Thermophotovoltaic Electric Power Generator

Abstract

This paper deals with power generation systems using photovoltaic power converters. [Solution] At least one reaction cell for catalytic reaction of atomic hydrogen to form hydrinos, a chemical fuel mixture containing at least two elements selected from: an HO catalyst or a source of HO catalyst; atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen; a reactant to form the HO catalyst or a source of HO catalyst and the atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen; and a molten metal that causes the fuel to have high electrical conductivity; a fuel injection system including an electromagnetic pump; at least one set of electrodes that confine the fuel; a concentrating solar power thermophotovoltaic device and a visible and infrared light transparent window or a plurality of ultraviolet (UV) photovoltaic cells or a plurality of photoelectric cells, and a UV window; and a power converter capable of converting the high power optical output of the cells into electricity.

Description

[Technical Field]

[0001] Cross-reference to related patent applications This application is a continuation of U.S. Provisional Application No. 62 / 280,300, filed January 19, 2016; U.S. Provisional Application No. 62 / 298,431, filed February 22, 2016; U.S. Provisional Application No. 62 / 311,896, filed March 22, 2016; U.S. Provisional Application No. 62 / 317,230, filed April 1, 2016; U.S. Provisional Application No. 62 / 317,230, filed April 5, 2016; U.S. Provisional Application No. 62 / 318,694, filed April 22, 2016; U.S. Provisional Application No. 62 / 326,527, filed May 18, 2016; U.S. Provisional Application No. 62 / 338,041, filed May 27, 2016; U.S. Provisional Application No. 62 / 342,774, filed May 27, 2016; U.S. Provisional Application No. 62 / 353,426, filed June 22, 2016 No. 62 / 355,313 filed June 27, 2016; U.S. Provisional Application No. 62 / 364,192 filed June 19, 2016; U.S. Provisional Application No. 62 / 368,121 filed July 28, 2016; U.S. Provisional Application No. 62 / 380,301 filed August 26, 2016; U.S. Provisional Application No. 62 / 380,301 filed September 9, 2016; This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 62 / 385,872, filed October 21, 2016, U.S. Provisional Application No. 62 / 411,398, filed December 14, 2016, and U.S. Provisional Application No. 62 / 434,331, filed January 13, 2017, which are incorporated herein by reference. Summary of the Invention

[0002] Summary of the Invention The present disclosure relates to the field of power generation, and in particular to systems, apparatus, and methods for generating power. More particularly, embodiments of the present disclosure relate to power generation devices and systems, as well as related methods, that produce optical, plasma, and thermal power and produce electrical power via an optical-to-electric power converter, a plasma-to-electric power converter, a photon-to-electric power converter, or a thermal-to-electric power converter. Additionally, embodiments of the present disclosure describe systems, apparatus, and methods that use ignition of water or a water-based fuel source to generate optical, mechanical, electrical, and / or thermal power using photovoltaic power converters.

[0003] Power generation can take many forms, harnessing power from plasmas. Successful commercialization of plasmas may depend on power generation systems that can efficiently form plasmas and capture the power of the generated plasma.

[0004] Plasmas may be formed during ignition of certain fuels. These fuels may include water or water-based fuel sources. During ignition, a plasma cloud of electron-stripped atoms may be formed, and high optical power may be released. The high optical power of the plasma may be harnessed by the electrical converters of the present disclosure. Ions and excited-state atoms may recombine and undergo electron relaxation, emitting optical power. The optical power may be converted to electricity using photovoltaic technology.

[0005] An embodiment of the present disclosure relates to a power generation system that includes a plurality of electrodes configured to deliver power to a fuel to ignite the fuel and generate a plasma, a source of electrical power configured to distribute electrical energy to the plurality of electrodes, and at least one photovoltaic power converter positioned to receive at least a plurality of plasma photons.

[0006] In one embodiment, the present disclosure relates to a power system for generating at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy, the power system comprising: at least one reservoir capable of subatmospheric, equal to, or superatmospheric pressure; reactants, where the reactants are a) at least one catalyst or source of catalyst comprising nascent HO; b) at least one of HO or a source of HO; c) at least one of atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen, and d) molten metal; at least one molten metal injection system including a molten metal reservoir and an electromagnetic pump; at least one additional reactant injection system, wherein the additional reactant injection system comprises: a) at least one catalyst or source of catalyst comprising nascent HO; b) at least one of HO or a source of HO, and c) at least one of atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen; at least one reactant ignition system including a source of electrical power, wherein the source of electrical power receives electrical power from a power converter; a system for recovering the molten metal; and at least one output system or power converter of at least one of optical and thermal power to electrical power and / or thermal power.

[0007] In one embodiment, the molten metal ignition system comprises: a) at least one set of electrodes that confine the molten metal; and b) a source of electrical power that delivers short bursts of high current electrical energy sufficient to cause the reactants to react to form a plasma.

[0008] The electrodes may comprise a refractory metal. In one embodiment, the source of electrical power delivering a short burst of high-current electrical energy sufficient to cause the reactants to react to form a plasma comprises at least one supercapacitor. The molten metal injection system may include an electromagnetic pump including at least one magnet providing a magnetic field and a current source to supply a current component of a vector cross product. The molten metal reservoir may comprise an inductively coupled heater. The molten metal ignition system may include at least one set of electrodes separated to form an open circuit, where the open circuit is closed by the injection of molten metal to cause a high current to flow to achieve ignition. The molten metal ignition system current may be in the range of 500 A to 50,000 A. The circuit of the molten metal ignition system may be closed by the injection of metal to produce an ignition frequency in the range of 1 Hz to 10,000 Hz. The molten metal may comprise at least one of silver, a silver-copper alloy, and copper, and the additional reactant may comprise at least one of HO vapor and hydrogen gas. In one embodiment, the additional reactant injection system may include a computer, HO and H pressure sensors, and at least one of a flow controller, the flow controller including at least one or more of the following group: a mass flow controller, a pump, a syringe pump, and a high-precision electronically controllable valve, the valve including at least one of a needle valve, a proportional electronic valve, and a stepper motor valve, and the valve is controlled by the pressure sensor and the computer to maintain the at least one of the HO and H at a desired value. The additional reactant injection system may maintain the HO vapor within a range of 0.1 Torr to 1 Torr.In one embodiment, a reactant recovery system may include at least one of a vessel including a wall capable of providing flow to the melt under gravity, an electrode electromagnetic pump, and a reservoir in communication with the vessel, and further including a cooling system for maintaining the reservoir at a lower temperature than other portions of the vessel to cause metal vapor of the molten metal to condense within the reservoir, and the recovery system may include an electrode electromagnetic pump including at least one magnet providing a magnetic field and a vector cross product ignition current element.

[0009] In one embodiment, the power system includes a vessel that includes an outer chamber capable of maintaining a pressure that is lower than, equal to, or higher than atmospheric pressure, a top cover including a blackbody radiator, and an inner reaction cell, the vessel capable of maintaining a pressure that is lower than, equal to, or higher than atmospheric pressure; The top cover, containing the blackbody radiator, is maintained at a temperature ranging from 1000K to 3700K. At least one of the top cover and the inner reaction cell, which includes a blackbody radiator, comprises a heat-resistant metal with high emissivity.

[0010] The power system may include at least one power converter with a reactive power output, including at least one of the group of a thermophotovoltaic converter, a photovoltaic converter, a photoelectronic converter, a plasma dynamic converter, a thermionic converter, a thermoelectric converter, a Stirling engine, a Brayton cycle engine, a Rankine cycle engine, and a heat engine, and a heater.

[0011] In one embodiment, the light emitted by the cell is mostly blackbody radiation, including visible and near-infrared light, and the photovoltaic cell is made of a material selected from the group consisting of perovskite, crystalline silicon, germanium, gallium arsenide (GaAs), gallium antimonide (GaSb), indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs), indium gallium arsenide antimonide (InGaAsSb), and indium phosphide arsenide antimonide (InPAsSb), InGaP / InGaAs / Ge; InAlGaP / AlGaAs / GaInNAsSb / Ge a light-collecting cell including at least one compound selected from: GaInP / GaAsP / SiGe; GaInP / GaAsP / Si; GaInP / GaAsP / Ge; GaInP / GaAsP / Si / SiGe; GaInP / GaAs / InGaAs; GaInP / GaAs / GaInNAs; GaInP / GaAs / InGaAs / InGaAs; GaInP / Ga(In)As / InGaAs; GaInP-GaAs-wafer-InGaAs; GaInP-Ga(In)As-Ge; and GaInP-GaInAs-Ge.

[0012] In one embodiment, the light emitted by the cell is primarily ultraviolet light, and the photovoltaic cell is a light-concentrating cell comprising at least one compound selected from Group III nitrides, GaN, AlN, GaAlN, and InGaN.

[0013] The power system may further include a vacuum pump and at least one chiller.

[0014] In one embodiment, the present disclosure relates to a power system for generating at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy, the power system comprising: at least one reservoir capable of being maintained at a pressure lower than, equal to, or higher than atmospheric pressure; reactants, where the reactants are a) at least one catalyst or source of catalyst comprising nascent HO; b) at least one of HO or a source of HO; c) at least one of atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen, and d) molten metal, at least one molten metal injection system including a molten metal reservoir and an electromagnetic pump; at least one additional reactant injection system, wherein the additional reactant injection system comprises: a) at least one catalyst or source of catalyst comprising nascent HO; b) at least one of HO or a source of HO, and c) at least one of atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen; at least one reactant ignition system including a source of electrical power that causes the reactants to form at least one of a luminous plasma and an exothermic plasma; a system for recovering the molten metal; and at least one of at least one power converter and output system for converting optical and thermal output to electrical power and / or thermal power; wherein the molten metal ignition system is a) at least one set of electrodes that confine the molten metal; and b) a source of electrical power that delivers short bursts of high current electrical energy sufficient to cause the reactants to react to form a plasma; the electrode comprises a refractory metal; a source of electrical power that delivers short bursts of high current electrical energy sufficient to cause the reactants to react to form a plasma, the source comprising at least one supercapacitor; The molten metal injection system includes an electromagnetic pump including at least one magnet providing a magnetic field and a current source to supply a current component of a vector cross product; the molten metal reservoir includes an inductively coupled heater; The molten metal ignition system includes at least one set of electrodes separated to form an open circuit, where the open circuit is closed by the injection of molten metal to cause a high current to flow to achieve ignition; Its molten metal ignition system current is in the range of 500A to 50,000A, The molten metal ignition system is closed circuit to provide an ignition frequency within the range of 1 Hz to 10,000 Hz; the molten metal includes at least one of silver, a silver-copper alloy, and copper; the additional reactant comprises at least one of HO vapor and hydrogen gas; the additional reactant injection system includes a computer, H2O and H2 pressure sensors, and at least one of a flow controller, wherein the controller includes at least one or more from the group of a mass flow controller, a pump, a syringe pump, and a high-precision electrically controllable valve, wherein the valve includes at least one from the group of a needle valve, a proportional electronic valve, and a stepper motor valve, and the valve is controlled by the pressure sensor and the computer to maintain at least one of the H2O and H2 pressures at a desired value; An additional reactant injection system maintains the HO vapor within the range of 0.1 Torr to 1 Torr; The reactant recovery system includes at least one of a vessel including a wall capable of providing flow to the melt under gravity, an electrode electromagnetic pump, and a reservoir in communication with the vessel, and further includes a cooling system for maintaining the reservoir at a lower temperature than another portion of the vessel to cause metal vapor of the molten metal to condense within the reservoir; a recovery system including an electrode electromagnetic pump, including at least one magnet providing a magnetic field and a vector cross product ignition current element; The vessel, capable of maintaining a pressure below, equal to, or higher than atmospheric pressure, includes an outer chamber, capable of maintaining a pressure below, equal to, or higher than atmospheric pressure, a top cover including a blackbody radiator, and an inner reaction cell; The top cover, containing the blackbody radiator, is maintained at a temperature ranging from 1000K to 3700K. At least one of the top cover and the internal reaction cell, which includes a blackbody radiator, comprises a heat-resistant metal having a high emissivity; the blackbody radiator further includes a blackbody temperature sensor and a controller; the at least one power converter of the reactive power output comprises at least one from the group of a thermophotovoltaic converter and a photovoltaic converter; The light emitted by the cell is mostly blackbody radiation, including visible and near-infrared light, and photovoltaic cells are made of crystalline silicon, germanium, gallium arsenide (GaAs), gallium antimonide (GaSb), indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs), indium gallium arsenide antimonide (InGaAsSb), and indium phosphide arsenide antimonide (InPAsSb), III / V semiconductors, InGaP / InGaAs / Ge; InAlGaP / AlGaAs / GaInNAsSb / Ge; GaIn a light-collecting cell comprising at least one compound selected from: P / GaAsP / SiGe; GaInP / GaAsP / Si; GaInP / GaAsP / Ge; GaInP / GaAsP / Si / SiGe; GaInP / GaAs / InGaAs; GaInP / GaAs / GaInNAs; GaInP / GaAs / InGaAs / InGaAs; GaInP / Ga(In)As / InGaAs; GaInP-GaAs-wafer-InGaAs; GaInP-Ga(In)As-Ge; and GaInP-GaInAs-Ge; and The power system further includes a vacuum pump and at least one chiller.

[0015] In one embodiment, the present disclosure relates to a power system for generating at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy, the power system comprising: at least one reservoir capable of maintaining a pressure below, at, or above atmospheric pressure; reactants, where the reactants are a) at least one of HO or a source of HO; b) H2 gas, and c) molten metal, at least one molten metal injection system including a molten metal reservoir and an electromagnetic pump; at least one additional reactant injection system, wherein the additional reactant injection system comprises: a) at least one of HO or a source of HO, and b) H2, including at least one reactant ignition system including a source of electrical power that causes the reactants to form at least one of a luminous plasma and an exothermic plasma, wherein the source of electrical power receives electrical power from a power converter; a system for recovering the molten metal; and at least one output system or power converter of at least one of optical and thermal power to electrical power and / or thermal power; wherein the molten metal ignition system is a) at least one set of electrodes that confine the molten metal; and b) a source of electrical power that delivers short bursts of high current electrical energy sufficient to cause the reactants to react to form a plasma; the electrode comprises a refractory metal; a source of electrical power that delivers short bursts of high current electrical energy sufficient to cause the reactants to react to form a plasma, the source comprising at least one supercapacitor; The molten metal injection system includes an electromagnetic pump including at least one magnet providing a magnetic field and a current source to supply a current component of a vector cross product; the molten metal reservoir includes an induction-coupled heater for at least initially heating a metal forming the molten metal; The molten metal ignition system includes at least one set of electrodes separated to form an open circuit, where the open circuit is closed by the injection of molten metal to cause a high current to flow to achieve ignition; Its molten metal ignition system current is in the range of 500A to 50,000A, The molten metal ignition system is closed circuit to provide an ignition frequency within the range of 1 Hz to 10,000 Hz; the molten metal includes at least one of silver, a silver-copper alloy, and copper; the additional reactant injection system includes a computer, H2O and H2 pressure sensors, and at least one of a flow controller, wherein the controller includes at least one or more from the group of mass flow controllers, pumps, syringe pumps, and high precision electrically controllable valves, wherein the valves include at least one from the group of needle valves, proportional electronic valves, and stepper motor valves, and the valves are controlled by the pressure sensors and the computer to maintain at least one of the H2O and H2 pressures at a desired value; An additional reactant injection system maintains the HO vapor pressure within the range of 0.1 Torr to 1 Torr. a system for recovering a product of the reaction, comprising at least one of a vessel including a wall capable of providing flow to the melt under gravity, an electrode electromagnetic pump, and a reservoir in communication with the vessel, and further comprising a cooling system for maintaining the reservoir at a lower temperature than another portion of the vessel to cause metal vapor of the molten metal to condense within the reservoir; a recovery system including an electrode electromagnetic pump, including at least one magnet providing a magnetic field and a vector cross product ignition current element; The vessel, capable of maintaining a pressure below, at, or above atmospheric pressure, includes an outer chamber, capable of maintaining a pressure below, at, or above atmospheric pressure, a top cover including a high-temperature blackbody radiator, and an inner reaction cell; The top cover, containing the blackbody radiator, is maintained at a temperature ranging from 1000K to 3700K. At least one of the top cover and the internal reaction cell, which includes a blackbody radiator, comprises a heat-resistant metal having a high emissivity; the blackbody radiator further includes a blackbody temperature sensor and a controller; the at least one power converter of the reactive power output includes at least one of a thermophotovoltaic converter and a photovoltaic converter; The light emitted by the cell is mostly blackbody radiation, including visible and near-infrared light, and photovoltaic cells are widely used in semiconductors including crystalline silicon, germanium, gallium arsenide (GaAs), gallium antimonide (GaSb), indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs), indium gallium arsenide antimonide (InGaAsSb), and indium phosphide arsenide antimonide (InPAsSb), III / V semiconductors, InGaP / InGaAs / Ge; InAlGaP / AlGaAs / GaInNAsSb / Ge; and GaInP-GaAs-wafer-InGaAs; GaInP-Ga(In)As-Ge; and GaInP-GaInAs-Ge; and The power system further includes a vacuum pump and at least one chiller.

[0016] In one embodiment, the present disclosure relates to a power system for generating at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy, the power system comprising: at least one reservoir capable of maintaining a pressure below, at, or above atmospheric pressure; reactants, where the reactants are a) at least one catalyst or source of catalyst comprising nascent HO; b) at least one of HO or a source of HO; c) at least one of atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen, and d) molten metal, at least one molten metal injection system including a molten metal reservoir and an electromagnetic pump; at least one additional reactant injection system, wherein the additional reactant is a) at least one catalyst or source of catalyst comprising nascent HO; b) at least one of HO or a source of HO; and c) at least one of atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen; at least one reactant ignition system including a source of electrical power that causes the reactants to form at least one of a luminous plasma and an exothermic plasma; a system for recovering the molten metal; and at least one output system or power converter of at least one of optical and thermal power to electrical power and / or thermal power; wherein the molten metal ignition system is a) at least one set of electrodes that confine the molten metal; and b) a source of electrical power that delivers short bursts of high current electrical energy sufficient to cause the reactants to react to form a plasma; the electrode comprises a refractory metal; a source of electrical power that delivers short bursts of high current electrical energy sufficient to cause the reactants to react to form a plasma, the source comprising at least one supercapacitor; The molten metal injection system includes an electromagnetic pump including at least one magnet providing a magnetic field and a current source to supply a current component of a vector cross product; the molten metal reservoir includes an induction-coupled heater for at least initially heating a metal forming the molten metal; The molten metal ignition system includes at least one set of electrodes separated to form an open circuit, where the open circuit is closed by the injection of molten metal to cause a high current to flow to achieve ignition; Its molten metal ignition system current is in the range of 500A to 50,000A, The molten metal ignition system is closed circuit to provide an ignition frequency within the range of 1 Hz to 10,000 Hz; the molten metal includes at least one of silver, a silver-copper alloy, and copper; the additional reactant comprises at least one of HO vapor and hydrogen gas; the additional reactant injection system includes a computer, H2O and H2 pressure sensors, and at least one of a flow controller, wherein the controller includes at least one or more from the group of mass flow controllers, pumps, syringe pumps, and high precision electrically controllable valves, wherein the valves include at least one from the group of needle valves, proportional electronic valves, and stepper motor valves, and the valves are controlled by the pressure sensors and the computer to maintain at least one of the H2O and H2 pressures at a desired value; An additional reactant injection system maintains the HO vapor within the range of 0.1 Torr to 1 Torr; a system for recovering a product of the reaction, comprising at least one of a vessel including a wall capable of providing flow to the melt under gravity, an electrode electromagnetic pump, and a reservoir in communication with the vessel, and further comprising a cooling system for maintaining the reservoir at a lower temperature than another portion of the vessel to cause molten metal to condense within the reservoir; a recovery system including an electrode electromagnetic pump, including at least one magnet providing a magnetic field and a vector cross product ignition current element; The vessel, capable of maintaining a pressure below, equal to, or higher than atmospheric pressure, includes an outer chamber, capable of maintaining a pressure below, equal to, or higher than atmospheric pressure, a top cover including a blackbody radiator, and an inner reaction cell; The top cover, containing the blackbody radiator, is maintained at a temperature ranging from 1000K to 3700K. At least one of the top cover and the internal reaction cell, which includes a blackbody radiator, comprises a heat-resistant metal having a high emissivity; the blackbody radiator further includes a blackbody temperature sensor and a controller; the at least one power converter of the reactive power output comprises at least one from the group of a thermophotovoltaic converter and a photovoltaic converter; The light emitted by the cell is mostly blackbody radiation, including visible and near-infrared light, and photovoltaic cells are widely used in semiconductors including crystalline silicon, germanium, gallium arsenide (GaAs), gallium antimonide (GaSb), indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs), indium gallium arsenide antimonide (InGaAsSb), and indium phosphide arsenide antimonide (InPAsSb), III / V semiconductors, InGaP / InGaAs / Ge; InAlGaP / AlGaAs / GaInNAsSb / Ge; GaInP / GaAsP / SiGe; GaInP / GaAsP / Si; GaInP / GaA a light-collecting cell comprising at least one compound selected from: sP / Ge; GaInP / GaAsP / Si / SiGe; GaInP / GaAs / InGaAs; GaInP / GaAs / GaInNAs; GaInP / GaAs / InGaAs / InGaAs; GaInP / Ga(In)As / InGaAs; GaInP-GaAs-wafer-InGaAs; GaInP-Ga(In)As-Ge; and GaInP-GaInAs-Ge; and The power system further includes a vacuum pump and at least one chiller.

[0017] In another embodiment, the present disclosure relates to a power system for generating at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy, comprising: at least one reservoir capable of subatmospheric pressure; a shot containing a reactant, where the reactant is a) at least one catalyst or source of catalyst comprising nascent HO; b) at least one of HO or a source of HO; c) at least one of atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen, and d) at least one of a conductor and a conductive matrix; at least one shot delivery system including at least one augmented railgun, wherein the augmented railgun includes a magnet generating a magnetic field perpendicular to the plane of the rail and a separate electrically conducting rail, and the circuit between the rails is open until closed by contact of the shot with the rail; at least one ignition system that causes the shot to form at least one of a luminous plasma and a heat-generating plasma, wherein the at least one ignition system comprises: a) at least one set of electrodes that confine the shot; and b) a source of electrical power that delivers short bursts of high current electrical energy; wherein the at least one set of electrodes forms an open circuit that is closed by the ejection of the shot to cause a high current to flow to achieve ignition, and wherein a source of electrical power for delivering a short burst of high current electrical energy comprises: a voltage selected to induce a high AC, DC, or mixed AC-DC current in at least one of the following ranges: 100 A to 1,000,000 A, 1 kA to 100,000 A, 10 kA to 50 kA; 100A / cm 2 to 1,000,000 A / cm 2 , 1000A / cm 2 to 100,000 A / cm 2 , and 2,000 A / cm 2 to 50,000 A / cm 2 a DC or peak AC current density within at least one of the ranges; The voltage is determined by the conductivity of the solid fuel, or the voltage is given by multiplying the resistance of the solid fuel sample by the desired current; the DC or peak AC voltage is within at least one of the ranges of about 0.1 V to 500 kV, 0.1 V to 100 kV, and 1 V to 50 kV; and the AC frequency is within at least one of the ranges of approximately 0.1 Hz to 10 GHz, 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 10 Hz to 100 kHz, and 100 Hz to 10 kHz; a system for recovering reaction products of the reactants, the system including at least one of gravity and an augmented plasma railgun recovery system including at least one magnet providing a vector-crossed current component of the ignition electrodes and a magnetic field; at least one regeneration system for regenerating additional reactants from the reaction products and forming additional shots, the system including a blast furnace for forming molten reactants, a system for adding H2 and HO to the molten reactants, a melt dripper, and a pelletizer including a water reservoir for forming the shots; where the additional reactant is a) at least one catalyst or source of catalyst comprising nascent HO; b) at least one of HO or a source of HO; c) at least one of atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen, and d) at least one of a conductor and a conductive matrix; and and at least one output system or power converter of at least one of light and heat power to electrical power and / or thermal power, including at least one or more of the group of a photovoltaic converter, a photoelectronic converter, a plasmadynamic converter, a thermionic converter, a thermoelectric converter, a Stirling engine, a Brayton cycle engine, a Rankine cycle engine, and a heat engine, and a heater.

[0018] In another embodiment, the present disclosure relates to a power system for generating at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy, the power system comprising: at least one reservoir capable of subatmospheric pressure; a shot containing a reactant comprising at least one of silver, copper, absorbed hydrogen, and water; at least one shot delivery system including at least one augmented railgun, wherein the augmented railgun includes a magnet generating a magnetic field perpendicular to the plane of the rail and a separate electrically conducting rail, and the circuit between the rails is open until closed by contact of the shot with the rail; at least one ignition system that causes the shot to form at least one of a luminous plasma and a heat-generating plasma, wherein the at least one ignition system comprises: a) at least one set of electrodes that confine the shot; and b) an electrical power source that delivers short bursts of high current electrical energy; wherein at least one of the electrodes of a set is separated to form an open circuit, which is closed by the injection of a shot to allow a high current to flow to achieve ignition; and wherein a source of electrical power for delivering a short burst of high current electrical energy is a voltage selected to induce a high AC, DC, or mixed AC-DC current in at least one of the following ranges: 100 A to 1,000,000 A, 1 kA to 100,000 A, 10 kA to 50 kA; 100A / cm 2 to 1,000,000 A / cm 2 , 1000A / cm 2 to 100,000 A / cm 2 , and 2,000 A / cm 2 to 50,000 A / cm 2 DC or peak AC current density within at least one of the ranges; the voltage being determined by the conductivity of the solid fuel, wherein the voltage is provided by applying a desired current to the resistance of the solid fuel sample; The DC or peak AC voltage is within at least one of the following ranges: 0.1 V to 500 kV, 0.1 V to 100 kV, and 1 V to 50 kV; and the AC frequency is within at least one of the following ranges: 0.1 Hz to 10 GHz, 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 10 Hz to 100 kHz, and 100 Hz to 10 kHz; a system for recovering reaction products of the reactants, the system including at least one of an augmented plasma railgun recovery system including at least one magnet providing a vector-crossed current component of the ignition electrodes and a magnetic field, and gravity; at least one regeneration system for regenerating additional reactants from the reaction products and forming additional shots, the system including a blast furnace for forming molten reactants, a system for adding H2 and HO to the molten reactants, a melt dripper, and a pelletizer including a water reservoir for forming the shots; wherein the additional reactant comprises at least one of silver, copper, absorbed hydrogen, and water; The photovoltaic cells include at least one compound selected from Group III nitrides, GaAlN, GaN, and InGaN, and at least one output system or power converter including a concentrating ultraviolet photovoltaic converter.

[0019] In another embodiment, the present disclosure relates to a power system for generating at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy, the power system comprising: at least one tank; a shot containing a reactant, where the reactant is a) at least one catalyst or source of catalyst comprising nascent HO; b) at least one of HO or a source of HO; c) at least one of atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen, and d) at least one of a conductor and a conductive matrix; at least one shot injection system; a shot ignition system that causes the shot to form at least one of a luminous plasma and a heat-generating plasma; a system for recovering reaction products of the reactants; at least one regeneration system for regenerating additional reactants from the reaction products and forming additional shots; where the additional reactant is a) at least one catalyst or source of catalyst comprising nascent HO; b) at least one of HO or a source of HO; c) at least one of atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen, and d) at least one of a conductor and a conductive matrix; and at least one output system or power converter of at least one of optical and thermal power to electrical power and / or thermal power.

[0020] Certain embodiments of the present disclosure relate to a power generation system that includes a plurality of electrodes configured to deliver power to a fuel to ignite the fuel and generate a plasma; a source of electrical power configured to deliver electrical energy to the plurality of electrodes; and at least one photovoltaic power converter positioned to receive at least a plurality of plasma photons.

[0021] In one embodiment, the present disclosure relates to a power system for directly generating at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy, the power system comprising: The power system includes at least one vessel; a) at least one catalyst or source of catalyst comprising nascent HO; b) at least one of atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen; c) at least one reservoir containing at least one of a conductor and a conductive matrix; at least one set of electrodes that confine the hydrino reactants; An electrical power source that delivers short bursts of high-current electrical energy; with a recharging system; at least one system for regenerating the initial reactants from the reaction products; and at least one plasma dynamic converter or at least one photovoltaic converter;

[0022] In an exemplary embodiment, a method for generating electrical power may include providing fuel to a region between a plurality of electrodes; energizing the plurality of electrodes to ignite the fuel to form a plasma; converting the plurality of plasma photons into electrical power with a photovoltaic power converter; and outputting at least a portion of the electrical power.

[0023] In another exemplary embodiment, a method of generating electrical power may include providing fuel to a region between a plurality of electrodes; energizing the plurality of electrodes to ignite the fuel to form a plasma; converting the plurality of plasma photons into thermal power with a photovoltaic power converter; and outputting at least a portion of the electrical power.

[0024] In one embodiment of the present disclosure, a method of generating power includes the steps of delivering a quantity of fuel to a fuel loading region, the fuel loading region being located within a plurality of electrodes; and applying an electrical current of at least about 2,000 A / cm through the fuel by applying an electrical current to the plurality of electrodes to generate at least one of a plasma, light, and heat. 2 igniting the fuel by passing a current of 100 W; receiving at least a portion of the light into a photovoltaic power converter; converting the light into a different form of power using the photovoltaic power converter; and outputting the different form of power.

[0025] In an additional embodiment, the present disclosure relates to a water arc plasma power system including at least one closed reaction vessel; reactants including at least one of HO and a source of HO; at least one set of electrodes; a source of electrical power for delivering an initial high breakdown voltage of HO and a subsequent high current; and a heat exchanger system, where the power system generates arc plasma, light, and thermal energy, and at least one photovoltaic power converter. Water may be supplied as a vapor on or between the electrodes. The confinement may allow the plasma to expand into a low-pressure region of the plasma cell to prevent quenching of the hydrino reaction. The arc electrodes may include a spark plug design. The electrodes may include at least one of copper, nickel, nickel with silver chromate and zinc plating for corrosion resistance, iron, nickel-iron alloys, chromium, precious metals, tungsten, molybdenum, yttrium, iridium, and palladium. In one embodiment, the water arc is maintained at a low water pressure, such as within at least one of the ranges of about 0.01 Torr to 10 Torr and 0.1 Torr to 1 Torr. The pressure range may be maintained within one of the ranges disclosed for the SF-CIHT cell. Typical means for supplying water vapor are at least one of a reservoir containing HO, such as hydrated zeolite, and a mass flow controller, or a salt bath, such as a KOH solution, that releases gaseous HO at the desired pressure range. Water may be supplied by a syringe pump, where delivery into the vacuum results in evaporation of the water.

[0026] Certain embodiments of the present disclosure relate to power generation systems, which have a current of at least about 2,000 A / cm 2or about 5,000 kW of electrical power source; a plurality of electrodes electrically connected to the electrical power source; a fuel loading region configured to receive the solid fuel, the plurality of electrodes configured to deliver electrical power to the solid fuel to generate plasma; and at least one of a thermal-electric power converter, a photovoltaic power converter, and a plasma power converter positioned to receive at least a portion of the heat, photons, and / or plasma generated by the reaction. Another embodiment relates to a power generation system including a plurality of electrodes; a fuel-filled region configured to receive an electrically conductive fuel and disposed between the plurality of electrodes, wherein the plurality of electrodes are configured to apply an electric current to the electrically conductive fuel sufficient to ignite the electrically conductive fuel and generate at least one of plasma and thermal power; a delivery mechanism for moving the electrically conductive fuel into the fuel-filled region; and at least one of a photovoltaic power converter for converting plasma photons into a form of power or a thermal-to-electric converter for converting thermal power into a non-thermal form of power, including electrical or mechanical power. A further embodiment relates to a method of generating power, the method including: delivering a quantity of fuel to the fuel-filled region, the fuel-filled region being located within the plurality of electrodes; and applying an electric current of at least about 2,000 A / cm through the fuel by applying an electric current to the plurality of electrodes to generate at least one of plasma, light, and heat. 2 igniting the fuel by passing a current of 100 W; receiving at least a portion of the light in a photovoltaic power converter; converting the light into a different form of power using the photovoltaic power converter; and outputting the different form of power.

[0027] An additional embodiment relates to a power generation system including an electrical power source of at least about 5,000 kW; a plurality of spaced apart electrodes, wherein the plurality of electrodes at least partially surround a fuel, are electrically connected to the electrical power source, and are configured to receive an electrical current to ignite the fuel, and at least one of the plurality of electrodes is movable; a delivery mechanism for moving the fuel; and a photovoltaic power converter configured to convert plasma generated from ignition of the fuel into a non-plasma form of power. Also provided in this disclosure is a power generation system, wherein the power generation system has an electrical power source of at least about 2,000 A / cm. 2 a plurality of spaced apart electrodes, wherein the plurality of electrodes at least partially surround the fuel, are electrically connected to the electrical power source, and are configured to receive an electrical current to ignite the fuel, and at least one of the plurality of electrodes is movable; a delivery mechanism for moving the fuel; and a photovoltaic power converter configured to convert plasma generated from ignition of the fuel into a non-plasma form of power.

[0028] Another embodiment relates to a power generation system, the power generation system having a current of at least about 5,000 kW or at least about 2,000 A / cm 2a plurality of spaced apart electrodes, at least one of the electrodes including a compression mechanism; a fuel loading region configured to receive fuel, the fuel loading region surrounded by the plurality of electrodes such that the compression mechanism of the at least one electrode is oriented towards the fuel loading region, and the plurality of electrodes are electrically connected to the electrical power source and configured to deliver power to the fuel received within the fuel loading region to ignite the fuel; a delivery mechanism for moving the fuel within the fuel loading region; and a plasma power converter configured to convert photons generated from the ignition of the fuel into a non-photon form of power. Another embodiment of the present disclosure relates to a power generation system, the power generation system having a current of at least about 2,000 A / cm 2 a plurality of spaced apart electrodes, at least one of the electrodes including a compression mechanism; a fuel-filled region configured to receive fuel, wherein the fuel-filled region is surrounded by the plurality of electrodes such that the compression mechanism of the at least one electrode is oriented toward the fuel-filled region, and the plurality of electrodes are electrically connected to the electrical power source and configured to supply power to the fuel received within the fuel-filled region to ignite the fuel; a delivery mechanism for moving the fuel within the fuel-filled region; and a plasma power converter configured to convert plasma generated from the ignition of the fuel into a non-plasma form of power.

[0029] Embodiments of the present disclosure also relate to a power generation system that includes a plurality of electrodes; a fuel-filled region surrounded by the plurality of electrodes and configured to receive fuel, where the plurality of electrodes are configured to ignite the fuel disposed within the fuel-filled region; a delivery mechanism for moving the fuel into the fuel-filled region; a photovoltaic power converter configured to convert photons generated from the ignition of the fuel into non-photon form power; a removal system for removing by-products of the ignited fuel; and a regeneration system operably coupled to the removal system for recycling the removed by-products of the ignited fuel into recycled fuel. Certain embodiments of the present disclosure also relate to a power generation system that includes a power generation system that generates a current of at least about 2,000 A / cm 2 The power generation system includes an electric power source configured to output an electric current of at least about 5,000 kW; a plurality of spaced electrodes electrically connected to the electric power source; a fuel filling area configured to receive fuel, wherein the fuel filling area is surrounded by the plurality of electrodes and the plurality of electrodes are configured to supply power to the fuel to ignite the fuel when received within the fuel filling area; a delivery mechanism for moving the fuel within the fuel filling area; and a photovoltaic power converter configured to convert a plurality of photons generated from ignition of the fuel into power in a non-photon form. Certain embodiments further include one or more output power terminals operably coupled to the photovoltaic power converter; a power storage device; a sensor configured to measure at least one parameter associated with the power generation system; and a controller configured to control at least one process associated with the power generation system. Certain embodiments of the present disclosure also relate to power generation systems, wherein the power generation system has an electric current of at least about 2,000 A / cm.2 or at least about 5,000 kW of current; a plurality of spaced apart electrodes, wherein the plurality of electrodes at least partially surround a fuel and are electrically connected to the electrical power source and configured to receive current to ignite the fuel, and at least one of the plurality of electrodes is moveable; a delivery mechanism for moving the fuel; and a photovoltaic power converter configured to convert photons generated from ignition of the fuel into a different form of power.

[0030] An additional embodiment of the present disclosure relates to a power generation system, the power generation system having a current of at least about 2,000 A / cm 2 A power generation system includes an electric power source configured to output an electric current of at least about 5,000 kW; a plurality of spaced electrodes electrically connected to the electric power source; a fuel filling area configured to receive fuel, wherein the fuel filling area is surrounded by the plurality of electrodes and the plurality of electrodes are configured to supply power to the fuel to ignite the fuel when received within the fuel filling area; a delivery mechanism for moving the fuel within the fuel filling area; a photovoltaic power converter configured to convert a plurality of photons generated from the ignition of the fuel into a non-photon form of power; a sensor configured to measure at least one parameter associated with the power generation system; and a controller configured to control at least one process associated with the power generation system. A further embodiment relates to a power generation system, wherein the power generation system outputs an electric current of at least about 2,000 A / cm. 2a plurality of spaced electrodes electrically connected to the electrical power source; a fuel filling area configured to receive fuel, the fuel filling area being surrounded by the plurality of electrodes and configured to supply power to the fuel to ignite the fuel when received within the fuel filling area; a delivery mechanism for moving fuel into the fuel filling area; a plasma power converter configured to convert plasma generated from ignition of the fuel into a non-plasma form of power; a sensor configured to measure at least one parameter associated with the power generation system; and a controller configured to control at least one process associated with the power generation system.

[0031] Certain embodiments of the present disclosure relate to a power generation system, the power generation system having a current of at least about 5,000 kW or at least about 2,000 A / cm 2a plurality of spaced electrodes electrically connected to the electrical power source; a fuel filling region configured to receive fuel, wherein the fuel filling region is surrounded by the plurality of electrodes and the plurality of electrodes are configured to supply power to the fuel to ignite the fuel when received within the fuel filling region, and wherein the pressure within the fuel filling region is a partial vacuum; a delivery mechanism for moving the fuel within the fuel filling region; and a photovoltaic power converter configured to convert plasma generated from ignition of the fuel into a non-plasma form of power.Some embodiments include one or more of the following additional features: the photovoltaic power converter may be disposed within a vacuum cell; the photovoltaic power converter may include at least one of an antireflection coating, an optical impedance matching coating, or a protective coating; the photovoltaic power converter may be operatively coupled to a cleaning system configured to clean at least a portion of the photovoltaic power converter; the power generation system may include an optical filter; the photovoltaic power converter may be a monocrystalline cell, a polycrystalline cell, an amorphous cell, a string / ribbon silicon cell, a multi-junction cell, a homojunction cell, a heterojunction cell, a pin device, a thin-film cell, or a silicon wafer. and the photovoltaic power converter may include at least one of a photovoltaic cell, a dye-sensitized cell, and an organic photovoltaic cell; and the photovoltaic power converter may include a multijunction cell, where the multijunction cell includes at least one of an inverted cell, an upright cell, a lattice-mismatched cell, a lattice-matched cell, and a cell including a III-V semiconductor material.

[0032] Additional exemplary embodiments relate to systems configured to generate power, the systems including: a fuel supply configured to supply fuel; a power supply configured to supply electrical power; and at least one pair of electrodes configured to receive the fuel and the electrical power, where the electrodes selectively direct the electrical power to a localized region around the electrodes to ignite the fuel within the localized region. Some embodiments relate to methods of generating electrical power, the methods including supplying fuel to the electrodes; supplying electrical current to the electrodes to ignite the localized fuel to generate energy; and converting at least some of the energy generated by the ignition into electrical power.

[0033] Another embodiment relates to a power generation system, the power generation system having a current of at least about 2,000 A / cm 2 a plurality of spaced electrodes electrically connected to the electrical power source; a fuel filling region configured to receive fuel, wherein the fuel filling region is surrounded by the plurality of electrodes and the plurality of electrodes are configured to supply power to the fuel to ignite the fuel when received within the fuel filling region, and wherein the pressure within the fuel filling region is a partial vacuum; a delivery mechanism for moving the fuel within the fuel filling region; and a photovoltaic power converter configured to convert plasma generated from ignition of the fuel into a non-plasma form of power.

[0034] A further embodiment relates to a power generation system including: an outlet port connected to a vacuum pump; a plurality of electrodes electrically connected to a source of at least about 5,000 kW of electrical power; a fuel-filled region configured to receive a water-based fuel consisting essentially of H2O, wherein the plurality of electrodes are configured to deliver power to the water-based fuel to generate at least one of an arc plasma and thermal power; and a power converter configured to convert at least a portion of the at least one of the arc plasma and thermal power into electrical power. A further power generation system is disclosed, wherein the power generation system has an outlet port connected to a vacuum pump; a plurality of electrodes electrically connected to a source of at least about 5,000 kW of electrical power; a fuel-filled region configured to receive a water-based fuel consisting mostly of H2O, wherein the plurality of electrodes are configured to deliver power to the water-based fuel to generate at least one of an arc plasma and thermal power; and a power converter configured to convert at least a portion of the at least one of the arc plasma and thermal power into electrical power. 2 a fuel-filled region configured to receive a water-based fuel consisting essentially of H2O, wherein the electrodes are configured to deliver power to the water-based fuel to generate at least one of an arc plasma and thermal power; and a power converter configured to convert at least a portion of the at least one of the arc plasma and thermal power into electrical power. In one embodiment, the power converter includes a photovoltaic converter.

[0035] An additional embodiment relates to a method of generating power, the method including the steps of loading fuel into a fuel-filled region including a plurality of electrodes; and applying a current of about 2,000 A / cm to the plurality of electrodes to ignite the fuel to generate at least one of an arc plasma and thermal power. 2applying a current of at least about 5,000 kW to the arc plasma; passing the arc plasma through a photovoltaic power converter to generate electric power; and passing the thermal power through a thermal-to-electric converter to generate electric power; and outputting at least a portion of the generated electric power. Also disclosed is a power generation system including an electric power source of at least about 5,000 kW; a plurality of electrodes electrically connected to the electric power source, the plurality of electrodes configured to deliver the electric power to a water-based fuel consisting primarily of H2O to generate thermal power; and a heat exchanger configured to convert at least a portion of the thermal power into electric power; and a photovoltaic power converter configured to convert at least a portion of light into electric power. Additionally, another embodiment relates to a power generation system including: an electric power source of at least about 5,000 kW; a plurality of spaced electrodes, where at least one of the plurality of electrodes includes a compression mechanism; a fuel-filled region configured to receive a water-based fuel consisting primarily of H2O, where the fuel-filled region is surrounded by the plurality of electrodes such that the compression mechanism of the at least one electrode is oriented toward the fuel-filled region, and where the plurality of electrodes are electrically connected to the electric power source and configured to supply power to the water-based fuel received within the fuel-filled region to ignite the fuel; a delivery mechanism for moving fuel into the fuel-filled region; and a photovoltaic power converter configured to convert plasma generated from ignition of the fuel into a non-plasma form of power. [Brief explanation of the drawings]

[0036] Brief description of the drawings The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated herein and constitute a part of this specification, illustrate several embodiments of the present disclosure and, together with this description, serve to explain the principles of the disclosure.

[0037] [Figure 1] FIG. 1 (formerly FIG. 2I10) is a schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT cell power generator showing a vacuum-sustainable cell, an ignition system with an electromagnetic injection system and stationary electrode fed directly from a pelletizer, an augmented plasma railgun and gravity recovery system, a pelletizer, and a photovoltaic converter system showing details of the injection system with an electromagnetic pump and nozzle, the stationary electrode ignition system, the ignition products recovery system, and the pelletizer to form shot fuel, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 2] FIG. 2 (formerly FIG. 2I11) is a schematic diagram of a SF-CIHT cell power generator showing a cross section of the pelletizer shown in FIG. 1 (formerly FIG. 2I10) according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 3] FIG. 3 (formerly FIG. 2I12) is a schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT cell power generator showing the electrode shown in FIGS. 1 and 2 (formerly FIG. 2I10 and FIG. 2I11) and two cross-sectional views of the electrode according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 4] FIG. 4 (formerly FIG. 2I13) is a schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT cell power generator showing a cross section of the pelletizer shown in FIG. 1 (formerly FIG. 2I10) with a pipe bubbler for introducing gases such as H and steam into the melt, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 5] FIG. 5 (formerly FIG. 2I14) is a schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT cell power generator showing a cross section of a pelletizer with a nozzle for injecting shot at the bottom of the electrode, two electromagnetic pumps, and a pipe bubbler in the second vessel for introducing gases such as H2 and steam into the melt, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0038] [Figure 6]FIG. 6 (formerly FIG. 2I15) is a schematic diagram of a SF-CIHT cell power generator showing an electrode with shot ejection from its bottom, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 7] FIG. 7 (formerly FIG. 2I16) is a schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT cell power generator showing details of the electromagnetic pump, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 8] FIG. 8 (formerly FIG. 2I17) is a schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT cell power generator showing a cross section of a pelletizer with a nozzle for injecting shot onto the top of the electrode, two electromagnetic pumps, and a pipe bubbler in the second vessel for introducing gases such as H2 and steam into the melt, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 9] FIG. 9 (formerly FIG. 2I18) is a schematic diagram of a SF-CIHT cell power generator showing electrodes with shot ejection from the top, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 10] FIG. 10 (formerly FIG. 2I19) is a schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT cell power generator showing a cross section of a pelletizer with a nozzle for injecting shot at the bottom of the electrode, one electromagnetic pump, and a direct injector and pipe bubbler in a cone reservoir for introducing gases such as H2 and water vapor into the melt, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0039] [Figure 11] FIG. 11 (formerly FIG. 2I20) is a schematic diagram of an SF-CIHT cell power generator showing electrodes with gas injection and shot injection, such as H2 and water vapor, from the bottom, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 12] FIG. 12 (formerly FIG. 2I21) is a schematic diagram of two perspective views of the SF-CIHT cell power generator shown in FIG. 10 (formerly FIG. 2I19) according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 13] FIG. 13 (formerly FIG. 2I22) is a schematic diagram of a SF-CIHT cell power generator showing an electrode cooling system, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 14]FIG. 14 (formerly FIG. 2I23) is a schematic diagram of a SF-CIHT cell power generator showing two views of the cell with passive photovoltaic converter cooling systems, active and passive electrode cooling systems, and gas getter systems according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 15] FIG. 15 (formerly FIG. 2I24) is a schematic diagram of at least one of a thermophotovoltaic, photovoltaic, photoelectric, thermionic, and thermoelectric SF-CIHT cell power generator showing a capacitor bank ignition system according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0040] [Figure 16] FIG. 16 (formerly FIG. 2I25) is a schematic diagram of an internal view of the SF-CIHT cell power generator shown in FIG. 15 (formerly FIG. 2I24) according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 17] FIG. 17 (formerly FIG. 2I26) is a schematic diagram of an internal view of further details of the injection and ignition system of the SF-CIHT cell power generator shown in FIG. 16 (formerly FIG. 2I25) according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 18] FIG. 18 (formerly FIG. 2I27) is a schematic diagram of an internal view of additional details of the injection and ignition system of the SF-CIHT cell power generator shown in FIG. 17 (formerly FIG. 2I26) according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 19] FIG. 19 (formerly FIG. 2I28) is a schematic diagram of the magnetic yoke assembly of the electromagnetic pump of the SF-CIHT cell power generator shown in FIG. 18 (formerly FIG. 2I27) with and without magnets, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 20]FIG. 20 (formerly FIG. 2I29) is a schematic diagram of at least one of a thermophotovoltaic, photovoltaic, photoelectric, thermionic, and thermoelectric SF-CIHT cell power generator showing an electrode electromagnetic pump including blade electrodes and a magnetic circuit held by clamps according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0041] [Figure 21] FIG. 21 (formerly FIG. 2I30) is a schematic diagram of an internal view of further details of the injection and ignition system of the SF-CIHT cell power generator shown in FIG. 20 (formerly FIG. 2I29), according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 22] FIG. 22 (formerly FIG. 2I31) is a schematic diagram of a cross-sectional view of further details of the injection and ignition system of the SF-CIHT cell power generator shown in FIG. 20 (formerly FIG. 2I29), according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 23] FIG. 23 (formerly FIG. 2I32) is a schematic diagram of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator showing an inductively coupled heater, a capacitor bank ignition system, an electromagnetic pump injection system, a vacuum pump, and a water pump and radiator cooling system according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 24] FIG. 24 (formerly FIG. 2I33) is a schematic diagram of an internal view of the SF-CIHT cell power generator shown in FIG. 23 (formerly FIG. 2I32) according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 25] FIG. 25 (formerly FIG. 2I34) is a schematic diagram of another exterior view of the SF-CIHT cell power generator shown in FIG. 23 (formerly FIG. 2I32), showing details of a cooling system including a water pump, a water tank, and a radiator, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0042] [Figure 26] FIG. 26 (formerly FIG. 2I35) is a schematic diagram of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator showing an inductively coupled heater, a capacitor bank ignition system, an electromagnetic pump injection system, a vacuum pump, and a water pump, a radiator cooling system, and a dome-shaped radiator and geodesic dome photovoltaic converter according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 27] FIG. 27 (formerly FIG. 2I36) is a schematic diagram of an internal view of the SF-CIHT cell power generator shown in FIG. 26 (formerly FIG. 2I35) according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 28] FIG. 28 (formerly FIG. 2I37) is a schematic diagram of another view of the SF-CIHT cell power generator shown in FIG. 26 (formerly FIG. 2I35) showing details of a cooling system including a water pump with a solenoid valve, a water tank, and a radiator, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 29] FIG. 29 (formerly FIG. 2I38) is a schematic diagram of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator showing electrode penetrations at the conical reservoir, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 30] FIG. 30 (formerly FIG. 2I39) is a schematic diagram of an internal view of the SF-CIHT cell power generator shown in FIG. 29 (formerly FIG. 2I38) according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0043] [Figure 31] FIG. 31 (formerly FIG. 2I40) is a schematic diagram of another internal view of the SF-CIHT cell power generator shown in FIG. 29 (formerly FIG. 2I38) according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 32] FIG. 32 (formerly FIG. 2I41) is a schematic diagram of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator showing an electrode electromagnetic pump including an electromagnet and an angled electrode feedthrough with a conical reservoir, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 33] FIG. 33 (formerly FIG. 2I42) is a schematic diagram of an internal view of the SF-CIHT cell power generator shown in FIG. 32 (formerly FIG. 2I41) according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 34] FIG. 34 (formerly FIG. 2I43) is a schematic diagram of another internal view of the SF-CIHT cell power generator shown in FIG. 32 (formerly FIG. 2I41) according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 35]FIG. 35 (formerly FIG. 2I44) is a schematic diagram of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator showing an electrode electromagnetic pump including an electromagnet perpendicular to the axis between the electrodes and opposing electrode penetrations in a conical reservoir, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0044] [Figure 36] FIG. 36 (formerly FIG. 2I45) is a schematic diagram of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator showing an electrode electromagnetic pump including an electromagnet perpendicular to the axis between the electrodes and opposing electrode penetrations in a conical reservoir, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 37] FIG. 37 (formerly FIG. 2I46) is a schematic diagram of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator showing an electrode electromagnetic pump including an electromagnet perpendicular to the axis between the electrodes and opposing electrode penetrations in a conical reservoir, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 38] FIG. 38 (formerly FIG. 2I47) is a schematic diagram of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator showing an electrode electromagnetic pump including an electromagnet perpendicular to the axis between the electrodes and opposing electrode penetrations in a conical reservoir, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 39] FIG. 39 (formerly FIG. 2I48) is a schematic diagram of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator showing an electrode electromagnetic pump including a magnetic yoke and magnet perpendicular to the axis between the electrodes with an ignition point at the entrance of the dome and opposing electrode penetrations in a conical reservoir according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 40] FIG. 40 (formerly FIG. 2I49) is a schematic diagram of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator showing an electrode electromagnetic pump including a magnetic yoke and magnet perpendicular to the axis between the electrodes with an ignition point at the entrance of the dome and opposing electrode penetrations in a conical reservoir according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0045] [Figure 41] FIG. 41 (formerly FIG. 2I50) is a schematic diagram of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator showing an electrode electromagnetic pump including a magnetic yoke and magnet perpendicular to the axis between the electrodes with an ignition point at the entrance of the dome and opposing electrode penetrations in a conical reservoir according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 42] FIG. 42 (formerly FIG. 2I51) is a schematic diagram of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator showing an electrode electromagnetic pump including a magnetic yoke and magnet perpendicular to the axis between the electrodes with an ignition point at the entrance of the dome and opposing electrode penetrations in a conical reservoir according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 43] FIG. 43 (formerly FIG. 2I52) is a schematic diagram of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator showing an electrode electromagnetic pump including a magnetic yoke and magnet perpendicular to the axis between the electrodes with an ignition point at the entrance of the dome and opposing electrode penetrations in a conical reservoir according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 44] FIG. 44 (formerly FIG. 2I53) is a schematic diagram of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator showing an electrode electromagnetic pump including a magnetic yoke and magnet perpendicular to the axis between the electrodes with an ignition point at the entrance of the dome and opposing electrode penetrations in a conical reservoir according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 45] FIG. 45 (formerly FIG. 2I54) is a schematic diagram of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator showing opposing electrode penetrations in a conical reservoir and an electrode electromagnetic pump including a magnetic yoke and cooling magnet perpendicular to the axis between the electrodes with an ignition point at the entrance of the dome, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0046] [Figure 46] FIG. 46 (formerly FIG. 2I55) is a schematic diagram of a SF-CIHT cell power generator showing details of the optical distribution and photovoltaic converter system according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 47] FIG. 47 (formerly FIG. 2I56) is a schematic diagram of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator showing opposing electrode penetrations at the electromagnetic pump and reservoir including threaded joints and Swagelok-type connectors according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 48] FIG. 48 (formerly FIG. 2I57) is a schematic diagram of the thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator shown in FIG. 47 (formerly FIG. 2I56), showing threaded joints and Swagelok-type connectors according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 49] FIG. 49 (formerly FIG. 2I58) is a schematic diagram of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator showing details of the electromagnetic pump and reservoir including threaded joints and Swagelok-type connectors according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 50] FIG. 50 (formerly FIG. 2I59) is a schematic diagram of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator showing details of the reservoir and electromagnetic pump elements, including threaded joints, lock nuts, Swagelok-type connectors, and dome separator plates, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0047] [Figure 51] FIG. 51 (formerly FIG. 2I60) is a schematic diagram of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator showing the connected parts of FIG. 50 (formerly FIG. 2I59) according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 52] FIG. 52 (formerly FIG. 2I61) ​​is a schematic diagram of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator showing the cross section of FIG. 51 (formerly FIG. 2I60) according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 53] FIG. 53 (formerly FIG. 2I62) is a schematic diagram of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator showing details of the reservoir and electromagnetic pump elements, including threaded joints, Swagelok-type connectors, and dome separator plates, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 54] FIG. 54 (formerly FIG. 2I63) is a schematic diagram of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator showing details of parallel plate threaded electrodes, each with a locking nut for tightening, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 55] FIG. 55 (formerly FIG. 2I64) is a schematic diagram of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator showing details of parallel plate threaded electrodes, each with a locking nut for tightening, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0048] [Figure 56]FIG. 56 (formerly FIG. 2I65) is a schematic diagram of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator showing a blackbody radiator inside the upper pressure chamber, a transparent dome, and a PV converter according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 57] FIG. 57 (formerly FIG. 2I66) is a schematic diagram of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator showing elements within the lower chamber according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 58] FIG. 58 (formerly FIG. 2I67) is a schematic diagram of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator showing an exploded view according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 59] FIG. 59 (formerly FIG. 2I68) is a schematic diagram of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator showing an exploded view of the electromagnetic pump and reservoir assembly according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 60] FIG. 60 (formerly FIG. 2I69) is a schematic diagram of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator showing an exploded cross-sectional view of the electromagnetic pump and reservoir assembly according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0049] [Figure 61] FIG. 61 (formerly FIG. 2I70) is a schematic diagram of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator showing the elements housed within the upper and lower chambers according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 62] FIG. 62 (formerly FIG. 2I71) is a schematic diagram of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator showing a cross-sectional view of the elements housed within the upper and lower chambers according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 63] FIG. 63 (formerly FIG. 2I72) is a schematic diagram of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator showing an exploded view of the ignition element according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 64] FIG. 64 (formerly FIG. 2I73) is a schematic diagram of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator showing an assembled view and a cross-sectional view of the ignition element according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 65]FIG. 65 (formerly FIG. 2I74) is a schematic diagram of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator showing an assembled and exploded view of the magnet system of the electromagnetic pump according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0050] [Figure 66] FIG. 66 (formerly FIG. 2I75) is a schematic diagram of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator showing an exploded view of the elements of the upper chamber according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 67] FIG. 67 (formerly FIG. 2I76) is a schematic diagram of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator showing an exploded view of the separator plate elements between the upper and lower chambers according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 68] Figure 68 (formerly Figure 2I77) is a schematic diagram of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator with elements housed within a single outer pressure vessel showing a cross section of the pressure vessel and main cell assembly according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 69] Figure 69 (formerly Figure 2I78) is a schematic diagram of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator with elements housed within a single outer pressure vessel showing an exploded view of the pressure vessel and main cell assembly according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 70] FIG. 70 (formerly FIG. 2I79) is a schematic diagram of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator with elements housed within a single outer pressure vessel showing an exploded view of the reservoir and blackbody radiator assembly according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0051] [Figure 71] FIG. 71 (formerly FIG. 2I80) is a schematic diagram of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator including dual EM pump injectors as liquid electrodes with elements housed within a single outer pressure vessel, showing a cross-sectional view, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 72] FIG. 72 (formerly FIG. 2I81) is a schematic diagram of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator including a dual EM pump injector as a liquid electrode showing a reservoir and blackbody radiator assembly according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 73] FIG. 73 (formerly FIG. 2I82) is a schematic diagram of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator including dual EM pump injectors as liquid electrodes showing a transparent view of the reservoir and blackbody radiator assembly according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 74] FIG. 74 (formerly FIG. 2I83) is a schematic diagram of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator including a dual EM pump injector as a liquid electrode showing the lower hemisphere of a blackbody radiator and twin nozzles according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 75] FIG. 75 (formerly FIG. 2I84) is a schematic diagram of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator including dual EM pump injectors as liquid electrodes showing the generator with an outer pressure vessel showing the penetration of the base of the outer pressure vessel according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0052] [Figure 76] FIG. 76 (formerly FIG. 2I85) is a schematic diagram of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator including dual EM pump injectors as liquid electrodes, showing the generator with the outer pressure vessel top removed to reveal the penetration of the base of the outer pressure vessel, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 77] FIG. 77 (formerly FIG. 2I86) is a schematic coronal xz cross-sectional view of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator including dual EM pump-injectors as liquid electrodes according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 78] FIG. 78 (formerly FIG. 2I87) is a schematic yz cross-sectional view of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator including dual EM pump injectors as liquid electrodes according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 79] FIG. 79 (formerly FIG. 2I88) is a schematic diagram of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator including dual EM pump injectors as liquid electrodes showing generator support elements according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 80] FIG. 80 (formerly FIG. 2I89) is a schematic diagram of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator including dual EM pump injectors as liquid electrodes showing generator support elements according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0053] [Figure 81] FIG. 81 (formerly FIG. 2I90) is a schematic diagram of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator including dual EM pump injectors as liquid electrodes showing generator support elements according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 82] FIG. 82 (formerly FIG. 2I91) is a schematic diagram of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator including dual EM pump injectors as liquid electrodes showing generator support elements according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 83] FIG. 83 (formerly FIG. 2I92) is a schematic diagram of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator including dual EM pump injectors as liquid electrodes showing generator support elements according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 84] Figure 84 (formerly Figure 2I93) is a schematic diagram of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator including dual EM pump injectors as liquid electrodes showing retractable antennas vertically in the up or reservoir heating position according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 85] FIG. 85 (formerly FIG. 2I94) is a schematic diagram of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator including a dual EM pump injector as a liquid electrode showing a vertically retractable antenna in a down or cooling / heating position according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0054] [Figure 86] FIG. 86 (formerly FIG. 2I95) is a schematic diagram of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator including dual EM pump injectors as liquid electrodes showing actuators for varying the vertical position of the heater coil according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 87] FIG. 87 (formerly FIG. 2I96) is a schematic diagram of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator including dual EM pump injectors as liquid electrodes showing the actuator drive mechanism for varying the vertical position of the heater coil according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 88]Figure 88 (formerly Figure 2I97) is a cross-sectional schematic diagram of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator including dual EM pump injectors as liquid electrodes showing actuators for changing the vertical position of the heater coil according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 89] FIG. 89 (formerly FIG. 2I98) is a schematic diagram of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator including a dual EM pump injector as a liquid electrode showing an electromagnetic pump assembly according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 90] FIG. 90 (formerly FIG. 2I99) is a schematic diagram of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator including dual EM pump injectors as liquid electrodes showing slip nut reservoir connectors according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0055] [Figure 91] FIG. 91 (formerly FIG. 2I100) is a schematic diagram showing the exterior and cross-sectional views of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator including a dual EM pump injector as a liquid electrode with a slip nut reservoir connector according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 92] FIG. 92 (formerly FIG. 2I101) is a schematic diagram showing a top cross-sectional schematic view of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator including dual EM pump-injectors as liquid electrodes according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 93] FIG. 93 (formerly FIG. 2I102) is a cross-sectional schematic diagram illustrating a particulate insulating containment vessel (vessel) according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 94] FIG. 94 (formerly FIG. 2I103) is a cross-sectional schematic diagram of a thermophotovoltaic SF-CIHT cell power generator including dual EM pump injectors as liquid electrodes showing a particulate insulating containment vessel (vessel) according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0056] [Figure 95]FIG. 95 (formerly FIG. 3-1) is an absolute spectrum in the 5 nm to 450 nm region of the ignition of an 80 mg shot of silver containing absorbed H and H0 from gassing the silver melt prior to dripping into a water reservoir showing an average optical power of 527 kW, essentially all in the ultraviolet and extreme ultraviolet spectral regions, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 96] FIG. 96 (formerly FIG. 3-2) is an absolute spectrum in the 5 nm to 450 nm region of the ignition of an 80 mg shot of silver containing absorbed H and H0 from gassing the silver melt prior to dripping into a water reservoir showing an average optical power of 527 kW, essentially all in the ultraviolet and extreme ultraviolet spectral regions, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 97] FIG. 97 (formerly FIG. 4) is a spectrum (100 nm to 500 nm region with a sapphire spectrometer window cutoff at 180 nm) of ignition of molten silver pumped into a W electrode in an argon atmosphere with an ambient HO vapor pressure of about 1 Torr showing UV line emission transitioned to blackbody radiation at 5000 K when silver evaporation makes the atmosphere optically thick for UV radiation, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 98] FIG. 98 (formerly FIG. 5) is a schematic diagram of a triangular element of a geodesic high-density receiver array of a photovoltaic converter according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

[0057] Disclosed herein is a catalytic system that releases energy from atomic hydrogen to form lower energy states, where the electron shells are closer relative to the nucleus. The released power is utilized for power generation, and additionally new hydrogen species and compounds are desired products. These energy states are predicted by classical physics, and the catalyst must accept energy from the hydrogen to undergo the corresponding energy-releasing transitions.

[0058] Classical physics provides closed-form solutions for hydrogen atoms, hydride ions, hydrogen molecular ions, and hydrogen molecules, and predicts corresponding species with fractional principal quantum numbers. Atomic hydrogen may undergo catalytic reactions with species (including itself) that can accept energy at integer multiples of atomic hydrogen's potential energy, m 27.2 eV, where m is an integer. The predicted reactions involve resonant, nonradiative energy transfer from otherwise stable atomic hydrogen to a catalyst capable of accepting the energy. The products are fractional Rydberg states of atomic hydrogen, called "hydrino atoms," H(1 / p), where n = 1 / 2, 1 / 3, 1 / 4, . . . , 1 / p (p ≤ 137, integers), replacing the well-known parameter n = integer in the Rydberg equation for excited states of hydrogen. Each hydrino state also contains an electron, a proton, and a photon, but the field contribution from the photon increases rather than decreases the binding energy, corresponding to energy detachment rather than absorption. The potential energy of atomic hydrogen is 27.2 eV, so mH atoms act as a catalyst for another (m+1)H atom with m 27.2 eV [1]. For example, an H atom can react with m 2 13.6eV((91.2 / m 2It can catalyze another H by accepting 27.2 eV from it via through-space energy transfer, such as by magnetic or induced electric dipole-dipole coupling, to form an intermediate that decays with a continuum band emission at an energy cutoff of 10.1 nm (122.4 eV) and a short-wavelength cutoff. In addition to atomic H, a molecule that accepts 27.2 eV from atomic H, with a decrease in the magnitude of the molecular potential energy by the same energy, may also function as a catalyst. The potential energy of H2O is 81.6 eV. And by the same mechanism, a nascent H2O molecule (not hydrogen bound in the solid, liquid, or gas state) formed by the thermodynamically favorable reduction of a metal oxide is predicted to catalyze the formation of H(1 / 4) with a 204 eV energy release, including the release of a continuum emission with a cutoff at 10.1 nm (122.4 eV) and the transfer of 81.6 eV to HOH.

[0059] H[a H In a H atom catalysis reaction involving a transition to the [m+1] state, m H atoms act as catalysts for another (m+1) H atom with m 27.2 eV. Then, the reaction between m+1 hydrogen atoms by m atoms resonantly and non-radiatively accepting m 27.2 eV from the (m+1) hydrogen atom so that m H acts as a catalyst is given by: m 27.2 eV + mH + H → mH fast + +me - +H * [a H / (m+1)]+m 27.2 eV (1) H * [a H / (m+1)] → H[a H / (m+1)] +[(m+1) 2 -12 ]·13.6eV-m·27.2eV (2) mH fast + +me - → mH+m 27.2 eV (3) The overall reaction is as follows: H → H[a H / (p=m+1)]+[(m+1) 2 -1 2 ] 13.6 eV (4)

[0060] The potential energy of the nascent H2O[1] for the catalytic reaction (m=3) is: 81.6eV+H2O+H[a H ] → 2H fast + +O - +e - +H * [a H / 4]+81.6eV (5) H * [a H / 4] → H[a H / 4]+122.4eV (6) 2H fast + +O - +e - → H2O+81.6eV (7) And the overall reaction is as follows: H[a H ] → H[a H / 4]+81.6eV+122.4eV (8)

[0061] After energy transfer to the catalyst (equations (1) and (5)), intermediate H * [a H / (m+1)] is formed, with the radius of the H atom and a central field m+1 times that of the proton. 2Its radius is predicted to decrease when subjected to a radial acceleration to a stable state with a radius of 1 / (m+1) that of an uncatalyzed hydrogen atom, with the release of 13.6 eV of energy. * [a H / (m+1)] intermediates (e.g., Eqs. (2) and (6)) have short wavelength cutoffs and E (H→H[aH / (p=m+1)]) = m 2 ·13.6 eV; λ (H→H[aH / (p=m+1)]) = 91.2 / m 2 nm (9) The energy E given by (H→H[aH / p=m+1]) and is predicted to extend to wavelengths longer than the corresponding cutoff, where H * [a H / 4] The extreme ultraviolet continuum band due to the decay of the intermediate is 2 It is predicted to have a short wavelength cutoff at 13.6 = 9 13.6 = 122.4 eV (10.1 nm) [where p = m + 1 = 4 and m = 3 in equation (9)] and extend to longer wavelengths. The continuum emission band at 10.1 nm and the shift to longer wavelengths for the theoretically predicted transition of H to lower energy, the so-called "hydrino" state H(1 / 4), has only been observed resulting from certain hydrogen-containing pulsed pinch gas discharges. Another observation predicted by equations (1) and (5) is the fast H + The formation of fast, excited-state H atoms from the recombination of H atoms causes broadened Balmer alpha emission. The broadening of the Balmer alpha line >50 eV, which represents the density of exceptionally high kinetic energy hydrogen atoms in some mixed hydrogen plasmas, is a well-established phenomenon due to the energy released in the formation of hydrinos. Fast H has previously been observed in a continuum-emitting hydrogen pinch plasma.

[0062] Additional catalysts and reactions for forming hydrinos are possible. Specific species (e.g., He) can be identified based on their known electronic energy levels.+ , Ar + , Sr + , K, Li, HCl, and NaH, OH, SH, SeH, nascent HO, nH (n = integer) are required to be present with atomic hydrogen to catalyze the process. The reaction involves a non-radiative energy transfer of q 13.6 eV to H, followed by a q 13.6 eV continuum emission, to form an exceptionally hot, excited state of H, and a hydrogen atom lower in energy than the unreacted atomic hydrogen, corresponding to a fractional principal quantum number. That is, in the following equation for the principal energy levels of the hydrogen atom, E n = -e 2 / n 2 8πε o a H =-13.598eV / n 2 (10) n = 1, 2, 3, ... (11) where a H is the Bohr radius for the hydrogen atom (52.947 pm), e is the magnitude of the electron charge, and ε o is the dielectric constant of vacuum, and the quantum number of the fraction is n = 1, 1 / 2, 1 / 3, 1 / 4,..., 1 / p; where p≦137 is an integer (12) It substitutes the well-known parameter n = integer in the Rydberg equation for the excited state of hydrogen and represents a lower energy state of the hydrogen atom called a "hydrino." The n = 1 state of hydrogen and the n = 1 / integer state of hydrogen are non-radiative, but transitions between the two non-radiative states, e.g., n = 1 to n = 1 / 2, are possible by non-radiative energy transfer. Hydrogen is a special case of the stable states given by equations (10) and (12), where the corresponding radius of the hydrogen or hydrino atom is given by γ = a H / p (13) Here, p=1,2,3,···. To satisfy the conservation of energy, energy must be transferred from the hydrogen atom to the catalyst in integer units of the potential energy of the hydrogen atom in the normal n=1 state, and the radius is a H Transition to / (m+p). m 27.2 eV (14) Hydrinos are formed by reacting ordinary hydrogen atoms with a suitable catalyst that has a net enthalpy of reaction of m 27.2 eV, where m is an integer. The rate of the catalytic reaction increases as the net enthalpy of reaction more closely matches m 27.2 eV. Catalysts with net enthalpies of reaction within ±10%, preferably ±5%, of m 27.2 eV have been found to be adequate for most applications.

[0063] Catalytic reactions involve two steps of energy release: a non-radiative energy transfer to the catalyst, followed by an additional energy release, which results in a reduction in radius to the corresponding stable final state. Thus, the general reaction is given as: m 27.2 eV + Cat q+ +H[a H / p] → Cat (q+r)+ +re - +H * [a H / (m+p)] +m 27.2 eV (15) H * [a H / (m+p)] → H[a H / (m+p)]+[(m+p) 2 -p 2 ] 13.6 eV -m 27.2 eV (16) Cat (q+r)+ +re - → Cat q+ +m 27.2 eV (17) And the overall reaction is as follows: H[a H / p] → H[aH / (m+p)] +[(m+p) 2 -p 2 ]·13.6 eV (18) where q, r, m, and p are integers. * [a H / (m+p)] has a central field equivalent to the radius of the hydrogen atom (corresponding to the case where the denominator is 1) and (m+p) times that of the proton, and H[a H / (m+p)] is the corresponding stable state with a radius of 1 / (m+p) that of H.

[0064] The catalytic product, H(1 / p), is the hydrino hydride ion, H - Alternatively, two H(1 / p) may react to form the corresponding molecular hydrino H(1 / p). In particular, the catalytic product H(1 / p) also reacts with an electron to form the corresponding hydrino H(1 / p) molecule, with a binding energy E B A new hydride ion H - It may react with electrons to form (1 / p).

number

number

number

number

[0065] The upfield-shifted NMR peak is direct evidence of the presence of a lower energy hydrogen state with an increase in the diamagnetic shielding of the proton and a reduced radius relative to the normal hydride ion. This shift is given by the sum of the diamagnetic contributions of the two electrons and the photon field contribution of magnitude p (Mills GUTCP equation (7.87)) as follows:

number

[0066] H(1 / p) may react with a proton, and two ... +and may react to form H2(1 / p). The hydrogen molecular ion and molecular charge and current density functions, bond distances, and energies were solved from the Laplacian in ellipsoidal coordinates in the nonradiative limit.

number

[0067] The total energy E of the hydrogen molecular ion with a central field of +pe at each focus of the prolate spheroidal molecular orbital T is as follows:

number

number

[0068] Bond dissociation energy E of hydrogen molecule H2(1 / p) D are the corresponding hydrogen atoms and E T is the difference between E D = E(2H(1 / p))-E T (twenty four) where: E(2H(1 / p)) = -p 2 27.20eV (25) E D is given by equation (23-25). E D = -p 2 27.20 eV-E T = -p 2 27.20eV-(-p 2 31.351eV-p 3 0.326469eV) = p 2 4.151eV+p 3 0.326469eV (26)

[0069] H2(1 / p) may be identified by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), where the ionization products, in addition to the ionized electron, include those containing two protons and an electron: hydrogen (H) atoms, hydrino atoms, molecular ions, hydrogen molecular ions, and H2(1 / p) + where the energy may be shifted by a matrix.

[0070] NMR of the catalytic product gases provides the most reliable test of the theoretically predicted chemical shifts of H2(1 / p). 1 The H NMR resonance is predicted to be upfield from that of H by a fractional radius in ellipsoidal coordinates, where the electrons are significantly closer to the nucleus. The predicted shift ΔB for H(1 / p) is T / B is given by the sum of the photon field of magnitude p (Mills GUTCP formula (11.415-11.416)) and the diamagnetic contributions of the two electrons, as follows:

number

[0071] The vibrational energy, E, for the transition from ν=0 to ν=1 of the hydrogen-type molecule H2(1 / p) vib becomes: E vib = p 2 0.515902 eV (29) where p is an integer.

[0072] The rotational energy, E, for the J to J+1 transition of the hydrogen-type molecule H2(1 / p) rot becomes:

number

[0073] Rotational energy p 2 The dependence is due to the inverse p dependence of the internuclear distance and the corresponding impact on the moment of inertia I. The internuclear distance 2c' for H2(1 / p) is

number

[0074] At least one of the rotational and vibrational energies of H2(1 / p) may be measured by at least one of electron-beam excited optical emission spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR). H2(1 / p) may be trapped in a matrix for measurement, such as in at least one of MOH, MX, and M2CO3 (M = alkali, X = halogen) matrices.

[0075] In one embodiment, the molecular hydrino product has a peak at about 1950 cm -1 This peak is observed as an inverse Raman effect (IRE) peak at 1000 kJ / cm. This peak can be enhanced by using a conductive material with particle size or roughness characteristics comparable to that of the Raman laser wavelength, which supports surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) that exhibits an IRE peak.

[0076] I. Catalysis In this disclosure, terms such as hydrino reaction, H catalysis, H catalysis, catalysis when referring to hydrogen, reaction of hydrogen to form hydrinos, and hydrino formation reaction all refer to reactions such as those of Equations (15-18) of atomic H and catalyst defined by Equation (14) to form hydrogen states having energy levels given by Equations (10) and (12). Corresponding terms such as reactant, reactant for hydrino formation, catalyst mixture, hydrino reaction mixture, hydrino reactant, which form or produce lower energy states of hydrogen or hydrinos, are also used interchangeably when referring to a reaction mixture that catalyzes H to hydrino states or H states having energy levels given by Equations (10) and (12).

[0077] The catalytic lower energy hydrogen transition of the present disclosure may be in the form of an endothermic chemical reaction where the hydrogen accepts energy from atomic H to induce the transition, an integer m of the potential energy of uncatalyzed atomic hydrogen of 27.2 eV. The endothermic catalytic reaction may involve the ionization of one or more electrons from a species such as an atom or ion (e.g., Li → Li). 2+ for m=3), and further bond cleavage (e.g., NaH→Na 2+ +H, m=2) may be involved in the concerted reaction. + Since it ionizes at 54.417 eV, which is 2·27.2 eV, it meets the criteria for a catalyst, a chemical or physical process with an enthalpy change equal to an integer multiple of 27.2 eV. An integer number of hydrogen atoms may also function as a catalyst with an integer multiple of 27.2 eV enthalpy. The catalyst can accept energy from atomic hydrogen at one integer unit of approximately 27.2 eV ± 0.5 eV and 27.2 / 2 eV ± 0.5 eV.

[0078] In one embodiment, the catalyst comprises atoms or ions M, where t electron ionizations from each atom or ion M to successive energy levels are such that the sum of the t electron ionization energies is approximately one of m 27.2 eV and m (27.2 / 2) eV, where m is an integer.

[0079] In one embodiment, the catalyst comprises a diatomic molecule MH, where the breaking of the MH bond plus ionization of t electrons from each atom, M, to contiguous energy levels is such that the sum of the bond energy and the ionization energy of the t electrons is approximately one of m 27.2 eV and m (27.2 / 2) eV, where m is an integer.

[0080] In one embodiment, the catalyst is an atom, ion, and / or molecule selected from the group consisting of AlH, AsH, BaH, BiH, CdH, ClH, CoH, GeH, InH, NaH, NbH, OH, RhH, RuH, SH, SbH, SeH, SiH, SnH, SrH, TlH, C2, N2, O2, CO2, NO2, and NO3, and a group consisting of Li, Be, K, Ca, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Se, Kr, Rb, Sr, Nb, Mo, Pd, Sn, Te, Cs, Ce, Pr, Sm, Gd, Dy, Pb, Pt, Kr, 2K + , He + , Ti 2+ , Na + , Rb + , Sr + , Fe 3+ , Mo 2+ , Mo 4+ , In 3+ , He + , Ar + , Xe + , Ar 2+ and H + , and Ne + and H + It includes atoms or ions of the formula:

[0081] In another embodiment, the ionization of t electrons from atom M to a continuous energy level plus the breaking of the M-H bond, transferring an electron to an acceptor A to generate a hydrino, is provided by the transfer of an electron to an acceptor A, such that the sum of the electron transfer energy, including the ionization energy of t electrons from M, the M-H bond energy, and the difference in electron affinity (EA) of M-H and A, is approximately m 27.2 eV, where m is an integer. - It is a type of hydrogen catalyst. It can provide a net enthalpy of reaction of approximately m 27.2 eV. - The type of hydrogen catalyst is OH - , SiH - , CoH - , NiH - , and SeH - is.

[0082] In another embodiment, MH to produce hydrinos + A type of hydrogen catalyst is provided by the transfer of an electron from a donor A, which may be negatively charged, cleaving the M-H bond, and ionizing t electrons from atom M to a continuum of energy levels, and the total electron transfer energy, including the difference between the ionization energies of M-H and A, the M-H bond energy, and the ionization energy of t electrons from M, is approximately m 27.2 eV, where m is an integer.

[0083] In one embodiment, at least one of the molecule or the positively or negatively charged molecular ion functions as a catalyst, accepting about m·27.2 eV from atomic H along with a decrease in the magnitude of the potential energy of the positively or negatively charged molecular ion or molecule by about m·27.2 eV. Exemplary catalysts are HO, OH, the amide group NH, and HS.

[0084] O2 may function as a catalyst or a source of catalyst. The binding energy of the oxygen molecule is 5.165 eV, and the first, second, and third ionization energies of the oxygen atom are 13.61806 eV, 35.11730 eV, and 54.9355 eV, respectively. Reaction: O2 → O + O 2+ , O2 → O+O3+ , and 2O → 2O + are E h and accepts these energies to cause the formation of hydrinos.

[0085] II. Hydrino E B =13.6eV / (1 / p) 2 A hydrogen atom with a binding energy given by, where p is an integer greater than 1, preferably from 2 to 137, is a product of the H-catalysis reaction of the present disclosure. The binding energy of an atom, ion, or molecule, also known as the ionization energy, is the energy required to remove one electron from the atom, ion, or molecule. A hydrogen atom with a binding energy given in equations (10) and (12) is hereinafter referred to as a "hydrino atom" or "hydrino." Radius a H / p(a in the formula H The designation for a hydrino (where p is the radius of an ordinary hydrogen atom and p is an integer) is H[a H / p]. Radius a H A hydrogen atom with the formula {circle around (c)} is hereinafter referred to as a "normal hydrogen atom" or "ordinary hydrogen atom." Normal atomic hydrogen is characterized by its binding energy of 13.6 eV.

[0086] According to the present disclosure, the bond is larger than that of a normal hydride ion (about 0.75 eV) for p=2 to 23, and smaller than that for p=24 (H - ), hydrino hydride ions (H -) are provided. For p=2 through p=24 in Equation (19), the binding energies of the hydride ions are 3, 6.6, 11.2, 16.7, 22.8, 29.3, 36.1, 42.8, 49.4, 55.5, 61.0, 65.6, 69.2, 71.6, 72.4, 71.6, 68.8, 64.0, 56.8, 47.1, 34.7, 19.3, and 0.69 eV, respectively. Exemplary compositions comprising the novel hydride ions are also provided herein.

[0087] Also exemplified are compounds consisting of one or more hydrino hydride ions and one or more other elements. Such compounds are called "hydrino hydride compounds."

[0088] Ordinary hydrogen species are characterized by the following binding energies: (a) hydride ion, 0.754 eV ("ordinary hydride ion"); (b) hydrogen atom ("ordinary hydrogen atom"), 13.6 eV; (c) diatomic hydrogen molecule, 15.3 eV ("ordinary hydrogen molecule"); (d) hydrogen molecular ion, 16.3 eV ("ordinary hydrogen molecular ion"); and (e) H3 + , 22.6 eV ("normal tritium molecular ion"). Here, with respect to the form of hydrogen, "normal" and "ordinary" are synonymous.

[0089] According to a further embodiment of the present disclosure, the compound has (a) a 13.6 eV / (1 / p) 2 Approximately 13.6 eV / (1 / p), such as within the range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times 2 (b) a hydrogen atom with a bond energy of p = 2;

number

number

[0090] According to a further embodiment of the present disclosure, (a) p is an integer;

number

number

number

number

number

[0091] According to one embodiment of the present disclosure, where the compound comprises a negatively charged increased binding energy hydrogen species, the compound further comprises a proton, typically H2. + , or regular H3 + The cations include one or more cations such as:

[0092] Provided herein is a method for preparing a compound containing at least one hydrino hydride ion. Such compounds are hereinafter referred to as "hydrino hydride compounds." The method comprises preparing a compound having an ion energy of about 13.6 eV / (1 / p), where p is an integer, preferably an integer between 2 and 137. 2 The method includes reacting atomic hydrogen with a catalyst having a net enthalpy of reaction of about (m / 2)·27 eV, where m is an integer greater than 1 and preferably less than 400, to produce increased binding energy hydrogen atoms having a binding energy of about (m / 2)·27 eV. A further product of catalysis is energy. The increased binding energy hydrogen atoms can react with an electron source to produce increased binding energy hydrogen ions. The increased binding energy hydride ions can react with one or more cations to produce compounds containing at least one increased binding energy hydride ion.

[0093] The novel hydrogen compositions can include: (a) at least one neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species (hereinafter "increased binding energy hydrogen species") having a binding energy of: (i) greater than the binding energy of the corresponding normal hydrogen species, or (ii) the binding energy of ordinary hydrogen species is lower than the thermal energy at ambient conditions (standard temperature and pressure, STP), and therefore is greater than the binding energy of any hydrogen species for which the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species is unstable, not observable, or is negative; and (b) at least one other element. Hereinafter, the compounds of the present disclosure are referred to as "enhanced binding energy hydrogen compounds."

[0094] "Other elements" in this context mean elements other than the increased binding energy hydrogen species. Thus, the other elements can be regular hydrogen species or any element other than hydrogen. In one group of compounds, the other elements and the increased binding energy hydrogen species are neutral. In another group of compounds, the other elements and the increased binding energy hydrogen species are charged, providing charge balancing for the other elements to form neutral compounds. The former group of compounds is characterized by molecular and coordinate bonding, while the latter group is characterized by ionic bonding.

[0095] Also provided are novel compounds and molecular ions comprising: (a) a hydroxyl group having a hydroxyl group; (a) at least one neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species (hereinafter referred to as "increased binding energy hydrogen species") having a total energy of: (i) greater than the total energy of the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species, or (ii) The total energy of ordinary hydrogen species is lower than the thermal energy at ambient conditions, so that the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species is unstable, not observed, or is greater than the total energy of any hydrogen species that is electronegative; and (b) at least one other element.

[0096] The total energy of a hydrogen species is the sum of the energies required to remove all electrons from the hydrogen species. Hydrogen species according to the present disclosure have a total energy greater than the total energy of the corresponding normal hydrogen species. Hydrogen species with increased total energy according to the present disclosure are also referred to as "increased binding energy hydrogen species," even though some embodiments of hydrogen species with increased total energy have a first electron binding energy less than the first electron binding energy of the corresponding normal hydrogen species. For example, the hydride ion of Equation (19) at P = 24 has a first binding energy less than the first binding energy of the normal hydride ion, while the total energy of the hydride ion of Equation (19) at P = 24 is significantly greater than the total energy of the corresponding normal hydride ion.

[0097] Also provided herein are novel compounds and molecular ions: (a) and (b) below: (a) A plurality of neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species (hereinafter "increased binding energy hydrogen species") having a binding energy of: (i) greater than the binding energy of the corresponding normal hydrogen species, or (ii) The total energy of ordinary hydrogen species is lower or more negative than the thermal energy at ambient conditions, so that the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species is unstable or not observed, and is greater than the binding energy of any hydrogen species; and (b) optionally, one other element. Hereinafter, the compounds of the present disclosure are referred to as "enhanced binding energy hydrogen compounds."

[0098] Increased binding energy hydrogen species may be formed by reacting one or more hydrino atoms with one or more electrons, hydrino atoms, a compound comprising at least one of said increased binding energy hydrogen species, and at least one other atom, molecule, or ion other than the increased binding energy hydrogen species.

[0099] Also provided are novel compounds and molecular ions comprising: (a) a hydroxyl group having a hydroxyl group; (a) Multiple neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species (hereafter referred to as "increased binding energy hydrogen species") with a total energy of: (i) greater than the total energy of ordinary molecular hydrogen, or (ii) The total energy of ordinary hydrogen species is lower than the thermal energy at ambient conditions, so that the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species is unstable, not observed, or is greater than the total energy of any hydrogen species that is electronegative; and (b) optionally, one other element. Hereinafter, the compounds of the present disclosure are referred to as "enhanced binding energy hydrogen compounds."

[0100] In one embodiment, provided compounds include at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species selected from: (a) a hydride ion ("enhanced binding energy hydride ion" or "hydrino hydride ion") having a binding energy according to Equation (19) (approximately 0.8 eV) that is lower for p=24 but greater than the binding energy of a normal hydride for p=2 through 23; (b) a hydrogen atom ("enhanced binding energy hydrogen atom" or "hydrino") having a binding energy greater than the binding energy of a normal hydrogen atom (approximately 13.6 eV); (c) a hydrogen molecule ("enhanced binding energy hydrogen molecule" or "dihydrino") having a first binding energy greater than approximately 15.3 eV; and (d) a molecular hydrogen ion ("enhanced binding energy molecular hydrogen ion" or "dihydrino molecular ion") having a binding energy greater than approximately 16.3 eV. In this disclosure, increased binding energy hydrogen species and compounds are also referred to as lower energy hydrogen species and compounds. Hydrinos include increased binding energy hydrogen species, or equivalently lower energy hydrogen species.

[0101] III. Chemical Reactors The present disclosure also relates to other reactors for producing the increased binding energy hydrogen species and compounds of the present disclosure, such as dihydrino molecules and hydrino hydride compounds. Further products of catalysis are power and, optionally, plasma and light, depending on the type of cell. Such reactors are hereinafter referred to as "hydrogen reactors" or "hydrogen cells." The hydrogen reactor includes a cell for producing hydrinos. The cell for producing hydrinos may be in the form of a chemical reactor or gas fuel cell, such as a gas discharge cell, a plasma torch cell, or a microwave power cell, and an electrochemical cell. In one embodiment, the catalyst is HOH, and the source of at least one of HOH and H is ice. In one embodiment, the cell includes an arc discharge cell and includes ice at at least one electrode such that the discharge engulfs at least a portion of the ice.

[0102] In one embodiment, the arc discharge cell includes a vessel, two electrodes, a high-voltage power source, such as one capable of a voltage in the range of approximately 100 V to 1 MV and a current in the range of approximately 1 A to 100 kA, and a water source, such as a reservoir, and a means for forming and supplying HO droplets. The droplets may travel between the electrodes. In one embodiment, the droplets initiate ignition of an arc plasma. In one embodiment, the water arc plasma contains HOH and H, which may react to form hydrinos. The ignition rate and corresponding power rate may be controlled by controlling the size of the droplets and the rate at which they are supplied to the electrodes. The high-voltage source may include at least one high-voltage capacitor, which may be charged by the high-voltage power source. In one embodiment, the arc discharge cell further includes a power converter, such as one of the present invention, such as at least one of a heat engine and a PV converter, for converting power from the hydrino process, such as light and heat to electricity.

[0103] Exemplary embodiments of cells for producing hydrinos may be in the form of liquid fuel cells, solid fuel cells, heterogeneous fuel cells, CIHT cells, and SF-CIHT cells. Each of these cells includes (i) a source of atomic hydrogen; (ii) at least one catalyst selected from a solid catalyst, a molten catalyst, a liquid catalyst, a gaseous catalyst, or a mixture thereof for forming hydrinos; and (iii) a vessel for reacting hydrogen and a catalyst for producing hydrinos. As used herein and contemplated by this disclosure, the term "hydrogen" refers to protium ( 1 H), as well as deuterium ( 2 H) and tritium ( 3The reaction mixture also contains hydrogen (H). Exemplary chemical reaction mixtures and reactors may include the SF-CIHT, CIHT, or thermal cell embodiments of this disclosure. Additional exemplary examples are provided in this chemical reactor section. An example of a reaction mixture with HO as a catalyst formed during the reaction of the mixture is provided within this disclosure. Other catalysts may function to form hydrogen species and compounds of increased binding energy. Reactions and conditions may be adjusted from these exemplary cases in parameters such as reactants, reactant wt %, H pressure, and reaction temperature. Reasonable reactant, condition, and parameter ranges are those of this disclosure. Hydrinos and molecular hydrinos are indicated as products of the reaction in this disclosure by the expected continuum emission bands at integer multiples of 13.6 eV; however, unexpected and anomalously high H kinetic energies have been measured by Doppler line broadening of the H line, H line inversion, breakdown field-free plasma formation, and anomalously long plasma afterglow durations, as reported by Mills' previous publication. Such data for CIHT cells and solid fuels have been independently demonstrated elsewhere by other researchers. Hydrino formation by the disclosed cells was also confirmed by continuous electrical energy output over long durations that was multiple times the electrical input and in most cases exceeded the input by a factor of more than 10 without any alternative source.The predicted molecular hydrino H2(1 / 4) is described in R. Mills, X Yu, Y. Lu, G Chu, J. He, and J. Lotoski, "Catalyst-Induced Hydrino Transition (CIHT) Electrochemical Cell," International Journal of Energy Research, (2013), and R. Mills, J. Lotoski, J. Kong, and G As reported in Chu, J. He, and J. Trevey, "High Power Density Catalytically Induced Hydrino Transition (CIHT) Electrochemical Cell," (2014), and in Mills' previous publication, the ToF-SIMS peak had an arrival time before the m / e = 1 peak corresponding to H with a kinetic energy of approximately 204 eV, consistent with the predicted energy release from H to H(1 / 4), with the energy transferred to third-body H. XPS showed the predicted total binding energy of H2(1 / 4) at 500 eV, the quantum number p = 4 or 16, the square of the rotational energy of H2, at 1950 cm. -1 It was identified as a product of solid fuel and CIHT cells by FTIR and Raman spectroscopy, which showed a rotational energy of 1.5 ppm for H2(1 / 4); electron-excited emission spectroscopy and photoluminescence emission spectroscopy, which showed the predicted rotational and vibrational spectra of H2(1 / 4) with the squared energy quantum number p=4 or 16 for H2; ESI-ToFMS and ToF-SIMS, which showed H2(1 / 4) complexed to the getter matrix as a peak at m / e=M+n2, where M is the mass of the parent ion and n is an integer; and MAS H NMR, which showed the predicted upfield-shifted matrix peak at approximately -4.4 ppm.

[0104] Using both a water flow calorimeter and a Setarum DSC131 differential scanning calorimeter (DSC), hydrino formation by the disclosed cells, such as those containing solid fuels, generating thermal power, was confirmed by the observation of thermal energy from the solid fuel exceeding the maximum theoretical energy of hydrino formation by a factor of 60. MAS H NMR showed the predicted H2(1 / 4) upfield matrix shift of approximately -4.4 ppm. -1The Raman peak with an onset of 0.2414 eV matched the free-space rotational energy of H2(1 / 4). These results are reported in Mills' previously published work and in R. Mills, J. Lotoski, W. Good, and J. He, "Solid Fuel Forming HOH Catalysts," (2014), which are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties.

[0105] IV. Solid Fuel Catalyst-Induced Hydrino Transition (SF-CIHT) Cell and Power Converter In one embodiment, a power system for generating at least one of direct electrical energy and thermal energy includes at least one vessel; reactants including (a) at least one catalyst or catalyst source including nascent HO; (b) at least one atomic hydrogen or atomic hydrogen source; and (c) at least one conductor and conductive matrix; at least one set of electrodes for confining the hydrino reactants; an electrical power source for delivering short bursts of high-current electrical energy; a recharge system; at least one system for regenerating initial reactants from reaction products; and at least one direct plasma-to-electricity converter, such as a PDC, a photovoltaic converter, and at least one plasma-to-electric power converter, such as at least one thermal-to-electric power converter. In a further embodiment, the vessel is capable of at least one of atmospheric, superatmospheric, and subatmospheric pressures. In one embodiment, the regeneration system can include at least one of a hydration, thermal, chemical, and electrochemical system.In another embodiment, the at least one direct plasma-to-electric converter can include at least one from the group of a plasmadynamic power converter, an (E) x (B) direct converter, a magnetohydrodynamic power converter, a magnetic mirror magnetohydrodynamic power converter, a charge drift converter, a post or Venetian blind power converter, a gyrotron, a photon bunching microwave power converter, and a photoelectric converter. In a further embodiment, the at least one thermoelectric converter may include at least one from the group of a heat engine, a steam engine, a steam turbine and generator, a gas turbine and generator, a Rankine cycle engine, a Brayton cycle engine, a Stirling engine, a thermionic power converter, and a thermoelectric power converter. The converter may be one provided in Mills' prior publications and Mills' prior applications.Hydrino reactants such as H and HOH sources and SunCell systems are incorporated herein by reference in PCT applications PCT / US08 / 61455, filed April 24, 2008; PCT / US09 / 052072, filed July 29, 2009; PCT / US10 / 27828, filed March 18, 2010; PCT / US11 / 28889, filed March 17, 2011; PCT / US12 / 31369, filed March 30, 2012; PCT / US12 / 31369, filed May 21, 2001; and PCT / US10 / 27828, filed March 18, 2010; PCT / US10 / 27828, filed March 18, 2010; PCT / US11 / 28889, filed March 17, 2011; PCT / US12 / 31369, filed March 30, 2012; and PCT / US12 / 31369, filed May 21, 2001; Mills' prior application may include prior U.S. patent applications, such as "Photovoltaic Power Generation System" PCT / US13 / 041938, filed on January 10, 2010; "Power Generation System and Method" PCT / IB2014 / 058177, filed on April 1, 2014; "Photovoltaic Power Generation System and Method Thereof" PCT / US14 / 32584, filed on May 29, 2015; "Electric Power Generation System and Method Thereof" PCT / US2015 / 033165, filed on May 29, 2015; "Electric Power Generation System and Method Thereof" PCT / US2015 / 065826, filed on December 15, 2015; and "Thermophotovoltaic Generator" PCT / US16 / 12620, filed on January 8, 2010 ("Mills' Prior Application").

[0106] In one embodiment, HO is ignited to form hydrinos with a high release of energy in the formation of at least one of thermal, plasma, and electromagnetic (light) power. (In this disclosure, "ignition" refers to a very high reaction rate of H to hydrinos, which may be manifested as a burst, pulse, or other form of high power release.) HO may comprise a fuel that may be ignited by application of a high current, such as one in the range of about 2000 A to 100,000 A. This may be achieved by application of a high voltage, such as about 5,000 to 100,000 V, to first form a highly conductive plasma, such as an arc. Alternatively, a high current may be passed through a compound or mixture containing HO, where the conductivity of the resulting fuel, such as a solid fuel, is high. (In this disclosure, solid fuel is used to mean a reaction mixture that forms a catalyst, such as H and HOH, that further reacts to form hydrinos. However, the reaction mixture may include physical states other than a solid. In embodiments, the reaction mixture may be at least one of a gaseous, liquid, molten matrix, such as a molten conductive matrix, such as a molten metal, such as at least one of molten silver, a silver-copper alloy, and copper, a solid, a slurry, a sol-gel, a solution, a mixture, a gaseous suspension, an air stream, and other states known to those skilled in the art. In one embodiment, a solid fuel with very low resistivity includes a reaction mixture that includes HO. The low resistivity may be due to the conductive component of the reaction mixture. In embodiments, the resistivity of the solid fuel is about 10 -9 Ω to 100Ω, 10 -8 Ω to 10Ω, 10 -3 Ω to 1Ω, 10 -4 Omega to 10 -1 Ω and 10 -4 Omega to 10 -2In another embodiment, the highly resistive fuel comprises HO with a trace or small mole percent of an added compound or material. In the latter case, a high current may be passed through the fuel to achieve ignition by causing a breakdown, forming a highly conductive state such as an arc or arc plasma.

[0107] In one embodiment, the reactants can include a conductive matrix and a source of HO to form at least one of a catalyst source, a catalyst, a source of atomic hydrogen, and atomic hydrogen. In a further embodiment, the reactants including a source of HO can include at least one of bulk HO, a state other than bulk HO, and a compound(s) that undergo at least one of a reaction to form HO and release bound HO. Additionally, the bound HO can include a compound that interacts with HO, where the HO is in at least one of the states of absorbed HO, bound HO, physisorbed HO, and water of hydration. In an embodiment, the reactants can include one or more compounds or materials and a conductor that undergo at least one of the release of bulk HO, absorbed HO, bound HO, physisorbed HO, and water of hydration, and can have HO as a reaction product. In other embodiments, the at least one of the nascent HO catalyst and the source of atomic hydrogen can include at least one of: (a) at least one source of HO; (b) at least one source of oxygen; and (c) at least one source of hydrogen.

[0108] In one embodiment, the hydrino reaction rate depends on the application or development of a high current. In one embodiment of an SF-CIHT cell, the hydrino-forming reactants are subjected to a low voltage, high current, high power pulse that causes a very fast reaction rate and energy release. In one typical embodiment, the 60 Hz voltage is less than 15 V peak and the current is 10,000 A / cm. 2 and 50,000A / cm 2 The peak is between 150,000 W / cm2 and 750,000 W / cm 2 Other frequencies, voltages, currents, and powers within about 1 / 100 to 100 times these parameters are reasonable. In one embodiment, the hydrino reaction rate depends on the application or development of high currents. In one embodiment, the voltage is selected to induce high AC, DC, or mixed AC-DC currents within at least one of the following ranges: 100 A to 1,000,000 A, 1 kA to 100,000 A, and 10 kA to 50 kA. The DC or peak AC current density is greater than 100 A / cm. 2 to 1,000,000 A / cm 2 , 1000A / cm 2 to 100,000 A / cm 2 , and 2000A / cm 2 to 50,000 A / cm 2 , the DC or peak AC voltage may be in at least one range selected from approximately 0.1 V to 1000 V, 0.1 V to 100 V, 0.1 V to 15 V, and 1 V to 15 V. The AC frequency may be in the ranges of approximately 0.1 Hz to 10 GHz, 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 10 Hz to 100 kHz, and 100 Hz to 10 kHz. The pulse duration may be approximately 10 -6 s to 10s, 10 -5 s to 1s, 10 -4 s to 0.1s and 10 -3 s to 0.01 s.

[0109] In one embodiment, the transfer of energy from catalyzed atomic hydrogen to the hydrino state results in the ionization of the catalyst. Electrons ionized from the catalyst accumulate in the reaction mixture and the vessel, resulting in space charge accumulation. The space charge may change energy levels due to subsequent energy transfer from atomic hydrogen to the catalyst, accompanied by a decrease in reaction rate. In one embodiment, application of a high current removes the space charge to cause an increase in the hydrino reaction rate. In another embodiment, a high current, such as an arc current, dramatically increases the temperature of a reactant, such as water, which may serve as a source of H and HOH catalyst. The high temperature may cause thermal decomposition of water to at least one of H and HOH catalyst. In one embodiment, the reaction mixture of the SF-CIHT cell includes a source of H and a source of catalyst, such as at least one of nH (n is an integer) and HOH. At least one of nH and HOH may be formed by thermal decomposition or pyrolysis of water in at least one physical phase, such as at least one of solid, liquid, and gaseous water. Thermolysis may occur at elevated temperatures, such as temperatures in at least one of the ranges of about 500K to 10,000K, 1000K to 7000K, and 1000K to 5000K.In one exemplary embodiment, the reaction temperature is determined by the method of J. Lede, F. Lapicque, and J. Villermaux [J. Lede, F. Lapicque, J. Villermaux, "Hydrogen Production by Direct Thermal Decomposition of Water," International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 1983, V8, 1983, pp. 675-679; H.G. Jellinek, H. Kachi, "Catalytic Thermal Decomposition of Water and Hydrogen Production," International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 1984, V9, pp. 677-688; S.Z. Baykara, "Hydrogen Production by Direct Solar Thermal Decomposition of Water: Possibilities for Improving Process Efficiency," International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2004, V29, pp. 1451-1458; S.Z. Baykara, "Experimental Solar Water Decomposition ...], all of which are incorporated herein by reference. As shown by [Energy, 2004, V29, pp.1459-1469], the temperature is about 3500 to 4000 K, at which the mole fraction of atomic H becomes high. Figure 1-34 (formerly: Figures 2I10-2I43) The reaction may be assisted by a solid surface, such as that of at least one of the nozzle 5q, the injector 5z1, and the electrode 8. The solid surface may be heated to an elevated temperature by the plasma sustained by the hydrino reaction and by the input power. The pyrolysis gas, such as that downstream of the ignition region, may be cooled to prevent back-reaction or recombination of the products into water with the starting material. The reaction mixture may include a coolant, such as at least one of a solid phase, a liquid phase, or a gas phase at a temperature lower than that of the product gas. Cooling of the pyrolysis reaction product gas may be achieved by contacting the product with a coolant. The coolant may include at least one of low-temperature steam, water, and ice.

[0110] In one embodiment, the SF-CIHT generator includes a power system for generating at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy, which includes: at least one tank; a shot containing a reactant, where the reactant is a) at least one catalyst or source of catalyst comprising nascent HO; b) at least one of HO or a source of HO; c) at least one of atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen, and d) at least one of a conductor and a conductive matrix; at least one shot injection system; at least one shot ignition system that causes the shot to form at least one of a luminous plasma and a heat-generating plasma; a system for recovering reaction products of the reactants; at least one regeneration system for regenerating additional reactants from the reaction products and forming additional shots; where the additional reactant is a) at least one catalyst or source of catalyst comprising nascent HO; b) at least one of HO or a source of HO; c) at least one of atomic hydrogen or a source of atomic hydrogen, and d) at least one of a conductor and a conductive matrix; and and at least one output system or power converter of at least one of light and heat power to electrical power and / or thermal power, such as at least one of the group of photovoltaic converters, photoelectronic converters, plasmadynamic converters, thermionic converters, thermoelectric converters, Stirling engines, Brayton cycle engines, Rankine cycle engines, and heat engines, and heaters.

[0111] In one embodiment, the shot fuel may include at least one of a source of H, H, a source of catalyst, a source of HO, and HO. A suitable shot includes a conductive metal matrix and a hydrate, such as at least one of an alkali hydrate, an alkaline earth hydrate, and a transition metal hydrate. The hydrate may include at least one of MgCl·6HO, BaI·2HO, and ZnCl·4HO. Alternatively, the shot may include at least one of silver, copper, absorbed hydrogen, and water.

[0112] The ignition system is a) at least one set of electrodes that confine the shot; and b) a source of electrical power that delivers short bursts of high current electrical energy, wherein: A short burst of high-current electrical energy is sufficient to cause the shot reactants to react to form a plasma. The source of electrical power may receive electrical power from a power converter. In one embodiment, the shot ignition system includes at least one set of electrodes separated to form an open circuit, where the open circuit is closed by the injection of a shot that allows a high current to flow to achieve ignition. In one embodiment, the ignition system includes a switch that at least one of initiates current flow and interrupts current flow once ignition is achieved. The current flow may be initiated by a shot bridging the gap between the electrodes. Switching may be performed electronically by means such as at least one of an insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT), a silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR), and at least one metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET). Alternatively, ignition may be mechanically switched. The current may be interrupted after ignition to optimize output hydrino generation energy relative to input ignition energy. The ignition system may include a switch to allow a controllable amount of energy to flow into the fuel to cause an explosion and then turn off the power during the phase in which the plasma is generated. In one embodiment, the source of electrical power for delivering short bursts of high current electrical energy includes at least one of the following: a voltage selected to induce a high AC, DC, or mixed AC-DC current in at least one of the following ranges: 100 A to 1,000,000 A, 1 kA to 100,000 A, 10 kA to 50 kA; 100A / cm 2 to 1,000,000 A / cm 2 , 1000A / cm 2 to 100,000 A / cm 2 , and 2,000 A / cm 2 to 50,000 A / cm 2 and a DC or peak AC current density within at least one of the ranges; the voltage is determined by the conductivity of the solid fuel, the voltage being given by multiplying the desired current by the resistance of the solid fuel sample; the DC or peak AC voltage is within at least one of the ranges of 0.1 V to 500 kV, 0.1 V to 100 kV, and 1 V to 50 kV; and The AC frequency is within at least one of the following ranges: 0.1 Hz to 10 GHz, 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 10 Hz to 100 kHz, and 100 Hz to 10 kHz.

[0113] The output power of the SF-CIHT cell may include optical power convertible to heat and photovoltaic power. In some embodiments, the optical-to-electrical converter may include one utilizing at least one of the photovoltaic effect, the thermionic effect, and the photoelectric effect. The power converter may be a direct power converter that converts the kinetic energy of high-kinetic-energy electrons into electricity. In one embodiment, the power of the SF-CIHT cell may be at least partially in the form of thermal energy or may be at least partially converted to thermal energy. The electrical power converter may include a thermionic power converter. A typical thermionic cathode may include scandium-doped tungsten. The cell may utilize photon-enhanced thermionic emission (PETE), where the photo effect enhances electron emission by lifting electron energy in the semiconductor emitter across the band gap into the conduction band, where electrons are thermally emitted. In one embodiment, the SF-CIHT cell may include an absorber of light, such as at least one of extreme ultraviolet (EUV), ultraviolet (UV), visible light, and near-infrared light. The absorber may be external to the cell. For example, it may be external to a window of the PV converter 26a. The absorber may increase in temperature as a result of absorption. The absorber temperature may be in the range of approximately 500°C to 4000°C. Heat may be input to a thermophotovoltaic or thermoelectric cell. Thermoelectric and heat engines, such as Stirling, Rankine, Brayton, and other heat engines known in the art, are within the scope of this disclosure.

[0114] At least one first optical-to-electrical converter, such as one utilizing at least one of the photovoltaic, thermionic, and photoelectric effects, of the multiple converters may be selective to a first portion of the electromagnetic spectrum and transparent to at least a second portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. The first portion may be converted to electricity by a corresponding first converter, and the second portion not selected by the first converter may propagate to another second converter that is selective to at least a portion of the propagated second portion of the electromagnetic spectrum.

[0115] In the examples, Figure 1-34 (formerly: Figures 2I10-2I43)The SF-CIHT cell or generator, also referred to as a SunCell®, shown in Figure 1 comprises six basic low-maintenance systems, some of which have no moving parts and are capable of long-term operation, including: (i) a start-up inductively coupled heater, including a power supply 5m, leads 5p, and antenna coils 5f and 5o, for the molten metal or melt and, optionally, an electrode electromagnetic pump including a magnet 8c for initially directing the molten silver or silver-copper alloy into the ignition plasma stream; (ii) a fuel injector, such as one including a hydrogen supply, such as a hydrogen permeation supply through a blackbody radiator (where hydrogen may be produced from water by electrolysis), and an injection system including an electromagnetic pump 5k for injecting a source of oxygen, such as an oxide, such as LiVO or another oxide of the present disclosure, and the molten silver or silver-copper alloy, and, alternatively, a gas injector 5z1 for injecting at least one of water vapor and hydrogen gas; and (iii) (iv) an ignition system that generates a low-voltage, high-current flow across a pair of electrodes 8, from which molten metal, hydrogen, and at least one of oxides, or molten metal and HO and hydrogen gas, is injected to form a glowing, light-emitting plasma; (iv) a blackbody radiator heated to incandescent temperatures by the plasma; (v) a light-to-electricity converter 26a that receives light from the blackbody radiator and includes a so-called concentrating photovoltaic cell 15 operating at high light intensities, such as over 1000 suns; and (vi) a fuel recovery and heat management system 31 that directs the molten metal back into the injection system following ignition. In another embodiment, light from the ignition plasma may directly illuminate the PV converter 26a and be converted to electricity.

[0116] In one embodiment, the plasma radiates a significant portion of its optical power and energy as EUV and UV light. To maintain the plasma at an optically thinner condition to reduce attenuation of short-wavelength light, the pressure may be reduced by maintaining a vacuum within the reaction chamber, cell 1. In one embodiment, the optical-to-electrical converter includes a photovoltaic (PV) converter of the present disclosure, including a photovoltaic (PV) cell responsive to a substantial wavelength range of light emitted from the cell, such as that corresponding to at least 10% of the optical power output. In one embodiment, the fuel may include silver shot having at least one of trapped hydrogen and trapped HO. The optical radiation may include primarily ultraviolet light, such as light within the wavelength range of approximately 120 nm to 300 nm. The PV cell may respond to at least a portion of the wavelength range of approximately 120 nm to 300 nm. The PV cell may include a Group III nitride, such as at least one of InGaN, GaN, and AlGaN. In one embodiment, the PV cell includes SiC. In one embodiment, a PV cell may include multiple junctions. The junctions may be stacked in series. In another embodiment, the junctions are independent or electrically parallel. The independent junctions may be mechanically stacked or wafer-bonded. A typical multi-junction PV cell includes at least two junctions containing np-doped semiconductors, such as those from the group InGaN, GaN, and AlGaN. The n-dopant in GaN may include oxygen, and the p-dopant may include Mg. A typical triple-junction cell may include InGaN / / GaN / / AlGaN, where / / may refer to a separating transparent wafer bonding layer or mechanical stacking. PV may operate at high light intensities equivalent to that of concentrated photovoltaics (CPV). The substrate may be at least one of sapphire, Si, SiC, and GaN, where the latter two provide the best lattice match for CPV applications. The layers may be deposited using metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy (MOVPE) methods known in the art.The cell may be cooled by a diode laser, such as a commercially available GaN diode laser, or a cold plate, such as those used in CPV. Grid contacts may be mounted on the front and back of the cell, as in the case of CPV cells. In one embodiment, the PV converter may have a protective window that is substantially transparent to the responsive light. The window may be at least 10% transparent to the responsive light. The window may be transparent to UV light. The window may include a coating, such as a UV-transparent coating, on the PV cell. The coating may include a UV window material of the present disclosure, such as a sapphire or MgF2 window. Other suitable windows include LiF and CaF2. The coating may be applied by vapor deposition, such as vapor deposition.

[0117] The cells of PV converter 26a may include a photonic design that resonantly cross-couples and impedance-matches the single modes of the emitter and cell just above the semiconductor bandgap, thereby producing a "squeezed" narrowband near-field emission spectrum. Specifically, exemplary PV cells can include surface-plasmon-polariton thermal emitters and silver-backed semiconductor-thin-film photovoltaic cells.

[0118] In an embodiment of a generator including at least one of an electrode electromagnetic pump and an electromagnetic pump for pumping injected molten metal, referred to herein as shot, melt, or molten metal, the shot is subjected to a Lorentz force that is oriented perpendicular to the magnetic field and to the direction of current flowing across the armature containing the shot. The Lorentz force F (vector F) parallel to the rail is given by: F(vector F) = Li × B(vector B) (37) where i is the current, L is the path length of the current through the shot or pellet between the rails, and B is the magnetic flux. A typical shot comprises a sphere or droplet of molten silver with trapped gases such as at least one of H2 and HO.

[0119] The second vessel 5c may include at least one manifold, such as a steam manifold and inlet line 5x and a hydrogen manifold and input line 5w, for supplying at least one of H2 and gaseous H2O to the melt as the melt flows toward a nozzle 5q at the end of the pipe-shaped second vessel 5c directed toward the injection site. In one embodiment, the H2 and H2O injection system includes gas lines, manifolds, pressure gauges, regulators, flow meters, and injectors, and may further include an H2-steam mixer and regulator if both gases are injected through a common manifold. In one embodiment, liquid water may be injected into the melt. The injection may be achieved by at least one of a pump, such as a peristaltic pump, and a gravity feed. In one embodiment, the fuel metal may include a copper-silver alloy. H2 gas injected into the melt through the hydrogen manifold and input line 5w may be used to reduce any alloy oxides, such as CuO, that form during cell operation. Additionally, the oxides of the alloy may be reduced in situ within the cell by the addition of hydrogen gas, which may be intermittent. The oxides of the alloy may also be reduced by hydrogen treatment outside the cell.

[0120] The pelletizer 5a may be heated by at least one heater, such as at least one induction-coupled heater. In one embodiment, the induction-coupled heater may include an induction-coupled heater power supply 5m. The pelletizer 5a may be heated by a first induction-coupled heater coil 5f that may extend along the first vessel 5b from its inlet to the inlet of the electromagnetic pump 5k. The first induction-coupled heater including coil 5f may be located along the periphery of the first vessel 5b, including the crucible 5d and insulator 5e. The heater may further include a second induction-coupled heater coil 5o that may extend along the second vessel 5c, including the outlet of the electromagnetic pump 5k, to the nozzle 5q of the second vessel 5c. The second induction-coupled heater including coil 5o may be located along the periphery of the second vessel 5c, including the crucible 5d and insulator 5e. Corresponding first and second heating coils define first and second heating sections or zones. The first section may be heated to a temperature at least above the melting point (962°C) to form a melt to be pumped. The vessel and coil may further include a high-Q cavity containing the recovered product melt. In one embodiment, a gas such as at least one of H2O and H2 may be injected to increase the resistance of the melt to improve coupling between the melt and radiation from the inductively coupled heater. The second section may be overheated relative to the first section. The temperature of the melt in the second section may be maintained within at least one of the ranges of approximately 965°C to 3000°C, 965°C to 2000°C, and 965°C to 1300°C. An optical pyrometer, thermistor, or thermocouple may be used to monitor the temperature of the melt. In one embodiment, power dissipated within the pump 5k due to mechanisms such as resistive heating may contribute to heating the melt. Excessive heating may increase absorption of at least one of the process gases, such as water vapor and / or H2, in the melt.

[0121] In one embodiment, the pelletizer may include multiple heaters, such as inductively coupled heaters, each including an antenna, such as an inductively coupled heater power supply 5m and a coil antenna, for supplying electromagnetic power to heater coils 5f and 5o through inductively coupled heater leads 5p. The inductively coupled heater power supply 5m may include a shared power supply for the multiple antennas, where the power to each antenna may be regulated by a circuit, such as a matching circuit or a tuning circuit. In another embodiment, each antenna may be driven by its own independent power supply. In the case of a shared or separate power supply, each heater may further include a controller for the power delivered by each coil. In another embodiment, the inductively coupled heater includes a single antenna driven by a single power supply, where the antenna is designed to selectively deliver a desired ratio of power to each of the first and second heating sections. The heating power may be divided between the two sections by a dividing means such as (i) a fixed difference in antenna gain, for example achieved by coils with different numbers of turns, (ii) a variable, controllable antenna gain, (iii) a switch, and (iv) a matching or tuning network. The two coil sections may be connected by an additional inductively coupled heater lead 5p between the sections, which may span an electromagnetic pump 5k. The lead may be designed to transmit, rather than dissipate, power so that heating power is selectively delivered into the fuel melt by coils 5f and 5o and dissipated.

[0122] Each section heated by the induction-coupled heater may include a crucible made of a material transparent to radiation, such as the RF radiation of the induction-coupled heater. Typical materials include silicon dioxide, such as quartz or silica, zirconia, sapphire, alumina, MgF2, silicon nitride, and graphite. Each crucible may be insulated with high-temperature insulation 5e that is also transparent to the radiation of the induction-coupled heater. The portion of the second vessel 5c that contacts the electromagnetic pump 5k may include a conductive and magnetic-field-permeable material so that the applied current and magnetic field of the pump 5k pass through the melt. The RF-permeable section may be connected to the conductive and magnetic-field-permeable section by a joint, such as one that includes a flange and a gasket. The joint may include a clamp, such as a C-clamp, a clamshell, a bolted joint, or a clamped wire. The joint may operate at high temperatures and be stable against the molten fuel. A typical gasket is a graphite gasket. Alternatively, the gasket may comprise a wet seal type common in molten fuel cells, where the fuel is liquid in the reservoir and solid around the joint or connection between the pump and reservoir, but below the melting point. The connection may include at least one of a penetration for a pipe bubbler and a valve.

[0123] If the pump is of a type suitable for the common crucible and tubing material and the pump tubing, the pump tubing through the electromagnetic pump 5k may comprise a material transparent to the radiation of the induction-coupled heater. The material of the pump tubing may be the same material as at least one of the first and second reservoirs. The joint may comprise a ceramic-to-ceramic joint, where the ceramic comprises a material transparent to the radiation of the induction-coupled heater, such as at least one of silica, quartz, alumina, sapphire, zirconia, MgF2, and silicon nitride. Alternatively, if the pump is of a type suitable for the common crucible and tubing material and the pump tubing comprises a common or identical material as at least one reservoir, the joint may be eliminated so that there is continuity through the pump to the reservoir. A typical material for at least one of the reservoirs and pump tubing of a typical induction-type or mechanical pump is silicon nitride. In another embodiment, at least one component from the group consisting of the first vessel, the second vessel, the manifold section of the second vessel, and the pump tubing may include a material that absorbs radiation from the inductively coupled heater, such as metal or graphite, such that the fuel metal contained in the component is indirectly heated. The heater heats the component, and heat transfer from the heated component may secondarily heat the fuel metal within the component.

[0124] In certain exemplary embodiments, the first vessel 5b comprises an RF-transparent material such as quartz. The quartz section of the first vessel is connected to a metal elbow, such as a high-temperature stainless steel (SS) elbow, which connects to a metal pipe or tubing, such as a high-temperature stainless steel (SS) pipe or tubing, of an electromagnetic pump 5k. The tubing connects to a second vessel 5c, which comprises a metal elbow, such as a high-temperature stainless steel (SS) elbow, which further connects to an RF-transparent material, such as quartz. The quartz tube terminates in a nozzle 5q. The second vessel may include an S-shaped or C-shaped section that penetrates the cell and may align the nozzle 5q with the gap 8g of the electrode 8. Each connection between the connecting sections may include a clamp and a gasket, such as a graphite gasket. In one embodiment, the pelletizer includes a short heated section 5b, such as an RF-transparent section, a transition to an elbow, such as a metal elbow with a metal fitting or penetration, an electromagnetic pump 5k, which may be within the vertical section of the vessel 5b, a metal connection transition to the pump tubing, and a pipe bubbler 5z running through a second, longer RF-transparent heated section 5c terminating in a nozzle 5q. The RF-transparent section, including the first and second vessels, may comprise quartz, and the quartz-to-metal connection may comprise a quartz and metal lip on the connecting section held together by a clamp. Typical pipe / tube sizes and vessel sizes are 1 cm ID and 2 cm ID, respectively. The pipe / tube may comprise high-temperature stainless steel, and the RF-transparent vessel may comprise quartz.

[0125] In another embodiment, a pipe bubbler 5z ( Figure 4 (formerly Figure 2I13) ), and the second tank 5c ( Figure 2 (formerly Figure 2I11)At least one of the pelletizer components, such as the manifold section of the first vessel 5b, the pump tubing, the gas delivery components, and the melt conduit components, including at least one of the second vessel 5c and the first vessel 5b, may comprise a material that absorbs at least some power from the induction-coupled heater and indirectly heats the fuel melt, such as a silver or Ag-Cu alloy melt. In the latter case, the vessel wall, such as quartz, silica, sapphire, zirconia, alumina, or ceramic wall, may be transparent to the RF power of the induction-coupled heater. The pelletizer components may comprise high-temperature stainless steel, niobium, nickel, modified 9Cr-1Mo-V (P91), chromium-molybdenum steel, such as 2.5Cr-1Mo steel (P22), molybdenum, tungsten, H242, TZM, titanium, chromium, cobalt, tungsten carbide, and other metals and alloys with melting points higher than that of the fuel melt. Metals may have high efficiency for absorbing radiation from the heater. Components such as vessels may be thin to effectively heat the fuel melt indirectly. A typical vessel is a tube with a tubing size of 1 / 4 inch to 3 / 8 inch ID. The melt-contact surfaces of components such as vessels, pump tubes, and pipe bubblers may be pre-oxidized by means such as heating in an oxygen atmosphere to form a passivation layer that prevents reaction with the injected steam or water that becomes steam. In one embodiment, the walls of the components may be wetted with a melt such as silver melt, which protects the walls from reaction with water. In this case, a water-reactive metal may be used for pelletizer components. Connections may be welds, Swagelok, and others known in the art for connecting metal parts. The components may be made of the same material as the pump tubing, such as zirconium, niobium, titanium, tantalum, other heat-resistant metals, and at least one of high-temperature stainless steels such as at least one of Haynes 188, Haynes 230, and Haynes HR-160.

[0126] In one embodiment, at least one chamber of a pelletizer heated by at least one of the induction-coupled heaters, such as 5f and 5o, includes a material, such as a metal, that absorbs the radiated power of the induction-coupled heater and indirectly heats a metal, such as silver, contained within the chamber. Typical metals that are highly efficient at absorbing RF radiation from induction-coupled heaters are tantalum, niobium, iron-based metals, and chrome-molybdenum metals. In one embodiment, at least one chamber of the pelletizer includes tubing that includes a material that efficiently absorbs radiation from the induction-coupled heater, such as tantalum, niobium, or an iron-based metal, such as chrome-molybdenum steel. The tubing may be coiled to allow heating of longer sections within the coil of the induction-coupled heater. The tubing may have a small diameter, such as within the range of approximately 1 mm to 10 mm, to effectively indirectly heat the metal inside the tubing. The tubing, such as polished or electropolished tubing, may have a low emissivity. The tubing may be surrounded by insulation, such as insulation substantially transparent to the radiation of the induction-coupled heater. The insulation may be effective to minimize heat loss due to heat conduction and heat transfer (convection) and may also at least partially reflect infrared radiation from the tubing to further reduce radiative power loss. In one embodiment, the pelletizer may further include a vacuum chamber or cell extension providing a vacuum chamber around at least a portion of the pelletizer. The vacuum around the vessel may reduce heat loss due to heat conduction and heat transfer (convection) and may reduce the heater power required to maintain the melt at a desired temperature. The vacuum may further reduce oxidation of the tubing, maintaining a desired low emissivity.

[0127] In the gas processing section, including the gas manifold, the vessel walls may be constructed of a material that has reduced permeability to hydrogen and is capable of high temperatures. Suitable materials are refractory metals such as tungsten and molybdenum and nitride-bonded silicon nitride tubing. The vessel may be lined with insulation if there is no inductively coupled heater in the manifold section. This section may be insulated and heated by an adjacent section of a second vessel from which the melt flows into this section. If necessary, in addition to insulation, the temperature may be maintained by an inductively coupled heater that heats the metal walls and indirectly heats the melt. Alternatively, another type of heater, such as a resistance heater, may be used. In one embodiment, the manifold section further includes a mixer that increases the rate of uptake of H2 and gaseous HO into the melt. The mixer may be an electromagnetic type, such as one that utilizes at least one of a magnetic field and an electric current to generate eddy currents within the melt, or a mechanical type that includes moving agitator blades or impellers. H2 and gaseous H2O are entrained in the melt to form molten fuel, which is ejected from nozzle 5q at the ignition site. Pelletizer 5a further includes a source of H2 and H2O, such as a gas tank and lines 5u and 5v, connected to manifolds 5w and 5x, respectively. Alternatively, H2O may be supplied as steam by an H2O tank, steam generator, and steam line 5v. Hydrogen gas may be supplied by electrolysis of water using electricity generated by the generator.

[0128] Discharge of the melt at elevated pressure from a nozzle 5q achieves fuel injection into the electrode, where the elevated pressure is provided by at least one electromagnetic pump 5k. The pressure may be increased by controlling the cross-sectional area of ​​the discharge nozzle 5q relative to that of the melt bath 5c. The nozzle orifice may be adjustable and controllable. A sensor, such as an optical sensor like an infrared sensor or a conductivity sensor, and a computer may control the pressure and injection speed of the pump 5k. The nozzle 5q may further include a valve, such as one disclosed herein, that may provide additional injection control. The valve may include a needle-type valve with the nozzle orifice as a valve seat. In one embodiment of an SF-CIHT cell including an electromagnetic pump 5k, a high-speed controller, such as a high-speed current controller, functions as a valve because the pressure generated by the pump is removed essentially on the same time scale as the current, according to the current-dependent Lorentz force (Equation (32)). The shot size may be controlled by controlling at least one of the nozzle size, pressure across the nozzle orifice, vibration applied to the nozzle by a vibrator such as an electromagnetic or piezoelectric vibrator, and the temperature, viscosity, and surface tension of the melt. The movement of the shot may be detected by a sensor, such as an optical sensor, such as an infrared sensor. Position data may be fed back into at least one of the ignition and injection controllers to synchronize fuel flow into the ignition process. The nozzle 5Q may be surrounded by a Faraday cage to prevent the RF field from inducing eddy currents in the shot and causing the shot to deviate from a straight-line course into the electrode gap where ignition occurs.

[0129] Following discharge from the nozzle 5q, the shot formed by surface tension may radiate heat and cool. The flight distance from the nozzle 5q to the ignition point between the electrode 8 may be sufficient for the metal to form spheres, and each sphere may cool sufficiently to form an outer shell. To increase the cooling rate to aid in the formation of spherical shot and / or spherical shot with a solid outer shell, the discharged molten fuel stream may be sprayed with water, such as droplets, using an atomizer such as that disclosed herein. A typical water atomizer is the Fog Buster Model #10110 of U.S. Patent No. 5,390,854. Excess water may be condensed in a cooler to maintain a rough vacuum within the cell. In one embodiment, the atomizer and water condenser or cooler may be replaced with a nozzle cooler 5s, which may cool the shot 5t as it is discharged. Cooling may include a heat sink, such as one containing a radiating thermal mass, a heat exchanger on the nozzle with lines 31d and 31e to the cooler, and at least one of the coolers 31a and a Peltier cooler on the nozzle 5s. The melt entering the nozzle section of the pelletizer 5a may have a substantially elevated temperature due to absorption of applied gases, such as H2 and HO, in the upstream gas application section. The melt temperature may be quenched by nozzle cooling. Just as the melt is discharged, the temperature may be reduced to just above the melting point. The lower temperature melt may form spheres and subsequently form a solid shell by radiative cooling as it travels from the nozzle to the electrode. Using a coarse, high-capacity cooling means, such as a heat sink, heat exchanger, and cooler, the temperature at discharge may be established within a coarse temperature range, such as within about 50°C of the melting point of the melt. More precise temperatures approaching the desired temperature, such as within about 1 to 5° C. of the melting point of the melt, may be achieved with a highly controllable low volume cooler such as a Peltier cooler.

[0130] The pelletizer 5a may further include a cooler to cool the induction-coupled heater, which may include the same cooler as at least one of the power converter cooler and nozzle cooler 31a, such as the PV converter cooler 31, or a separate cooler. The ignition system, including the electrodes and bus bars, may also be cooled with a heat exchanger that rejects heat to a cooler, which may also include one that cools another system, such as the PV converter 31.

[0131] Ignition of the fuel forms oxygen and hydrinos, which may be pumped away with a vacuum pump 13a, such as a Roots pump, scroll pump, cryopump, diaphragm pump, dry vacuum Roots pump, and others known in the art. Excess water and hydrogen may be recovered and recycled. Water may be removed by differential pumping. In one embodiment, hydrogen and oxygen formed within the plasma may be removed by pumping and other means disclosed herein, such as by separation means. Removal of hydrogen and oxygen may be used as a means of removing excess water. In cases where a water-containing atmosphere is maintained at the electrodes, excess water may be removed by pumping. The water may be condensed in a refrigerator within the cell 26 or may be connected to the inside of the cell 26 and recycled. The hydrogen may be recovered with a scrubber, such as a hydrogen storage material. Alternatively, it may be pumped away, for example, using pump 13a. The pressure may be maintained within a pressure range that prevents at least one of excessive attenuation of light emitted by the cell and allows the ignition particles to fall substantially unimpeded under the influence of gravity. The pressure may be maintained within at least one of pressure ranges of 1 nanoTorr to 100 atm, 0.1 milliTorr to 1 atm, and 10 milliTorr to 2 Torr.

[0132] The generator may include an electrostatic precipitator (ESP), which may include a high voltage power supply deriving from at least one of a photovoltaic (PV) converter and a power conditioner for PV converter power. The power supply may provide power between the ESP electrodes to cause electrostatic precipitator and collection of ignition products. In one embodiment, the ESP precipitator further includes a polarized wire electrode 88 ( Figure 14 (formerly Figure 2I23) ) and at least one counter electrode 89 of opposite polarity.

[0133] Other embodiments are contemplated by the present disclosure by mixing and matching aspects of this embodiment of the present disclosure, such as those relating to the recovery system, injection system, and ignition system. For example, shot or pellets may fall directly from above the electrode into the nozzle 5q ( Figure 8 (formerly Figure 2I17) ). The ignition products may flow into a pelletizer, which may be above or below the electrode. Metal may be pumped over the electrode and shot may fall or be sprayed into the electrode. In another embodiment, the ignition products may be transported to a pelletizer, which may be above the electrode. The PV panel may be oriented to maximize light capture, although other positions beyond those shown here for the photovoltaic converter 26a are anticipated and can be determined by one of ordinary skill in the art with routine knowledge. The same applies to the relative orientation of other systems and system combinations of this disclosure.

[0134] Figure 1-14 (formerly: Figure 2I10-2I23)In one embodiment shown in FIG. 1, the ignition system includes a pair of stationary electrodes having a gap 8g therebetween that establishes an open circuit, a source of electrical power that causes ignition of the fuel 2, and a set of bus bars 9 and 10 that connect the source of electrical power 2 to the pair of electrodes 8. At least one of the electrodes and bus bars may be cooled by the ignition system's cooling system. The gap 8g may be filled with conductive fuel with simultaneous closure of the circuit by injection of molten fuel from an injection system such as that including an electromagnetic pump 5k and a nozzle 5q. The injected molten fuel may include spherical shot 5t, which may be at least one of a melt, a partial melt, and a melt with a solidified shell. The solid fuel may be delivered as a stream of shots, a continuous stream, or a combination of shots and a stream. The supply of molten fuel to the electrodes may further include a continuous vapor or intermittent shots and continuous vapor. The electricity source 2 may include at least one capacitor, such as a bank of capacitors, charged by a photovoltaic (PV) or photovoltaic (PE) converter. The charging circuit may be in parallel with the electricity source 2 and the electrode 8. In another embodiment, the charging circuit may be in series with the electricity source 2 and the roller 2, where a switch connects the charging circuit to the electricity source when the electrode is in an open-circuit state. The voltage may be in the range of approximately 0.1 V to 10 V. The desired maximum voltage may be achieved by connecting the capacitors in series. A voltage regulator may control the maximum charging voltage. The peak current may be in the range of approximately 100 A to 40 kA. The desired maximum current may be achieved by connecting capacitors in parallel at the desired voltage, and the desired voltage may be achieved by connecting the parallel sets in series. The ignition circuit may include a surge protector to protect the ignition system from voltage surges created during ignition. A typical surge protector may include at least one capacitor and one diode, such as a Vishay diode (VS-UFB130FA20).The voltage and current are selected to achieve ignition while minimizing input energy and producing maximum light within the range selected by the power converter. A typical source of electrical power includes two capacitors (Maxwell Technologies K2 Ultracapacitor 2.85V / 3400F) in series to provide approximately 5 to 6 V and 2500 A to 10,000 A. Another typical source of electrical power includes four capacitors (Maxwell Technologies K2 Ultracapacitor 2.85V / 3400F) in series to provide approximately 9.5 V and approximately 4 kA to 10 kA. Another typical source of electrical power includes two parallel sets of three capacitors in series (Maxwell Technologies K2 Ultracapacitor 2.85V / 3400F) to provide approximately 8.5V and approximately 4kA to 10kA, and three parallel sets of two capacitors in series to provide approximately 5 to 6V and approximately 4kA to 10kA. Another typical source of electrical power includes two parallel sets of two capacitors in series (Maxwell Technologies K2 Ultracapacitor 2.85V / 3400F) to provide approximately 5 to 6V and 2500A to 10,000A. A typical source of electrical power includes at least one capacitor bank containing 24 capacitors (Maxwell Technologies K2 Ultracapacitor 2.85V / 3400F) including four parallel sets of six in series to provide approximately 16 to 18 V and 8,000 A to 14,000 A per bank. The banks may be connected in at least one of series and parallel. Alternatively, the banks may be expanded.A typical capacitor bank contains 48 capacitors (Maxwell Technologies K2 Ultracapacitor 2.85V / 3400F) in four parallel sets of 12 in series to provide approximately 30 to 40 V and 15,000 to 25,000 A. Higher currents may be achieved with higher voltage capacitors, such as custom 3400F Maxwell capacitors with voltages greater than 2.85 V each, connected in series and / or parallel to achieve the desired voltage and current.

[0135] Figures 4 and 5 (formerly Figures 2I13 and 2I14) In one embodiment shown in FIG. 1, the manifold and injector include a pipe bubbler 5z running longitudinally inside at least one of the first and second vessels 5b and 5c. In one embodiment, the pipe bubbler 5z includes at least one perforation along its length and a closed conduit or channel for gas to deliver gas into the fuel melt surrounding it. In one embodiment, the pipe bubbler has perforations or ports distributed along its length and over its surface to deliver gas along its length and over its surface. The pipe bubbler may be centerlined inside at least one vessel. The centerline position may be maintained by spoke supports along the pipe bubbler. At its input end, the pipe bubbler may enter the first vessel 5b at an open inlet of the first vessel and may run through at least one of the first and second vessels 5b and 5c, terminating before a nozzle 5q. Figure 4 (formerly Figure 2I13) ) Avoid running pipe bubblers through electromagnetic pump 5k Figure 5 (formerly Figure 2I14) In another embodiment shown in FIG. 1, the pipe bubbler runs within at least one of the first or second reservoirs without running through the pump 5k. The pipe bubbler 5z runs within the second reservoir 5c ( Figure 7 (formerly Figure 2I16) ) into the tank at a wall area such as a joint or elbow such as that of the pump 5k and may terminate before entering the pump 5k ( Figure 5 (formerly Figure 2I14)The pipe bubbler may be supplied with at least one of a common hydrogen and liquid or gaseous water line, a hydrogen gas line, and a liquid or gaseous water line, such as line 5y from a manifold connected to at least one source of H2 and H2O and 5v and 5u.

[0136] In one embodiment, at least one of the first vessel 5b and the second vessel 5c may include a coil with a coiled pipe bubbler 5z for injecting at least one of H2O and H2 into the fuel melt, which may increase residence time. At least one of the pelletizer components, such as the vessels 5b and 5c, the pump tubing, and the pipe bubbler 5z, where the fuel melt is indirectly heated, may be constructed of metal. The pipe bubbler may be positioned inside the vessel with set screws that pass through the vessel wall. For example, centering of the pipe bubbler may be achieved by adjusting the relative protrusion lengths of three screws spaced 120° apart around the circumference of the vessel.

[0137] The pelletizer may further include a chamber that receives the melt from a vessel, such as the first vessel. The chamber may include at least one bubbler tube, such as multiple bubbler tubes within the chamber, and may include a manifold for supplying the bubbler tube. Water may be supplied to the chamber as steam that is entrained in the melt, such as molten silver. The steam may be preheated to at least the temperature of the chamber to avoid heat loss. The steam may be preheated by heat exchange from a heated section of the pelletizer, such as the first vessel. The steam may be heated by a heater, such as an induction-coupled heater. The melt treated with at least one of the steam and hydrogen, such as molten silver, may flow from the chamber to a second vessel, which may include tubing that may be heated by a heater, such as an induction-coupled heater. The tubing may penetrate the cell wall and terminate in a nozzle 5q that injects the melt into an electrode. The chamber may include a pump, such as an electromagnetic pump, in at least one of the chamber inlet and outlet.

[0138] In the case where pipe bubblers are attached to both the H2 and H2O gas tanks, lines 5u and 5v may each be attached to a gas mixer such as a manifold that attaches the pipe bubblers through connecting pipe 5y ( Figure 5 (formerly Figure 2I14)In another embodiment, the pipe bubbler may include multiple pipe bubblers, each independently connected to separate gas supplies, such as H2 and H2O gas tanks, by lines 5u and 5v, respectively. The pipe bubbler may include multiple sections that can be connected and / or disconnected during assembly and disassembly, such as during manufacturing and maintenance. The pipe bubblers may include appropriate joints to achieve the connections. One first pipe bubbler section may function to deliver gas into the melt to an electromagnetic (EM) pump. A second pipe bubbler section may perform at least one of channeling and delivering gas along the EM pump section, and a third pipe bubbler section may deliver gas along the second vessel 5c. In another embodiment, a multi-section pipe bubbler comprises a first section inside a first vessel 5c running along its length through its inlet, and a second pipe bubbler section inside a second vessel 5c terminating short of a nozzle 5q. In one embodiment, the pipe bubbler may enter the vessel after the pump 5k so that pressure from the injected gas does not cause the melt to backflow. The bubbler 5z may be formed of dissimilar vessel materials, such as metal and quartz, connected by a joint 5b1 of the present disclosure. Figures 5 and 7 (formerly Figures 2I14 and 2I16)The induction-coupled heater may enter the vessel through a connecting section, such as an elbow, that may connect two vessels. The induction-coupled heater may include two full coils. A first induction-coupled heater coil 5f heats the first vessel, and a second induction-coupled heater coil 5o heats the second vessel 5c. The pipe bubbler may include a metal or alloy that is resistant to reaction with HO at operating temperatures, maintains its integrity, and avoids the formation of a silver alloy at melting temperatures. Suitable exemplary materials with sufficient melting points and lacking HO reactivity include at least one of the following metals and alloys: Cu, Ni, CuNi, Hastelloy C, Hastelloy X, Inconel, Incoloy, carbon steel, stainless steel, chromium-molybdenum steel such as modified 9Cr-1Mo-V (P91), 2 1 / 4Cr-1Mo steel (P22), Co, Ir, Fe, Mo, Os, Pd, Pt, Re, Rh, Ru, Tc, and W.

[0139] The pipe bubbler may be attached at its input end to at least one of H2 and H2O gas tanks via lines 5u and 5v, respectively. Alternatively, H2O is supplied as vapor via H2O tank, steam generator, and steam line 5v. In one embodiment, the pelletizer includes a steam generator 5v for adding H2O to a melt, such as a silver melt, in at least one of vessels 5b and 5c, which may include a quartz vessel. In one embodiment, the steam generator includes a capillary wick system with a thermal gradient to generate steam at one end and a wick water reservoir from the opposite end. In one embodiment, the steam generator includes a high-surface-area heated material, such as a metal foam or mat containing nickel or copper, to provide boiling sites for converting water from the H2O reservoir into steam to hydrate the shot. Other typical high-surface-area materials include ceramics such as zeolites, silica, and alumina. The steam generator may be operated under pressure to increase the steam temperature and heat capacity. The pressure may be achieved by controlling the size of the steam flow outlet to control the flow restriction so that steam is generated at a rate relative to the restricted output flow that produces the desired steam pressure. The line may include a pressure reducer. The steam generator may include a condenser that condenses the water into droplets and low-temperature steam. The condensed water may be refluxed back into the cell. The steam may be flowed through a pipe bubbler 5z and injected into a melt, such as molten silver, that is injected into the electrode 8. In another embodiment in which gaseous water is injected into the plasma by a gas injector of the present disclosure, the pressure may be maintained low, such as within at least one of the ranges of approximately 0.001 Torr to 760 Torr, 0.01 Torr to 400 Torr, and 0.1 Torr to 100 Torr. At least one of low heating, liquid water cooling, ice maintenance, and ice cooling may be applied to water in a tank or reservoir such as 5v operating under reduced pressure to form low pressure gaseous water. The cooling and ice may be maintained by a chiller such as 31 and 31a.The reduced pressure may be provided by vacuum pump 13a. In one embodiment, the weight percent of water in silver may be optimal for the hydrino reaction, where the reaction rate increases with HO weight percent starting from a pure metal plasma, reaches a maximum rate and hydrino yield at the optimal weight percent, and may decrease with increasing HO plasma content due to competing processes such as hydrogen bonding of HOH, which reduces the nascent HOH concentration, and recombination of atomic H, which reduces the concentration of atomic H. In one embodiment, the HO weight percent (wt%) for ignition plasmas containing conductive matrices such as silver, silver-copper alloys, and metals such as copper is about 10. -10 From 25, 10 -10 From 10, 10 -10 From 5 to 10 -10 From 1 to 10 -10 From 10 -1 , 10 -10 From 10 -2 , 10 -10 From 10 -3 , 10 -10 From 10 -4 , 10 -10 From 10 -5 , 10 -10 From 10 -6 , 10 -10 From 10 -7 , 10 -10 From 10 -8 , 10 -10 From 10 -9 , 10 -9 From 10 -1 , 10 -8 From 10 -2 , 10 -7 From 10 -2 , 10 -6 From 10 -2 , 10 -5 From 10 -2 , 10 -4 From 10 -1 , 10 -4 From 10 -2 , 10 -4 From 10 -3 , and 10 -3 From 10 -1In one embodiment, where the shot contains copper alone or other materials, such as metals like silver, the cell atmosphere may contain hydrogen to react with any copper oxide that may be formed by reaction with oxygen within the cell. The hydrogen pressure may be within at least one of the following ranges: approximately 1 mTorr to 1000 Torr, 10 mTorr to 100 Torr, and 100 mTorr to 10 Torr. The hydrogen pressure may be a pressure that reacts with the copper oxide at the rate at which it is formed, or a higher pressure but less than a pressure that significantly attenuates UV light from fuel ignition. The SF-CIHT generator may further include a hydrogen sensor and controller for controlling the hydrogen pressure within the cell from a source such as 5 μm.

[0140] Figure 1-14 (formerly: Figure 2I10-2I23) The stationary electrode 8 may be shaped to cause the plasma, and consequently the light emitted to the plasma, to be projected towards the PV converter 26a. A first electrode section or region 8i (including a neck or narrower gap) may be formed into a region 8j with a wider gap or into a second electrode section. Figure 3 (formerly Figure 2I12)The electrode may be shaped so that molten fuel flows first through the first electrode section 8j. Ignition occurs preferentially in the second section 8j as the plasma expands from the second electrode section 8j toward the PV converter 26a. The necked section may create a Venturi effect to induce rapid flow of molten fuel into the second electrode section. In one embodiment, the electrode may include a shape to project the ignition event away from the injection direction and toward the PV converter. Suitable exemplary shapes include a minimum energy surface, pseudosphere, conical cylinder, upper sheet parabola, upper half sheet hyperbola, upper half sheet catenoid, and upper half sheet astroidal ellipsoid, truncated at the apex as a suitable entrance containing the first section. The electrode may comprise two separated electrodes 8 with an open circuit gap 8g, so that an insulator 8h ( Figure 3 (formerly Figure 2I12) The electrode may include a three-dimensional surface with a split that may be filled with a gap 8g. The open circuit is closed by the ejection of a molten shot that causes contact across the conductive portion of the geometric configuration that includes the gap 8g. In another embodiment, the electrode may include a rectangular cross-section of the split three-dimensional surface. In either embodiment, the split 8h may be formed by machining away material such that the geometric configuration remains intact except for the missing material that includes the split 8h. In one embodiment, the velocity of the shot may be controlled to be sufficient to cause the plasma and emitted light to be within the region 81 directed toward the PV converter 26a. The power and nozzle orifice size of the electromagnetic pump 5k may be controlled to control the pressure at the nozzle 5q and the velocity of the shot.

[0141] Controlling the site of ignition on the electrode surface may be used to control the region within the cell and the direction of plasma expansion and light emission. In one embodiment, the electrode 8 is shaped to mold the melt shot 5 to a geometry having a focal region with reduced resistance, causing current to focus within the focal region to selectively cause localized ignition within the focal region. In one embodiment, the selective localized ignition causes at least one of plasma expansion and light emission within a region of the cell 8l directed toward the PV converter 26a. In one embodiment, the electrode 8 may be partially conductive and partially electrically insulating. The insulating section 8i may guide fuel from the site of injection 8k into the conductive section 8j where it is ignited, so that the plasma preferentially spreads within the region 8l toward the PV converter 26a. In one embodiment, the high current that causes ignition is delayed in time from when the molten shot first completes electrical connection between the electrodes. This delay may allow the shot melt to travel to a portion of the electrode 8j opposite the injection site 8i. Subsequent ignition at the opposite side 8j may direct the plasma and light toward the PV converter 26a. The delay circuit may include at least one of an inductor and a delay line.

[0142] In one embodiment, the electrode may include a minimum energy surface, such as a minimum energy surface, pseudosphere, conical cylinder, upper sheet parabola, upper half sheet hyperbola, upper half sheet catenary, and upper half sheet astroidal ellipsoid, with a truncated apex. A "dust" melt, free of hydrogen and H2O so that it cannot be ignited, may be injected into the electrode. The melt may be distributed across the electrode surface according to minimum energy. This distribution may restore the original electrode surface to repair any ignition damage. The system may further include a tool for reforming the electrode surface to its original shape following melt deposition. The tool may be one of the tools disclosed herein, such as a mechanical tool such as a mill or grinder, or an electric tool such as an electrical discharge machining (EDM) tool. The fuel metal may be removed by a mechanical tool, such as a wiper, blade, or knife, which may be driven by an electric motor controlled by a controller.

[0143] In one embodiment, the electrode may comprise a metal, such as a highly conductive metal like copper, that differs from the conductive matrix of the fuel, such as silver. Excess fuel metal, such as silver, deposited on the electrode may be removed by heating the electrode to a temperature above the melting point of the fuel metal but below the melting point of the electrode metal. Maintaining a temperature below the melting point of the electrode may also prevent alloy formation between the electrode and the fuel metal, such as Cu and Ag. In this case, the excess metal may flow out of the electrode and regain its original form. The excess metal may flow into a pelletizer and be recycled. Electrode heating may be achieved by using heat from at least one of the ignition process using power from the source of electrical power 2 and hydrino formation. Heating may be achieved by reducing any cooling of the electrode by the electrode cooling system.

[0144] In one embodiment, the electrode may include a conductive material having a melting point higher than that of the shot. Exemplary materials include at least one of metals and alloys from the group consisting of WC, TaW, CuNi, Hastelloy C, Hastelloy X, Inconel, Incoloy, carbon steel, stainless steel, chromium-molybdenum steel such as modified 9Cr-1Mo-V (P91), 2 1 / 4Cr-1Mo steel (P22), Nd, Ac, Au, Sm, Cu, Pm, U, Mn, doped Be, Gd, Cm, Tb, doped Si, Dy, Ni, Ho, Co, Er, Y, Fe, Sc, Tm, Pd, Pa, Lu, Ti, Pt, Zr, Cr, V, Rh, Hf, Tc, Ru, doped B, Ir, Nb, Mo, Ta, Os, Re, W, and C, and alloys. The electrode may be operated at a temperature above the melting point of the shot so that the shot flows out of the electrode rather than solidifying and blocking the gap 8g. In the case of shot containing Ag, the operating temperature of the electrode may be above 962°C. In one embodiment, the electrode may include a conductive material having a melting point higher than the boiling point of the shot. Typical materials are WC, refractory metals, Tc, Ru, doped B, Ir, Nb, Mo, Ta, Os, Re, W, and C. The electrode may be operated at a temperature above the boiling point of the shot so that the shot flows out and boils out of the electrode rather than solidifying or wetting the electrode and blocking the gap 8g. In the case of shot containing Ag, the operating temperature of the electrode may be above 2162°C. The high operating temperature may provide for heat removal from the electrode by at least one of conduction and radiation.

[0145] In one embodiment, the electrode 8 may include a start-up electrode heater to increase the electrode temperature. The electrode may include multiple regions, components, or layers, any of which may be selectively heated by at least one heater or may include a heater. Heating may reduce the stickiness of the shot. The heater may include a resistive heater or other heaters as described herein. In one embodiment for start-up, the electrode includes a start-up heater that heats the shot to prevent it from sticking. The electrode heater may include a source of electrical power 2 and a means for shorting the electrodes, such as a movable conductive bridge between the electrodes, or a means for moving the electrodes into contact to short the electrodes until heating is achieved. Cooling of the electrode may be stopped until the electrode indicates that it has exceeded its operating temperature, such as in the range of 100°C to 3000°C for suitable materials of the present disclosure. The electrode temperature may be maintained below the melting point of the electrode. Cooling may be stopped during the electrode warm-up period by pumping coolant. A chiller pump may pump the coolant. The electrode may be operated in at least one temperature range below the melting point of the shot, above the melting point of the shot, and above the boiling point of the shot, where the electrode comprises a material appropriate for such temperature operation.

[0146] In one embodiment, the electrode may include a bilayer: the bottom layer of side 8k may include an insulator such as an alkaline earth oxide, alumina, anodized aluminum, or a ceramic such as zirconia, and the top layer of side 8l may include copper, silver, copper-silver alloy, molybdenum, tungsten carbide (WC), tungsten, Ta, TaW, Nb, and a graphite-coated conductor such as graphite-coated Cu or W. The graphite-coated W may form a metal-carbide-carbon (W-WC-C) structure, which may be highly wear-resistant.

[0147] In one embodiment, the electrode 8 comprises a metal to which silver has low adhesion or is substantially non-wetting, such as at least one of aluminum, molybdenum, tungsten, Ta, TaW, tungsten carbide (WC), and a graphite-coated conductor such as graphite-coated Cu or W. Low-melting-point electrodes, such as aluminum electrodes, may be cooled to prevent melting. The non-conductive bottom layer may comprise an insulator, such as an alkaline earth oxide, alumina, or anodized aluminum oxide. In one embodiment, the bottom layer may comprise a conductor with a much lower conductivity than the electrode. The bottom layer may be conductive but electrically insulating. A dual-layer electrode may further comprise a thin insulating spacer between electrically conductive layers, where only the highly conductive layer, such as the top layer, is connected to the electrical source 2. A typical bottom layer, with low conductivity relative to the firing portion of the electrode, may comprise silver, copper, Mo, tungsten, Ta, TaW, WC, or a graphite-coated conductor, such as graphite-coated Cu or W, includes graphite. In one embodiment, the graphite acts as a layer to which shot, such as silver shot, will not adhere.

[0148] In one embodiment, the electrode may be maintained at an elevated temperature to prevent electrode adhesion due to rapid cooling of the melt, which may cause undesirable electrical shorts. Any adhering melt may be removed by at least one of an ignition event and an ignition current. In one embodiment, the start-up power source may preheat the electrode to prevent cooled melt from adhering to the electrode. During operation, the electrode cooling system may be controlled to maintain the electrode at a temperature that achieves ignition at a desired location on the electrode while preventing undesirable melt adhesion.

[0149] The electrode temperature may be maintained in a temperature range that avoids wetting or adhesion of molten shot, such as silver shot, to the electrode. Electrodes, such as W electrodes, may be operated in at least one high temperature range, such as from about 300°C to 3000°C and 300°C to 900°C, where a high Ag contact angle is preferred. Alternatively, electrodes, such as WC electrodes, may be operated at lower temperatures, such as from about 25°C to 300°C, where a high Ag contact angle is preferred. Lower temperatures may be achieved by cooling the electrode cooling system inlet and outlet 31f and 31g ( Figure 4 (formerly Figure 2I13) The bottom layer and the top layer can each include a connecting gap 8g. In one embodiment, an electrode, such as a W-plate electrode, includes a gap between the W plate and a bus bar, such as a copper bus bar, such that the W electrode operates at a temperature at which silver is evaporated, such as in the temperature range of about 1700 to 2500°C.

[0150] In start-up mode, molten solid fuel may be injected into the channels of an electrode electromagnetic (EM) pump by an EM pump 5k. The solid fuel may include silver, which may solidify. Current from an electrical source 2 may be passed through the solid until its temperature exceeds its melting point, and the silver may be pumped out of the channels by the electrode EM pump. Heating the material in the channels of the electrode EM pump heats the electrodes. Thus, the channels of the electrode EM pump may function as a start-up heater.

[0151] The bilayer electrodes may function to project an ignition event toward the PV converter, away from the injection direction at side 8k. The open circuit is closed by the injection of a molten shot that causes contact across the conductive portion of gap 8g only in the top layer. Gap 8g in the bottom non-conductive layer may be deep enough to withstand a blast from fuel ignition and selectively force the expanding luminous plasma in region 8l upward. In one exemplary embodiment, one bilayer set electrode includes a copper, Mo, tungsten, Ta, TaW, tungsten carbide (WC), or graphite-coated conductor such as a graphite-coated Cu or W top electrode on a bottom ceramic layer such as alumina, zirconia, MgO, or refractory brick with a hole in gap 8g in the top layer. The top and bottom layers may include opposing cones or conical sections with a neck at the interface and gap between the two layers. Instead, these layers may form back-to-back Vs in cross section. A typical such bilayer electrode has a bottom layer of graphite or zirconia in a downward V-shape and an upper layer of W or WC in an upward V-shape. The electrodes are constant along the horizontal axis to form a V-shaped groove with a gap that can be filled with shot to close the circuit and allow ignition to occur. The downward V-shaped layer has low conductivity and may direct the shot to the second layer of high conductivity, which ignites the plasma. The upward V of the top layer may be able to direct the plasma and light toward a PV converter.

[0152] In one embodiment, the electrode may include a double-layer electrode, such as one that includes a downward V-shaped layer, such as a graphite or zirconia bottom layer, and a top layer with a wall close to or perpendicular to the vertical wall toward the gap 8g. Typical materials for the top layer are W, WC, and Mo. The open circuit is closed by the injection of a molten shot that makes contact only at the top layer across the conductive portion of the gap 8g.

[0153] In one embodiment, the electrode may include a three-layer electrode, such as one including a bottom layer including a downward V-shape, a medium current delivery layer such as a flat plate with the plate edge extending slightly into the gap 8g, and an electrode lead layer with an upward V-shape recessed away from the gap 8g. The bottom layer may include a material that is resistant to sticking of shot melts, such as silver shot melts. Suitable exemplary materials are graphite and zirconia. The graphite may be highly oriented with the surface most resistant to sticking oriented to contact the shot. The graphite may be pyrolytic graphite. The medium current delivery layer may include a conductor with a high melting point and high hardness, such as a flat W, WC, or Mo plate. The top electrode lead layer may include a high conductor that may be highly thermally conductive to aid in heat transfer. Suitable exemplary materials are copper, silver, copper-silver alloys, and aluminum. In one embodiment, the top lead electrode layer also includes a material resistant to shot melt adhesion, such as silver or an Ag-Cu alloy. Typical suitable non-stick lead electrodes are WC and W. Alternatively, lead electrodes, such as copper electrodes, may be coated or clad with a surface resistant to shot melt adhesion. Suitable coating or cladding materials include WC, W, carbon, or graphite. The coating or cladding material may be applied over the surface area exposed to the shot melt during ignition. The open circuit may be closed by the injection of the melt shot, which causes contact across the conductive portion of gap 8g only in the middle layer. The top lead layer may be cooled through an internal conduit. Contact between the middle and top cooling layers may heat the heat sink and cool the middle layer. Contact between the bottom and middle cooling layers may heat the heat sink and cool the bottom layer. In the tested embodiment, the shot ejection rate was 1000 Hz, the voltage drop between the electrodes was less than 0.5 V, and the ignition current was in the range of about 100 A to 10 kA.

[0154] The electrode may include multiple layers, such as Mo, tungsten, Ta, TaW, WC, or graphite-coated conductor, such as graphite-coated Cu or W on a lead portion, such as a copper portion, with ignition on Mo, W, Ta, TaW, WC, or graphite-coated conductor, such as a graphite-coated Cu or W surface. The electrode may further include a non-conductive layer that guides ignition toward the PV converter. The W or Mo may be welded or electroplated onto the lead portion. The WC may be deposited by deposition techniques known in the art, such as welding, thermospray, high velocity oxyfuel (HVOF) deposition, plasma deposition, electro-spark deposition, and chemical vapor deposition. In another embodiment, the graphite layer of a dual-layer electrode including graphite on a lead portion may comprise the ignition electrode. The graphite ignition electrode may be thin and may include a large-area connection to a highly conductive lead, such as a copper or silver plate. The resistance may be low, and the graphite surface may prevent sticking. In one embodiment, the graphite electrode may include a conductive component, such as a copper post, in the graphite electrode to give the graphite more conductivity. The post may be added by drilling a hole in the graphite and mechanically adding the copper post or by pouring molten copper into the hole and milling out a clean graphite-copper-post surface facing the ignition.

[0155] Schematic diagram of the SF-CIHT cell power generator showing a cross section of the pelletizer with injection shot nozzles on the bottom and top of the electrodes, two electromagnetic pumps, and a pipe bubbler in the second vessel for introducing gases such as H2 and steam into the melt. Figures 5 and 8 (formerly Figures 2I14 and 2I17) The corresponding injection and ignition system details are shown in Figures 6 and 9 (formerly Figures 2I15 and 2I18) The details of the electromagnetic (EM) pump and pipe / bubbler tank penetrations are shown in Figure 7 (formerly Figure 2I16)The electromagnetic pump 5k may include multiple stages and may be positioned at multiple locations along the pelletizer (see FIG. Figure 5 (formerly Figure 2I14) Electromagnetic (EM) pump assembly 5ka Figure 19 (formerly Figure 2I28) EM Pump 5k ( Figures 7 and 15-19 (formerly Figures 2I16 and 2I24-2I28)The EM pump may include an EM pump heat exchanger 5k1, an electromagnetic pump coolant line feedthrough assembly 5kb, magnets 5k4, a magnetic yoke and optionally a gas or vacuum gap with a thermal barrier 5k5 and optional radiation shielding, pump tubing 5k6, bus bars 5k2, and a bus bar current source connection 5k3 with a feedthrough 5k31 that may be supplied with current from a PV converter. The pump tubing 5k6 may be coated to reduce corrosion. Typical coatings are corrosion-resistant metals with a higher melting point than the fuel metal, such as nickel, and noble metals such as platinum or iridium in the case of Ag or Ag-Cu alloy melts. At least one of the magnets and magnetic circuit may include a polished surface, such as an end face facing the gap, to act as a radiation shield. At least one of the yoke 5k5 and magnet 5k4 of the magnetic circuit may be cooled by an EM pump heat exchanger 5k1, such as one cooled with a coolant such as water, having a coolant inlet line 31d and a coolant outlet line 31e to a chiller 31a. The pump tube 5k6 of the EM pump 5k may be connected to the first tank 5b, the second tank 5c, and the nozzle 5q tank sections via a joint 5b1 of the present disclosure. In one embodiment, one EM pump 5k may be located at the end of the first tank 5b, and another may be located in the tank wall at the end of the second tank 5c. An extension of the latter pump tube may be used as a line that penetrates the cell wall and is sealed to the cell wall. The pump tube extension may include an S-shaped tube for spraying below the electrode 8. In another embodiment, the pump tubing extension may enter the cell vertically and transition horizontally at an elbow or bend, and the nozzle 5q may include a bent section with an end outlet. Alternatively, the nozzle may include a hole in the sidewall of the tube that is capped at the end so that pressure within the tube ejects the melt through the sidewall hole and into the electrode 8. The section of the tube within the cell may be at least one of insulated and heated to maintain the melt at a desired temperature.Heating may be achieved by an inductively coupled heater coil that penetrates the cell wall and surrounds at least a portion of the tube. The interior tube section of the cell, and other objects within the cell, such as the heater coil and bus bars, may be coated with a material that is resistant to adhesion by ignition products. Exemplary materials of the present disclosure include graphite, tungsten, and tungsten carbide.

[0156] In one embodiment, plasma and sticky metal shot are ejected from the electrode, and fuel recirculation is achieved by using Lorentz forces utilizing railgun principles, such as shot and plasma armature types, which may further include augmented railgun types, also referred to herein as electrode electromagnetic pumps. The Lorentz forces may induce a flow of sticky shot into the ignition section of the electrode, directing the ignition plasma into a collection area, such as the inlet of a fuel regeneration system, such as a pelletizer.

[0157] Figures 5 and 6 (formerly Figures 2I14 and 2I15) In one embodiment shown in Figure 1, the electrode may include a downward-facing (negative z-axis oriented) V-shape with a gap at the top 8g of the V. The V may be formed by flat plate electrodes attached to opposing surfaces of a support forming a V with a gap at the top. Typical electrode materials, including conductors that operate at high temperatures and are resistant to Ag adhesion, are W, WC, and Mo. The supports may be water-cooled. The supports may be at least partially hollow. The hollow portions may each include a conduit for coolant to flow through the conduit to cool the electrode. In one embodiment, the electrode may further include an upper section with vertical or near-vertical walls at the gap 8g. The walls may form a channel. The open firing circuit of the electrode may be closed by the injection of a molten shot that causes contact across the conductive portion of the gap 8g at the top of the V.

[0158] Cell surfaces that may be exposed to ignition products may be coated with a sticking-resistant material, such as graphite or aluminum, which may be anodized, or another such material of the present disclosure. The surface may be coated with alumina, such as alpha alumina, which may be sputter-coated onto a substrate, such as a high-temperature metal. In another embodiment, the surface may be coated with a housing that includes or is coated with a melt sticking-resistant material, such as one of the present disclosure. Bus bars may penetrate the cell through a common flange, where each bus bar is electrically insulated. At least one of the bus bars, electrode mount, and electrode may be shaped to minimize a surface for sticking of ignition products and / or possess a low cross-sectional area for accumulation of return melt, such as Ag or Ag-Cu melt. In one embodiment, electrode 8 may comprise straight rod bus bars 9 and 10 tapered at the ends to form electrode 8 or electrode mount. The surface of each tilted bus bar may be covered with a fixed electrode plate. The bus bars may include flat copper bus bars with electrodes mounted on their inner surfaces. Each bus bar may be covered with a plate electrode, such as a tungsten plate or other durable conductor. The plate may be curved to form a gap 8g. The curved plate may include at least one semicircular cross-section bus bar or tube electrically connected to the bus bar. The tube electrode may also connect to bus bars of different geometries, such as rods. The tube may be concentric with the rod connection point. Typical electrode separation across the gap 8g is within the range of approximately 0.05 to 10 mm, and at least one of 1 to 3 mm. Electrodes, such as those including plates or tubes, may be capable of high temperatures. The electrodes may include a refractory metal, such as at least one of Tc, Ru, doped B, Ir, Nb, Mo, Ta, Os, Re, W, and C, and other such metals of the present disclosure.The high-temperature electrode may function as a blackbody radiator for thermoelectric power conversion. The electrode may include a composition resistant to thermal embrittlement. The electrode may include a sintered material, such as a sintered refractory metal. The electrode may be segmented and / or thickened to avoid fracture when thermally embrittled. The electrode may include an insulating layer or gap between the refractory metal plate and the bus bar to allow the electrode temperature to be elevated relative to the temperature of the bus bar. A curved plate electrode may form the insulating layer or gap. The insulating material, such as MgO or Al2O3, may include a ceramic, which may be molded or machined. At least one of the bus bar and the electrode mount may be cooled, such as by water or air. Other coolants, such as molten metals, such as molten lithium, are also within the scope of this disclosure.

[0159] In one embodiment, the electrode comprises: Figures 5 and 6 (formerly Figures 2I14 and 2I15)The magnets may further include a magnetic field source, such as a set of magnets, at the opposite ends of the electrodes' channels, such as 8c. The magnets may be electrically insulated from the bus bars 9 and 10 when mounted across them by an electrical insulator, such as a ceramic or high-temperature paint, or a coating, such as a boron nitride coating, that may be applied over the bus bar contact areas by means such as thermal spraying. Insulator sleeves, such as ceramic tubes, may electrically insulate fasteners, such as bolts or screws. Other such components may be electrically insulated from other energized systems by electrically insulating materials of the present disclosure. The magnet 8c and channel 8g carrying the ignition current may include an electromagnetic pump that functions to eject shot adhering to at least one of the electrodes and channel 8g and to eject ignition particles from the electrodes 8 and channel 8g. The ejection may be due to the Lorentz force, according to Equation (37), formed by the ignition current and a cross-applied magnetic field, such as that from magnet 8c, through at least one of the shot and plasma particles, such as silver shot adhering to electrode surfaces, such as those of channel 8g. The current-carrying particles may be electrically charged. The plasma may further include electrons and ions. The ignition current is supplied to a source of electrical power 2 ( Figure 1 (formerly Figure 2I10) ) The current may be carried through metal that adheres to the bottom layer electrode and shorts it out. The current crosses the applied magnetic field so that a Lorentz force is generated to push the adhered metal away from the electrode surface. The direction of the magnetic field and current is such that plasma particles and shots, such as those from shot ignition, are forced into the channel 8g ( Figures 6 and 8 (formerly Figures 2I15 and 2I17) ), where the shot is directed away from the positive z-axis ( Figures 5 and 6 (formerly Figures 2I14 and 2I15) ) or negative z-axis direction ( Figures 8 and 9 (formerly Figures 2I17 and 2I18)) The magnet may generate a magnetic field along a y-axis parallel to the electrode or channel axis and perpendicular to the ignition current along the x-axis. A channel with crossed currents and magnetic fields including an electromagnetic (EM) pump oriented along the positive z-axis may perform at least one of the following functions: pumping shot injected into the electrode upward to be ignited, pumping sticking shot upward to ignite, pumping sticking shot upward from the electrode and channel, and pumping ignition particles upward from the electrode and channel. Alternatively, by reversing either the direction of the current or the magnetic field, the Lorentz force due to the crossover current and magnetic field may perform at least one of the following functions: pumping sticky shot downward to be ignited, pumping sticky shot downward from the electrode and channel, pumping ignition particles downward from the electrode and channel, pumping ignition particles downward away from the PV converter, and pumping ignition particles downward toward an inlet to a pelletizer for ignition product collection. The strength of the crossover current and magnetic field and the dimensions of the channel provide pump pressure through the channel, including the electromagnetic pump tube. The width and splay of the pump tube are selected to distribute the current from the source of electrical power 2 for ignition and pumping to achieve optimization of both. The electrode EM pump may further include a switch that may reverse the direction of the current to reverse the direction of the electromagnetic pump. In one exemplary embodiment, where shot is injected upward by the EM pump 5k and the electrode is shorted by the sticking shot, the electrode EM pump switch may be activated to reverse the current and pump the shot downward toward the pelletizer inlet. The electrode may further include a sensor and controller. The sensor may include a current sensor capable of detecting the electrode shorting.The sensor may provide short-circuit data into a controller that can deactivate the EM pump 5k to stop further injection of shots and activate a switch to reverse the current in the electrode EM pump until the short circuit is resolved. In other embodiments of the present disclosure, the electrodes and magnets may be designed to direct the plasma upward to perform at least one of the following functions: (i) ejecting shot and particles from the channel and electrode such as 8g, and (ii) collecting ignition products and unignited shot to the pelletizer while avoiding guiding ignition particles to the PV converter 26a.

[0160] In one embodiment, the electrode may include a downward-facing (oriented along the negative z-axis) V-shape with a gap 8g at the top of the V. The open circuit may be closed by the injection of a molten shot that makes contact across the conductive portion of the gap 8g at the top of the V. The V may be formed by flat plate electrodes mounted on opposing surfaces of a support that form a V with a gap at its top. Exemplary electrode materials, including conductors that operate at high temperatures and are resistant to Ag adhesion, are W, WC, and Mo. The electrode may further include a first electrode EM pump that includes a channel at the top of the electrode above the gap 8g with a source 8c of a magnetic field that intersects with the ignition current. In one exemplary embodiment, the molten shot may be injected from below in the positive z-axis direction ( Figures 5 and 6 (formerly Figures 2I14 and 2I15)), the electrode EM pump may perform at least one of the following functions: facilitating the upward flow of shot into gap 8g to cause ignition, pumping stuck shot from the electrode and channel, and pumping ignition products from the electrode and channel 8g. In one embodiment, the electrode includes a second electrode EM pump including a second electrode channel 8g1 and magnet 8c1 that generates a Lorentz force to at least one of forcing particles away from the PV converter and facilitating collection of particles into the pelletizer. The second electrode EM pump may be above the first electrode EM pump to receive plasma and particles from the ignition and pump the particles away from the PV converter 26a. The polarity of the magnet of the second electrode EM pump may be opposite to that of the magnet of the first EM pump, using a portion of the ignition current common to the electrode and both electrode EM pumps. The electrode EM pump may be of the augmented type. At least one of the first electrode EM pump and the second electrode EM pump may include an independent current source, which may be in the same or a different direction as the ignition current. The current source may be from the PV converter. In an embodiment of the second electrode EM pump, the current may be in a different direction from the ignition current, but where the cross magnetic field is oriented to at least one of: generate a force on the ignition particles away from the PV converter and at least partially facilitate transport of the particles to the pelletizer inlet. For example, the independent current may be in the opposite direction to the ignition current, and the magnetic field may be in the same direction as the magnetic field of the first electrode EM pump. In one embodiment, at least one of the current and magnet of the second electrode EM pump may be less strong than the parameters of the first electrode EM pump so as to reduce the velocity of the ignition particles. In one embodiment, the direction of the particles may not be completely reversed. At least one of the Lorentz force and gravity may at least one of prevent the particles from colliding with the PV converter and facilitate collection of the particles.

[0161] In one embodiment, the first and second magnet pumps of the first and second electrode pumps are each attached to bus bars 9 and 10, and the magnets are protected from overheating by at least one method of thermally insulating or cooling the magnets. The magnets of each electrode pump may include at least one of a cooling means, such as a cold plate or water-cooled lines or coils and a chiller, and a thermal isolation means or thermal barrier, such as a thermal insulator or thermally insulating spacer. The cool or cold plate may include a microchannel plate, such as one of a light-concentrating photovoltaic cell, such as one made by Masimo, or a semiconductor laser cold plate known in the art.

[0162] In another embodiment, a second electrode EM pump includes a channel, a current source, which may include a portion of the source of electricity that causes ignition, and a magnet, where the orientation of at least one of the channel, current, and magnetic field is along the positive or negative z-axis and generates a Lorentz force, which may have a component in the xy plane. The Lorentz force of the second electrode EM pump may be oriented to at least one of: force the ignition particles away from the PV converter and at least partially facilitate the transport of the particles to the inlet of a pelletizer. In one embodiment, the Lorentz force is in the positive z-direction and may have a component in the xy plane. The crossed current and magnetic field of an embodiment of the electrode EM pump of the present disclosure may cause ejection of sticky shot and flow of plasma particles to a regeneration system such as a pelletizer. The trajectory of the pumped ignition particles may be such that they avoid impinging on the PV converter. The particle trajectory may also be directed towards desired portions of the cell wall, such as portions that do not include penetrations such as electrode penetrations.

[0163] In one embodiment, at least one of the electrodes and the ignition plasma has a component of current along the z-axis and a component in the xy-plane, and magnets such as 8c and 8c1 are oriented to provide a magnetic field that crosses the current. In one embodiment, the crossed applied magnetic field from the magnets induces a Lorentz force with components in the transverse xy-plane and the z-axis. The z-directed force may eject shot that sticks to the plasma and electrodes. The force directed in the xy-plane may cause the ignition particles to be pressed against the cell wall for collection. In one embodiment, the electrodes are offset along the z-axis (one has a slightly higher height than the other) so that at least one component of the ignition and plasma currents is along the z-axis and in the xy-plane. In one embodiment, the ignition particles may be forced along a curved trajectory in a clockwise or counterclockwise direction with the origin at the ignition point of the electrode. The curved path may be caused by (i) bus bars 9 and 10 ( Figure 5 (formerly Figure 2I14) ) and electrode 8 to direct the particles to the wall opposite the location of the penetration, and (ii) transport the particles to the entrance of the pelletizer. Any mirrors and electrodes surrounding them, such as a parabolic dish, may direct the emitted light to the PV converter 26a.

[0164] In one embodiment, particles are prevented from impinging on and sticking to the PV converter by at least one plasma and particle deflector, such as a central cone at the outlet of the channel with the tip of the cone facing toward the ignition electrode. The deflector may include two cones joined at the base to facilitate particle return to the pelletizer. The plasma may be directed toward at least one additional plasma deflector that selectively deflects the plasma and light toward the PV converter. Particles may lose velocity upon impact with the deflectors and may fall and / or flow into the pelletizer inlet. The plasma may follow an S-shaped trajectory through the channel formed by the central and peripheral deflectors, where particles are stopped to flow into the pelletizer inlet.

[0165] In one embodiment, particles are prevented from impinging on and adhering to the PV converter by at least one physical barrier that is selectively transparent to plasma and light while at least partially blocking ignition particles. The physical barrier may include multiple elements arranged along the z-axis, each staggered element including a partially open physical barrier, such that a line of sight along the z-axis through the open portion of an nth element is at least partially blocked by another element in the series of n elements, where n is an integer. The multiple physical elements may include multiple horizontally staggered grids, such as screens, positioned along a direction from the point of ignition toward the PV converter. These elements may allow physical transmission of plasma and light while blocking particles. Plasma gas may flow around the staggered grids, where particles impinge on the blocking portions and lose momentum, facilitating collection of the particles into the inlet of a pelletizer.

[0166] In one embodiment, the electrode assembly may further comprise a source of a magnetic field, such as a permanent magnet or an electromagnet. Using the magnetic field, the plasma can be confined, focused, and concentrated in region 8l (81) so that light from the plasma is directed towards the PV converter. Figure 3 (formerly Figure 2I12) ) may be performed. The electrode magnets may push the plasma from the gap 8g into the cell region 8l. The magnets may provide plasma confinement such that the plasma emits light in the direction of the PV converter. The confinement magnets may include magnetic bottles. Figure 1 (formerly Figure 2I10) Magnets such as 8c may further comprise an ignition product collection system of the present disclosure.

[0167] The SF-CIHT cell may further include an electrode, such as a grid electrode of the present disclosure, that is circumferential to the plasma and may contain the plasma predominantly within a selected region to radiate in a desired direction, such as toward the PV converter 26a. In one embodiment, the plasma and particles from ignition may be oppositely charged and move at different velocities such that their respective movements within the cell are separated in time. The plasma may consist of ions and electrons. The particles may be relatively bulky. The plasma may be negatively charged due to the much higher mobility of electrons. The particles may be positively charged. The plasma may move the particles much faster, such that the plasma expands from the electrode before the particles. An electrode, such as a grid electrode, open to the particle flow may be used to selectively direct and / or confine the plasma so that light is directed toward the PV converter 26a, while the Lorentz force directs the particles to a desired region of the cell away from the PV converter 26a and back to the pelletizer. The electrodes may be at least one of floating, grounded, and charged to achieve at least one of selective transport and confinement of plasma to desired regions of the cell, such as 81. The applied voltage and polarity may be controlled to achieve at least one of selective transport and confinement of plasma to desired regions of the cell, such as 81.

[0168] In one embodiment, the shot may be formed to have a small diameter so that the surface tension to maintain a generally spherical shape is greater than the electrode adhesion force, and the shot does not stick to the electrode. The shot size may be within at least one diameter range of approximately 0.01 mm to 10 mm, 0.1 mm to 5 mm, and 0.5 mm to 1.5 mm. The shot may be made with a smaller diameter by using at least one of a smaller nozzle 5q, a higher melt flow rate, a higher melt pressure, and a lower melt viscosity.

[0169] In another embodiment effective in preventing shot from sticking to the electrode, the electrode includes a shot splitter, such as at least one thin wire, such as a heat-resistant wire, that spans the gap where shot ignition is desired. Typical wires include copper, nickel, nickel with silver chromate and zinc plating for corrosion resistance, iron, nickel-iron, chromium, precious metals, tungsten, molybdenum, yttrium, iridium, palladium, carbides such as SiC, TiC, and WC, and nitrides such as titanium nitride. The at least one wire may split the shot into multiple segments that are spread over a larger area than the unsplit shot. The electrode gap may be sufficiently large so that the shot would pass through the gap without firing in the absence of the splitter. The splitter may spread the shot and allow current to flow through the spread shot. The shot spreading may be such that ignition is confined to the wide gap region, thereby preventing sticking to the electrode by avoiding shot contact with other areas of the electrode where the shot might otherwise stick. The electrodes may be tilted to form an upright V-shape so that light is emitted within region 8l where it is directed towards the PV converter. The shot splitter may be movable and the electrode gap may be adjustable so that it can be widened and an elevated electrode temperature may be used during long operating times to prevent shot from sticking to the electrodes.

[0170] In one embodiment, the ignition system further includes an alignment mechanism, such as a mechanical or piezoelectric mechanism, that adjusts the position of at least one of the electrode 8 and the nozzle 5q so that the shot 5t moves from the nozzle to a desired location in the electrode, such as a central hole or gap 8g. The alignment may be sensed and controlled by a sensor and controller, such as an optical or electrical sensor and a computer. The alignment mechanism may further function to short-circuit the electrode during starting, where the short-circuit functions to heat the electrode. In one embodiment, the nozzle 5q may be off-center at an angle to prevent the melt from dripping and disrupting the flow, while the adjustment mechanism may maintain the shot 5t being injected from below the electrode 8 into the gap 8g.

[0171] Figures 5 to 22 (formerly Figures 2I14 to 2I31) Referring to FIG. 1, the cell may be operated under vacuum conditions. The cell 26 may include a vacuum chamber, such as a cylindrical chamber or a conical cylindrical chamber, which may have dome-shaped end caps. The cell may include a right cylindrical shape with a conical base for a fuel collection system and injection system, such as a pelletizer. The electrodes may be pierced by anodized feedthroughs, which may be vacuum sealed. Alternatively, Figures 15 to 18 (formerly Figures 2I24 to 2I27)As shown in FIG. 1, the cell 26 may be housed within chamber 5b3, and the electromagnetic pump 5k may be housed within lower vacuum-enabled chamber 5b5. The pelletizer inlet and outlet, such as a nozzle, may pass through the cell wall into the vacuum space of the cell, where a seal is maintained for each inlet and outlet feedthrough. The interior of the cell 26 may include a silver adhesion-resistant surface, such as at least one of Al, W, WC, Mo, and graphite surfaces. The interior of the cell 26, the bus bars 9 and 10, and at least one of the electrode elements other than those in direct contact with the melt to supply the ignition current may be coated with a material that is resistant to melt adhesion. Exemplary coatings include aluminum, such as polished anodized aluminum, W, Mo, WC, graphite, boron carbide, fluorocarbon polymers (PTFE) such as Teflon, zirconia + 8% yttria, mullite, or mullite-YSZ. In another embodiment, the lead and electrode components may be encased in a housing, such as a high-temperature stainless steel housing, which may be coated with a material of the present disclosure that resists melt sticking. The coating may be thermally sprayed, polished, or deposited by other means of the present disclosure, as well as others known in the art. The coating may be on a support, such as a refractory metal such as zirconium, niobium, titanium, or tantalum, or a high-temperature stainless steel such as Hastelloy X. The interior of the vacuum cell may include a conical liner with an anti-stick surface. The liner may include a wall material and coating of the present disclosure. The pelletizer may include at least a reducer from the first vessel 5b to the pump tube of the first pump 5k, an expander from the pipe tube to the second vessel 5c, and a straight reducer between the second vessel 5c and the second pump tube 5k. In one exemplary embodiment, the pump tube is approximately 3 / 8 inch OD and the vessels are each 1 inch ID. In one embodiment, the pelletizer inlet is at the bottom of the cell cone 26. The pelletizer outlet, including the second vessel 5c and nozzle 5q, is located below the electrode 8 ( Figures 5 and 6 (formerly Figures 2I14 and 2I15) ), or on top of the electrode ( Figures 8 and 9 (formerly Figures 2I17 and 2I18)) may be injected. At least one of the first electrode EM pump including magnet 8c and channel 8g and the second electrode EM pump including magnet 8c1 and second electrode channel 8g1 may do at least one of the following: (i) facilitate injection of shot and particles into gap 8g to cause ignition; (ii) facilitate collection of ignition products and unignited shot to the pelletizer; (iii) facilitate at least one of directing and guiding ignition particles away from PV converter 26 to avoid particle impact; and (iv) provide confinement to enhance hydrino yield. The confinement may create a pressure within at least one of the ranges of approximately 1 atm to 10,000 atm, 2 atm to 1000 atm, and 5 atm and 100 atm. Excess injected Ag shot and particles may be pumped, directed, and / or easily guided to the pelletizer inlet. The system may operate at a bottom wall temperature of approximately 1000°C so that the silver remains molten. Thus, even if not all of the shots are involved in ignition, the energy loss may be primarily pump energy, which may be very low. Minimal heating in the first vessel may be necessary because some of the energy from ignition of the solid fuel may heat the silver.

[0172] In one embodiment, the cell bed, including the cell walls in the region of the entrance to the pelletizer, may be heated by at least one of the ignition products and the ignition process. The bed may operate at a high temperature, such as above the melting point of the fuel metal, such as silver. The bed may heat at least a portion of the recovered products. The hot recovered material and the material heated by the bed may flow into the pelletizer preheated for lower energy consumption. The molten ignition products may flow from the bed to the pelletizer as a liquid. Shot 5t that is not ignited by the electrode 8 falls to the bed and similarly flows into the pelletizer. The flow may be as a liquid or as a solid. In the case of significant power absorbed by the ignition products before being cleared, the ignition products may become very hot, resulting in reduced energy dissipation within the pelletizer.

[0173] Figure 10-12 (formerly: Figures 2I19-2I21)In one embodiment shown in Figure 1, the bottom of the cell cone includes a melt reservoir or conical reservoir 5b. The cell cone may comprise a material having at least one of the following properties: resistance to silver adhesion, resistance to high temperatures, and non-magnetic properties. Typical materials for at least one component of the cell, such as the top cone and at least one of the conical reservoirs, including the cell wall, are graphite, tungsten, molybdenum, tungsten carbide, boron nitride, boron carbide, silicon carbide, SiC-coated graphite, and high-temperature stainless steel. The material may be coated. Typical examples are SiC-coated graphite, mullite, and mullite-YSZ-coated stainless steel. The interior of the cell 26, bus bars 9 and 10, and electrode elements other than those in direct contact with the melt, such as magnets 8c and 8c1, channel 8g1, electrode 8 connections to bus bars 9 and 10, nozzle 5q, and injector 5z1, may be coated with a material resistant to melt adhesion. Typical coatings include aluminum, such as polished anodized aluminum, W, Mo, WC, graphite, boron carbide, fluorocarbon polymers (PTFE) such as Teflon®, zirconia + 8% yttria, mullite, or mullite-YSZ. In another embodiment, the lead and electrode elements may be encased in a housing, such as a high-temperature stainless steel housing, which may be coated with a material of the present disclosure that is resistant to melt adhesion. The SF-CIHT cell may further include means for at least one of monitoring the integrity of the coating and applying more coating, such as graphite. For routine maintenance, the SF-CIHT cell may further include a graphite coating application device, such as a sprayer. The sprayer may include at least one nozzle that directs a spray containing graphite onto the cone surface and a dry graphite lubricant, such as that known in the art. The graphite-containing material may be polished. Polishing may be performed with fine abrasives such as those containing at least aluminum oxide, silicon carbide, and diamond powder.In one embodiment, a conical reservoir comprising graphite may be fabricated by 3D printing. In one embodiment, a cell cone is cut from graphite with a cutter. The cutter may include a laser or a water jet. The cutter may include a mechanical saw. The cutter may be angled and rotated. Alternatively, the cone may be cut from a tilted and rotated graphite block. The cone may be made in multiple sections, such as a top cylinder, a middle cone, such as one with 45° walls, and a bottom conical reservoir.

[0174] In one embodiment, the cone includes segmented pieces, such as triangular pieces, assembled to form a cone shape. The pieces may be sheets. The sheets may be cut into triangular pieces and fitted together to form the cone. These pieces may include a stainless steel conical frame or cladding of a support structure, such as a cone. In the assembly mechanism, the pieces including the male pieces may be fitted into top and bottom rings including female slots to accept the male pieces. The top and bottom rings may be directly or indirectly secured to a frame, such as the vacuum chamber 26, which secures the pieces together. The bottom ring may further include a flange that attaches to the conical reservoir 5b. The attachment points of the graphite cone elements may include expansion joints.

[0175] Exemplary embodiments of at least one of the upper cone and the conical reservoir include at least one of SiC-coated graphite and graphite formed into a conical shape, at least one of SiC-coated graphite and graphite lined on a support such as a stainless steel cone, at least one of SiC-coated graphite plate-lined stainless steel cone and segmented graphite, at least one of SiC-coated graphite plate and segmented graphite mechanically held together, W foil formed into a cone shape, W-plated stainless steel cone, and at least one of a support lined on a stainless steel cone. The cone may be at least one of a W foil, a segmented W plate lining a stainless steel cone, a segmented W plate mechanically held together, a stainless steel cone with a steep angle of about 60° and a mullite or mullite-YSZ coating, a Mo foil formed into a cone shape, a Mo-plated stainless steel cone, a Mo foil under a support such as a stainless steel cone, a segmented Mo plate lining a stainless steel cone, a segmented Mo plate mechanically held together, and a stainless steel cone with a steep angle of about 60° and a mullite or mullite-YSZ coating. The cone, such as a stainless steel cone, is heated above the melting point of a melt, such as an Ag or Ag-Cu alloy melt. Heating may be achieved by a heater, such as an induction-coupled heater or a resistance heater, or by a hydrino reaction. Other materials for at least one of the upper cone, a window, such as a PV window, and a housing to prevent adhesion of ignition products include at least one of sapphire, alumina, borosilicate glass, MgF2, and ceramic glass.

[0176] In one embodiment, the upper cell wall of the conical reservoir may comprise a material, such as a metal like aluminum, that may have a melting point lower than the operating temperature of the conical reservoir. In this case, a corresponding upper cone, such as one comprising a segmented aluminum piece or plate, may terminate before the conical reservoir and extend beyond an edge otherwise connected to the conical reservoir, allowing return melt to flow over its edge into the conical reservoir. The upper cone may include a heat sink, such as a thick plate, and may be cooled to prevent melting. Its surface may include an oxide, such as aluminum oxide, to prevent melt sticking.

[0177] At least one of the conical cells 26 and the conical reservoir 5b may contain or be coated with at least one of mica, wood, cellulose, lignin, carbon fiber, and carbon fiber-reinforced carbon, where at least a portion of its surface may be carbonized to graphite. Heat from the hydrino process may overheat the cone walls. The wooden conical reservoir or conical cell may include a backing heat sink, such as a metal sink, that may be cooled. The cooling may include a heat exchanger that may be attached to the conical reservoir or conical cell wall. The heat exchanger may include a coolant that may be cooled by a cooler 31a. The heat exchanger may include pipes fixed to the cone wall, where a gas, such as air, is forced through the pipes by an air-moving device, such as a fan. The system may be open so that the walls are cooled by air.

[0178] The metal in the reservoir may be melted or maintained in a molten state by heating. The metal may be heated indirectly by heating the outside of the reservoir, or directly. The reservoir may be heated with a heater such as a resistance heater and / or an external or internal inductively coupled heater 5m including leads 5p and a coil 5f. Silver has high thermal conductivity, allowing for rapid and even heat transfer within the internal resistance heater. Suitable resistance heaters that can withstand high temperatures include nichrome, graphite, tungsten, molybdenum, tantalum, SiC, or MoSi2, precious metals, and refractory metal heating elements. The shape may be such that there is rapid heat transfer with minimal space, such as a pancake-shaped heater. The heater may be treated with a suitable protective coating to interact with at least one of water vapor and hydrogen. Alternatively, the heating element may be protected from reaction with at least one of water and hydrogen by wetting with a melt such as silver. Light from fuel ignition propagates primarily upward toward the PV converter 26a, but any downward-propagating light and heat may serve to heat ignition products, such as those in the conical reservoir 5b, to limit the amount of heater power consumed. The reservoir may be maintained at cell vacuum, supplied by a lower vacuum-capable chamber 5b5 and a vacuum connection 5b6 to reduce heat loss by means such as conduction and convection. The reservoir may further include a radiation shield, which may have a passageway for the return of ignition products, such as molten silver. As is typical for fuel cells, the reservoir may include a thermos or vacuum-jacketed wall to minimize heat loss. During the idle state of the SF-CIHT cell, the reservoir may only need to be heated periodically to maintain the molten material so that the cell is in a viable state for operation. It is known in the art of fuel cells that heating typically occurs on a timeframe of about 12 to 24 hours.

[0179] The reservoir may include at least one bubbler tube 5z for delivering and capturing at least one of water and hydrogen into the melt. The bubbler tube 5z may include a serpentine gas flow field or diffuser, as known in the field of fuel cells, such as molten fuel cells. The bubbler tube may include an inverted cup for trapping injected gases, such as H2O and H2, dissolved and / or mixed into the melt. The gas may be released into the inverted cup-shaped diffuser. The diffuser may be submerged below the melt and may flow around the top of the diffuser to the bottom to receive the gas. The trapped gas may provide pressure to facilitate melt flow into the electromagnetic pump 5k. The bubbler tube 5z, like the flow field, may include a material that is not wetted by silver, such as at least one of graphite, W, and WC. The lack of wettability may prevent silver from clogging the gas pores of the bubbler. The pipe bubbler 5z may include at least one hydrogen-permeable membrane, such as a carbon-containing membrane, such as wood, cellulose, or surface-carbonized lignin; graphite; carbon fiber-reinforced carbon; and a hydrogen-permeable membrane, such as a Pd-Ag alloy; Ni, niobium, Pd, Pt, Ir, a noble metal, or other hydrogen-permeable membrane known in the art. The membrane may receive hydrogen gas, such as from a source 5u, and may facilitate diffusion across the membrane into a melt, such as at least one of Ag, Ag-Cu alloy, and Cu melt. The pipe bubbler 5z may further include a water-permeable membrane or frit, such as a porous ceramic membrane or frit. The H2O-permeable frit may include a material, such as zirconia, mullite, mullite-YSZ, or porous graphite, that is not reactive with H2O and is not wetted by the melt. The membrane may include a honeycomb. Other exemplary membranes and frits include yttria-stabilized zirconia, scandia-stabilized zirconia, gadolinium-doped ceria, and further including cermets.Alternative membranes include cellulose, wood, carbonized wood, and carbon fiber reinforced carbon. Pressure from sources such as 5u and 5v may control the rate at which H2 and H2O are delivered to the melt.

[0180] At least one of H2O and H2 may be soluble in the melt in a manner dependent on the partial pressure of the corresponding applied gas. Figure 8 (formerly Figure 2I17) In one embodiment, as shown in FIG. 1, the generator may include a pelletizer for forming shot that is injected into the electrode 8. The pelletizer may include a molten metal pump 5k, a means for adding gas, such as at least one of water vapor and H2, to the molten metal, and a nozzle for injecting the shot into the electrode 8. In one embodiment, the pelletizer 5a containing the molten metal fuel further includes at least two valves for selectively and alternatively sealing the gas from the manifold 5y and the second vessel 5c so that compressed gas, such as at least one of H2O and H2, is applied to the melt in the second vessel 5c. First, the inlet valve of the second vessel 5c is closed to prevent backflow into the first EM pump 5k, and the manifold valve is opened to allow the melt to be treated with compressed gas supplied through the manifold 5y. At least one of the second pump 5k and gas pressure may then extrude the gas-treated melt from the second vessel 5c and through the nozzle 5q. The valve to the manifold 5y is then closed, and the inlet valve to the second vessel 5c is opened, allowing the first EM pump 5k to pump melt into the second vessel 5c, repeating the cycle of compressed gas treatment and discharge of treated melt. Alternative valves, pumps, and gas and melt lines and connections known to those skilled in the art are within the scope of this disclosure. The pelletizer may include multiple second chambers 5c with inlet and manifold valves. Fuel hydration may be synchronized between chambers to achieve a nearly continuous stream of treated melt.

[0181] The multiple bubblers may be supplied from a manifold 5y. At least one of H2 and H2O may be supplied to a respective gas source, such as 5u and 5v. In one exemplary embodiment, at least one of water, water vapor, and steam is supplied from source 5v. At least one of water vapor and water vapor may be supplied by at least one of a water vapor generator and steam generator 5v. The water vapor generator may include a source of carrier gas and water, where the carrier gas is bubbled through water, such as water reservoir 5v. Hydrogen may include a carrier gas bubbled through H2O to also function as a reactant in the hydrino reaction. The SF-CIHT generator may further include a recovery and recirculation system for any unreacted H2, which may be recycled. The recovery system may include a getter, such as a metal that selectively binds hydrogen, for supply to a recirculation system, such as a pump. The recovery system may include a selective filter for H2 or other system known to those skilled in the art. In another embodiment, the carrier gas may include an inert gas, such as a noble gas, such as argon. The SF-CIHT generator may further include a recovery and recirculation system for the carrier gas, which may be recycled. The recovery system may include a selective filter for the carrier gas or other system known to those skilled in the art. The fuel, including the melt that has absorbed at least one of H2O and H2, may be transported from a reservoir. The reservoir may be an outlet to an electromagnetic (EM) pump 5k. Figure 5-9 (formerly: Figures 2I14-2I18)In the embodiment shown in FIG. 1, the electromagnetic pump may exit into a second vessel 5c containing an injection tube that may be slightly heated by a heater, such as an inductively coupled heater 5o. Tubing such as the one disclosed herein may be very efficient at absorbing the radiation of the inductively coupled heater. The tubing may have low emissivity, such as polished or electropolished tubing that may run within a vacuum chamber. Alternatively, a heater, such as a resistive heater, for the second vessel 5c may be internal to the second vessel, where the second vessel has a diameter or size sufficient to accommodate the internal heater.

[0182] For start-up, the pump tubing 5k6 may be filled with a fuel metal such as silver or a silver-copper alloy to increase the cross-sectional area for heat transfer. This area may be increased to increase the rate at which heat is conducted along the tubing from the heated cone reservoir 5b to the inlet to the pump 5k. Alternatively, the pump tubing may be heated by resistive micro-heating, or the tubing may be insulated. In one embodiment, the tubing includes variable or adjustable insulation to control the heat transfer between the insulation and the effect on heat transfer. The insulation may be in a high-insulation state during pump start-up, and the insulation may be in a state that provides high heat transfer during operation to prevent the pump from overheating. In one embodiment, the variable, adjustable, or controllable insulation includes a vacuum jacket surrounding the pump tubing. The vacuum jacket may be evacuated during start-up, and gas may be added to the jacket for rapid heat transfer after pump operation. The exterior of the vacuum jacket manifold may be water-cooled to provide additional heat removal to prevent overheating. Alternatively, the pump piping and bus bars may comprise a high-temperature material, such as Ta, capable of operating at temperatures above those achievable during pump operation. High-temperature capable pump tubing, such as Ta pump tubing, may be coated with a high-temperature oxidation-resistant coating. The bus bars may comprise a metal with a higher electrical conductivity than the pump tubing metal. The bus bars may be capable of operating at high temperatures. Radiative heat transfer may limit the maximum operating temperature. The pump tubing may include elements, such as fins, that increase surface area to increase heat transfer. High-temperature capable tubing may include a coating to prevent oxidation. Alternatively, the pump tubing may include a cooling system, such as a water coil, in contact with its surface, where the water is initially drained during start-up. Once the pump is operating at temperature, water or other suitable coolant may be pumped through the cooling system to remove excess heat as needed in a controlled manner.Control may be achieved by controlling the coolant pump speed, the cooler heat rejection rate, and the coolant inlet and outlet temperatures. Figure 10 (formerly Figure 2I19) In another embodiment shown in Figure 1, the electromagnetic pump is housed in a lower chamber 5b5 filled with a heat transfer gas, such as an inert gas, such as argon or helium. The inert gas may further contain hydrogen, such as a noble gas-hydrogen mixture, such as one containing about 1 to 5% H2, to prevent oxidation of the pump tube. The lower chamber 5b5 may be sealed to the cell 26 with a flange and a gasket, such as a graphite gasket. The pressure may be adjusted to control the temperature of the pump tube. The cooling system may include an inert gas tank, a pump, a pressure gauge, a pressure controller, and a temperature recorder to control the rate of heat transfer from the pump tube.

[0183] In another embodiment, the second vessel 5c includes a bend at its inlet end and an injection section terminating in a nozzle 5q, which serves as a conduit for receiving the melt from the pump 5k and transporting it to the nozzle 5q for injection into the electrode 8. The cell conical reservoir may enter the inlet of the pump tube 5k. The pump tube may be oriented vertically. The second vessel may be bent in an arc of approximately 90° to 300°, thereby orienting the injection section of the second vessel toward the electrode 8. The second vessel 5c may return through the conical reservoir in a route for injecting the melt into the electrode. The diameter or size of a pelletizer component, such as the second vessel, may be selected so that flow drag is not excessive. Additionally, the second vessel may be heated to a slight degree, such as by resistance heating or an induction-coupled heater. A heater, such as an induction-coupled heater, for heating the injection section may include a coil such as 5f that heats the inlet portion and may further include a coil 5o that may penetrate the wall of cell 26 and heat the injection section. The inlet portion of the second vessel may include a cylindrical loop heated by an induction-coupled heater with coil 5f surrounding the cylindrical loop.

[0184] Figures 10 and 11 (formerly Figures 2I19 and 2I20)In one embodiment shown in Figure 1, the cell wall 26 comprises a material resistant to silver adhesion, such as graphite, a graphite-coated metal such as graphite-coated high-temperature stainless steel, tungsten, and / or tungsten carbide. The cell wall may taper into a conical bottom. The cell bottom may include a flange that may connect to a mating flange that connects to a conical reservoir 5b to contain a melt such as a silver melt. The conical reservoir 5b may be capable of high-temperature operation and may comprise a material such as graphite, tantalum, niobium, titanium, nickel, molybdenum, tungsten, or other high-temperature or heat-resistant material or a metal such as high-temperature stainless steel. The conical reservoir may be lined with a material resistant to adhesion of a melt such as a silver melt. Typical conical reservoirs and liners include graphite, or graphite-lined tantalum or niobium. The graphite liner may be connected to the cell. The connection may be by mating flanges fastened together by fasteners such as high-temperature screws, such as Mo, Ta, or Nb screws. The fastener may include an anchor with a mating bolt or screw that threads into the anchor. In one embodiment, the conical reservoir is in a vacuum or inert atmosphere, and may include linerless graphite. The vacuum or inert atmosphere may be provided by an evacuable lower chamber 5b5. The conical reservoir may include a bottom flange that connects to a mating flange at the inlet of the pump tube of the electromagnetic pump 5k. An induction-coupled heater including a surrounding coil 5f may heat the conical reservoir 5b and at least a portion of the inlet to the pump 5k to a temperature above the melting point of the molten metal, such as at least one of silver, a silver-copper alloy, and copper metal. Starting from the flange connection, the tube may initially point downward and form a loop with a reasonable radius of curvature, but the tube is then positioned vertically to intersect with the conical reservoir 5b. The inlet may transition into a straight pump tube 5k6, where the direction of pumping may be oriented vertically.The pump outlet tubing may run perpendicular to the conical reservoir wall to intersect the magnets 5k4 and 5k5( from the conical reservoir 5b) to provide for operation of these pump components at a reasonably lower temperature than the conical reservoir. Figure 7 (formerly Figure 2I16)The cone's maximum radius may be the maximum distance between the pump yoke and the conical reservoir. The pump magnetic circuits 5k4 and 5k5 may be oriented tangentially to the conical reservoir, and the bus bar 5k2 may be short and oriented perpendicular to the conical reservoir, with the conical reservoir equipped with the lead 5k3 to the current source at approximately 90° to the direction of the bus bar 5k2. The orientation of the magnetic circuits 5k4 and 5k5 may maximize their distance from high-temperature components. High-temperature operating components, such as the conical reservoir and inlet tube, pump tube 5k6, and outlet tube, are required to be above the melting point of the melt, while low-temperature operating components, such as the magnetic circuits 5k4 and 5k5 of the EM pump 5k, are required to be at a much lower temperature, such as below approximately 300°C. To maintain temperature separation between the two types of components, the pelletizer may include insulation between the components. Additionally, the magnetic circuit may be cooled by a cooling system, such as a water-cooled heat transfer plate 5k1 and a cooler 31a. The water-cooled coil of the induction-coupled heater 5f may also serve to cool the magnetic circuit of the electromagnetic pump 5k, and vice versa. The conical reservoir and pump inlet may include a first vessel 5b. The electromagnetic (EM) pump 5k may pump melt, such as silver melt, from the conical reservoir to the electrode through a second vessel 5c, which may include a pump outlet tube, such as a tantalum or niobium tube approximately 3 / 8 inches in diameter, and a nozzle 5q. The loop of pump inlet and outlet tubing may include a bend that reverses at least approximately 180° through the conical reservoir wall. The tube 5c may travel within the conical reservoir 5b in a region below the silver melt level contained in the conical reservoir and protrude above the melt level, terminating in a nozzle 5q. The nozzle may be slightly above the melt level to maintain the melt flowing in a molten state within the tube without the need for a vessel heater. In other embodiments with the nozzle significantly removed from the melt level, heat is applied to the distal injection section of the second vessel by a heater such as an induction-coupled heater.In such an embodiment, the electrode may be positioned very close to the melt level. In one embodiment, the separation distance between the melt and the electrode is within at least one of the ranges of approximately 1 mm to 100 mm, 1 mm to 50 mm, and 1 mm to 10 mm. The cell may have a larger-diameter vacuum housing flange at the bottom of the cell, including the inner conical reservoir flange and the inlet to the conical reservoir. A lower chamber 5b5 capable of maintaining a vacuum or an inert atmosphere may be connected to the vacuum housing flange. The internal vacuum of the vacuum housing may be connected to the internal vacuum of the cell by a vacuum connection line 5b6. Alternatively, the vacuum connection line 5b6 may be connected to a common manifold to the cell vacuum pump 13a. The lower evacuable chamber 5b5 may include a right cylinder, which may have a domed end cap. The lower evacuable chamber 5b5 may include at least one of the conical reservoir 5b, at least a portion of the electromagnetic pump 5k including the pump tubing 5k6 and its inlet and outlet, the EM pump bus bar 5k2 and at least a portion of the magnetic circuit 5k4 and 5k5, and the heating coil 5f. Electrical connections to the bus bar of the electromagnetic pump 5k3, leads to the inductively coupled heater coil 5p, and any sensor leads may penetrate the wall of the lower evacuable chamber 5b5. Portions of the EM pump magnetic circuit 5k4 and 5k5 may penetrate or be flux-permeable through the lower evacuable chamber 5b5, where the magnets and optionally portions of the magnetic circuit 5k4 and 5k5 may be outside the lower evacuable chamber 5b5. The vacuum may protect air-sensitive materials, such as graphite, Ta, and Nb, from oxidation. In another embodiment, the lower chamber 5b5, which can maintain a vacuum or a seal from the atmosphere, may not be connected to the cell's vacuum. In this case, the lower chamber 5b5 may be filled with an inert gas such as nitrogen and a noble gas such as argon. Further protection may be achieved by coating the atmospheric gas reactive material with a protective coating such as a physical coating, such as a ceramic, or an electroplated coating.

[0185] In one embodiment, the inductively coupled heater coil leads penetrate within at least one sealed section of the generator, such as the cell 26 or the lower chamber 5b5. The lead 5p penetrations in the corresponding wall, such as the cell, the chamber 5b5, and at least one partition between the two, such as the electromagnetic pump flange plate, may be electrically insulated to prevent electrical shorting of the lead 5p. The penetrations may occur at the wall, or may occur at a location remote from the wall to supply a location at a lower temperature than the wall. The wall may be connected to the remote location by a conduit containing the lead without electrical contact. The end of the conduit opposite the sealed penetration may be fused to the wall through which it penetrates to form a seal at the wall. In one embodiment where the vacuum seal is remote and the lead penetrates a hot conductive element, the lead may pass through a hole in an element, such as the electromagnetic pump flange plate, without making electrical contact with the element. The lead may be polished to reduce heat transfer and emissivity to the lead. The conduit may be vacuum sealed around the lead with an electrical insulator at the opposite end of the conduit from the hot conductive element, where the temperature is much lower. The insulator may include a low-temperature seal such as a Teflon seal, such as a Teflon Swagelok or an Ultra-Torr with a Kalrez O-ring. Alternatively, the vacuum-tight lead penetration may include a commercially available high-temperature RF penetration.

[0186] In one embodiment, the conical reservoir and chamber 5b are threaded together at a vacuum connector to the top plate of the vacuum housing. The pump tube may pass through the top plate. The reservoir 5b may be attached to the top plate by means such as welding. In one embodiment, the pump tube 5k6 may be independently heated by a heater, such as an inductively coupled heater, that maintains the tube at a desired temperature above the melting point of the melt. In one embodiment, one inductively coupled heater RF power unit may be multiplexed for multiple inductively coupled heater coils. The pump tube heater may include a heater coil that is intermittently driven by an RF generator for the conical reservoir heater, with the duty cycle of the RF generator being switched between driving the conical reservoir heater coil and the pump tube heater coil. The duty cycle may be controlled to maintain the conical reservoir and pump tube at the desired temperature. A typical duty cycle range is approximately 10% to 90%. Alternatively, the EM pump tube may be heated by heat transferred from the hot section of the generator. The heat may be from a heater or from the hydrino reaction. In one embodiment, the heat transfer is performed by a heat transfer block 5k7 ( Figure 17 (formerly Figure 2I26) Heat is transferred from the conical reservoir 5b by a conductive medium, such as copper, which may contain copper. The block may be machined or cast to contact the conical reservoir and the pump tube. To improve thermal contact between the pump tube 5k6 and the heat transfer block 5k7, the pump tube may be coated with a heat transfer compound, such as Thermon T-99. In one embodiment, heat may be transferred from at least one of the conical reservoirs 5b and 5c to the pump tube by the heat transfer block 5k7 along the pump tube 5k6. The tube may be enlarged in the inlet region to increase heat conduction through the metal melt, such as silver in an AgCu alloy melt.

[0187] Each bus bar 9 and 10 may include a connection to a capacitor bank. The capacitor bank may include multiple (e.g., two) parallel sets of two capacitors in series, one connected to the negative bus bar and one connected to the positive bus bar, with corresponding opposite-polarity capacitor terminals connected by the bus bars. In a typical embodiment, higher currents are achieved by using two sets of parallel capacitors in series, using higher-voltage capacitors, such as custom 3400 F Maxwell capacitors with a voltage greater than 5.7 V, in series. The circuit may be completed upon arrival of a shot between the electrodes. The capacitors may be connected to a source of power to charge the capacitors and maintain their voltage during operation, where the voltage is sensed at the capacitors. Each bus bar may include a mount, such as a copper block with threads that penetrates vertically through the cell wall and receives the threads of the corresponding capacitor terminal. A horizontal bus bar may be screwed into the threaded end of each vertical bus bar, and the electrodes may slide over the ends of the horizontal sections. The electrodes may be secured by fasteners such as clamps with bolts or set screws.

[0188] The electrodes may include one of the present disclosure, such as a downward V-shape, forming a channel in gap 8 toward PV converter 26a, and further include an electrode EM pump including channel 8 and magnet 8c, but optionally further including a second electrode EM pump including magnet 8c1 and channel 8g1. To prevent excessive heating of the magnets of either electrode EM pump, magnets such as 8c and 8c1 may be located outside cell 26. The magnetic field is provided by magnetic circuit 8c, such as ferromagnetic yolks that may operate at high temperatures, such as at least one of iron, cobalt, and Hiperco® 50 alloy (49% Co, 49% Fe, 2% V) yokes. Figure 20-22 (formerly: Figures 2I29-2I31)) into channels such as 8g and 8g1. In another embodiment, the yokes may include one material, such as Co or Hiperco® 50 alloy, in the gap where the temperature is highest, and another material, such as iron, in the lower temperature section connecting the magnets. The magnets may include a material with a high maximum operating temperature, such as a CoSm magnet. To further thermally insulate the CoSm, the magnetic circuit may include an internal magnet capable of operating at a higher temperature, such as an AlNiCo magnet, which can operate at a maximum temperature of up to 525°C compared to 350°C for CoSm. The electrode EM pump magnetic circuit may include a magnet and a yoke, each of which may penetrate the cell wall 26. Alternatively, the magnetic flux may penetrate the wall from a first, outer magnetic circuit section to a second magnetic circuit section inside the cell. A typical wall material that allows flux penetration is high-temperature stainless steel. In an alternative embodiment, nozzle 5q may be positioned in close proximity to electrode 8 so that pressure from EM pump 5k pumps the melt through electrode gap 8g and optionally 8g1, where at least one of the first and second electrode EM pumps is optional. Nozzle 5q may be made of a non-conductor such as quartz or a poor conductor such as graphite and may be in close proximity to gap 8g or in contact with electrode 8 to facilitate direct pumping of the melt through at least one of the electrode gaps or channels 8g and 8g1. Alternatively, the nozzle may be tipped with a non-conductor such as quartz or a ceramic sleeve, coated with a non-conductor such as boron nitride, or include a conductor such as the material of the pump tube, but a minimal gap may be maintained between the nozzle and electrode 8. The cell may be electrically floating rather than grounded to prevent electrical flow through the nozzle to other components within the cell. The cell walls, bus bars 9 and 10, and any other components within the cell may be covered with a sheath that is resistant to melt adhesion, such as a silver or silver-copper alloy such as 72 wt% Ag-28 wt% Cu.Typical sheath materials are graphite, boron carbide, fluorocarbon polymers such as Teflon (PTFE), zirconia + 8% yttria, mullite, or mullite-YSZ. The shot ignited by the electrode may contain molten metal, such as molten Ag, which may further contain at least one gas from the group consisting of HO and hydrogen. The conical reservoir 5b may contain at least one gas or water line, such as a line from a manifold 5y connected to at least one source of HO and H2 5u and 5v, and a bubbler or gas flow field that adds gas to the melt. The line may penetrate the wall of the conical reservoir 5b to connect to a pipe bubbler 5z or gas flow field.

[0189] Alternatively, at least one of H2O and H2 may be added by injection from an injector 5z1 controlled by a valve 5z2 and an injection regulator at the electrode 8. The injector 5z1 may inject at least one of H2O and H2 into a portion of the ignition plasma, at least one of the center of the ignition plasma, a portion of the melt, and substantially into the center of the melt stream, thereby maximizing the incorporation of at least one of H2O and H2 into at least one of the melt and plasma. A typical injector 5z1 includes a tube with a 50 μm hole at its end for injecting H2O directly into the plasma. The tube may include a material resistant to water reaction, such as nickel tubing. The injector may include nozzles each including at least one pinhole, such as a nozzle having a diameter in the range of approximately 0.001 μm to 5 mm. The gas may flow directionally from the injector 5z1. The gas may include a gas jet or molecular beam, such as at least one of H2O and H2 jets or beams. The nozzle may be positioned close to the point of ignition, such as within 0.1 to 5 mm of the electrode gap 8g, to efficiently deliver gas to ignition while avoiding excess gas being pumped out of the cell. Injection may occur below or above the electrode gap 8g. The tip of the injector 5z1 may comprise a material resistant to heat damage, such as a refractory metal, such as one disclosed herein, such as W or Mo. In another embodiment, the nozzle of the injector 5z1 may include a plurality of pinholes, such as those aligned along the length of the electrode, to inject gas into the molten metal. In one exemplary embodiment, the pinholes are approximately 25 μm in diameter. The injection may be at high velocity. The high velocity may aid in impregnation of the metal with the gas, resulting in greater gas introduction into the reaction mixture. The molecular beam may facilitate the formation of an HOH catalyst. In one embodiment, the tip of the injector 5z1 may include a diffuser to form a fine mist of injected water into the plasma or fuel to be ignited.

[0190] In one embodiment, the injector is designed to limit the rate of heat transfer from the plasma to the injector so that the water does not boil when inside the injector at that flow rate to maintain the desired power from the hydrino process. The injector 5z1 may include: i) a minimum surface area; ii) a material with low thermal conductivity; iii) surface insulation; and iv) radiation shielding to limit heat transfer to the flowing water. In an exemplary embodiment where the hydrino reaction is H2O → H2(1 / 4) + 1 / 2O2 + 50 MJ, the minimum water flow rate to generate X watts of power is given by: Flow Rate = (Watts x 50 mJ / 1 mol HO) ×(1 liter H2O / 55 moles) (33) In the typical case where X=500 kW, the flow rate is 0.18 ml / s. The power to boil 0.18 ml of water per second from an initial temperature of 0° C. is 490 W. Therefore, the injector 5z1 is designed so that the maximum rate of heat acceptance from the cell, such as from the plasma, corresponds to a power of less than 490 W. Relational formula: P=1 / 2(ρν 2 ) (34) Using (where P is pressure, ρ is the density of water, and ν is velocity), a water injection pressure of 3 atmospheres corresponds to a nozzle 5q flow rate of 25 m / s. At this flow rate, 0.18 ml / s (0.18 × 10 -6 m 3 The orifice size of the nozzle 5q for delivering -9 m 2 (95um diameter disk). If a tube twice this diameter and 3cm is immersed in plasma, the thermal conductivity will be 490W / 1×10 -5 m 2 , or 4.9 × 10 -7 W / m 2 The plasma contraction area of ​​the tube must be less than 1×10 -5 m 2Typical heat-resistant nozzles with low heat acceptance rates include zirconia or alumina, which may be stabilized with calcia or yttria. The nozzle 5q, such as one including a pinhole, may have a shape to cause the water stream to expand into a volume that distributes the water throughout the desired portion of the plasma. The expansion may result in uniform distribution of the water in the plasma. The water source 5v may include a pump and water reservoir for supplying water to the injector 5z1. A valve, flow meter, and regulator 5z2 may control the rate of the water flow injected through the nozzle 5q.

[0191] The injector 5z1 may include a humidifier that may maintain a desired H2O component pressure in the region of the electrode, such as within at least one of the ranges of approximately 0.01 Torr to 1000 Torr, 0.1 Torr to 100 Torr, 0.1 Torr to 50 Torr, and 1 Torr to 25 Torr.

[0192] The molecular beam may be cooled to form ice crystals, which may increase the rate of the hydrino reaction. Cooling may be provided by a refrigerator 31a. Cooling may be achieved by cooling a carrier gas, such as hydrogen or a noble gas. Water may be cooled to its freezing limit. The freezing point may be lowered by dissolving a carrier gas, such as hydrogen, in water to form supercooled water. The supercooled water may be aerosolized by bubbling a carrier gas, such as hydrogen. In one embodiment, minute water droplets, such as those in the range of 0.1 to 100 μm in diameter, may be formed by an aerosolization device, such as an ultrasonic aerosolization device. The ultrasonic frequency may be a high frequency, such as about 1 kHz to 100 kHz. The aerosolization may result in the formation of ice crystals. Water may be injected into a vacuum. Expansion into the vacuum may cool the water to form ice. Evaporation of the injected water into the vacuum may form ice. The tip of the injector 5z1 may be cooled, which may cause the injected water to form ice by evaporation. At least one of the injected water and the tip may be cooled by a chiller 31a. Cooling may be to a temperature that results in ice crystal formation in the injected water while preventing freezing and clogging of the tip. Ice crystal formation may be further promoted by bubbling a chilled carrier gas through the water. Supercooling may also be achieved by removing nucleation sites in a water reservoir, such as a bubbler, and / or reducing pressure. In one embodiment, an additive may be added to the water to lower the freezing point. Typical additives are salts, inorganic compounds, and organic compounds. In the latter case, the organic compounds may be consumed and replaced during operation of the cell. A gas, such as hydrogen gas, may be injected into the melt to bubble through the water, forming ice crystals and serving as a source of at least one of H and HOH catalysts for the hydrino reaction. In one embodiment, the ice may be sublimated and directed to the electrodes. Vaporized ice may flow through a manifold.The ice may undergo deposition into larger crystals or nucleate upon physical contact with a suitable surface, where larger particles may flow into the ignition site. This flow may be through a manifold with multiple pinholes. In one embodiment, the injector may be located within the wall of the electrode, such as within channel 8g. In another embodiment, injector 5z1 is opposite nozzle 5q. In one exemplary embodiment, nozzle 5q injects the melt into electrode 8, and injector 5z1 injects at least one of H2O and H2 from the top onto the other side of the electrode, such as within channel 8g. The water may be in the form of at least one of fine ice crystals, vapor, and liquid water. In one embodiment, input gas from sources such as 5u and 5v is injected into a cell maintained under vacuum. Controlling the input pressure below atmospheric pressure may control the flow rate of the gas through injector 5z1. At least one of the flow rate and input gas pressure for injection may be controlled by a valve, pump, flow controller, and pressure monitor and controller 5z2. The cell vacuum may be maintained with a water vapor condenser, such as a refrigerator, a cryopump, and / or a vacuum pump 13a. The cell vacuum may be maintained with a pump, such as a vacuum pump, such as a scroll pump, and a water trap. The water condenser may include at least one of a refrigerator and a cryotrap. In one embodiment, the pump may include a high-temperature pump that maintains the cell gas at a high temperature while pumping so that the water vapor component behaves essentially as an ideal gas. Any injected or formed water may be removed as vapor, which may serve as a means of cooling the cell.

[0193] In another embodiment, the cell includes a chemical getter for removing water vapor from the cell gas to maintain the vacuum. The getter can include a compound that reacts with water, such as a metal capable of forming an oxide. The water reaction product can be reversible by heating. The getter can include a hydrous compound such as a molecular sieve, silica gel, a clay such as montmorillonite clay, an anhydrous base such as an alkaline earth oxide such as CaO, an anhydrous hydrate such as an alkaline earth compound containing an oxyanion, such as a sulfate such as CaSO4, and a desiccant such as at least one alkali halide that forms a hydrate, such as LiBr, that absorbs water vapor within the cell. The compound can be regenerated by heating. The heat can be from excess heat generated by the cell.

[0194] The compound may be periodically removed from contact with the cell gas, regenerated, and then returned. The compound may remain in a sealed chamber as it is heated to generate a vapor pressure above atmospheric pressure. The vapor at the initial high pressure may be released through an open valve. The valve may be closed to reduce the initial pressure, still above atmospheric pressure, so that air does not enter the chamber. The chamber is cooled, and the compound exposed to the cell gas may absorb water in repeated cycles. The compound is transported to achieve exposure to the cell gas to absorb water in one phase of the cycle, and exposure to the atmosphere to release the absorbed water in another phase. In one embodiment, the transport of the compound may be by means of the present disclosure, such as by use of a pump or by mechanical means, such as by an auger. Alternatively, the transport may be achieved by using a pneumatic means, such as one of the present disclosure. In one embodiment, the water removal system includes a reciprocating two-valve desiccant chamber, where the compound is not transported to achieve exposure to cell gas to absorb water in one phase of the cycle and exposure to the atmosphere to release the absorbed water in another phase. The compound is contained in a chamber with at least two valves. A first absorption valve controls connection to the cell gas, and a second exhaust valve controls connection to a drain region, such as ambient atmosphere. During the absorption phase, the absorption valve is open and the exhaust valve is closed. During the drain region phase, the absorption valve is closed and the exhaust valve is open. The valves may alternately open and close to achieve absorption and drainage. The absorption valve may include a large valve, such as a gate valve, to increase the gas flow exposed to the compound. The exhaust valve may include a smaller pressure-regulating valve, such as a blow-off valve, that opens at a desired pressure and closes at a lower desired pressure. The chamber may be in close proximity to the cell, as the cell normally heats it. During the absorption phase, a cooler, such as 31a, can cool the chamber.Cooling may be interrupted to allow the cell to heat during the evacuation phase. The interruption may be accomplished by stopping the coolant flow. The coolant may have a boiling point higher than the maximum operating temperature of the chamber. In another embodiment, heat may be removed or supplied to the chamber by a heat exchanger, such as a heat pipe. In one embodiment, water may be continuously removed by multiple reciprocating two-valve desiccant chamber water removal systems, where at least one system operates in the absorption phase and another system operates in the evacuation phase.

[0195] In one embodiment, ultraviolet and extreme ultraviolet radiation from the hydrino reaction dissociates water vapor within the cell into hydrogen and oxygen. To provide a supply of this valuable industrial gas, hydrogen and oxygen are separated by means of the present disclosure. The product mixture of hydrogen and oxygen from photon-dissociated water may be separated by at least one method known in the art, such as one or more of the following: H separation through a microporous membrane; O separation through an electrodiffusion membrane made of refractory oxides such as CaO, CeO, YO, and ZrO; H separation through a nonporous metal membrane such as a palladium or Pd-Ag membrane; gas separation by generating a high-velocity jet using an orifice and a beam skimmer; gas separation by centrifugation; and gas separation by cryogenic distillation. The gas can be converted to electricity by supplying hydrogen and oxygen to at least one fuel cell, such as a proton exchange membrane fuel cell, a molten carbonate fuel cell, or other fuel cell known in the art. Alternatively, hydrogen and oxygen or atmospheric oxygen may be combusted in a heat engine, such as an internal combustion engine, a Brayton cycle engine, a gas turbine, and / or other heat engines known in the art.

[0196] In one embodiment, the injector 5z1 may include a manifold with multiple pinholes for delivering at least one of H2 and H2O, where the H2O may include ice crystals. The injector further includes a pump 5z2. The water reservoir 5v may be cooled to at least the freezing point of water. The reservoir may be operated at a pressure lower than atmospheric pressure by the pump 5z2. The low pressure may cause ice to sublimate in a supercooled state, where the vapor has a temperature below the freezing point of water at atmospheric pressure. To increase the sublimation rate, the surface area of ​​the ice may be increased. The pump 5z2 may compress and freeze the supercooled water vapor. The pump may vary the pressure to cause a phase change from liquid to solid. The pump may include a peristaltic pump. Bubble chambers use pressure changes to cause a phase change, as provided at https: / / en.wikipedia.org / wiki / Bubble_chamber This principle may be applied to a plasma formed by igniting the hydrino reactants, causing the formation of fine ice crystals for injection into the ignition plasma. Pump components in contact with the supercooled water vapor and the formed ice crystals may be cooled with a cooler such as 31a. The ice crystals may be pumped by a pump 5z2 into an injector 5z1, such as a manifold with multiple pinholes, and the crystals may be injected at a fuel ignition site.

[0197] In one embodiment, the hydrogen injector 5z1 may include a hydrogen-permeable membrane, such as a nickel, graphite, or palladium-silver alloy membrane, where hydrogen permeates the membrane and is delivered to a melt maintained under low pressure. The hydrogen-permeable membrane can reduce the hydrogen flow rate as desired, where hydrogen is injected into a low-pressure region, such as within a cell at an electrode. The flow rate may be such that it does not contribute to a correspondingly significant power consumption. The flow rate may be manageable with respect to a vacuum pump 13a to maintain cell pressure. The hydrogen flow rate may be within at least one of the following ranges: approximately 0.1 standard cubic centimeters per minute (sccm) to 10 standard liters per minute (slm), 1 sccm to 1 slm, and approximately 10 sccm to 100 sccm per cell producing approximately 100 kW of light. Electrolysis of HO may include a source of hydrogen 5u. In one embodiment, a membrane, such as a palladium or Pd-Ag membrane, may perform at least one of the following functions: separating hydrogen from oxygen in an aqueous electrolysis gas mixture; injecting H into a hydrino plasma, such as at an electrode, in a controlled manner; and dissociating molecular hydrogen into atomic hydrogen. The permeation rate and selective hydrogen permeation can be controlled by controlling the membrane temperature, such as within a range of about 100°C to 500°C. The hydrino plasma can provide membrane heating. In another embodiment, hydrogen and oxygen in an electrolysis product mixture may be separated by at least one method known in the art, such as one or more of the following: H separation by a microporous membrane; O separation by an electrodiffusion membrane, such as a refractory oxide membrane, such as CaO, CeO, YO, and ZrO; H separation by a nonporous metal membrane, such as a palladium or Pd-Ag membrane; gas separation by generating a high-velocity jet using an orifice and a beam skimmer; gas separation by centrifugation; and gas separation by cryogenic distillation.

[0198] In one embodiment, an injector delivers a jet of ice crystals into the molten metal, where the ice crystals may be impregnated into the melt due to their high velocity. When the jet contains a carrier gas, such as hydrogen or a noble gas like argon, to transport water vapor, the substitution of ice crystals for water vapor may significantly increase the amount and concentration of water delivered to ignition per volume of carrier gas. Ice crystals may also be formed mechanically by means known in the art, such as an ice shaver or chipper. Mechanical ice crystal machines may include at least one rotating blade that breaks solid ice into small ice particles of a desired size. Ice may be delivered to the electrode by at least one mechanical tool, such as a Dremel tool, or a high-speed grinder, such as a dental drill or grinder. The tool or drill may be scanned (rastered) over the ice surface, possibly advancing as it is consumed. The rastering may be generated by a rastering mechanism. The ice pillar with a surface at the top may be advanced by a corresponding mechanism with replenishment from the freezing front at the base. A cooler such as 31a may be used to achieve freezing. The mechanical frequency may be in the range of approximately 1000 RPM to 50,000 RPM. Ice may be supplied to cooling water in a reservoir such as 5u by a cooler such as 31a. In one embodiment, the low temperature may limit the vapor pressure of H2O, favoring HOH formation. Type I ice structures may also enhance the hydrino reaction rate. In one embodiment, the hydrino-forming solid fuel reaction mixture includes ice as a source of at least one of H and HOH. The ice may be in a physical form that provides a high surface area, such as ice crystals that can be sprayed by injector 5z1. Ice may be formed in ice supply 5v, which may further include means for forming pulverized ice or small ice crystals, such as a cooler such as 31a for freezing water and a grinder. Alternatively, the ice supply may include an ice crystal maker, such as one that includes a source of cooled, expanding or aerosolized H2O.

[0199] In one embodiment, the injector 5z1 includes an injection nozzle. The injector nozzle may include a gas manifold, such as one aligned with the trough of the electrode 8. The nozzle may further include multiple pinholes from the manifold to deliver multiple gas jets of at least one of H2O and H2. In one embodiment, H2 is bubbled through a reservoir of H2O, such as 5z1, at a pressure higher than the cell pressure, and the H2O is entrained in an H2 carrier gas. The high-pressure gas mixture flows through the pinholes into the melt to maintain the gas jet. This flow may be regulated by a flow controller 5z2 or pressure controller supplied at a pressure higher than the cell pressure, such as within at least one of the ranges of about 1 mTorr to 10,000 Torr, 1 mTorr to 1000 Torr, and 1 mTorr to 100 Torr. At the electrode, the gas, which may be a mixture, may be mixed with the conductive matrix, the metal melt. Upon application of a high current, the corresponding fuel mixture may ignite to form hydrinos.

[0200] The pinholes may be drilled by a laser, a water jet, or mechanically. The gas within the injector may be pressurized to facilitate the formation of multiple high-velocity gas jets or molecular beams. Gas not consumed in the formation of hydrinos may be recovered and recycled by means such as pump 13a. Water may be condensed and recycled. Condensation may be achieved using a cryopump. Hydrogen may be recycled and separated from other gases before recycling. Separation can be achieved using selective filters.

[0201] The timing of injection may be such that plasma and gas generation within a shot are simultaneous. Injection may be continuous. The continuous gas flow rate may be adjusted to at least one of the ignition frequency and fuel flow rate. Fuel injection may be intermittent and synchronized with the ignition of the shot. The timing may be achieved by mechanical resonance within the injector and a pressure wave of the nth ignition delaying and compressing the injected gas for the n+1th ignition (n is an integer). Alternatively, a valve, such as a solenoid valve 5z2 of the injector 5z1, may control injection. The valve 5z2 may be activated by an ignition current. A typical valve is a mechanical feedback servo valve. The valve may include a pressure control valve, such as at the injector outlet, where an overpressure may be maintained on the supply side of the valve. Water may be supplied as at least one of a liquid or a gas and at least one of injected. The gas supply may be from sources 5u and 5v.

[0202] In one embodiment, very high power and / or energy can be achieved by hydrogen undergoing a transition to a high-p hydrino in Equation (18) in a process called disproportionation, as given in Mills GUT Chp. 5, incorporated herein by reference. Hydrogen atoms H(1 / p) p=1, 2, 3, . . . 137 can undergo further transitions to lower energy states given by Equations (10) and (12), with the transition of the 1 atom being catalyzed by a second atom resonantly and non-radiatively accepting m 27.2 eV, with a simultaneous opposite change in its potential energy. The overall general equation for the transition of H(1 / p) to H(1 / (p+m)) induced by the resonant transfer of m 27.2 eV to H(1 / p') given in Equation (35) is expressed as follows: H(1 / p')+H(1 / p) → H+H(1 / (p+m)) +[2pm+m 2 -p' 2 +1]·13.6 eV (35)

[0203] EUV light from the hydrino process dissociates dihydrino molecules, and the resulting hydrino atoms may act as catalysts for transitions to lower energy states. A typical reaction involves the catalysis of H to H(1 / 17) by H(1 / 4), where H(1 / 4) may be the product of the catalysis of another H by HOH. The hydrino disproportionation reaction is predicted to result in X-ray signatures. As shown in equation (5-8), the product of the HOH catalysis is H[a H / 4]. The first hydrogen atom, H[a H / p] is a H atom, and a second acceptor hydrogen atom H[a H / p'] is H[a H / 4], consider the transition reactions that can occur in a hydrogen cloud containing H2O gas. H / 4] has a potential energy of 4 2 Since 27.2 eV = 16 27.2 eV = 435.2 eV, the transition reaction is expressed by the following equation: 16·27.2eV+H[a H / 4]+H[a H / 1] → H fast + +e - +H * [a H / 17]+16·27.2 eV (36) H * [a H / 17] → H[a H / 17]+3481.6eV (37) H fast + +e - → H[a H / 1]+231.2eV (38) And the overall reaction is as follows: H[a H / 4]+H[a H / 1] → H[a H / 1]+H[a H / 17]+3712.8eV (39)

[0204] H * [a H The extreme ultraviolet continuum band due to the [(p+m)] intermediate (e.g., Eqs. (16) and (37)) has a short wavelength cutoff and energy E (H→H[aH / (p+m)]) and is given by: E (H→H[aH / (p+m)]) = [(p+m) 2 -p 2 ]·13.6eV-m·27.2eV λ (H→H[aH / (p+m)]) = 91.2 / [{(p+m) 2 -p 2}·13.6eV-m·27.2eV]nm (40) and extends to longer wavelengths than the corresponding cutoff. Here, the extreme ultraviolet continuum band due to the decay of the H*[aH / 17] intermediate is predicted to have a short wavelength cutoff at E = 3481.6 eV; 0.35625 nm, and extends to longer wavelengths. A broad X-ray peak with a cutoff of 3.48 keV was recently observed in the Perseus cluster by NASA's Chandra X-ray Observatory and by XMM-Newton [E. Bulbul, M. Markevitch, A. Foster, R.K. Smith, M. Loewenstein, S.W.Randall, "Detection of an Unidentified Emission Line in the Overlapped X-ray Spectra of Galaxy Clusters," The Astrophysical Journal, Volume 789, Number 1, (2014); A. Boyarsky, O. Ruchayskiy, D. Iakubovskyi, J. Franse, "Unidentified Lines in the X-ray Spectra of the Andromeda and Perseus Clusters," (2014), arXiv:1402.4119 [astro-ph.CO]], but it does not match any known atomic transition. The 3.48 keV feature assigned by BulBul et al. to dark matter of unknown identity matches the H[aH / 4]+H[aH / 1]→H[aH / 17] transition, further confirming the identity of the dark matter as hydrinos.

[0205] In one embodiment, the generator can generate high power and high energy with low-pressure HO. The water vapor pressure may be within at least one of the following ranges: approximately 0.001 Torr to 100 Torr, 0.1 Torr to 50 Torr, 1 mTorr to 5 Torr, 10 mTorr to 1 Torr, and 100 mTorr to 800 Torr. The low HO vapor pressure is supplied and maintained by a water vapor source and by means of controlling at least one of the flow rate and pressure. The water supply may be sufficient to maintain a desired ignition rate. The water vapor pressure may be controlled by at least one of steady-state control, dynamic control, and equilibrium control. Low-pressure water may be added to the plasma by humidifying the atmosphere within the region of ignition, such as between the electrodes and the electrode EM pump channel region 8g. The generator may include a pump 13a that maintains the low water vapor pressure in a desired region, such as outside the electrode region. Water may be removed by differential pumping so that regions of the cell outside the electrode regions have a lower pressure, such as a lower partial pressure of water, which may be maintained to reduce attenuation of light, such as EUV light, that may be incident on the PV converter 26a.

[0206] The water vapor pressure of the cell can be maintained by a reservoir / trap associated with the cell. The water vapor pressure of the cell can be at least one of steady state or equilibrium with the water vapor pressure above the water surface in the water reservoir / trap. The reservoir / trap may include a means for reducing the vapor pressure, such as at least one of a cooler for maintaining a reduced temperature, such as cryogenic temperatures, an HO absorbing material, such as activated carbon or a desiccant, and a solute. The water vapor pressure may be a low pressure established at steady state or equilibrium with ice, which may be supercooled. Cooling may include a cryo-chiller or bath, such as a carbon dioxide, liquid nitrogen, or liquid helium bath. A solute may be added to the water reservoir / trap to reduce the water vapor pressure. The vapor pressure may be reduced according to Raoult's law. The solute may be highly soluble and highly concentrated. Typical solutes are ionic compounds such as at least one of alkali, alkaline earth, and ammonium halides, hydroxides, nitrates, sulfates, dichromates, carbonates, and acetates such as K2SO4, KNO3, KCl, NH4SO4, NaCl, NaNO2, Na2Cr2O7, Mg(NO3)2, K2CO3, MgCl2, KC2H3O2, LiCl, and KOH, and sugars. Trap desiccants can include molecular sieves, such as 13X molecular sieve pellets, 4-8 mesh.

[0207] In one embodiment, to remove excess water, the trap can be sealed and heated, and the liquid water can be pumped out or discharged as vapor. The trap can be re-cooled and re-run. In one embodiment, H2 is added to cell 26, such as in a region at the electrode, where it reacts with the O2 reaction product to convert it to water, controlled by a water reservoir / trap. The H2 may be provided by electrolysis at a hydrogen-permeable cathode, such as a PdAg cathode. The hydrogen pressure can be monitored with a sensor that provides a feedback signal to a hydrogen supply controller, such as an electrolysis controller.

[0208] In one exemplary embodiment, the partial pressure of water is maintained at a desired pressure, such as one within a range of approximately 50 mTorr to 500 mTorr, by a hydrated molecular sieve, such as 13X. Water released from the molecular sieve can be replaced with a water supply, such as from tank 5v, supplied by a manifold and line 5x. The area of ​​the molecular sieve can be sufficient to supply water at a rate at least necessary to maintain the desired partial pressure. The molecular sieve off-gas rate can correspond to the sum of the consumption rate of the hydrino process and the pump-off rate. At least one of the rate of release and the partial pressure can be controlled by controlling the temperature of the molecular sieve. The cell can include a molecular sieve controller having a connection to cell 26. The vessel can further include a temperature controller and a means for maintaining the temperature of the molecular sieve, such as a heater and a cooler.

[0209] In an alternative steady-state embodiment, the water vapor pressure is maintained by a flow controller, such as one that controls at least one of the mass flow and water vapor pressure within the cell. The water supply rate can be adjusted to match that consumed in the hydrino and other cell reactions and that removed by means such as pumping. The pump can include at least one of a reservoir / trap, a cryopump, a vacuum pump, a mechanical vacuum pump, a scroll pump, and a turbopump. At least one of the supply rate and removal rate can be adjusted to achieve a desired water vapor pressure in the cell. Additionally, a desired partial pressure of hydrogen can be added. At least one of the H2O and H2 pressures can be sensed and controlled by sensors and controllers, such as pressure gauges, such as Baratron gauges and mass flow controllers. The gas can be supplied by a syringe pump. As an alternative to a mass flow controller, the water vapor pressure can be maintained by a precision electronically controllable valve, such as at least one of a needle valve, a proportional electronic valve, and a stepper motor valve. The valve may be controlled by a water vapor pressure sensor and a computer that maintains the water vapor pressure in the cell at a desired value, such as within a range of approximately 0.5 Torr to 2 Torr, where control may be with a small tolerance, such as within 20%. The valve may have a fast response to maintain tolerances due to rapid changes in water vapor pressure within the cell. The dynamic range of flow through the valve may be adjusted to accommodate different minimum and maximum ranges by varying the water vapor pressure on the supply side of the valve. The supply side pressure may be increased or decreased by increasing or decreasing the temperature of the water reservoir 5v, respectively.

[0210] In another embodiment, pump 5k includes a submersible pump, such as an electromagnetic pump, that is submerged in the melt contained in a conical reservoir and pumps the melt perpendicular to the electrode through a bath-like conduit, such as a tube, attached to the outlet of pump 5k. An exemplary pump including a single-phase electromagnetic winding is provided in U.S. Pat. No. 5,277,551 (January 11, 1994). The pump material can be heated to a high temperature. In one embodiment, the submersible electromagnetic pump can include a pump tube oriented vertically (z-axis) with its inlet submerged i...

Claims

1. two molten metal reservoirs; two electromagnetic pumps, wherein each electromagnetic pump is in fluid communication with the molten metal in one of the molten metal reservoirs and with the nozzles, each electromagnetic pump extruding the molten metal through a respective nozzle to form a stream of molten metal, and the two streams of molten metal intersect; and an electrical source providing current and voltage to the intersecting streams; A system including:

2. 10. The system of claim 1, wherein the current flows from one nozzle through a corresponding stream of molten metal to another intersecting stream of molten metal and back to its corresponding nozzle.

3. 2. The system of claim 1, wherein the two electromagnetic pumps are substantially electrically isolated from each other.

4. 10. The system of claim 1, further comprising a molten metal return system facilitating the return of molten metal from the stream of molten metal to the two molten metal reservoirs.

5. 5. The system of claim 4, wherein the molten metal return system includes a bed that directs molten metal returns into two molten metal reservoirs.

6. 5. The system of claim 4, wherein the resistance to electrical conduction is higher through the molten metal return than through the intersecting stream of molten metal.

7. 5. The system of claim 4, wherein the molten metal return is prevented from electrically shorting across the two molten metal reservoirs by a metal flow interrupter or splitter that interrupts the continuity of molten metal that would otherwise bridge the two reservoirs and provide an electrical conduction path.

8. 8. The system of claim 7, wherein the splitter includes a drip edge or cutback, irregular surface on each reservoir wall to break the continuity of the returning molten metal.

9. 8. The system of claim 7, wherein the splitter includes a dome or hemisphere covering the intersection of the two reservoirs, the dome or hemisphere including a cutback for each reservoir.

10. 5. The system of claim 4, wherein the top of each reservoir includes a ring plate or washer that acts as a lip through which returning molten metal flows.

11. 11. The system of claim 10, wherein the top of each of the molten metal reservoirs includes a circumferential groove in which a washer is seated.

12. 10. The system of claim 1, further comprising a reservoir electrical insulator that electrically insulates each of the two molten metal reservoirs.

13. 10. The system of claim 1, further comprising a molten metal equalization system including a controller that receives input from a molten metal level sensor and drives an electromagnetic pump current controller to maintain molten metal levels in the two molten metal reservoirs, the electromagnetic pump current controller, and the molten metal level sensor.

14. 10. The system of claim 1, further comprising an inductively coupled heater in each of the two molten metal reservoirs.

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