form a plurality of energy generation devices, and carrying out the aluminum-water reaction in the plurality of energy generation devices.

129. 129. The method of claim 128, wherein at least two, at least three, at least four, at least five, at least six, at least seven, at least eight, at least nine, at least ten, at least fifteen, at least twenty, at least twenty-five, at least thirty, at least fifty, all, up to two, up to three, up to four, up to five, up to six, up to seven, up to eight, up to nine, up to ten, up to fifteen, up to twenty, up to twenty-five, up to thirty, up to fifty, or zero of the plurality of energy generating devices are fluidly connected to a shared water source.

130. 130. The method of any one of claims 101 to 129, comprising conducting the aluminium-water reaction in series by introducing water to two or more of the apparatus at different times or over non-overlapping time periods.

131. 130. The method of any one of claims 101 to 129, comprising conducting the aluminum-water reaction in parallel by introducing water to two or more of the apparatus substantially simultaneously or over overlapping periods of time.

132. 132. A method according to any one of claims 101 to 131, comprising sourcing the aluminium from a source of recycled scrap aluminium.

133. 133. A method according to any one of claims 101 to 132, comprising sourcing the aluminium from aluminium chips.

134. 134. A method according to any one of claims 101 to 133, comprising sourcing the aluminium from compressed aluminium chips in the form of aluminium pellets.

135. 135. The method of claim 134, wherein the aluminum pellets have a diameter of about 1 cm to about 30 cm and a height of about 1 cm to about 10 cm as determined by sieve sorting, screen sorting, or gravity sorting.

136. 136. The method of any one of claims 101 to 135, comprising introducing water to the water inlet to carry out the aluminum-water reaction comprising interacting aluminum, the catalyst composition, and water.

137. 137. The method of any one of claims 101 to 136, wherein the liquid metal catalyst comprises gallium and / or indium.

138. 132. The method of any one of claims 128 to 131, wherein the plurality of energy generating devices comprises between 2 and 1,000 devices.

139. 139. The method of any one of claims 128-131 and 138, comprising producing hydrogen at a rate of about 5.5 kg / hr to about 110 kg / hr using the plurality of energy generation devices when water is introduced into the reaction chamber after the aluminum has been activated by the liquid metal catalyst.

140. 140. The method of any one of claims 128-131 and 136-139, comprising generating steam at a rate of about 300 kg / hr to about 6000 kg / hr using the plurality of energy generating devices when water is introduced into the reaction chamber after the aluminum has been activated by the liquid metal catalyst.

141. 141. The method of any one of claims 128-131 and 136-140, comprising generating a continuous thermal output of about 50 kW to about 10 MW using the plurality of energy generation devices when water is introduced into the reaction chamber after the aluminum has been activated by the liquid metal catalyst.

142. 142. The method of any one of claims 101 to 141, wherein the hydrogen and / or steam and / or process gas consumer is selected from the list comprising an internal combustion engine, an external hydrogen fuel cell, a kiln, a furnace, a Haber-Bosch plant, an oil refinery, a fertilizer plant, a methanol plant, a methane blending power plant, a metal recycling plant, an alumina refinery, a power plant, a port terminal, or a seagoing vessel.

143. 1. A method for providing renewable energy, comprising: Producing energy-dense metals using renewable energy sources; introducing the metal and catalyst into an energy generating device including a reactor; transporting the reactor from the production site to a hydrogen and / or steam and / or process gas consumption facility; introducing water into the reactor and extracting energy from the metal in the form of hydrogen, steam, and / or heat; The method comprising:

144. 144. The method of claim 143, wherein the energetically dense metal comprises aluminum.

145. 145. The method of claim 144, wherein producing the aluminum comprises electrochemically reducing aluminum oxide using solar energy, wind energy, hydrothermal energy, water energy, tidal energy, geothermal energy, biomass energy, nuclear energy, electricity, or any combination thereof.

146. 144. The method of claim 143, wherein the catalyst comprises gallium and / or indium.

147. 144. The method of claim 143, wherein the hydrogen and / or steam and / or process gas consumer is selected from the list including an internal combustion engine, an external hydrogen fuel cell, a kiln, a furnace, a Haber-Bosch plant, an oil refinery, a fertilizer plant, a methanol plant, a methane blending power plant, a metal recycling plant, an alumina refinery, a power plant, a port terminal, or an offshore vessel.

148. 144. The method of claim 143, wherein extracting energy from the metal comprises an exothermic aluminum-water reaction.

149. 144. The method of claim 143, wherein the reactor comprises a reaction chamber containing aluminum, either activated by a liquid metal catalyst or in an unactivated form, for an aluminum-water reaction, the reactor further comprising a water inlet, a catalyst inlet, a reaction outlet, and a reactor outlet, each in fluid communication with the reaction chamber.

150. 144. The method of claim 143, wherein the energy generating device comprises: a steam separator comprising a steam separator chamber in fluid communication with a steam separator inlet, a steam outlet, and a hydrogen outlet, the steam separator inlet being in fluid communication with the reactor outlet; and / or a catalyst separator comprising a catalyst separator chamber in fluid communication with a reaction inlet and a catalyst outlet of the catalyst separator, the reaction inlet in fluid communication with the reaction outlet of the reactor; Equipped with the steam separator is configured to: i) receive steam and hydrogen produced by the aluminum-water reaction into the steam separator chamber through the reactor outlet and the steam separator inlet; ii) substantially separate steam from hydrogen produced by the aluminum-water reaction; iii) direct the steam toward the steam outlet; and iv) direct the hydrogen toward the hydrogen outlet.

151. 144. The method of claim 143, wherein the energy generating device is configured to fit within an interior volume of a shipping container.

152. 151. The method of claim 150, comprising drawing hydrogen from the hydrogen outlet of the steam separator to a hydrogen fuel cell and converting the hydrogen in the hydrogen fuel cell to electricity and water.

153. 153. The method of claim 152, comprising directing water produced by the hydrogen fuel cell to the water inlet of the reactor.

154. 154. The method of claim 153, comprising directing the electrical power generated by the hydrogen fuel cell to an electrical power outlet.

155. 144. The method of claim 143, comprising pumping water from a water source to the water inlet of the reactor using a water pump.

156. 144. The apparatus of claim 143, comprising pumping the catalyst composition from the reactor to the catalyst separator using a catalyst pump.

157. providing the activated aluminum within a reactor having a reaction chamber containing aluminum activated by a liquid metal catalyst for an aluminum-water reaction, the reactor further comprising a water inlet, a catalyst inlet, a reaction outlet, and a reactor outlet, each in fluid communication with the reaction chamber; delivering water to the activated aluminum through the water inlet; contacting the water with the activated aluminum to produce heat, hydrogen gas, and one or more additional reaction products, thereby producing steam from the heat and the water; substantially separating the steam from the hydrogen gas; directing the hydrogen gas to a hydrogen outlet; A method comprising:

158. providing the activated aluminum within a reactor having a reaction chamber containing aluminum activated by a liquid metal catalyst for an aluminum-water reaction, the reactor further comprising a water inlet, a catalyst inlet, a reaction outlet, and a reactor outlet, each in fluid communication with the reaction chamber; delivering water to the activated aluminum through the water inlet; contacting the water with the activated aluminum to produce heat, a process gas comprising hydrogen gas and steam, and one or more additional reaction products; directing the process gas to a process gas outlet; A method comprising:

159. 158. The method of claim 157, comprising directing the steam to a steam outlet.

160. 158. The method of claim 157, comprising consuming the hydrogen gas in a fuel cell.

161. 159. The method of claim 157 or 158, comprising using the steam or the process gas to generate electrical power.

162. 159. A method according to claim 157 or 158, comprising using the steam or the process gas to power a turbine.

163. 159. The method of claim 157 or 158, comprising using the steam or the process gas for ambient heating.

164. 159. The method of claim 158, comprising using the process gas to power an alumina smelting plant.

165. 165. The method of any one of claims 157 to 164, comprising separating liquid metal catalyst from the activated aluminum.

166. 165. A method according to any one of claims 157 to 164, comprising condensing the steam in a heat exchanger after the steam has been separated from the hydrogen by the steam separator.

167. 165. The method of any one of claims 157 to 164, comprising condensing the steam in the steam separator, thereby separating the steam from the hydrogen.

168. 158. The method of claim 157, delivering the liquid metal catalyst into a second reactor through a second catalyst inlet, the second reactor including aluminum, a second water inlet, a second reaction outlet, a second reactor outlet, and a second reaction chamber; delivering water to the activated aluminum through the second water inlet; contacting the water with the activated aluminum to form heat, hydrogen gas, and one or more additional reaction products, thereby generating steam from the heat and the water; substantially separating the steam from the hydrogen gas; directing the vapor to a second vapor outlet; directing the hydrogen to a second hydrogen outlet; The method comprising:

169. 159. The method of claim 158, delivering the liquid metal catalyst into a second reactor through a second catalyst inlet, the second reactor including aluminum, a second water inlet, a second reaction outlet, a second reactor outlet, and a second reaction chamber; delivering water to the activated aluminum through the second water inlet; contacting the water with the activated aluminum to form heat, a process gas comprising hydrogen gas and steam, and one or more additional reaction products; directing the process gas to a process gas outlet; The method comprising:

170. a reactor for an aluminum-water reaction, the reactor comprising a reaction chamber containing aluminum, either activated by a liquid metal catalyst or in an unactivated form, the reactor further comprising a water inlet, a catalyst inlet, a reaction outlet, and a reactor outlet, each in fluid communication with the reaction chamber; a steam separator comprising a steam separator chamber in fluid communication with a steam separator inlet and a hydrogen outlet, the steam separator inlet in fluid communication with the reactor outlet; a catalyst separator comprising a catalyst separator chamber in fluid communication with a reaction inlet and a catalyst outlet of the catalyst separator, the reaction inlet being in fluid communication with the reaction outlet of the reactor; An energy generating device comprising: the steam separator is configured to: i) receive steam and hydrogen produced by the aluminum-water reaction into the steam separator chamber through the reactor outlet and the steam separator inlet; ii) substantially separate the steam from the hydrogen produced by the aluminum-water reaction; and iii) direct the hydrogen to the hydrogen outlet.

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