Infrared plasma light recycling thermophotovoltaic hydrogen plasma electrical power generator

Abstract

A power generator is described that provides at least one of electrical and thermal power comprising (i) at least one reaction cell for reactions involving atomic hydrogen products identifiable by unique analytical and spectroscopic signatures, (ii) a molten metal injection system comprising at least one pump such as an electromagnetic pump that provides a molten metal stream to the reaction cell and at least one reservoir that receives the molten metal stream, and (iii) an ignition system comprising an electrical power source that provides low-voltage, high-current electrical energy to the at least one steam of molten metal to ignite a plasma to initiate rapid kinetics of the reaction and an energy gain. In some embodiments, the power generator may comprise: (v) a source of H2 and O2 supplied to the plasma, (vi) a molten metal recovery system, and (vii) a power converter capable of converting the high- power light output from plasma in the cell into electricity using concentrator thermophotovoltaic cells with plasma light recycling.

Description

[0001] PATENT APPLICATION

[0002] FOR

[0003] INFRARED PLASMA LIGHT RECYCLING THERMOPHOTOVOLTAIC HYDROGEN PLASMA ELECTRICAL POWER GENERATOR

[0004] BY

[0005] RANDELL L. MILLS

[0006] CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

[0007] The present application claims priority to and the benefit of U.S. App. No. 63 / 672,562 (filed July 17, 2024), U.S. App. No. 63 / 697,833 (filed September 23, 2024), and U.S. App. No. 63 / 781,935 (filed April 1, 2025), each of which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety.

[0008] FIELD OF DISCLOSURE

[0009] The present disclosure relates to the field of power generation and, in particular, to systems, devices, and methods for the generation of power. More specifically, embodiments of the present disclosure are directed to power generation devices and systems, as well as related methods, which produce optical power, plasma, and thermal power and produces electrical power via a magnetohydrodynamic power converter, an optical to electric power converter, plasma to electric power converter, photon to electric power converter, or a thermal to electric power converter. In addition, embodiments of the present disclosure describe systems, devices, and methods that use the ignition of a water or water-based fuel source to generate optical power, mechanical power, electrical power, and / or thermal power using photovoltaic power converters. These and other related embodiments are described in detail in the present disclosure.

[0010] BACKGROUND

[0011] Power generation can take many forms, harnessing the power from plasma. Successful commercialization of plasma may depend on power generation systems capable of efficiently forming plasma and then capturing the power of the plasma produced.

[0012] Plasma may be formed during ignition of certain fuels. These fuels can include water or water-based fuel source. During ignition, a plasma cloud of electron-stripped atoms is formed, and high optical power may be released. The high optical power of the plasma can be harnessed by an electric converter of the present disclosure. The ions and excited state atoms can recombine and undergo electronic relaxation to emit optical power. The optical power can be converted to electricity with photo voltaics.

[0013] SUMMARY

[0014] The present disclosure is directed to power systems that generates at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy. Power systems (herein referred to as “SunCells”) of the present disclosure may comprise: a) at least one vacuum capable vessel capable of a maintaining a pressure below, equal to and greater than atmospheric comprising a reaction chamber; b) a molten metal and two electrodes configured to allow a molten metal flow therebetween to complete a circuit; c) a power source connected to said two electrodes to apply a current therebetween when said circuit is closed; d) a plasma generation cell (e.g., glow discharge cell) to induce the formation of a first plasma from a gas; wherein effluence of the plasma generation cell is directed towards the circuit (e.g., the molten metal, the anode, the cathode, an electrode submerged in a molten metal reservoir); wherein when current is applied across the circuit, the effluence of the plasma generation cell undergoes a reaction to producing a second plasma and reaction products; and e) a power adapter configured to convert and / or transfer energy from the second plasma into mechanical, thermal, and / or electrical energy. In some embodiments, the gas in the plasma generation cell is a mixture of hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2) and water vapor. For example, the relative molar ratio of oxygen to hydrogen is from 0.01%-50% (e.g. from 0. l%-20%, from 0. 1-15%, etc.) wherein at least one of the reaction products (e.g., intermediates, final products) has at least one spectroscopic signature as described herein.

[0015] The power generation system may comprise: a) a transparent window cavity to transmit radiation produced from the second plasma, wherein the transparent window cavity is in contact with the baseplate of the vessel; b) a wet seal between the transparent window cavity and the baseplate comprising a wet seal molten metal, and c) a power adapter configured to receive the radiation transmitted through the transparent window cavity and convert and / or transfer energy from the second plasma into mechanical, thermal, and / or electrical energy. In some embodiments the vessel is a stainless- steel dome. The baseplate may be positioned on top of the vessel. In various implementations, a window having a cavity (e.g., quartz window cavity) may be positioned on the baseplate of the vessel and the reaction chamber may considered the space defined by the cavity and the baseplate (e.g., the reactants are ignited in the window cavity). In various implementations, the vessel is the reaction chamber. In some embodiments, the window and cavity are part of the vessel. In some embodiments, the vessel comprises a spherical, hemispherical, or parabolic dome section to which the reservoirs are connected.

[0016] The systems of the present disclosure may help control and direct electrical flow and / or molten flow (e.g., in the power systems of the present disclosure). These pump systems may be used to electrically isolate certain components, or to direct the molten metal flow in a system and, particularly, systems involving the generation and control of plasma. For example, the molten metal may be supplied to the electrodes to close the circuit by two molten metal injector systems comprising the molten metal pump system, wherein each molten metal injector system forms a molten metal stream in contact with one of the electrodes, wherein the molten metal streams intersect to close the circuit, and each molten metal injector system comprises: a) at least a reservoir that contains some of the molten metal, a molten metal pump system (e.g., one or more electromagnetic pumps) configured to receive molten metal in the reservoir through an inlet and deliver the molten metal in the reservoir and through an injector tube to provide a molten metal stream, and the reservoir for receiving a returning molten metal stream following injection; b) an inlet riser tube on the inlet to control the molten metal level in the reservoir; c) an electrical break in the wall of the reservoir to electrically isolate each of the corresponding electrodes from the electrode of opposite polarity, and d) an alignment mechanism to change the orientation of the electrode injector such that the corresponded two streams of the two electrodes intersect to complete the circuit. In some embodiments, the system comprises a separator with a passage between the where the molten streams close the circuit and an inner reservoir for the molten metal, wherein the corresponding electrode passes through the passage to cause the flow of molten metal into the vessel, and the flowed molten metal returns to the inner reservoir through the passage. In various implementations, the electromagnetic pump tube is cooled (e.g., by a cooling system such as a heat exchanger) to cool the molten metal prior to entering the pump. In certain aspects, the baseplate is a hemispherical dome having penetrations (e.g., channels, holes, cutouts) that connect to each reservoir. These penetrations may serve to return molten metal to the reservoir (e.g., inner reservoir) following completion of the circuit (and plasma generation).

[0017] An outer reservoir assembly may comprise a portion or all of the parts connected to the outer reservoir (e.g. the outer reservoir, the PV window cavity baseplate and retention ring, the electrical break with electrical break collars, reservoir baseplate, and union collar) and the inner reservoir assembly comprises all the parts connected to the inner reservoir (e.g. the inner reservoir, the reservoir bellows, the EM pump baseplate, the EM pump assembly and union collar); the outer and inner reservoir assemblies are joined at a union comprising the union collars, and the assemblies are separated by reversing the union between the union collar on the outer reservoir and the union collar on the inner reservoir. In some embodiments, the two union collars are welded together at the outer edge and the inner and outer reservoir assemblies are be disassembled by grinding off the union collar weld. In various implementations, the nozzles are at least partially protected from plasma damage such as etching or erosion by at least one of a Faraday cage, a sleeve, a molten metal pool, and a magnetic field.

[0018] In an embodiment, an injection and return molten metal flow system may comprise (i) an outer reservoir 5c, (ii) an inner reservoir 959, (iii) an EM pump 5kk that that receives metal from the inner reservoir and injects it through an ejector may comprise an injector EM pump tube 5k61 and a nozzle 5q, (iv) a separator 957a welded into and across the opening of the outer reservoir 5c with an opening to allow passage of at least one of the molten metal injector and injected molten metal and further provide passage of return molten metal, (v) an inner reservoir extension 959a welded to the bottom of the separator, (vi) a separator drainage channel slot 957d on the side of the separator opposite the junction of reservoirs to the reservoir hemispherical dome 960, (vii) a separator drainage channel 957c flow to allow return molten metal flow to separator drainage channel slot 957d, (vii) a diverter 959g positioned circumferentially along a portion of the separator that serves as a barrier to molten metal flowing into the section of the separator opening spanned by the diverter and further directing molten metal flow to the separator drainage channel 957c, and (ix) an inner reservoir extension liner 959d that lines the portion of the inner reservoir extension 959a towards the center of the reservoir hemispherical dome 960 with a non-electrical conducting conduit and permits molten metal flow through the separator drainage slot 597d on the outside of the liner and inside of the reservoir extension on the portion of the liner away from the center of the reservoir hemispherical dome 960 to return metal to the inner reservoir 959.

[0019] The injection system may comprise a separator 957a comprising a dripper 959h such a flat perforated metal ring or screen in the area between the inner reservoir extension liner 959d and the outer separator edge connected to the inside of the outer reservoir 5c. The separator may further comprise the welded-in inner reservoir extension 959a under the separator to direct return molten metal flow into the inner reservoir 959. The injection system may comprise a molten metal pool in the inner reservoir below the dripper and inner reservoir extension that is maintained in the housing comprising a portion of the inner reservoir wall and a pool floor 1002 attached to a bracket 996 welded to the inner reservoir wall that positions the floor level to the horizontal axis. The pool floor may comprise a ball and socket joint 999 through which at least one of the injector section of the EM pump 5k61 and the nozzle 5q passes wherein the ball and socket joint may permit the adjustment of the orientation of the nozzle by the adjustment of the adjustors 917a, 921a, 981, 981a. The pool floor may further comprise inlet risers 991 comprising molten metal overflow tubes to maintain a desire depth of molten metal in the pool. The nozzle 5q may be housed in the inner reservoir extension liner 959d which may sit on at least one inlet riser 991 and may extend above the separator to a desired height such a 1 mm to 10 cm to at least one of maintain a desired depth of molten metal in the reservoir hemispherical dome 960 and serve as an injector sleeve. The sleeve may further serve to prevent plasma from contacting that nozzle. In an embodiment, the ball and socket may further house a plasma-rejection gas line to permit gas flow through the sleeve to protect the nozzle from plasma damage.

[0020] In some embodiments, the vessel is connected to the window cavity and the wet seal comprises: a) the base of the window cavity having a precision flat surface mated to a matching precision flat surface of the baseplate; b) a window flange at the base of the window cavity having a precision flat surface mated to a matching precision flat surface of the baseplate; c) a gasket (e.g., carbon) between the base of the window cavity and the baseplate flange; d) a gasket (e.g. , carbon) between at least a portion of the surface of the window cavity flange in contact with baseplate; e) an outer circumferential housing or retention wall to the outside of the window cavity or window cavity flange; f) an inner circumferential housing or retention wall to inside of the window cavity; g) wet seal molten metal retained by the housing and retention wall and the gasket to maintain a lower pressure inside of the window cavity relative to outside to maintain a pressure differential, and h) wet seal molten metal retained by the housing and retention wall and the precision mated contact between the window cavity or the window cavity flange to the baseplate to maintain a lower pressure inside of the window cavity relative to outside to maintain a pressure differential.

[0021] In some implementations, the system (e.g., baseplate and / or vessel) may further comprise reflective liners of all the surfaces that are incident the plasma radiation and reflect the incident light through the window cavity to the power adapter wherein the liners further comprise penetrations for the injectors that are further covered by reflective penetration liners.

[0022] The power system may comprise a gas mixer for mixing the hydrogen and oxygen gases and / or water molecules and a hydrogen and oxygen recombiner and / or a hydrogen dissociator. In some embodiments, the hydrogen and oxygen recombiner comprises a plasma cell. The plasma cell may comprise a center positive electrode and a grounded tubular body counter electrode wherein a voltage (e.g. ,a voltage in the range of 50 V to 1000 V) is applied across the electrodes to induce the formation of a plasma from a hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2) gas mixture. In some embodiments, the hydrogen and oxygen recombiner comprises a recombiner catalytic metal supported by an inert support material. In certain implementations, the gas mixture supplied to the plasma generation cell to produce the first plasma comprises a non-stoichiometric H2 / O2 mixture (e.g, an H2 / O2 mixture having less than 1 / 3 mole % O2 or from 0.01% to 30%, or from 0.1% to 20%, or less than 10%, or less than 5%, or less than 3% O2 by mole percentage of the mixture) that is flowed through the plasma cell (e.g., a glow discharge cell) to create a reaction mixture capable of undergoing the reaction with sufficient exothermicity to produce the second plasma. A non- stoichiometric H2 / O2 mixture may pass through the glow discharge to produce an effluence of atomic hydrogen and nascent H2O (e.g. , a mixture having water at a concentration and with an internal energy sufficient to prevent formation of hydrogen bonds); the glow discharge effluence is directed into a reaction chamber where the ignition current is supplied between two electrodes (e.g., with a molten metal passed therebetween), and upon interaction of the effluence with the biased molten metal (e.g., gallium or tin), the reaction between the nascent water and the atomic hydrogen is induced, for example, upon the formation of arc current.

[0023] In these embodiments, the plasma generation cell such as a glow discharge cell induce the formation of a first plasma from a gas (e.g., a gas comprising a mixture oxygen and hydrogen); wherein effluence of the plasma generation cell is directed towards the any part of the molten metal circuit (e.g., the molten metal, the anode, the cathode). Upon interaction of the biased molten metal with this effluence, a second plasma (more energetic than that created by the plasma generation cell) may be formed. In these embodiments, the plasma generation cell may be fed hydrogen (H2) and oxygen mixtures (O2) having a molar excess of hydrogen such that the effluence comprises atomic hydrogen (H) and water (H2O). The water in the effluence may be in the form of nascent water, water sufficiently energized and at a concentration such that it is not hydrogen bonded to other components in the effluence. This effluence may proceed in a second more energetic reaction involving the H and HOH that forms a plasma that intensifies upon interaction with the molten metal and a supplied external current through at least one of the molten metal and the plasma that may produce additional atomic hydrogen (from the H2 in the effluence) to further propagate the second energetic reaction.

[0024] The power system may comprise a blackbody radiator and a window to output light from the blackbody radiator. Such embodiments may be used to generate light (e.g., used for lighting).

[0025] The source of electrical power typically delivers a current (e.g., high-current) electrical energy sufficient to cause the reactants to react to form plasma. In certain embodiments, the source of electrical power comprises at least one supercapacitor. In various implementations, the current from the molten metal ignition system power is in the range of 10 A to 50,000 A DC or AC or mixtures thereof.

[0026] In an embodiment, the SunCell comprises a source of hydrogen and a source of HOH catalyst and may further comprise another gas such as an inert gas such as a noble gas (e.g., argon) or a gas comprising oxygen such as CO2. The source of hydrogen and catalyst may comprise at least one of a source of hydrogen gas, oxygen gas, and water vapor. The source of hydrogen and oxygen may be corresponding gases supplied by gas lines, mass flow controllers, a vacuum pump, valves, flow and pressure sensors, a computer, and other systems of the disclosure. Alternatively, water may be supplied as a water vapor gas. The water vapor gas may be controllably flowed into at least one of the reaction cell chamber and molten metal by a mass flow controller from a water tank maintained at a desired pressure for the mass flow controller operation. The water vapor pressure may be controlled by controlling the temperature of a water vapor source such as a closed water tank. In an exemplary embodiment, the water vapor mass flow controller such as at least one of MKS model # 1150, 1152m, and 1640 (https: / / www.mksinst.eom / c / vapor-mass-flow-controllers; https: / / ccrprocessproducts.com / product / 1640a-mass-flow-controller-mks / ) comprises one that senses the difference in inlet and outlet pressure and uses that data to control the water vapor flow rate.

[0027] The system may further comprise a heater comprising one or more of at least one H2 / O2 torch and at least one inductively coupled heater. Each inductively coupled heater may be connected by leads in at least one of series or parallel to at least one coil that induces current in a component of the system to be heated. In some embodiments, the inductively coupled heater coil assembly that comprises at plurality of coils connected by leads in at least one of series and parallel may further comprise switches that permit the selective and independent connection and disconnection of one or more coils.

[0028] In some embodiments, the power system comprises at least one power converter or output system of the reaction power output comprises at least one of the group of a thermophotovoltaic converter, a photovoltaic converter, a photoelectronic converter, a magnetohydrodynamic converter, a plasmadynamic converter, a thermionic converter, a thermoelectric converter, a Sterling engine, a supercritical CO2 cycle converter, a Brayton cycle converter, an external-combustor type Brayton cycle engine or converter, a Rankine cycle engine or converter, an organic Rankine cycle converter, an internal-combustion type engine, and a heat engine, a heater, and a boiler. The vessel may comprise a light transparent photovoltaic (PV) window to transmit light from the inside of the vessel to a photovoltaic converter and at least one of a vessel geometry.

[0029] The present disclosure is further directed to a power generation system comprising: a) at least one vessel comprising a baseplate capable of maintaining at least one of a pressure below atmospheric, atmospheric pressure, and a pressure above atmosphere comprising a reaction chamber; b) a source of reactant gases comprising a non-stoichiometric H2 / O2 mixture (e.g., an H2 / O2 mixture having less than 1 / 3 mole % O2 or from 0.01% to 30%, or from 0.1% to 20%, or less than 10%, or less than 5%, or less than 3% O2 by mole percentage of the mixture) and additionally and optionally argon in excess relaive to the non-stoichiometric H2 / O2 mixture, c) two electrodes each in fluid communication with molten metal contained in a corresponding reservoir attached to a metal reaction cavity (e.g. stainless steel hemispherical dome), wherein the molten metal is configured to flow between the electrodes to complete a circuit with a molten metal pump system, wherein the molten metal pump system comprises at least one electromagnetic pump with an electromagnetic pump tube and an electromagnetic pump current source to cause molten metal ejection through an injector section of each electromagnetic pump tube to form at least one molten metal stream; d) a power source connected to said two electrodes, wherein the two electrodes comprise a cathode and anode, and the power source applies an ignition current between the cathode and anode when said molten metal completes a circuit therebetween and the circuit comprises the at least one molten metal stream; e) a molten metal pool to at least partially submerge each electrode; f) optionally, a plasma generation cell (e.g., glow discharge cell) to induce the formation of a first plasma from a gas; wherein effluence of the plasma generation cell is directed towards the circuit (e.g., the molten metal, the anode, the cathode, each supplied molten metal by its molten metal reservoir); wherein when current is applied across the circuit, the effluence of the plasma generation cell undergoes a reaction to produce a second plasma and reaction products wherein energy from second plasma produces radiation; g) a transparent window and reaction cavity to transmit radiation produced from the second plasma, wherein the transparent window and reaction cavity is in contact with the baseplate of the transparent window and reaction cavity connected to the top of the metal reaction cavity (e.g., SS hemispherical dome); h) optionally, an optically opaque reaction cell chamber that is heated by the plasma and emits blackbody radiation from its exterior surfaces; i) a wet seal between the transparent window and the baseplate comprising a wet seal molten metal, j) optionally a flanged or welded seal between the opaque reaction, cell chamber, and the base plate; k) optionally, a power adapter configured to receive the radiation transmitted through the transparent window and reaction cavity or the exterior surfaces of opaque reaction cell chamber and convert and / or transfer energy from the second plasma into mechanical, thermal, and / or electrical energy, and l) a power adapter comprising a photovoltaic (PV) converter.

[0030] The molten metal may be supplied to the electrodes to close the circuit by two molten metal injector systems comprising the molten metal pump system, wherein each molten metal injector system forms a molten metal stream in contact with one of the electrodes, wherein the molten metal streams intersect to close the circuit, and each molten metal injector system comprises: a) at least a reservoir that contains some of the molten metal, a molten metal pump system (e.g., one or more electromagnetic pumps) configured to receive molten metal in the reservoir through an inlet and deliver the molten metal in the reservoir and through the injector section of the electromagnetic pump tube to a nozzle that provides a molten metal stream and serves as an electrode, and the reservoir for receiving a returning molten metal stream following injection; b) an inlet riser tube on the inlet to control the molten metal level in the reservoir; c) an electrical break in the wall of the reservoir to electrically isolate each of the corresponding electrodes from the electrode of opposite polarity, and d) an alignment mechanism to change the orientation of the electrode injector such that the two streams of the two electrodes intersect to complete the circuit.

[0031] The alignment mechanism to position the nozzles may comprise bellows and threaded rods or servomotor-driven actuators that cause the nozzles to tilt, a processor, and ignition voltage and current sensors wherein the processor adjusts the position of the injector nozzles according to the current and voltage sensed by corresponding sensors wherein the desired alignment achieves the maximum current and minimum voltage.

[0032] The electromagnetic pump may comprise an induction type comprising:

[0033] (i) an electrical insulator loop comprising a ceramic or quartz tube loop fdled with the metal to be pumped with an inlet and outlet to the loop,

[0034] (ii) a time varying magnetic field source through the loop such as an electromagnetic yoke to induce a current flow around the loop, and

[0035] (iii) a synchronized electromagnet that provides an electromagnetic field perpendicular to the time varying induction current in the loop to cause a Lorentz force to pump the molten metal from the inlet through the outlet wherein at least one of the inlet and outlet of the ceramic or quartz tube may be metalized and brazed to a metal flange that is connected to a component to at least one of the outlet of the reservoir or the injector portion of the electromagnetic pump such by a gasket flange seal or a weld.

[0036] The induction type electromagnetic pump may comprise a straight ceramic or quartz tube that is driven by linear electromagnetic excitation.

[0037] The inlet riser may comprise a wet seal to prevent at least one of metal oxide and oxygen from entering the electromagnetic pump tube.

[0038] The wet seal may comprise a hat on the top of the inlet riser that is closed at the top end and open at the bottom wherein an inlet to the inlet riser is higher than the bottom of the hat such that the minimum height of the molten metal level in each reservoir is higher than the bottom of the hat.

[0039] The inlet riser may comprise a plurality of inlet holes of hole size that allows for an inflow rate sufficient to maintain the injection flow rate while preventing metal oxide from flowing into the inlet riser (e.g., due to its small size and / or the high surface tension of the metal oxide).

[0040] The power generate may comprise a constant pressure flow controller and a vacuum pump to maintain the reaction gases under constant pressure in the range of about 0.1 Torr to 100 atm when one or more reactants are flowing into the vessel. The reactant gases may additionally comprise argon gas, and the system may further comprise a recirculator to recirculate gases from and to the vessel wherein at least one of reaction products is removed during recirculation and at least one consumable gas of the group of hydrogen and oxygen are resupplied from sources thereof.

[0041] The power generation system may comprise a separator with a passage between where the molten streams close the circuit and an inner reservoir for the molten metal, wherein flowed molten metal returns to the inner reservoir through the passage after closing the circuit; the separator optionally may further comprise an inner reservoir extension comprising a conduit for the separator passage that is welded under the separator and extends into the inner reservoir.

[0042] The power generation system may comprises an injection and return molten metal flow system comprising:

[0043] (i) an outer reservoir,

[0044] (ii) an inner reservoir,

[0045] (iii) an electromagnetic pump that that receives metal from the inner reservoir and injects it through an injector section of the electromagnetic pump tube and a nozzle,

[0046] (iv) the separator welded into and across the opening of the outer reservoir with an opening to allow passage of at least one of the molten metal injector and injected molten metal and further provide passage of return molten metal,

[0047] (v) the inner reservoir extension welded to the bottom of the separator,

[0048] (vi) a separator drainage channel slot on the side of the separator opposite the junction of reservoirs to a reservoir hemispherical dome,

[0049] (vii) a separator drainage channel to allow return molten metal flow to separator drainage channel slot,

[0050] (vii) a diverter positioned circumferentially along a portion of the separator that serves as a barrier to molten metal flowing into the section of the separator opening spanned by the diverter and further directing molten metal flow to the separator drainage channel, and

[0051] (ix) an inner reservoir extension liner that lines the portion of the inner reservoir extension towards the center of the reservoir hemispherical dome with a non-electrical conducting conduit and permits molten metal flow through the separator drainage slot on the outside of the liner and inside of the reservoir extension on the portion of the liner away from the center of the reservoir hemispherical dome to return metal to the inner reservoir.

[0052] The separator may comprise a dripper comprising a flat perforated metal ring or screen in the area between the inner reservoir extension liner and the outer separator edge connected to the inside of the outer reservoir.

[0053] The power generation system may futher comprise a molten metal pool in the inner reservoir below the dripper and inner reservoir extension that is maintained in the housing, wherein the housing comprises a portion of the inner reservoir wall and a pool floor attached to a bracket welded to the inner reservoir wall that positions the floor level (parallel) to the horizontal plane wherein

[0054] (i) the pool floor comprises a ball and socket joint which permits the adjustment of the orientation of a nozzle (e.g., the injection nozzle) by an alignment mechanism (e.g., one that reorients the injector section of the electromagnetic pump tube and the nozzle that pass through the ball and socket joint),

[0055] (ii) the pool floor further comprises inlet risers comprising molten metal overflow tubes to maintain a desired depth of molten metal in the pool, and

[0056] (iii) the nozzle is housed in the inner reservoir extension liner which sits on at least one inlet riser and extends above the separator to a desired height to at least one of maintain a desired depth of molten metal in the reservoir hemispherical dome and serve as an injector sleeve which may optionally further prevent the first and / or second plasma from contacting a nozzle; and wherein optionally the ball and socket further houses a plasma-rejection gas line to permit gas flow through the sleeve to protect the nozzle from plasma damage.

[0057] The separator dripper may comprise at least one of a nonconductor (e.g. non conducting material) and further comprises an overlaid bead bed to break the electrical continuity or connection of the return molten metal stream to avoid an electrical connection of at least one of the reservoir or reservoir hemispherical dome wall with at least one of the inner reservoir, ball and socket nozzle, inlet risers, and molten metal pool.

[0058] The power generation system may comprise an electrode pool cavity and pool wherein the injector section of the electromagnetic pump tube comprises an electrically insulating refractory cover or sleeve sealed to the tube (e.g., to prevent the electrode from electrically shorting, serving as a pool cavity to maintain a molten metal pool of the corresponding depth of the sleeve that at least partially covers the electrode to protect it from plasma damage).

[0059] The pool cavity may comprise a plurality of concentric tube sleeves and at least partial seals between the concentric tube sleeves and on the base of the sleeves wherein an innermost sleeve may cover the injector section of the electromagnetic pump tube and at least one other sleeve may fit concentrically on a contiguous inner sleeve and may form an electrically insulating refractory conduit of the corresponding injected molten metal stream from the nozzle to inside the transparent window and reaction cavity.

[0060] The power system may comprise an inner reservoir extension liner that extends below the separator to prevent electrical shorting between the injector section of the electromagnetic pump tube and the inner reservoir extension, wherein at least one sleeve may sit on a support attached to the injector section of the electromagnetic pump tube such that the corresponding sleeve or pool cavity length may be less than about 5% to 50% of the length of the injector section of the electromagnetic pump tube wherein the sleeve diameter may be in the range of about 0. 1 cm to 10 cm.

[0061] The power generation system may further comprise an elevated ball and socket pool wherein the molten metal pool floor comprises a ball and socket joint for the injector section of the electromagnetic pump tube, and a ball and socket pool is mounted on a structural extension (e.g. tubular or a plurality of tubular sections), wherein the structural extension extends from at least one support attachment inside the inner reservoir below the separator to a height at least one of the inside the metal reaction cavity (e.g. stainless steel hemispherical dome) and the transparent window; and the rigid connections to supports to the inner reservoir interior wall are sufficiently below the separator such that returning metal does not short to the supports; optionally the supports are spaced apart to form channels to allow for flow of returning molten metal; and optionally the structural extension is protected from shorting to the outer reservoir, hemispherical dome, transparent window and reaction cavity baseplate, and opposing electrode by an electrical insulating sleeve (e.g. inner reservoir extension liner) that extends from the supports to past the pool floor mounted on the structural extension; and the molten metal pool cavity if formed by walls comprising a perpendicular extension of the pool floor, or the electrical insulating sleeve extending beyond the pool floor by a distance that establishes the depth of the pool as it serves as the walls of the pool; the electrical insulating sleeve serving as walls of the pool may be cut at an angle to maintain a level pool height to the horizontal being about at the same angle as the reservoir, and the pool molten metal may overflow the pool walls to maintain the pool height determined by the depth of the nozzle ball and socket pool floor relative to the walls formed a perpendicular extension of the pool floor or the top portion of the electrical insulating sleeve.

[0062] The structural extension may comprise a plurality of SS sections that have different cross-sectional sizes and heights (e.g. a bottom section comprising a large diameter tube than that of a top section of a smaller diameter that supports the molten metal pool), the support sections may be welded together and may further comprise a washer at each junction point to seal the transition from the larger to smaller diameter radius, and each section may comprise an electrical insulator (e.g. quartz) liner of slightly larger diameter than that of the corresponding SS support section.

[0063] In an embodiment, the power generation system may further comprise an elevated ball and socket pool wherein (i) the structural extension comprises a ceramic electrical break comprising Kovar brazed to a metalized ceramic tube by high temperature braze (e.g. copper braze) at one or both ends and optional comprising a metal flange attached at one or more ends welded to the Kovar;

[0064] (ii) the Kovar weldable tube and an optionally a flange on at least one end is oriented at about the angle of the reservoirs from the vertical (e.g. about 12°),

[0065] (iii) a top ceramic tube Kovar or flange end is connected to a ball and socket nozzle pool floor and the pool walls, and

[0066] (iv) the ceramic extension tube at the opposite end (i.e. the one inside of the inner reservoir) rests on and is attached to supports in the wall of the inner reservoir, or at least one of a Kovar weldable tube and flange attached to the Kovar weldable tube at the opposite end are attached to the inside of the inner reservoir by supports wherein the supports comprise channels to permit return molten metal flow to pass to the inner reservoir.

[0067] In an embodiment, the power generation system may comprises at least one of the electrode pool cavity and pool and the elevated ball and socket pool, wherein

[0068] (i) at least one of the injector section of the electromagnetic pump tube and the nozzle further comprise at least one pool-filling opening to allow some molten metal pumped by the electromagnetic pump to flow into the pool cavity or ball and socket pool to maintain the molten metal pool to protect the nozzle from plasma damage; wherein the at least one poolfilling opening may comprise a baffle to at least partially decrease the force of the stream flowing from the pool-filling opening;

[0069] (ii) the pool level is at least partially maintained by molten metal ejected by either electromagnetic pump that falls into a pool cavity or ball and socket pool;

[0070] (iii) pool filling sources comprising at least one of the (a) one or more pool-filling openings of sufficient size and number and (b) sufficient flow ejected from a nozzle that falls into the pool sustains the required molten metal flow to maintain the pool filled and cause molten metal to overflow the pool cavity to cool the pool and pool cavity or ball and socket pool and prevent the molten metal of the pool and pool cavity or ball and socket pool from overheating wherein the pool temperature is maintained below a desired temperature in the range of about 300 °C to 1000 °C; and

[0071] (iv) the pool (e.g., electrode pool, elevated ball and socket pool) further comprises at least one drainage opening that maintains flow of molten metal out of the pool with a balanced input of molten metal to the pool from the pool-filling sources to cool at least one of the pool or ball and socket pool, the pool molten metal, the injector section of the electromagnetic pump tube, and the nozzle.

[0072] In an embodiment, the walls of the electrode pool cavity and pool and the elevated ball and socket pool enable pooling of metal at the end of the sleeve or liner, wherein the pool formed by the at least one sleeve or liner at least partially submerges the nozzle in a liquid metal pool such that it is at least partially protected from the plasma in the transparent window and reaction cavity wherein the top of at least one sleeve or the liner extends to less than about 2 cm (e.g., 0 cm, 0.1 cm) below the tip of the nozzle such that the nozzle tip concentrates the plasma in the region of the nozzle tip which may be at about the center of the pool, or the top of at least one sleeve or liner extends beyond the nozzle tip in the length range from about 1 mm to 25 cm such that the extended sleeve or liner maintains a deeper pool wherein the nozzle may eject molten metal through the protective pool metal covering the tip of the nozzle.

[0073] In an embodiment, the top of at least one sleeve or liner of the electrode pool cavity and pool and the elevated ball and socket pool is clad, coated, or metalized with a coating or layer to protect the sleeve or liner from the group of W, dense chrome, nickel, a BN, TiN, CrC, CrN, Ta such as Tanatline coating, Mo, Nb, Nb(94.33 wt%)-Mo(4.86 wt%)-Zr(0.81 wt%), Os, Ru, Hf, Re, 347 SS, Cr-Mo SS, silicide, carbon, a ceramic such as Si3N4, Shapal, AIN, Sialon, AI2O3, ZrO2, or HfO2, MgO, SiC, a high temperature capable adhesive such as a quartz-to-quartz adhesive such as Aremco Ceramabond 618-N, Ceramabond™ 503, Ceramabond™ 571, Ceramabond™ 835M, or Ceramabond™ 865, and_a diffusion coating (e.g. aluminide (Hitemco)).

[0074] The electrode pool cavity and pool and the elevated ball and socket pool may comprise a flow-through structure or channel comprising at least one drainage opening that receives inward flow of molten metal from at least one of one or more side openings and from at least one nozzle while draining from at the least one pool drainage opening comprising at least one of side holes, floor holes, and at least one channel at the sleeve-floor union for outward flow wherein the rate of inward flow versus outward flow is such that the steady state flow at least partially fdls the channel without accumulation of a molten metal pool of any substantial height, (e.g. no more than 1% to 75% fdled) wherein the steady state flow serves to cool and protect the nozzle.

[0075] The pool floor of at least one of the pool cavity and elevated ball and socket pool may comprise a metal or alternatively, an electrical nonconductor such as a BN, alumina, zirconia, quartz, or another ceramic such as one of the disclosure to prevent electrical contact between at least a portion of the pool molten metal and the pool floor wherein the flow -through channel serves to cool and protect the nozzle while avoiding plasma current conduction through the molten metal pool.

[0076] To provide nozzle protection from the hydrino reaction rate being highest at of one the two electrodes (e.g. the positive electrode), the plasma ignition system may further comprise a switch to periodically reverse the polarity of the ignition current supplied to the electrodes such that the corresponding higher reaction power is intermittently switched back- and-forth between the two electrodes to prevent the nozzle exposed to the higher power from overheating and being damaged wherein the switching rate selected to prevent nozzle damage is in the frequency range of about 1000 Hz to 10'4Hz.

[0077] In an embodiment of the power generator comprising at least one of a sleeve, sleeve cavity, and ball and socket pool comprising a pool floor, inner reservoir liner walls, a ball and socket joint, at least one inlet riser, and an inner reservoir extension liner, at least one of the injector section of the electromagnetic pump tube and the electromagnetic pump tube comprises at least one of a coaxial, side-by-side, and juxtaposed plasma-rejection gas line housed in the at least one sleeve or liner to supply at least one of hydrogen, oxygen, or argon at its outlet through at least a portion of the sleeve, sleeve cavity, or liner at a sufficient gas flow rate to at least partially protect at least one of the injector section of the electromagnetic pump tube and the nozzle from plasma damage by pushing or expelling the plasma from the at least one sleeve or liner.

[0078] The plasma-rejection gas line may be connected to a penetration out of the inner reservoir comprising a welded-in penetration through a baseplate of the electromagnetic pump, and at least one of passes through the ball and socket joint of the ball and socket pool and supplies gas to the inside of the liner supported by at least one inlet riser of a ball and socket pool below the separator; and the plasma-rejection gas line is further connected at the opposite end of the plasma-rejection gas line outlet to a mass flow controller, a pressure gauge, and at least one gas tank wherein the gas flow is controlled by a controller that controls the mass flow controller, and the gas participates in the second plasma reaction, and excess gas is removed by at least one of a vacuum pump and recirculator to maintain a reaction gas pressure (e.g., of about 0.1 Torr to 100 atm).

[0079] In an embodiment, the photovoltaic (PV) converter comprises

[0080] (i) a cylindrical assemble of side column PV elements connected by interconnects wherein the side column PV elements comprises a column of PV cells on the front side facing the transparent window and reaction cavity are mounted on a copper mounting plate and a cold plate on the backside comprising an inlet for coolant from a coolant line or manifold and a channel spanning the length of the column PV element to receive heat from the PV cells and transfer it to the coolant that exists an outlet to an outlet coolant line or manifold, and

[0081] (ii) a flat or domed top comprising an assemble of row PV elements each comprising PV cells on the front side facing the transparent window and reaction cavity that are mounted on a copper mounting plate and contact a cold plate on the backside comprising a coolant inlet line or manifold to provide coolant to the cold plate to receive heat from the PV cells and transfer it to the coolant that exists an outlet to an outlet coolant line or manifold. The top cold plate may comprise a common cold plate for the top assemble of row PV elements with at least one inlet and one outlet to the cold plate that further comprises flow channels of a geometry selected to effectively circulate the coolant over the PV cells to efficiently cool the PV cells of the top section of the PV converter selected from the group of coolant channels comprising a circular geometry with in-heat-exchanger radial inlet and outlet manifolds at opposite ends of circular channels of different radii; a spiral coolant channel with a perimeter inlet and a central outlet, and a linear-transverse or separated back-and-forth channels comprising independent or common inlets and outlets.

[0082] The cold plates may comprise an inlet at the ends of each row PV element that connect to radial channels that converge to a central outlet chamber or manifold wherein each radial channel may comprise at least one outlet hole on the top or center of the channel to a common series of outlet channels or a common outlet chamber or manifold on top of the radial inlet channels.

[0083] The inlet coolant lines or manifolds and the outlet coolant lines or manifolds may be connected to a heat exchanger (e.g. a car or truck radiator) that provides cold coolant to the inlet coolant lines and manifolds and receives hot coolant from the outlet coolant lines and manifolds.

[0084] In an embodiment, the power generation system further comprises a transparent window and reaction cavity fastener comprising a compressive or tightening mechanism to maintain a compressive attachment to the transparent window and reaction cavity to the transparent window and reaction cavity baseplate.

[0085] The transparent window and reaction cavity fastener may further comprise a tension applicator to maintain a desired compressive or tightening force of the clamp on the transparent window and reaction cavity during operation of the power generation system.

[0086] The transparent window and reaction cavity fastener may comprise a clamp and a spring wherein the spring applies compressive or tightening force to the clamp and compensates for thermal expansion of the clamp.

[0087] At least one component of the compressive or tightening mechanism may be removed from the hot region of the transparent window and reaction cavity molten metal wet seal.

[0088] The transparent window and reaction cavity fastener may comprise a spring-loaded T- bolt clamp comprising (i) a circumferential metal band and at least one tightening bolt wherein the band metal directly contacts the transparent window and reaction cavity wall and (ii) a spring tightening mechanism wherein the spring is located remotely from the hot region of the clamp (e. g. between the outer retention ring and the inner retention ring). In an embodiment, the remote spring tightening mechanism of the transparent window and reaction cavity fastener comprises

[0089] (i) a rectangular bushing and 1stpost with a penetration for the tightening bolt wherein the outer wet seal retention wall is welded on opposite sides of the bushing and the transparent window and reaction cavity baseplate is welded to the bushing where they contact to form a seal to the wet seal molten metal,

[0090] (ii) a clamp bolt bellows welded to the bushing and 1stpost on the side opposite the direction of penetration of the tightening bolt wherein the opposite end of the bellows is welded to the tightening bolt,

[0091] (iii) an extended section of the tightening bolt,

[0092] (iv) a baseplate clamping mechanism extension such as an extension of the transparent window and reaction cavity baseplate,

[0093] (v) a second post welded to the extension having a penetration for the tightening bolt,

[0094] (vi) a compression spring, and

[0095] (vii) a washer and a nut on the tightening bolt wherein the spring is positioned between the second post and the washer and nut.

[0096] The transparent window and reaction cavity fastener may comprise

[0097] (i) a transparent window and reaction cavity or dome clamp comprising a compressive or tightening mechanism to maintain a compressive attachment to the transparent window and reaction cavity, and

[0098] (ii) a dome clamp fastener that secures the transparent window and reaction cavity clamp to the Transparent window and reaction cavity baseplate.

[0099] The dome clamp fastener to provide fastening force of the dome to the baseplate may comprise at least one fastener attachment to the dome clamp and a fastener of the clamp fastener attachment to the transparent window and reaction cavity baseplate.

[0100] The dome clamp fastener may comprise clamp-bracket tabs fastened to the dome clamp and fasteners of the tabs to the transparent window and reaction cavity baseplate comprising clamp brackets that are fastened to a baseplate bracket mechanism extension by spring-loaded bolt fasteners comprising bracket bolts and bracket springs.

[0101] The transparent window and reaction cavity fastener or at least one component may comprise a tin alloy resistant material (e.g. Ta or W) or is coated with a tin alloy resistant material (e.g. Ta, BN, or Tantaline).

[0102] In an embodiment, the power generation system may comprise an inner reservoir for the molten metal, wherein the inner reservoir may comprise an electromagnetic baseplate at its base comprising a plurality of parts capable of being disassembled and assembled to serve the functions of the electromagnetic baseplate, wherein the functions may comprise at least one from the group of

[0103] (i) seal at least one of the exterior reservoir and internal reservoir,

[0104] (ii) provide sealed penetrations for the inlet and outlet of the electromagnetic pump,

[0105] (iii) provide a connection to an ignition bus bar,

[0106] (iv) provide a support to attach electromagnetic pump magnet brackets that support electromagnetic pump magnets, and

[0107] (v) permit ease of installation of at least one inductively coupled heater coil to maintain the molten metal in a molten state.

[0108] The electromagnetic baseplate may comprise

[0109] (i) a reservoir baseplate to seal the internal reservoir and provide sealed penetrations for the inlet and outlet of the electromagnetic pump,

[0110] (ii) an adapter plate to provide a support to attach the electromagnetic pump magnet brackets, and

[0111] (iii) an adapter plate to provide a support to attach the electromagnetic pump magnet brackets and provide a connection to the ignition bus bar wherein at least one inductively coupled heater coil such as one that heats the inner reservoir may be slide over the reservoir baseplate, wherein the adapter plates are capable of being reversibly fastened to the reservoir baseplate by adapter plate bolts.

[0112] In an embodiment, the power generation system may further comprise an inductively couple heater and inductively coupled heater coil array to maintain the molten metal in a molten state wherein the inductively coupled heater coil array may comprise at least two coils connected in at least one of series or parallel further comprising at least one switch to turn off separate coils of the plurality of coils connected in series or parallel.

[0113] The coil array may comprise a plurality of coils connected in at least one of parallel and series and at least one switch, each at the location to separate a set of coils that are desired to be powered from a set to be disconnected from an inductively coupled power feed wherein the switch may comprise a reversible electrical short within a lead to at least one coil or between the parallel leads between the two sets of coils.

[0114] The switch may comprise a flexible electrical insulator tubing connecting electrical conducting portions of the coil wherein the electrical insulator tubing provides a conduit for the flow of coolant. The switch may comprise a reversible electrical shunt across a nonconductive section comprising at least one of a solenoid switch, a clam shell, or a pair of plates that reversible connect the conductive portions of the coil or antenna on both sides of the nonconductive portion of the coil.

[0115] The switch may comprise:

[0116] (i) opposing conductive switch blocks, each comprising two internally connected ports (e.g. a coolant line input port and coolant line output port), and

[0117] (ii) a nonconductive flexible coolant line section to provide a conduit for the flow of antenna coolant wherein the nonconductive coolant line section connects to one of the ports of each block, and the opposite port of each block is connected to the coil or a coil lead.

[0118] In an embodiment, the power generation system may further comprise at least one of:

[0119] (i) electromagnetic pump heat transfer blocks with a heat transfer block coil that at least partially heats the electromagnetic pump wherein the heat transfer block coil comprises a sufficiently larger inner length and width than that of the heat transfer block to permit movement inside the coil while nozzle positioning by an alignment mechanism, and

[0120] (ii) electromagnetic pump heat transfer blocks with a heat transfer block coil that at least partially heats the electromagnetic pump wherein the heat transfer block coil comprises a coil comprising an expansion joint (e.g. bellows) to permit an alignment mechanism to adjust the position of the nozzle.

[0121] At least one of the electromagnetic pump and electromagnetic pump tube may be resistively heated by running current through at least one of the electromagnetic pump tube and bus bars of the electromagnetic pump wherein the current source may be at least one of the ignition current source, the electromagnetic pump current source, the power adapter, and an external source such as at least one of line current, at least one battery, and at least one supercapacitor.

[0122] The current from each electromagnetic pump current source may be run through the two electromagnetic pump bus bars of each electromagnetic pump, or the current from the ignition current source may be run in the following sequence:

[0123] (i) a positive electrical connection to the electromagnetic pump tube of the first electromagnetic pump (e.g., cathode electromagnetic pump, anode electromagnetic pump);

[0124] (ii) a bus bar of the first electromagnetic pump;

[0125] (iii) a jumper between a bus bar of the first electromagnetic pump shorted to a bus bar of the second electromagnetic pump (e.g., anode electromagnetic pump, cathode electromagnetic pump) wherein the short is controlled by a jumper switch that also disconnects the two electromagnetic pump current sources;

[0126] (iv) the electromagnet pump tube of the second electromagnetic pump; (v) a negative electrical connection from the electromagnetic pump tube of the second electromagnetic pump to ignition power source, and the jumper switch disconnects the short while reconnecting the current sources of the two electromagnetic pumps following heating.

[0127] In an embodiment, the power generation system may further comprises a plasma cell that maintains plasma in at least one of the hemispherical dome and the transparent window and reaction cavity to provide plasma (e.g. the first plasma) in the region between the two nozzles to heat the nozzles and injection section of the electromagnetic pump tube by flowing current though the tube by electrically connecting the opposing electrodes through the plasma that serves as a switch.

[0128] The plasma cell may comprise at least one of a glow discharge, microwave, radio frequency (RF), inductively or capacitively-coupled RF plasma cell.

[0129] In an embodiment, the power generation may further comprise a molten metal level height in the inner reservoirs to heat the nozzles and injection section of the electromagnetic pump tube above the melting point of the molten metal by conduction of heat through the molten metal that is heated in a lower region towards the inner reservoir base by inductively coupled heating, resistive heating, or torch heating.

[0130] In an embodiment, the power generation system may further comprise a heat transfer packing or spacer (e.g. AIN) between an outer molten metal reservoir and the inner molten metal reservoir to transfer or conduct heat from the outer reservoir to the inner reservoir during melting the molten metal and vice versa during operation to remove excess heat.

[0131] The product of the reaction of the reaction cell may comprise a gas that is observed at room temperature as two gas chromatographic peaks before a hydrogen peak separated on a molecular sieve chromatographic column that separates gases by size and weight, and the two novel peaks show that characteristics of two nuclear spin isomers that catalytically interconvert to room temperature on standing.

[0132] An embodiment of the power generation system comprises a photovoltaic converter comprising a hollow inner cylindrical cavity and a plurality of photovoltaic cells dispersed radially around the hollow inner cavity and mounted on an external mounting plate, wherein the light receiving portion of each photovoltaic cell is oriented towards the hollow inner cavity and each photovoltaic cell in the plurality of photovoltaic cells is joined to the neighboring photovoltaic cell by one or more interconnects; and a cold plate connected to the mounting plate, wherein the cold plate comprises an inlet and / or outlet for coolant and a channel spanning one dimension (e.g., the major longitudinal axis of the hollow inner cavity) the corresponding location for each of the plurality of photovoltaic cells. The photovoltaic converter may further comprise a flat or domed top covering the hollow inner cavity, wherein the top comprises a second plurality of photovoltaic cells mounted on a second external mounting plate connected to a second cold plate, wherein the light receiving portion of the second plurality of photovoltaic cells is oriented towards the hollow inner cavity.

[0133] The second cold plate of the photovoltaic converter may comprise one or more top plate coolant flow channels, wherein the top plate coolant flow channels may comprise concentric circles with different radii, wherein the one or more channels may connect between each concentric circle and a coolant inlet and coolant outlet on the perimeter of the second cold plate, spiral coolant channels with a perimeter inlet and central outlet, linear-transverse or separated back-and forth channels comprising independent or common inlets and / or outlets.

[0134] An embodiment of the power generation system comprises a) at least one vacuum capable vessel capable of a maintaining a pressure below, equal to, and greater than atmospheric comprising a reaction chamber; b) a molten metal and two electrodes configured to allow a molten metal flow therebetween to complete a circuit; c) a power source connected to said two electrodes to apply a current therebetween when said circuit is closed; d) a plasma generation cell (e.g., glow discharge cell) to induce the formation of a first plasma from a gas; wherein effluence of the plasma generation cell is directed towards the circuit (e.g., the molten metal, the anode, the cathode, an electrode submerged in a molten metal reservoir); wherein when current is applied across the circuit, the effluence of the plasma generation cell undergoes a reaction to producing a second plasma and reaction products; and e) a power converter (e.g., such as the photovoltaic converter), wherein the second plasma is generated in the hollow inner cylindrical cavity).

[0135] BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0136] The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated in and constitute a part of this specification, illustrate several embodiments of the disclosure and together with the description, serve to explain the principles of the disclosure. In the drawings:

[0137] Figure 1 is a schematic drawing of the PV window chamber baseplate having a dome clamping mechanism to maintain a wet seal of the dome to the baseplate at elevated pressure in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. Figure 2 is a schematic drawing of a ball and socket nozzle pool assembly in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0138] Figure 3 is a schematic drawing of an expanded view of a ball and socket nozzle pool assembly in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0139] Figure 4 is a schematic drawing of an injector base, ball and socket joint assembly in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0140] Figure 5 is a schematic drawing of an inner reservoir assembly comprising a ball and socket nozzle pool assembly, an injector base, ball and socket joint assembly, and one bellows with inline ball and socket adjustors in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0141] Figure 6 is a schematic drawing of an inner reservoir assembly comprising a ball and socket nozzle pool assembly, an injector base, ball and socket joint assembly, and two bellows with inline ball and socket adjustors in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0142] Figure 7 is a schematic drawing of a SunCell® power generator comprising a welded in inner-reservoir extension further comprising an electrical insulator liner, and inductively coupled heater coils connected in parallel in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0143] Figure 8 is a schematic drawing of an outer reservoir assembly comprising a welded in inner-reservoir extension further comprising an electrical insulator liner, a diverter, a separator drainage channel, and a separator drainage channel slot in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0144] Figure 9 is a schematic drawing of an outer reservoir assembly comprising a welded in inner-reservoir extension further comprising an electrical insulator liner, a diverter, a separator drainage channel, and a separator drainage channel slot wherein the liner is supported on the diverter by a flange such that the liner support is eliminated in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0145] Figure 10 is a schematic drawing of a SunCell® power generator comprising a ball and socket nozzle pool assembly and a welded-in inner reservoir extension further comprising a brazed ceramic tube, and inductively coupled heater coils connected in parallel in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0146] Figure 11 is a schematic drawing of a SunCell® power generator comprising a ball and socket nozzle pool assembly, a welded in inner-reservoir extension further comprising an electrical insulator liner, and inductively coupled heater coils connected in parallel in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0147] Figures 12 and 13 are schematic drawings of a SunCell® power generator showing the PV window cavity dome, SunCell stand, EM pumps, heat transfer blocks, and inductively coupled heater coils connected in parallel in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0148] Figure 14 is a schematic drawing of a separator dripper comprising a perforated annulus attached to the separator around the outer perimeter of the annulus with the inner reservoir extension liner inserted into and supported by the inner diameter edge of the separator dripper in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0149] Figure 15 is a schematic drawing of a separator dripper comprising a perforated annulus attached to the separator around the outer perimeter of the annulus with the inner reservoir extension liner inserted into and supported by the inner diameter edge of the separator dripper that further comprises a glow discharge cell that penetrates the reservoir hemispherical dome in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0150] Figure 16 is a schematic drawing of a separator dripper comprising a perforated annulus attached to the separator around the outer perimeter of the annulus with the inner reservoir extension liner inserted into and supported by the inner diameter edge of the separator dripper that further comprises a glow discharge electrode that penetrates the reservoir hemispherical dome in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0151] Figures 17 and 18 are schematic drawings of a SunCell® power generator showing the PV window cavity dome, SunCell stand, EM pumps, heat transfer blocks, and inductively coupled heater coils connected in series in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0152] Figures 19 is a schematic drawing of a SunCell® power generator showing the PV window cavity dome housed in a photovoltaic converter, SunCell stand, EM pumps, heat transfer blocks, and inductively coupled heater coils in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0153] Figure 20 is a schematic drawing of an inlet riser comprising a hat to cover the inlet to provide a molten metal wet seal to oxygen and metal oxide in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0154] Figures 21 and 22 are schematic drawings of a parallel-connected inductively coupled heater coil assemble having switches to selectively power one or a plurality of coils and a bellows expansion joint in each lead to each heat transfer block antenna in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0155] Figure 23 is a schematic drawing of a parallel-connected inductively coupled heater coil assemble having switches to selectively power one or a plurality of coils in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0156] Figure 24 is a schematic drawing of an EM pump baseplate comprising a plurality of parts capable of reversible assembly and disassembly in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure. Figure 25 is the gas chromatograph of hydrino gas evolved by acid reaction with ball milled FeOOH that was run within one hour of the acid addition. The two peaks observed at 4.049 minutes and 4.2 minutes before the H2 peak at 4.597 minutes were assign to p-H2(l / 4) and O-H2(1 / 4), respectively, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0157] Figure 26 is the gas chromatograph of hydrino gas evolved by acid reaction with ball milled FeOOH that was run after one week of the acid addition. Only one peak, the shorter- retention time peak, assign to p-H2(l / 4), was observed at 4.049 minutes before the H2 peak at 4.597 minutes, in accordance with an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0158] DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0159] Disclosed herein are power generation systems and methods of power generation which convert the energy output from reactions involving atomic hydrogen into electrical and / or thermal energy. These reactions may involve catalyst systems which release energy from atomic hydrogen to form lower energy states wherein the electron shell is at a closer position relative to the nucleus. The released power is harnessed for power generation and additionally new hydrogen species and compounds are desired products. These energy states are predicted by classical physical laws and require a catalyst to accept energy from the hydrogen in order to undergo the corresponding energy-releasing transition.

[0160] A theory which may explain the exothermic reactions produced by the power generation systems of the present disclosure involves a nonradiative transfer of energy from atomic hydrogen to certain catalysts (e.g., nascent water). Classical physics gives closed- form solutions of the hydrogen atom, the hydride ion, the hydrogen molecular ion, and the hydrogen molecule and predicts corresponding species having fractional principal quantum numbers. Atomic hydrogen may undergo a catalytic reaction with certain species, including itself, that can accept energy in integer multiples of the potential energy of atomic hydrogen, m • 27.2 eV, wherein m is an integer. The predicted reaction involves a resonant, nonradiative energy transfer from otherwise stable atomic hydrogen to the catalyst capable of accepting the energy. The product is H(l / p), fractional Rydberg states of atomic hydrogen called “hydrino atoms,” wherein n = 1 / 2, 1 / 3, 1 / 4,..., 1 / p (p<137 is an integer) replaces the well-known parameter n = integer in the Rydberg equation for hydrogen excited states. Each hydrino state also comprises an electron, a proton, and a photon, but the field contribution from the photon increases the binding energy rather than decreasing it corresponding to energy desorption rather than absorption. Since the potential energy of atomic hydrogen is 27.2 eV, m H atoms serve as a catalyst of m • 27.2 eV for another ( m + 1 )th H atom [R. Mills, The Grand Unified Theory of Classical Physics,' September 2020 Edition, posted at https: / / brilliantlightpower.com / book-download-and-streaming / (“Mills GUTCP” or “Mills GUT”)]. For example, a H atom can act as a catalyst for another H by accepting 27.2 eV from it via through-space energy transfer such as by magnetic or induced electric dipoledipole coupling to form an intermediate that decays with the emission of continuum bands 91 2 with short wavelength cutoffs and energies of m2■ 13.6 eV — — nm I • In addition to m2) atomic H, a molecule that accepts m ■ 212 eV from atomic H with a decrease in the magnitude of the potential energy of the molecule by the same energy may also serve as a catalyst. The potential energy of H2O is 81.6 eV. Then, by the same mechanism, the nascent H2O molecule (not hydrogen bonded in solid, liquid, or gaseous state) formed by a thermodynamically favorable reduction of a metal oxide is predicted to serve as a catalyst to form H ( 1 / 4 ) with an energy release of 204 eV, comprising an 81.6 eV transfer to H0H and a release of continuum radiation with a cutoff at 10.1 nm (122.4 eV).

[0161] In the / / -atom catalyst reaction involving a transition to the H state, m

[0162] H atoms serve as a catalyst of m«27.2 eV for another (m+ 1 )th H atom. Then, the reaction between m + 1 hydrogen atoms whereby m atoms resonantly and nonradiatively accept m*212 eV from the (m+ 1 )th hydrogen atom such that mH serves as the catalyst is given by

[0163] And, the overall reaction is 13.6 eV (4)

[0164] The catalysis reaction Im = 3) regarding the potential energy of nascent H2O [R.

[0165] Mills, The Grand Unified Theory of Classical Physics,' September 2016 Edition, posted at https: / / brilliantlightpower.com / book-download-and-streaming / ] is After the energy transfer to the catalyst (Eqs. (1) and (5)), an intermediate is formed having the radius of the H atom and a central field of m + 1 times the central field of a proton. The radius is predicted to decrease as the electron undergoes radial acceleration to a stable state having a radius of l / (m + 1) the radius of the uncatalyzed hydrogen atom, with the release of m • 13.6 eV of energy. The extreme-ultraviolet continuum radiation band due to the H *aH intermediate (e.g. Eq. (2) and Eq. (6)) is m + 1 predicted to have a short wavelength cutoff and energy given by

[0166] 91.2 — — nm (9) m2 and extending to longer wavelengths than the corresponding cutoff. Here the extremeultraviolet continuum radiation band due to the decay of the H*[an / 4] intermediate is predicted to have a short wavelength cutoff at E = m2- 13.6 = 9- 13.6 = 122.4 eV (10. 1 nm) [where p = m + 1 = 4 and m = 3 in Eq. (9)] and extending to longer wavelengths. The continuum radiation band at 10.1 nm and going to longer wavelengths for the theoretically predicted transition of H to lower-energy, so called “hydrino” state H(l / 4), was observed only arising from pulsed pinch gas discharges comprising some hydrogen. Another observation predicted by Eqs. (1) and (5) is the formation of fast, excited state H atoms from recombination of fast H+. The fast atoms give rise to broadened Balmer a emission. Greater than 50 eV Balmer a line broadening that reveals a population of extraordinarily high-kinetic -energy hydrogen atoms in certain mixed hydrogen plasmas is a well-established phenomenon wherein the cause is due to the energy released in the formation of hydrinos. Fast H was previously observed in continuum -emitting hydrogen pinch plasmas.

[0167] Additional catalyst and reactions to form hydrino are possible. Specific species (e.g. He+, Ar+, Sr+, K, Li, HC1, and NaH, OH, SH, SeH, nascent H2O, nH (n=integer)) identifiable on the basis of their known electron energy levels are required to be present with atomic hydrogen to catalyze the process. The reaction involves a nonradiative energy transfer followed by q • 13.6 eV continuum emission or q • 13.6 eV transfer to H to form extraordinarily hot, excited-state H and a hydrogen atom that is lower in energy than unreacted atomic hydrogen that corresponds to a fractional principal quantum number, That is, in the formula for the principal energy levels of the hydrogen atom: e213.598 eV

[0168] E = - , (10) " n ins O a n2n = 1,2,3,... where aHis the Bohr radius for the hydrogen atom (52.947 pm), e is the magnitude of the charge of the electron, and £ is the vacuum permittivity, fractional quantum numbers: where p - 137 is an integer (12) replace the well known parameter n - integer in the Rydberg equation for hydrogen excited states and represent lower-energy-state hydrogen atoms called “hydrinos.” The n - 1 state of

[0169] 1 hydrogen and the n - ; - states of hydrogen are nonradiative, but a transition between integer two nonradiative states, say n - 1 to n = 112 , i s possible via a nonradiative energy transfer.

[0170] Hydrogen is a special case of the stable states given by Eqs. (10) and (12) wherein the corresponding radius of the hydrogen or hydrino atom is given by aH r = —, (13)

[0171] P where p = 1,2,3,... . In order to conserve energy, energy must be transferred from the hydrogen atom to the catalyst in units of an integer of the potential energy of the hydrogen aH atom in the normal n = 1 state, and the radius transitions to - . Hydrinos are formed by m + p reacting an ordinary hydrogen atom with a suitable catalyst having a net enthalpy of reaction of m - Tl.l eV (14) where m is an integer. It is believed that the rate of catalysis is increased as the net enthalpy of reaction is more closely matched to m ■ 27.2 eV . It has been found that catalysts having a net enthalpy of reaction within ±10%, preferably ±5%, of m ■ 27.2 eV are suitable for most applications.

[0172] The catalyst reactions involve two steps of energy release: a nonradiative energy transfer to the catalyst followed by additional energy release as the radius decreases to the corresponding stable final state. Thus, the general reaction is given by the overall reaction is - 13.6 eV (18) q . r, m. and p are integers. has the radius of the hydrogen atom

[0173] (corresponding to the 1 in the denominator) and a central field equivalent to ( m + p I times that of a proton, and H is the corresponding stable state with the radius of that of H .

[0174] The catalyst product, H 1 / p , may also react with an electron to form a hydrino hydride ion H ( 1 / p\ or two H\ \ ! p\ may react to form the corresponding molecular hydrino ( l I p , Specifically, the catalyst product, H\ 1 / p j , may also react with an electron where p = integer > 1, 5 = 1 / 2 , ti is Planck's constant bar, p is the permeability of vacuum, meis the mass of the electron, / / is the reduced electron mass given by and the ionic nergy of the hydride ion is 0.75418 eV , and the experimental value is 6082.99 ± 0.15 cm1(0.75418 eV). The binding energies of hydrino hydride ions may be measured by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS).

[0175] Upfield-shifted NMR peaks are direct evidence of the existence of lower-energy state hydrogen with a reduced radius relative to ordinary hydride ion and having an increase in diamagnetic shielding of the proton. The shift is given by the sum of the contributions of the diamagnetism of the two electrons and the photon field of magnitude p (Mills GUTCP Eq. (7.87)): where the first term applies to H with p = 1 and p - integer >1 for H 11 / p\ and a. is the fine structure constant. The predicted hydrino hydride peaks are extraordinarily upfield shifted relative to ordinary hydride ion. In an embodiment, the peaks are upfield of TMS. The NMR shift relative to TMS may be greater than that known for at least one of ordinary H", H, H2, or H+alone or comprising a compound. The shift may be greater than at least one of 0, -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, -7, -8, -9, -10, -11, -12, -13, -14, -15, -16, -17, -18, -19, -20, -21, - 22, -23, -24, -25, -26, -27, -28, -29, -30, -31, -32, -33, -34, -35, -36, -37, -38, -39, and -40 ppm. The range of the absolute shift relative to a bare proton, wherein the shift of TMS is about -31.5 relative to a bare proton, may be -(p29.9 + p22.74) ppm (Eq. (20)) within a range of about at least one of +5 ppm, + 10 ppm, +20 ppm, +30 ppm, +40 ppm, +50 ppm, +60 ppm, +70 ppm, +80 ppm, +90 ppm, and + 100 ppm. The range of the absolute shift relative to a bare proton may be -(p29.9 + p2l .59 X 10'3) ppm (Eq. (20)) within a range of about at least one of about 0.1% to 99%, 1% to 50%, and 1% to 10%. In another embodiment, the presence of a hydrino species such as a hydrino atom, hydride ion, or molecule in a solid matrix such as a matrix of a hydroxide such as NaOH or KOH causes the matrix protons to shift upfield. The matrix protons such as those of NaOH or KOH may exchange. In an embodiment, the shift may cause the matrix peak to be in the range of about -0.1 ppm to -5 ppm relative to TMS. The NMR determination may comprise magic angle spinningiH nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MAS NMR).

[0176] H{ l p} may react with a proton and two H{ l p may react to form2(1 / ) and ^2(1 / p) , respectively. The hydrogen molecular ion and molecular charge and current density functions, bond distances, and energies were solved from the Laplacian in ellipsoidal coordinates with the constraint of nonradiation.

[0177] The total energy ET(Mills GUT Eqs . (11.192-11.194)) of the hydrogen molecular ion having a central field of + pe at each focus of the prolate spheroid molecular orbital is

[0178] ET = P216.253 (22)

[0179] The total energy ET (Mills GUT Eqs. (11.239-11.242)) of the hydrogen molecule having a central field of + pe at each focus of the prolate spheroid molecular orbital is

[0180] ET = P231.667 (23)

[0181] The bond dissociation energy, ED, (Mills GUT Eqs. (11.249- 11.253)) of the hydrogen molecule the difference between the total energy of the corresponding hydrogen atoms and

[0182] Eo= E 2H (24) where

[0183] E(2H( 11 p)) = -p227.20 eV (25)

[0184] EDis given by Eqs. (23-25): ED = E(2H( / p) - ET = p227.20 - ET = p24.478 eV (26) may be identified by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) wherein the ionization product in addition to the ionized electron may be at least one of the possibilities such as those comprising two protons and an electron, a hydrogen (H) atom, a hydrino atom, a molecular ion, hydrogen molecular ion, and H2( I / p wherein the energies may be shifted by the matrix.

[0185] The NMR of catalysis-product gas provides a definitive test of the theoretically predicted chemical shift of H21 / . In general, the H NMR resonance of H2( I / is predicted to be upfield from that of H2due to the fractional radius in elliptic coordinates wherein the electrons are significantly closer to the nuclei. The predicted shift, , for B

[0186] HXP} is given by the sum of the contributions of the diamagnetism of the two electrons and the photon field of magnitude p (Mills GUTCP Eqs. (11.415-11.416)): where the first term applies to Hi with p = 1 and p = integer > I . The experimental absolute H gas-phase resonance shift of -28.0 ppm is in excellent agreement with the predicted absolute gas-phase shift of -28.01 ppm (Eq. (28)). The predicted molecular hydrino peaks are extraordinarily upfield shifted relative to ordinary Eh. In an embodiment, the peaks are upfield of TMS. The NMR shift relative to TMS may be greater than that known for at least one of ordinary H", H, Eh, or H+alone or comprising a compound. The shift may be greater than at least one of 0, -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, -7, -8, -9, -10, -11, -12, -13, -14, -15, -16, -17, -18, -19, -20, -21, -22, -23, -24, -25, -26, -27, -28, -29, -30, - 31, -32, -33, -34, -35, -36, -37, -38, -39, and -40 ppm. The range of the absolute shift relative to a bare proton, wherein the shift of TMS is about -31.5 ppm relative to a bare proton, may be -(p28.01 + p22.56) ppm (Eq. (28)) within a range of about at least one of ±5 ppm, ±10 ppm, ±20 ppm, ±30 ppm, ±40 ppm, ±50 ppm, ±60 ppm, ±70 ppm, ±80 ppm, ±90 ppm, and ±100 ppm. The range of the absolute shift relative to a bare proton may be -(p28.01 ± p21.49 X 10"3) ppm (Eq. (28)) within a range of about at least one of about 0. 1% to 99%, 1% to 50%, and l% to 10%.

[0187] The vibrational energies, Evib, for the v = 0 to v — 1 transition of hydrogen-type molecules are

[0188] E 5902 eV (29) where p is an integer.

[0189] The rotational energies, E , for the J to J + 1 transition of hydrogen-type molecules H2[\l p are 0.01509 eV (30) where p is an integer and I is the moment of inertia. Ro-vibrational emission of H1 was observed on e-beam excited molecules in gases and trapped in solid matrix.

[0190] The p1dependence of the rotational energies results from an inverse p dependence of the intemuclear distance and the corresponding impact on the moment of inertia 1 . The predicted intemuclear distance 2c’ for H2[ I / is

[0191] At least one of the rotational and vibration energies of H2(l / p) may be measured by at least one of electron-beam excitation emission spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. H2(l / p) may be trapped in a matrix for measurement such as in at least one of MOH, MX, and M2CO3 (M = alkali; X = halide) matrix.

[0192] In an embodiment, the molecular hydrino product is observed as an inverse Raman effect (IRE) peak at about 1950 cm'1. The peak is enhanced by using a conductive material comprising roughness features or particle size comparable to that of the Raman laser wavelength that supports a Surface Enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS) to show the IRE peak.

[0193] I. Catalysts

[0194] In the present disclosure the terms such as hydrino reaction, H catalysis, H catalysis reaction, catalysis when referring to hydrogen, the reaction of hydrogen to form hydrinos, and hydrino formation reaction all refer to the reaction such as that of Eqs. (15-18) of a catalyst defined by Eq. (14) with atomic H to form states of hydrogen having energy levels given by Eqs. (10) and (12). The corresponding terms such as hydrino reactants, hydrino reaction mixture, catalyst mixture, reactants for hydrino formation, reactants that produce or form lower-energy state hydrogen or hydrinos are also used interchangeably when referring to the reaction mixture that performs the catalysis of H to H states or hydrino states having energy levels given by Eqs. (10) and (12).

[0195] The catalytic lower-energy hydrogen transitions of the present disclosure require a catalyst that may be in the form of an endothermic chemical reaction of an integer m of the potential energy of uncatalyzed atomic hydrogen, 27.2 eV . that accepts the energy from atomic H to cause the transition. The endothermic catalyst reaction may be the ionization of one or more electrons from a species such as an atom, ion, or molecule, and may further comprise the concerted reaction of a bond cleavage with ionization of one or more electrons from one or more of the partners of the initial bond. An integer number of hydrogen atoms may also serve as the catalyst of an integer multiple of 27.2 eV enthalpy. In an embodiment, the catalyst is capable of accepting energy from atomic hydrogen in integer units of one of

[0196] 27 2 about 27.2 eV ± 0.5 eV and — eV ± 0.5 eV.

[0197] 2

[0198] Classical physical laws predict that atomic hydrogen may undergo a catalytic reaction with certain species, including itself, that can accept energy in integer multiples of the potential energy of atomic hydrogen, m ■ 212 eV, wherein m is an integer. The predicted reaction involves a resonant, nonradiative energy transfer from otherwise stable atomic hydrogen to the catalyst capable of accepting the energy. The product is H( 1 / p), fractional Rydberg states of atomic hydrogen called “hydrino atoms,” wherein n = 1 / 2, 1 / 3, 1 / 4,. . . , 1 / p (p<131 is an integer) replaces the well-known parameter n = integer in the Rydberg equation for hydrogen excited states. Each hydrino state also comprises an electron, a proton, and a photon, but the field contribution from the photon increases the binding rather than decreasing it corresponding to energy desorption rather than absorption. Since the potential energy of atomic hydrogen is 27.2 eV, m H atoms serve as a catalyst of m-ll 2 eV for another ( m + 1 )th H atom. For example, an H atom can act as a catalyst for another H by accepting 27.2 eV from it via through- space energy transfer such as by magnetic or induced electric dipole-dipole coupling. In addition to atomic H, a molecule that accepts m - 2 2 eV from atomic H with a decrease in the magnitude of the potential energy of the molecule by the same energy may also serve as a catalyst. The potential energy of FEO is 81.6 eV [Mills GUT], Then, by the same mechanism, the nascent H2O molecule (not hydrogen bonded in solid, liquid, or gaseous state) may serve as a catalyst. Based on the 10% energy change in the heat of vaporization in going from ice at 0°C to water at 100°C, the average number of H bonds per water molecule in boiling water is 3.6 [Mills GUT]; thus, H2O must be formed chemically as isolated molecules with suitable activation energy in order to serve as a catalyst to form hydrinos. The catalysis reaction (m = 3) regarding the potential energy of nascent H2O is

[0199] 2H j+fast , + O" + e" -> TAO + 81.6 eV or OH + H jfast , (34)

[0200] And, the overall reaction is aH

[0201] After the energy transfer to the catalyst, an intermediate H * is formed having m + 1 the radius of the H atom and a central field of m +1 times the central field of a proton (e.g.

[0202] H* is the intermediate in Eq. (1) wherein m = 3, and H+and Hfastrefer to these species with excessive kinetic energy). The radius is predicted to decrease as the electron undergoes radial acceleration to a stable state having a radius of l / (m +1) the radius of the uncatalyzed hydrogen atom, with the release of nV • 13.6 eV of energy. The extreme-ultraviolet continuum aH radiation band due to the H * intermediate (e.g. Eq. (33)) is predicted to have a short m+ 1 wavelength cutoff and energy given by and extending to longer wavelengths than the corresponding cutoff.

[0203] II. Hydrinos

[0204] A hydrogen atom having a binding energy given by EB= — where p is an integer greater than 1, preferably from 2 to 137, is the product of the H catalysis reaction of the present disclosure. The binding energy of an atom, ion, or molecule, also known as the ionization energy, is the energy required to remove one electron from the atom, ion or molecule. A hydrogen atom having the binding energy given in Eqs. (10) and (12) is hereafter referred to as a “hydrino atom” or “hydrino.” The designation for a hydrino of aH radius — , where aHis the radius of an ordinary hydrogen atom and p is an integer, is hydrogen atom with a radius aHis hereinafter referred to as “ordinary hydrogen rmal hydrogen atom.” Ordinary atomic hydrogen is characterized by its binding energy of 13.6 eV.

[0205] According to the present disclosure, a hydrino hydride ion (H ) having a binding energy according to Eq. (19) that is greater than the binding of ordinary hydride ion (about 0.75 eV) for p = 2 up to 23 , and less for p = 24 (H ) is provided. For p = 2 to p = 24 of Eq. (19), the hydride ion binding energies are respectively 3, 6.6, 11.2, 16.7, 22.8, 29.3, 36.1, 42.8, 49.4, 55.5, 61.0, 65.6, 69.2, 71.6, 72.4, 71.6, 68.8, 64.0, 56.8, 47.1, 34.7, 19.3, and 0.69 eV. Exemplary compositions comprising the novel hydride ion are also provided herein.

[0206] Exemplary compounds are also provided comprising one or more hydrino hydride ions and one or more other elements. Such a compound is referred to as a “hydrino hydride compound.”

[0207] Ordinary hydrogen species are characterized by the following binding energies (a) hydride ion, 0.754 eV (“ordinary hydride ion”); (b) hydrogen atom (“ordinary hydrogen atom”), 13.6 eV; (c) diatomic hydrogen molecule, 15.3 eV (“ordinary hydrogen molecule”); (d) hydrogen molecular ion, 16.3 eV (“ordinary hydrogen molecular ion”); and (e) . 22.6 eV (“ordinary trihydrogen molecular ion”). Herein, with reference to forms of hydrogen, “normal” and “ordinary” are synonymous.

[0208] According to a further embodiment of the present disclosure, a compound is provided comprising at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species such as (a) a hydrogen

[0209] 13.6 eV atom having a binding energy of about - — , such as within a range of about 0.9 to 1.1

[0210] ( \

[0211] U

[0212] 13.6 eV times - — where p is an integer from 2 to 137; (b) a hydride ion (H ) having a binding f 1 ^ within a range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times

[0213] Binding Energy = where p is an

[0214] 8 *u e integer from 2 to 24; (c trihydrino molecular ion, having a

[0215] 22.6Tbinding energy of about - - eV such as within a range of about 0.9 to 1. 1 times - — e V where p is an integer from 2 to 137; (e) a dihydrino having a binding energy of

[0216] ( \ w

[0217] 15.3 15.3 about - 7 eV such as within a range of about 0.9 to 1. 1 times - eV where p is an riV rif

[0218] VP) VP) integer from 2 to 137; (f) a dihydrino molecular ion with a binding energy of about

[0219] 16.3 16.3

[0220] - 7 e V such as within a range of about 0.9 to 1. 1 times - 7 e V where p is an integer, m2m2

[0221] W W preferably an integer from 2 to 137.

[0222] According to a further embodiment of the present disclosure, a compound is provided comprising at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species such as (a) a dihydrino molecular ion having a total energy of about

[0223] ET = P216.253 such as within a range of about 0.9 to 1. 1 times ET = p216.253 where p is an integer, h is Planck's constant bar, m is the mass of the electron, c is the speed of light in vacuum, and / is the reduced nuclear mass, and (b) a dihydrino molecule having a total energy of about

[0224] ET = P231.667 such as within a range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times ET = p231.667 where p is an integer and aois the Bohr radius.

[0225] According to one embodiment of the present disclosure wherein the compound comprises a negatively charged increased binding energy hydrogen species, the compound further comprises one or more cations, such as a proton, ordinary H* , or ordinary .

[0226] A method is provided herein for preparing compounds comprising at least one hydrino hydride ion. Such compounds are hereinafter referred to as “hydrino hydride compounds.” The method comprises reacting atomic hydrogen with a catalyst having a net m enthalpy of reaction of about — • 27 eV , where m is an integer greater than 1, preferably an integer less than 400, to produce an increased binding energy hydrogen atom having a

[0227] 13.6 eV binding energy of about - — where p is an integer, preferably an integer from 2 to 137.

[0228] ( \ u

[0229] A further product of the catalysis is energy. The increased binding energy hydrogen atom can be reacted with an electron source, to produce an increased binding energy hydride ion. The increased binding energy hydride ion can be reacted with one or more cations to produce a compound comprising at least one increased binding energy hydride ion. In an embodiment, at least one of very high power and energy may be achieved by the hydrogen undergoing transitions to hydrinos of high p values in Eq. (18) in a process herein referred to as disproportionation as given in Mills GUTCP Chp. 5 which is incorporated by reference . Hydrogen atoms H \ p / ? = 1 , 2, 3 ,... 137 can undergo further transitions to lower-energy states given by Eqs. (10) and (12) wherein the transition of one atom is catalyzed by a second that resonantly and nonradiatively accepts m-21.2 eV with a concomitant opposite change in its potential energy. The overall general equation for the transition of H (l / ») to JZ (1 / ( / ? + zw)) induced by a resonance transfer of m- 27.2 eV to H (1 / p ') given by Eq. (37) is represented by

[0230] The EUV light from the hydrino process may dissociate the dihydrino molecules and the resulting hydrino atoms may serve as catalysts to transition to lower energy states. An exemplary reaction comprises the catalysis H to H(l / 17) by H(l / 4) wherein H(l / 4) may be a reaction product of the catalysis of another H by HOH. Disproportionation reactions of hydrinos are predicted to given rise to features in the X-ray region. As shown by Eqs. (5-8) the reaction product of HOH catalyst is Consider a likely transition reaction in hydrogen clouds containing H2O gas wherein the first hydrogen-type atom is an H atom and the second acceptor hydrogen-type atom serving as a catalyst is H

[0231] Since the potential energy of H is 42- 27.2 eV = 16 -27.2 eV = 435.2 eV , the transition

[0232] 4 reaction is represented by The extreme -ultraviolet continuum radiation band due to the intermediate (e.g. Eq. (16) and Eq. (39)) is predicted to have a short wavelength cutoff and energy and extending to longer wavelengths than the corresponding cutoff. Here the extreme- ultraviolet continuum radiation band due to the decay of the H *aH intermediate is

[0233] 17 predicted to have a short wavelength cutoff at E = 3481.6 el7: 0.35625 nm and extending to longer wavelengths. A broad X-ray peak with a 3.48 keV cutoff was observed in the Perseus Cluster by NASA’s Chandra X-ray Observatory and by the XMM-Newton [E. Bulbul, M. Markevitch, A. Foster, R. K. Smith, M. Loewenstein, S. W. Randall, “Detection of an unidentified emission line in the stacked X-Ray spectrum of galaxy clusters,” The

[0234] Astrophysical Journal, Volume 789, Number 1, (2014); A. Boyarsky, O. Ruchayskiy, D. lakubovskyi, J. Franse, “An unidentified line in X-ray spectra of the Andromeda galaxy and

[0235] Perseus galaxy cluster,” (2014),arXiv: 1402.4119 [astro-ph.CO]] that has no match to any known atomic transition. The 3.48 keV feature assigned to dark matter of unknown identity by BulBul et al. matches the transition and further confirms hydrinos as the identity of dark matter.

[0236] The novel hydrogen compositions of matter can comprise:

[0237] (a) at least one neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species (hereinafter “increased binding energy hydrogen species”) having a binding energy

[0238] (i) greater than the binding energy of the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species, or

[0239] (ii) greater than the binding energy of any hydrogen species for which the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species is unstable or is not observed because the ordinary hydrogen species' binding energy is less than thermal energies at ambient conditions (standard temperature and pressure, STP), or is negative; and

[0240] (b) at least one other element. Typically, the hydrogen products described herein are increased binding energy hydrogen species.

[0241] By “other element” in this context is meant an element other than an increased binding energy hydrogen species. Thus, the other element can be an ordinary hydrogen species, or any element other than hydrogen. In one group of compounds, the other element and the increased binding energy hydrogen species are neutral. In another group of compounds, the other element and increased binding energy hydrogen species are charged such that the other element provides the balancing charge to form a neutral compound. The former group of compounds is characterized by molecular and coordinate bonding; the latter group is characterized by ionic bonding.

[0242] Also provided are novel compounds and molecular ions comprising

[0243] (a) at least one neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species having a total energy

[0244] (i) greater than the total energy of the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species, or

[0245] (ii) greater than the total energy of any hydrogen species for which the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species is unstable or is not observed because the ordinary hydrogen species' total energy is less than thermal energies at ambient conditions, or is negative; and

[0246] (b) at least one other element.

[0247] The total energy of the hydrogen species is the sum of the energies to remove all of the electrons from the hydrogen species. The hydrogen species according to the present disclosure has a total energy greater than the total energy of the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species. The hydrogen species having an increased total energy according to the present disclosure is also referred to as an “increased binding energy hydrogen species” even though some embodiments of the hydrogen species having an increased total energy may have a first electron binding energy less that the first electron binding energy of the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species. For example, the hydride ion of Eq. (19) for p = 24 has a first binding energy that is less than the first binding energy of ordinary hydride ion, while the total energy of the hydride ion of Eq. (19) for p = 24 is much greater than the total energy of the corresponding ordinary hydride ion.

[0248] Also provided herein are novel compounds and molecular ions comprising

[0249] (a) a plurality of neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species having a binding energy

[0250] (i) greater than the binding energy of the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species, or

[0251] (ii) greater than the binding energy of any hydrogen species for which the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species is unstable or is not observed because the ordinary hydrogen species' binding energy is less than thermal energies at ambient conditions or is negative; and

[0252] (b) optionally one other element.

[0253] The increased binding energy hydrogen species can be formed by reacting one or more hydrino atoms with one or more of an electron, hydrino atom, a compound containing at least one of said increased binding energy hydrogen species, and at least one other atom, molecule, or ion other than an increased binding energy hydrogen species.

[0254] Also provided are novel compounds and molecular ions comprising

[0255] (a) a plurality of neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species having a total energy (i) greater than the total energy of ordinary molecular hydrogen, or

[0256] (ii) greater than the total energy of any hydrogen species for which the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species is unstable or is not observed because the ordinary hydrogen species' total energy is less than thermal energies at ambient conditions or is negative; and

[0257] (b) optionally one other element.

[0258] In an embodiment, a compound is provided comprising at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species chosen from (a) hydride ion having a binding energy according to Eq. (19) that is greater than the binding of ordinary hydride ion (about 0.8 eV) for p = 2 up to 23 , and less for p = 24 (“increased binding energy hydride ion” or “hydrino hydride ion”); (b) hydrogen atom having a binding energy greater than the binding energy of ordinary hydrogen atom (about 13.6 eV) (“increased binding energy hydrogen atom” or “hydrino”); (c) hydrogen molecule having a first binding energy greater than about 15.3 eV (“increased binding energy hydrogen molecule” or “dihydrino”); and (d) molecular hydrogen ion having a binding energy greater than about 16.3 eV (“increased binding energy molecular hydrogen ion” or “dihydrino molecular ion”). In the disclosure, increased binding energy hydrogen species and compounds is also referred to as lower-energy hydrogen species and compounds. Hydrinos comprise an increased binding energy hydrogen species or equivalently a lower- energy hydrogen species.

[0259] III. Chemical Reactor

[0260] The present disclosure is also directed to other reactors for producing increased binding energy hydrogen species and compounds of the present disclosure, such as dihydrino molecules and hydrino hydride compounds. Further products of the catalysis are power and optionally plasma and light depending on the cell type. Such a reactor may be hereinafter referred to as a “hydrogen reactor” or “hydrogen cell.” The hydrogen reactor comprises a cell for making hydrinos. The cell for making hydrinos may take the form of a chemical reactor or gas fuel cell such as a gas discharge cell, a plasma torch cell, or microwave power cell, and an electrochemical cell. In an embodiment, the catalyst is HOH and the source of at least one of the HOH and H is ice. The ice may have a high surface area to increase at least one of the rates of the formation of HOH catalyst and H from ice and the hydrino reaction rate. The ice may be in the form of fine chips to increase the surface area. In an embodiment, the cell comprises an arc discharge cell and that comprises ice at least one electrode such that the discharge involves at least a portion of the ice.

[0261] In an embodiment, the arc discharge cell comprises a vessel, two electrodes, a high voltage power source such as one capable of a voltage in the range of about 100 V to 1 MV and a current in the range of about 1 A to 100 kA, and a source of water such as a reservoir and a means to form and supply H2O droplets. The droplets may travel between the electrodes. In an embodiment, the droplets initiate the ignition of the arc plasma. In an embodiment, the water arc plasma comprises H and HOH that may react to form hydrinos. The ignition rate and the corresponding power rate may be controlled by controlling the size of the droplets and the rate at which they are supplied to the electrodes. The source of high voltage may comprise at least one high voltage capacitor that may be charged by a high voltage power source. In an embodiment, the arc discharge cell further comprises a means such as a power converter such as one of the present invention such as at least one of a PV converter and a heat engine to convert the power from the hydrino process such as light and heat to electricity.

[0262] Exemplary embodiments of the cell for making hydrinos may take the form of a liquid-fuel cell, a solid-fuel cell, a heterogeneous-fuel cell, a CIHT cell, and an SF-CIHT or SunCell® cell. Each of these cells comprises: (i) reactants including a source of atomic hydrogen; (ii) at least one catalyst chosen from a solid catalyst, a molten catalyst, a liquid catalyst, a gaseous catalyst, or mixtures thereof for making hydrinos; and (iii) a vessel for reacting hydrogen and the catalyst for making hydrinos. As used herein and as contemplated by the present disclosure, the term “hydrogen,” unless specified otherwise, includes not only proteum (17 / ). but also deuterium ( H ) and tritium ( 7 / ). Exemplary chemical reaction mixtures and reactors may comprise SF-CIHT, CIHT, or thermal cell embodiments of the present disclosure. Additional exemplary embodiments are given in this Chemical Reactor section. Examples of reaction mixtures having H2O as catalyst formed during the reaction of the mixture are given in the present disclosure. Other catalysts may serve to form increased binding energy hydrogen species and compounds. The reactions and conditions may be adjusted from these exemplary cases in the parameters such as the reactants, reactant wt%’s, H2 pressure, and reaction temperature. Suitable reactants, conditions, and parameter ranges are those of the present disclosure. Hydrinos and molecular hydrino are shown to be products of the reactors of the present disclosure by predicted continuum radiation bands of an integer times 13.6 eV, otherwise unexplainable extraordinarily high H kinetic energies measured by Doppler line broadening of H lines, inversion of H lines, formation of plasma without a breakdown fields, and anomalously plasma afterglow duration as reported in Mills Prior Publications. The data such as that regarding the CIHT cell and solid fuels has been validated independently, off site by other researchers. The formation of hydrinos by cells of the present disclosure was also confirmed by electrical energies that were continuously output over long-duration, that were multiples of the electrical input that in most cases exceed the input by a factor of greater than 10 with no alternative source. The predicted molecular hydrino H2( 1 / 4) was identified as a product of CIHT cells and solid fuels by MAS H NMR that showed a predicted upfield shifted matrix peak of about -4.4 ppm, ToF-SIMS and ESI- ToFMS that showed H2( 1 / 4) complexed to a getter matrix as m / e = M + n2 peaks wherein M is the mass of a parent ion and n is an integer, electron-beam excitation emission spectroscopy and photoluminescence emission spectroscopy that showed the predicted rotational and vibration spectrum of H2( 1 / 4) having 16 or quantum number p = 4 squared times the energies of H2, Raman and FTIR spectroscopy that showed the rotational energy of H2(l / 4) of 1950 cm'1, being 16 or quantum number p = 4 squared times the rotational energy of H2, XPS that showed the predicted total binding energy of H2(l / 4) of 500 eV, and a ToF- SIMS peak with an arrival time before the m / e=l peak that corresponded to H with a kinetic energy of about 204 eV that matched the predicted energy release for H to H(l / 4) with the energy transferred to a third body H as reported in Mills Prior Publications and in R. Mills X Yu, Y. Lu, G Chu, J. He, J. Lotoski, “Catalyst Induced Hydrino Transition (CIHT) Electrochemical Cell”, International Journal of Energy Research, (2013) and R. Mills, J. Lotoski, J. Kong, G Chu, J. He, J. Trevey, “High-Power-Density Catalyst Induced Hydrino Transition (CIHT) Electrochemical Cell” (2014) which are herein incorporated by reference in their entirety.

[0263] Using both a water flow calorimeter and a Setaram DSC 131 differential scanning calorimeter (DSC), the formation of hydrinos by cells of the present disclosure such as ones comprising a solid fuel to generate thermal power was confirmed by the observation of thermal energy from hydrino-forming solid fuels that exceed the maximum theoretical energy by a factor of 60 times. The MAS H NMR showed a predicted H2(l / 4) upfield matrix shift of about -4.4 ppm. A Raman peak starting at 1950 cm'1matched the free space rotational energy of H2(l / 4) (0.2414 eV). These results are reported in Mills Prior Publications and in R. Mills, J. Lotoski, W. Good, J. He, “Solid Fuels that Form HOH Catalyst”, (2014) which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety.

[0264] IV. SunCell and Power Converter

[0265] Power systems (also referred to herein as “SunCell”) that generate at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy may comprise: at least one vacuum capable vessel capable of a maintaining a pressure below, equal to and greater than atmospheric comprising a reaction chamber; reactants capable of undergoing a reaction that produces enough energy to form a plasma in the vessel comprising: a) a mixture of hydrogen gas and oxygen gas, and / or water vapor, and / or a mixture of hydrogen gas and water vapor; b) a molten metal; a mass flow controller to control the flow rate of at least one reactant into the vessel; a vacuum pump to initially evacuate the vessel and to maintain a desired vessel pressure in the range of 0.1 Torr to 100 atm when one or more reactants are flowing into the vessel; a recirculator to recirculate gases from and to the vessel wherein at least one of hydrino may be removed and hydrino reactants such as hydrogen may be resupplied; a molten metal injector system comprising at least one reservoir that contains some of the molten metal, a molten metal pump system (e.g., one or more electromagnetic pumps) configured to deliver the molten metal in the reservoir and through an injector tube to provide a molten metal stream, and at least one non-injector molten metal reservoir for receiving the molten metal stream; at least one ignition system comprising a source of electrical power or ignition current to supply electrical power to the at least one stream of molten metal to ignite the reaction when the hydrogen gas and / or oxygen gas and / or water vapor are flowing into the vessel; a reactant supply system to replenish reactants that are consumed in the reaction; and a power converter or output system to convert a portion of the energy produced from the reaction (e.g., light and / or thermal output from the plasma) to electrical power and / or thermal power. In some embodiments, the effluence comprises (or consists of) nascent water and atomic hydrogen. In some embodiments, the effluence comprises (or consists of) nascent water, and molecular hydrogen. In some embodiments, the effluence comprises (or consists of) nascent water, atomic hydrogen, and molecular hydrogen. In some embodiments, the effluence further comprises a noble gas.

[0266] In some embodiments, the vessel is capable of a pressure of at least one of atmospheric, above atmospheric, and below atmospheric. In another embodiment, the at least one direct plasma to electricity converter can comprise at least one of the group of plasmadynamic power converter, E x B direct converter, magnetohydrodynamic power converter, magnetic mirror magnetohydrodynamic power converter, charge drift converter, Post or Venetian Blind power converter, gyrotron, photon bunching microwave power converter, and photoelectric converter. In a further embodiment, the at least one thermal to electricity converter can comprise at least one of the group of a heat engine, a steam engine, a steam turbine and generator, a gas turbine and generator, a Rankine-cycle engine, a Braytoncycle engine, a Stirling engine, a thermionic power converter, and a thermoelectric power converter. Exemplary thermal to electric systems that may comprise closed coolant systems or open systems that reject heat to the ambient atmosphere are supercritical CO2, organic Rankine, or external combustor gas turbine systems.

[0267] In addition to UV photovoltaic and thermal photovoltaic of the current disclosure, the SunCell® may comprise other electric conversion means known in the art such as thermionic, magnetohydrodynamic, turbine, microturbine, Rankine or Brayton cycle turbine, chemical, and electrochemical power conversion systems. The Rankine cycle turbine may comprise supercritical CO2, an organic such as hydrofluorocarbon or fluorocarbon, or steam working fluid. In a Rankine or Brayton cycle turbine, the SunCell® may provide thermal power to at least one of the preheater, recuperator, boiler, and external combustor-type heat exchanger stage of a turbine system. In an embodiment, the Brayton cycle turbine comprises a SunCell® turbine heater integrated into the combustion section of the turbine. The SunCell® turbine heater may comprise ducts that receive airflow from at least one of the compressor and recuperator wherein the air is heated and the ducts direct the heated compressed flow to the inlet of the turbine to perform pressure-volume work. The SunCell® turbine heater may replace or supplement the combustion chamber of the gas turbine. The Rankine or Brayton cycle may be closed wherein the power converter further comprises at least one of a condenser and a cooler.

[0268] The converter may be one given in Mills Prior Publications and Mills Prior Applications. The hydrino reactants such as H sources and HOH sources and SunCell® systems may comprise those of the present disclosure or in prior US Patent Applications such as Hydrogen Catalyst Reactor, PCT / US08 / 61455, filed 4 / 24 / 2008; Heterogeneous Hydrogen Catalyst Reactor, PCT / US09 / 052072, filed 7 / 29 / 2009; Heterogeneous Hydrogen Catalyst Power System, PCT / US10 / 27828, filed 3 / 18 / 2010; Electrochemical Hydrogen Catalyst Power System, PCT / US11 / 28889, filed 3 / 17 / 2011; H2O-Based Electrochemical Hydrogen-Catalyst Power System, PCT / US 12 / 31369 filed 3 / 30 / 2012; CIHT Power System, PCT / US13 / 041938 filed 5 / 21 / 13; Power Generation Systems and Methods Regarding Same, PCT / IB2014 / 058177 filed 1 / 10 / 2014; Photovoltaic Power Generation Systems and Methods Regarding Same, PCT / US 14 / 32584 filed 4 / 1 / 2014; Electrical Power Generation Systems and Methods Regarding Same, PCT / US2015 / 033165 filed 5 / 29 / 2015; Ultraviolet Electrical Generation System Methods Regarding Same, PCT / US2015 / 065826 filed 12 / 15 / 2015; Thermophotovoltaic Electrical Power Generator, PCT / US 16 / 12620 filed PCT 1 / 8 / 2016; Thermophotovoltaic Electrical Power Generator Network, PCT / US2017 / 035025 filed 12 / 7 / 2017; Thermophotovoltaic Electrical Power Generator, PCT / US2017 / 013972 filed 1 / 18 / 2017; Extreme and Deep Ultraviolet Photovoltaic Cell, PCT / US2018 / 012635 filed 01 / 05 / 2018; Magnetohydrodynamic Electric Power Generator, PCT / US18 / 17765 filed 2 / 12 / 2018; Magnetohydrodynamic Electric Power Generator, PCT / US2018 / 034842 filed 5 / 29 / 18; Magnetohydrodynamic Electric Power Generator, PCT / IB2018 / 059646 filed 12 / 05 / 18; Magnetohydrodynamic Electric Power Generator, PCT / IB2020 / 050360 filed 01 / 16 / 20; Magnetohydrodynamic Hydrogen Electrical Power Generator, PCT / US21 / 17148 filed 02 / 08 / 2021; Infrared Light Recycling Thermophotovoltaic Hydrogen Electrical Power Generator, PCT / IB2022 / 052016, filed 03 / 08 / 2022, Infrared Plasma Light Recycling Thermophotovoltaic Hydrogen Electrical Power Generator, PCT / IB23 / 53932 filed 04 / 18 / 23, and Infrared Plasma Light Recycling Thermophotovoltaic Hydrogen Electrical Power Generator, PCT / IB2024 / 054850 filed 04 / 18 / 24 (“Mills Prior Applications”) herein incorporated by reference in their entirety.

[0269] In an embodiment, H2O is ignited to form hydrinos with a high release of energy in the form of at least one of thermal, plasma, and electromagnetic (light) power. (“Ignition” in the present disclosure denotes the ignition from a set of reactants to produce a reaction such as a reaction ignited by the application of current to a set of reactants to produce a plasma which may be due to very high reaction rate of H to hydrinos that may be manifest as a burst, pulse or other form of high-power release). H2O may comprise the fuel that may be ignited with the application a high current such as one in the range of about 10 A to 100,000 A. In an embodiment, the hydrino reaction rate is dependent on the application or development of a high current. In an embodiment of a SunCell®, the reactants to form hydrinos are subject to a low voltage, high current, high power pulse that causes a very rapid reaction rate and energy release. In an exemplary embodiment, a 60 Hz voltage is less than 15 V peak, the current ranges from 100 A / cm2and 50,000 A / cm2peak, and the power ranges from 1000 W / cm2and 750,000 W / cm2. Other frequencies, voltages, currents, and powers in ranges of about 1 / 100 times to 100 times these parameters are suitable. In an embodiment, the hydrino reaction rate is dependent on the application or development of a high current. In an embodiment, the voltage is selected to cause a high AC, DC, or an AC-DC mixture of current that is in the range of at least one of 100 A to 1,000,000 A, 1 kA to 100,000 A, 10 kA to 50 kA. The DC or peak AC current density may be in the range of at least one of 100 A / cm2to 1,000,000 A / cm2, 1000 A / cm2to 100,000 A / cm2, and 2000 A / cm2to 50,000 A / cm2. The DC or peak AC voltage may be in at least one range chosen from about 0. 1 V to 1000 V, 0. 1 V to 100 V, 0. 1 V to 15 V, and 1 V to 15 V. The AC frequency may be in the range of about 0.1 Hz to 10 GHz, 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 10 Hz to 100 kHz, and 100 Hz to 10 kHz. The pulse time may be in at least one range chosen from about 10'6s to 10 s, 10'5s to 1 s, 10'4s to 0. 1 s, and 10'3s to 0.01 s.

[0270] Ignition System

[0271] In an embodiment, the ignition system comprises a switch to at least one of initiate the current and interrupt the current once ignition is achieved. The flow of current may be initiated by the contact of the molten metal streams. The switching may be performed electronically by means such as at least one of an insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT), a silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR), and at least one metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET). Alternatively, ignition may be switched mechanically. The current may be interrupted following ignition in order to optimize the output hydrino generated energy relative to the input ignition energy. The ignition system may comprise a switch to allow controllable amounts of energy to flow into the fuel to cause detonation and turn off the power during the phase wherein plasma is generated. In an embodiment, the source of electrical power to deliver a short burst of high-current electrical energy comprises at least one of the following: a voltage selected to cause a high AC, DC, or an AC-DC mixture of current that is in the range of at least one of 1 A to 1,000,000 A, 1 kA to 100,000 A, 10 kA to 50 kA; a DC or peak AC current density in the range of at least one of 1 A / cm2to 1,000,000 A / cm2, 1000 A / cm2to 100,000 A / cm2, and 2000 A / cm2to 50,000 A / cm2; wherein the voltage is determined by the conductivity of the solid fuel wherein the voltage is given by the desired current times the resistance of the solid fuel sample; the DC or peak AC voltage is in the range of at least one of 0. 1 V to 500 kV, 0. 1 V to 100 kV, and 1 V to 50 kV, and the AC frequency is in range of at least one of 0.1 Hz to 10 GHz, 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 10 Hz to 100 kHz, and 100 Hz to 10 kHz.

[0272] The system further comprises a startup power / energy source such as a battery such as a lithium ion battery and supercapacitors. Alternatively, external power such as grid power may be provided for startup through a connection from an external power source to the generator. The connection may comprise the power output bus bar. The startup power energy source may at least one of supply power to the heater to maintain the molten metal conductive matrix, power the injection system, and power the ignition system.

[0273] In an embodiment to startup the SunCell, a heater such as a burner or torch heater or an inductively coupled heater may heat at least one of the molten metal such as tin in the reservoirs 5c and the EM pump tubes 5k6, the PV window chamber 5b4, and the wet seal metal in contact with the PV window chamber to a molten state. In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises a heater such as a combustion heater such as one to perform hydrogen oxygen combustion to melt the molten metal such as the molten metal of the wet seal and that contained in the reservoirs and EM pump tubes. The heater may comprise a plurality of burner nozzles. The burner or nozzles may comprise a material capable of high temperature operation such as stainless steel such as 310. An exemplary heater comprises at least one of a plurality of burner nozzles (i) around the circumference of the PV window chamber, (ii) under and directed at the baseplate 5b31c to heat it and the wet seal, (iii) around the reservoirs at the location of the molten metal to heat the corresponding section of the reservoirs and internal molten metal in the reservoir 5c or inner reservoir 959, and (iv) directed at the EM pump tubes 5k6 to heat them and the internal molten metal. In an embodiment, the EM pump tubes may be clad with heat transfer blocks such as one comprising a material with a high thermal conductivity such as copper, silver, aluminum, or tin. The heat transfer block may conduct heat from the heated reservoir to the EM pump tubes. In an exemplary, the pump tube 5k6 may comprise heat transfer blocks such as copper ones to transfer heat to the EM pump tube from at least one of the heater and another SunCell component such as at least one of the reservoir 5c or 959 and the EM pump baseplate 5kkl . A heat transfer paste such as Ametek Grade 2 HTC may be used to increase the heat transfer from the blocks to the EM pump tube.

[0274] In an embodiment, the inner surface of the outer reservoir, the outer surface of the inner reservoir, and the gap-side of the EM pump baseplate 5kkl may be coated with a coating such as one of the disclosure. The coating may prevent formation of an alloy of the heat transfer block material and the materials of the reservoirs and baseplate such as an alloy of aluminum and stainless steel, respectively. An exemplary coating is BN. In an embodiment comprising coated surfaces such as BN coated ones that constitute the walls and base of the gap, the heat transfer material may comprise a molten metal such as molten aluminum (MP = 660.3°C; BP = 2,470°C) or tin (MP = 232 °C; BP = 2,602 °C).

[0275] The SunCell® may comprise a high-pressure water electrolyzer such as one comprising a proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolyzer having water under high pressure to provide high-pressure hydrogen.

[0276] Molten Metal Stream Generation

[0277] In an embodiment, such as one shown in Figures 1-19, the SunCell® comprises two reservoirs 5c, each comprising an electromagnetic (EM) pump such as a DC, AC, or another EM pump of the disclosure and injector that also serves as the ignition electrode and a reservoir inlet riser for leveling the molten metal level in the reservoir. The molten metal may comprise tin, silver, silver-copper alloy, gallium, Galinstan, or another of the disclosure. The SunCell® may further comprise (i) a transparent reaction cell chamber or cavity 5b4 (Figures 1 and 19), (ii) a reaction cell chamber or fused reservoir section 960, electrically isolating breaks 913 in each the reservoir to electrically isolate each reservoir from the reaction cell chamber 960 (i.e. reservoir hemispherical dome) and to electrically isolate the reservoirs and EM pumps from each other wherein the ignition current flows with contact of intersecting molten metal streams of the two EM pump injectors, and (iii) and injectors, each comprising an outlet of an EM pump that may comprise a ball and socket joint (Figures 2-6) that permits the nozzle and molten metal stream direction to be adjusted and an injector electrode aligner such as one comprising a flexible section 917 of the reservoir such as a bellows, a threaded alignment rod 921 that connects to a frame 920 and a movable frame 920a such as the EM pump baseplate 5kkl wherein turning to shortening and lengthening the alignment rod length between the plates tilts the direction of the injector nozzle to achieve the alignment. In an exemplary embodiment, the aligner comprises the flexible section such as a bellows 917 and a contraction tilt system wherein the tilt of the bellows by the tilt system is achieved by contraction of one side of the bellows rather than compression and lengthening of the opposite side of the bellows. In an embodiment, the electrical break 913 comprises a commercial one such as one made by Kurt Lesker such as the exemplary CF Flanged Vacuum Ceramic Break, Product No. CFT08V2376, https: / / www.lesker.com / newweb / feedthroughs / ceramicbreaks vacuum. cftn?pgid=cf or made by MPF Products Inc. such as Product No. A0625-2-W, https: / / mpfpi.com / shop / uhv- isolators / 10kv-uhv-breaks / a0625 -2-w / . The electrical break 913 may comprise a ceramic such as alumina brazed to a metal such as Kovar. The braze may comprise one such as copper braze capable of high temperature operation such as above 500°C. The reservoir hemispherical dome 960 may be lined with a reflective liners such as the reflective quartz material OM 100 (Heraeus, https: / / www.heraeus.com / media / media / hca / doc hca / products and solutions 8 / solids / OMlO 0 EN.pdf) or a mirrored liner comprising a metal such as silver, gold, or aluminum that may form an alloy with the molten metal that may be coated with a protective coat such as one of the disclosure such as BN. In an embodiment, at least one of a liner of the reservoir hemispherical dome 960 and the molten metal pool to serve as a reflector and to protect the nozzle from plasma damage comprises a metal screen through which molten metal is pumped by an EM pump to maintain a molten metal wet wall as disclosed in Mills prior patent applications.

[0278] The electromagnetic pumps may each comprise one of two main types of electromagnetic pumps for liquid metals: an AC or DC conduction pump in which an AC or DC magnetic field is established across a tube containing liquid metal, and an AC or DC current is fed to the liquid through electrodes connected to the tube walls, respectively; and induction pumps, in which a travelling field induces the required current, as in an induction motor wherein the current may be crossed with an applied AC electromagnetic field. The induction pump may comprise three main forms: annular linear, flat linear, and spiral. The pumps may comprise others know in the art such as mechanical and thermoelectric pumps. The mechanical pump may comprise a centrifugal pump with a motor driven impeller. The mechanical pump may comprise a metallic centrifugal magnet drive pump. An exemplary molten metal pump cable of operating at high temperature is MMP 11 IWAKI SANWA PUMP [https: / / iwakiamerica.com / Literature / Sanwa / Datasheets / MMPl 1 ,C%20Datasheet.pdf] . The power to the electromagnetic pump may be constant or pulsed to cause a corresponding constant or pulsed injection of the molten metal, respectively. The pulsed injection may be driven by a program or function generator. The pulsed injection may maintain pulsed plasma in the reaction cell chamber. The EM pump may comprise a multistage pump.

[0279] The molten metal pump may comprise a moving magnet pump (MMP). An exemplary commercial AC EM pump is the CMI Novacast CAI 5 wherein the heating and cooling systems may be modified to support pumping molten metal.

[0280] In an embodiment, the EM pump may comprise a moving magnet pump (MMP) as the molten metal pump such as one reported by [V. Dzelme et al, “Numerical modelling of liquid metal electromagnetic pump with rotating permanent magnets”, 2018 IOP Conf. Ser.: Mater. Sci. Eng. 424 012046; A. Gaile, et al., “Permanent Magnet Pump for Aluminum Transport in a Linear Channel”, Metals 2023, 13(7), 1160; https: / / doi.org / 10.3390 / metl3071160; T. Ando et al., “Induction Pump for High-Temperature Molten Metals Using Rotating Twisted Magnetic Field: Molten Gallium Experiment”, IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MAGNETICS, VOL. 40, NO. 4, JULY 2004, pp. 1846-1857; M. G. Hvastaa, W. K. Nollet, M. H. Anderson, “Designing Moving Magnet Pumps for High- Temperature, Liquid-Metal Systems”, Nuclear Engineering and Design, Volume 327, February 2018, Pages 228-237 which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety] comprising permanent magnets of alternating polarity that are rotated over an EM pump tube 5k6 by a motor such as an electric motor. The rotating magnetic field of the rotating magnets may induce a rotating induction current in the molten metal such as molten tin to cause a Lorentz force in the direction of the rotation to cause molten metal pumping.

[0281] The MMP may have an extended length pump tube that runs to and from the EM pump baseplate 409b to receive molten tin from the inlet riser 5qa section of the pump and eject it through the injection portion of the EM pump tube 5k61, both tubes inside of the inner reservoir 959. Each MMP may be located near and to the side of the outer reservoirs with the MMP inlet receiving molten metal from an inlet riser penetration of the EM pump baseplate and the MMP pumping molten metal through an injection penetration of the EM pump baseplate and the injection section of the EM pump tube 5k61.

[0282] In an embodiment, the EM pump comprises an induction type comprising (i) an electrical insulator loop such as a ceramic or quartz tube loop filled with the metal to be pumped with an inlet and outlet to the loop, (ii) a time varying magnetic field source through the loop such as an electromagnetic yoke to induce a current flow around the loop, and (iii) a synchronized electromagnet that provides an electromagnetic field perpendicular to the time varying induction current in the loop to cause a Lorentz force to pump the molten metal from the inlet through the outlet. In another embodiment, the tube is straight and is driven by linear electromagnetic excitation. At least one of the inlet and outlet of the ceramic or quartz tube may be metalized and brazed to a metal flange that may be connected to a component to the SunCell such as at least one of the outlet of the reservoir 5c or the injector portion of the EM pump such as 5k61. The connection may comprise a gasket flange seal or a weld.

[0283] In an embodiment, the molten metal pump comprises at least one injection tube connected to a position of the reservoir that is lower than the reservoir molten metal level and is connected at the opposite to a chamber that can be pneumatically pressurized, a source of reactant gas connected to the pneumatic chamber, a valve and a pressure controller to control the gas flow and pressure to the pneumatic chamber, and a controller to control the repetitive pressurization of the pneumatic chamber. In an embodiment, siphoning and gravity flow fills the injection tube about to the height of the molten metal in the reservoir. The pneumatic chamber may be pressurized with reactant gas to inject the metal pneumatically with reactant gas. In an embodiment, the molten metal pump comprises a plurality of injection tubes that maintain about constant molten metal injection by injection timing between the tubes controlled by the controller.

[0284] A cooling system such a heat exchange may be positioned along a portion of the extended pump tube to cool the molten metal before it enters the MMP or induction pump. The cooling system may also directly cool the MMP magnets. The cooling may be such that the Curie temperature of the rotation magnets is not exceeded. The heat exchange may comprise a coolant such a gas or liquid such as air and water, respectively. An exemplary, heat exchanger comprises a forced air heat exchanger such as one comprising fans or air jets that cool the EM pump tube.

[0285] In an embodiment, the SunCell® may comprise a molten metal level controller in each reservoir. The level controller may comprise an inlet riser 5qa comprising a tube that comprises an inlet opening along a portion of its span from the top towards its base where it connects to the inlet of the EM pump. The inlet riser may have a decreasing opening cross section from the inlet riser top towards its bottom to decrease the inlet flow rate and EM pumping rate as the molten metal in the reservoir drops.

[0286] Power System and Configuration

[0287] The SunCell® may comprise (i) an DC or AC ignition power source to flow current through intersecting molten metal streams injected by a plurality of EM pumps each stream passing through the corresponding injector nozzle that serves as an electrode, and plasma control system, a gas source such as a hydrogen gas supply tank, a hydrogen supply monitor and regular, and a vacuum system comprising an inlet to a vacuum line, a vacuum line, a trap, and a vacuum pump. The vacuum pump may comprise one with a high pumping speed such as a root pump, scroll, multi -lobe pump, or rotary vane pump. The vacuum system may be capable of at least one of ultrahigh vacuum and maintaining a reaction cell chamber operating pressure in at least one low range such as about 0.01 Torr to 1000 Torr. The SunCell may further comprise a vacuum line 711 and a hydrino reactant gas line 906. The SunCell may further comprise at least one of a gas recirculator and a means to selectively vent, collect, remove, or purge hydrino gas from the recirculated gas such as a getter or selectively permeable membrane. The hydrogen removed as hydrino may be made up by supplying make-up hydrogen from the hydrogen source.

[0288] In an embodiment, the SunCell comprises a constant pressure flow controller to maintain the reaction cell chamber that supports the plasma reaction under constant pressure. The reaction cell chamber may comprise at least one of the PV window cavity 5b4 and the inner reservoirs 959. The pressure may be maintained in the range of about 0. 1 Torr to 100 atm when one or more reactants are flowing into the vessel. The SunCell may further comprise a recirculator to recirculate gases from and to the vessel wherein at least one of hydrino may be removed and hydrino reactants such as hydrogen may be resupplied.

[0289] In some embodiments, the hydrino reactant gas in the is a mixture of hydrogen (Eh) and oxygen (O2). For example, the relative molar ratio of oxygen to hydrogen is from 0.01%-50% (e.g. from 0.1%-20%, from 0.1-15%, etc.). The reactant gas may further comprise at least one of H2O vapor and a noble gas such as argon. In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises a source of hydrogen such as hydrogen gas and a source of oxygen such as oxygen gas. The source of at least one of hydrogen and oxygen sources comprises at least one or more gas tanks, flow regulators, pressure gauges, valves, and gas lines to the reaction cell chamber. In an embodiment, the HOH catalyst is generated from combustion of hydrogen and oxygen. The hydrogen and oxygen gases may be flowed into the reaction cell chamber. The inlet flow of reactants such as at least one of hydrogen and oxygen may be continuous or intermittent. The flow rates and an exhaust or vacuum flow rate may be controlled to achieve a desired pressure. The inlet flow may be intermittent wherein the flow may be stopped at the maximum pressure of a desired range and commenced at a minimum of the desire range. At least one of the H2 pressure and flow rate and O2 pressure and flow rate may be controlled to maintain at least one of the HOH and H2 concentrations or partial pressures in a desired range to control and optimize the power from the hydrino reaction. In an embodiment, at least one of the hydrogen inventory and flow many be significantly greater than the oxygen inventory and flow. The ratio of at least one of the partial pressure of H2 to O2 and the flow rate of H2 to O2 may be in at least one range of about 1.1 to 10,000, 1.5 to 1000, 1.5 to 500, 1.5 to 100, 2 to 50 and 2 to 10. In an embodiment, the total pressure may be maintained in a range that supports a high concentration of nascent HOH and atomic H such as in at least one pressure range of about 1 mTorr to 5000 Torr, 10 mTorr to 1000 Torr, 100 mTorr to 50 Torr, and 1 Torr to 100 Torr.

[0290] In an embodiment, the SunCell® may comprise a (i) gas recirculation system with a gas inlet and an outlet, (ii) a gas separation system such as one capable of separating at least two gases of a mixture of at least two of a noble gas such as argon, O2, H2, H2O, air, and hydrino gas, (iii) at least one noble gas, O2, H2, and H2O partial pressure sensors, (iv) flow controllers, (v) at least one injector such as a microinjector or mass flow controller such as one that injects water or water vapor, (vi) at least one valve, (vii) a pump, (viii) an exhaust gas pressure and flow controller, and (ix) a computer to maintain at least one of the noble gas, argon, O2, H2, H2O, and hydrino gas pressures. The noble gas such as argon may be maintained in the pressure range of about 1 mTorr to 100 atm under at least one of static and flow conditions. The reaction mixture gases such as at least one of H2, O2, H2O, and a noble gas such as argon may be recirculated by a recirculator. The pressure may be maintained by a constant pressure or flow mass flow controller controlled by a processor-controller with input from a least one of a flow gauge and a pressure gauge. The recirculation system may comprise a semipermeable membrane to allow at least one gas such as molecular hydrino gas to be removed from the recirculated gases. In an embodiment, at least one gas such as the noble gas may be selectively recirculated while at least one gas of the reaction mixture may flow out of the outlet and may be exhausted through an exhaust.

[0291] In an embodiment the reaction gas mixture to maintain the hydrino reaction such as one comprising at least two of H2, O2, H2O, and an inert gas such as argon may be controlled at constant pressure by a constant pressure flow meter such as one by Alcat (https: / / www.alicat.com / products / gas-flow / ).

[0292] In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises ignition bus bars 5k2al that each connect the ignition power supply and to a component of the SunCell® such as the EM pump baseplate to provide ignition current through the intersecting molten metal streams injected by the EM pumps. In an embodiment, the EM pump magnets 5k4 and any yokes on the magnets may be cooled to prevent them from going over the Curie temperature, to prevent the EM pump magnetic field from being lost.

[0293] In an embodiment, the SunCell comprises a transparent window or cavity where optical power generated by the hydrino reaction on one side of the window or inside of the cavity it transmitted through the PV window or cavity to a photovoltaic converter 26a wherein the PV cells may each comprise a reflector on the backside to reflect optical power that is not converter into electricity back to the plasma to be absorbed and reemitted as recycled optical power. A test of single junction Group III / V semiconductor PV conversion of 1207°C blackbody emission with infrared light recycling was reported by Z. Omair, et al., “Ultraefficient thermophotovoltaic power conversion by band-edge spectral filtering”, PNAS, Vol, 116, No. 3, (2019), pp. 15356-15361 which is incorporated by reference in its entirety. Omair et al., achieved 30% conversion efficiency and projected an efficiency of 50% with mirror, PV, blackbody emissivity, view factor, series resistance, and other improvements. The thermophotovoltaic (TPV) conversion efficiency for 3000K SunCell emission by a single junction concentrator silicon PV cell operating at 120 °C was calculated to be 84% with a practical expectation of 50%. In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises a thermophotovoltaic (TPV) converter comprising at least one photovoltaic cell and at least one blackbody radiator or emitter. The blackbody radiator for thermophotovoltaic conversion with light recycling comprises one or more of (i) at least one of the outer walls of a SunCell component and (ii) the hydrino plasma in the reaction cell chamber that emits light through the window or cavity to the PV converter.

[0294] In an embodiment, the PV converter 26a comprises a dense receiver array comprising an ensemble of linear elements, each comprised of a plurality of PV cells. The elements may be oriented along the vertical or z-axis of the SunCell PV window cavity. The elements may be arranged to optimize at least one of absorption of incident light radiated from the hydrino reaction plasma maintained in the PV window cavity and the reflection of at least one of light below the bandgap of the PV cells and light not converted into electricity. The latter reflected light may recycled light that is transmitted through the PV window cavity and incident the hydrino reaction plasma where it is at least partial absorbed to contribute to the power radiated by the hydrino reaction plasma maintained inside of the PV window cavity. The width of the linear elements may be selected to optimize at least one of the absorbed and recycled light. The linear elements may form an ensemble comprising an enclosure circumferentially to the PV window cavity. In an exemplary embodiment, the ensemble comprises a cylinder circumferential to a cylindrical PV window cavity (see e.g. Figure 19) wherein the PV window cavity comprises a flat top with a geometrically matched flat PV top panel. Other embodiments, each comprise a PV window cavity having an alternative geometry such a cubic, rectangular, triangular, and hemispherical with a matching PV convert 26a comprising a dense receiver array. The PV cells such as those of each linear element may be connected in at least one of series and parallel to provide a desired voltage and current per element. The linear elements may be connected in at least one of series and parallel to provide a desired total ensemble voltage and current.

[0295] In an embodiment, the photovoltaic (PV) converter 26a shown in Figure 19 comprises a cylindrical assemble of side column PV elements 1026 connected by interconnects 1029. Each side column PV elements 1026 comprises a column of PV cells 1027 on the front side facing the PV window cavity 5b4 that may be mounted on a mounting plate such as a copper mounting plate and a cold plate 1028 on the backside comprising an inlet for coolant 1030 from a coolant line or manifold 1031 and a channel spanning the length of the column PV element to receive heat from the PV cells and transfer it to the coolant that exists an outlet 1032 to an outlet coolant line or manifold 1033. In an embodiment, the photovoltaic (PV) converter 26a further comprises a flat or domed top 1034 comprising an assemble of row PV elements 1035 each comprising PV cells on the front side facing the PV window cavity 5b4 that may be mounted on a mounting plate such as a copper mounting plate and contact a cold plate 1036 on the backside comprising a coolant inlet line or manifold 1037 to provide coolant to the cold plate 1036 to receive heat from the PV cells and transfer it to the coolant that exists an outlet to an outlet coolant line or manifold 1038. The cold plate may comprise a common cold plate for the top assemble of row PV elements with at least one inlet and one outlet to the cold plate that may further comprise flow channels of a geometry selected to effectively circulate the coolant over the PV cells. In exemplary embodiments, the coolant channels on the top cold plate may comprise a circular geometry with in-heat-exchanger radial inlet and outlet manifolds at opposite ends of circular channels of different radii (Figure 19), a spiral coolant channel with a perimeter inlet and a central outlet, or linear- transverse or separated back-and-forth channels comprising independent or common inlets and outlets that efficiently cool the PV cells of the top section of the PV converter 10234. In another embodiment, the cold plate comprises an inlet at the ends of each row PV element that connect to radial channels that converge to a central outlet chamber or manifold. Alternatively, each radial channel comprises at least one outlet hole on the top or center of the channel to a common series of outlet channels or a common outlet chamber or manifold on top of the radial inlet channels. The inlet coolant lines or manifolds and the outlet coolant lines or manifolds may be connected to a heat exchanger such as a radiator such as a car or truck radiator that provides cold coolant to the inlet coolant lines and manifolds and receives hot coolant from the outlet coolant lines and manifolds.

[0296] In an embodiment, the seal between the baseplate 5b31c and the PV window cavity 5b4 comprises a molten metal wet seal. The wet seal comprises wet seal molten metal such as tin and a means to retain molten metal at the connection of the PV window cavity 5b4 and the baseplate 5b31c such as a retention housing or wall 5b 10 and a gasket. In an exemplary embodiment, a graphite or carbon gasket between the base of the PV window or it flange and the baseplate 5b31c may be compressed by atmospheric pressure by pulling a vacuum on the PV window cavity wherein a retention wall peripheral and circumferential to the PV window cavity or its flange retains the wet seal molten metal against the gasket. In an embodiment, the wet seal molten metal may be drained during disassembly using wet seal molten metal drain 713 (Figure 7).

[0297] In an embodiment, the SunCell may be operated at a pressure that is greater than that required to maintain the molten metal wet seal by the sealing pressure due to the pressure differential between the pressure inside versus outside of the PV window cavity. The PV window cavity 5b4 may comprise a fastener to hold the cavity sealed on the PV window baseplate 5b31c. The fastener may comprise (i) a PV window cavity comprising at least one of a flange such as a flange of the same material as the PV window cavity such as a quartz flange on a quartz PV window cavity, and (ii) a flange compressor such as a clamp or compression flange such as ConFlat-type flange on at least one of the top and bottom of the PV window cavity flange wherein the compression flange may comprise a gasket such as a graphite gasket. The flange compressor may be submerged in the molten metal of the wet seal.

[0298] In another embodiment, the PV window cavity fastener comprises a compressive or tightening mechanism to maintain a compressive attachment to the PV window cavity 5b4 to the PV window cavity baseplate 5b31c. In an embodiment, the PV window cavity fastener further comprise a tension applicator such as a spring to maintain a desired compressive or tightening force of the clamp on the PV window cavity 5b4 during operation of the SunCell. The PV window cavity fastener may comprise a T-bolt clamp, pipe, hose, or band clamp. The PV window cavity fastener may comprise spring-loaded clamp such as a spring-loaded T-bolt clamp wherein the spring applies compressive or tightening force to the clamp and compensates for thermal expansion of the clamp. The spring may comprise one that is capable of high temperature such as one comprising A 286 Alloy, Inconel 718, Inconel x 750 AMS 5698, 5699, orNimonic90.

[0299] In an alternative embodiment, the compressive or tightening mechanism such as one comprising a clamp and a tightener, the tightener such as a clamp spring is removed from the hot region of the dome seal such as a molten metal wet seal. In an exemplary embodiment shown in Figure 1, a clamp spring 1018 of a spring-loaded T-bolt dome clamp 1013 is located remotely from the hot region of the clamp (e. g. between the outer retention ring 5b 10 and the inner retention ring 5b 10a). In an exemplary embodiment, the clamp 1013 comprises a T-bolt clamp comprising a circumferential metal band and at least one tightening bolt 1020 wherein the band metal directly contacts the PV window cavity 5b4 wall, and the tightening bolt 1020 extends to a remote spring tightening mechanism to avoid overheating the clamp spring 1018.

[0300] The remote spring tightening mechanism may comprise (i) a rectangular bushing and 1stpost 1014 with a penetration for the tightening bolt 1020 wherein the outer wet seal retention wall 5b 10 is welded on opposite sides of the bushing 1014 and the PV window baseplate 5b31c is welded to the bushing where they contact to form a seal to the wet seal molten metal, (ii) a clamp bolt bellows 1015 welded to the bushing and 1stpost 1014 on the side opposite the direction of penetration of the tightening bolt 1020 wherein the opposite end of the bellows 1015 is welded to the tightening bolt 1020, (iii) an extended section of the tightening bolt 1020, (iv) a baseplate clamping mechanism extension 1016 such as an extension of the PV window baseplate 5b31c (v) a second post 1017 welded to the extension 1016 having a penetration for the tightening bolt 1020, (vi) a spring 1018 such as a heavy- duty compression spring such as ASRaymond CV0750-1000-135, and (vii) a washer and a nut 1019 on the tightening bolt 1020 wherein the spring is positioned between the second post 1017 and the washer and nut 1019.

[0301] In an alternative embodiment, the rectangular bushing and 1stpost 1014 having a penetration for the tightening bolt 1020 is replaced by (i) a first metal post welded vertically on the PV window baseplate 5b31c with a penetration for the tightening bolt 1020 wherein the outer wet seal retention wall 5b 10 is welded on opposite sides of the post to form a molten wet seal, and (ii) a tightening bolt bushing or sleeve between the dome clamp 1013 and the first post. The clamp bolt bellows 1015 may be welded to the 1stpost on the side opposite the direction of penetration of the tightening bolt 1020 to seal the bellows to the 1stpost.

[0302] The nut may be tightened to apply pressure on the spring 1018 to tighten the clamp 1013 and maintain compression on the PV window cavity 5b4 wall.

[0303] In an embodiment, the PV window cavity fastener comprises (i) a PV window cavity or dome clamp 1013 that may further comprise a compressive or tightening mechanism to maintain a compressive attachment to the PV window cavity 5b4 and (ii) a dome clamp fastener that secures the PV window cavity clamp 1013 to the PV window baseplate 5b31c by providing a fastening force of the dome 5b4 to the baseplate 5b31c. The dome clamp fastener to provide fastening force of the dome to the baseplate may comprise (i) at least one fastener attachment to the dome clamp 1013 such as such as tabs fastened on the dome clamp 1013 and (ii) at least one fastener of the dome clamp attachment to the PV window cavity baseplate such as at least one of bolts such as spring -loaded bolts, and clamps and brackets such as spring-loaded ones. In an exemplary embodiment shown in Figure 1, the dome clamp fastener comprises dome clamp-bracket tabs 1023 fastened to the dome clamp 1013 and fasteners of the tabs 1023 to the PV window baseplate 5b31c comprising clamp brackets 1021 that are fastened to a baseplate bracket mechanism extension 1022 by spring -loaded bolt fasteners comprising bracket bolts 1024 and bracket springs 1025. In an embodiment, the PV window cavity fastener or at least one component comprises a molten metal alloy resistant material such as one of the disclosure such as Ta or W or is coated with a molten metal alloy resistant material such as BN or tantalum (e.g. Tantaline).

[0304] In an embodiment shown in Figures 7, 8, 9 and 10 an inner reservoir assembly comprises an inner reservoir extension 959a and the separator 957a wherein the two may be connected by a weld, braze, or solder joint 985b that may be at the top edge on the outer diameter or the inner diameter of the inner reservoir extension 959a. The separator may be welded into the outer reservoir 5c on its outer diameter. In an exemplary embodiment shown in Figure 10, the extension 959a comprises an alumina electrical break such as one by MPF, A1988-4-W | Ceramic Break, 40KV Isolation, 2.80" Dia Kovar Tube Adapters (https : / / mpfpi .com / shop / uhv-isolators / 40kv-uhv-breaks / a 1988-4-w / ) or A 1988-3 -W (https: / / mpfpi.com / ?s=A1988-3-W+) or one by Kurt Lesker such as CFT40V2381 CERAMIC BREAK, 40KV, VACUUM, 2.375”OD KOVAR TUBE END (https: / / www.lesker.com / newweb / feedthroughs / ceramicbreaks vacuum. cftn?pgid=weld) wherein (i) the Kovar weldable tube end is cut at the angle of the reservoirs from the vertical such as 12°, (ii) the weldable tube end is welded to the separator 957a, and (iii) the weldable tube end at the opposite end (i.e. the one inside of the inner reservoir 959) is absent from the ceramic extension 959a.

[0305] In an embodiment, at least one of braze joint metal such as Kovar and the braze such as copper may be coated to protect against alloy formation with the molten metal such as molten tin. The coating may comprise one of the disclosure such as BN paint.

[0306] In an embodiment, the inner reservoir extension 959a (e.g. shown in Figures 7,8,9,10) may comprise metal such as a stainless-steel inner reservoir extension tube 959a that is connected to the separator 957a such as attached at the ID of the separator wherein the OD of the inner reservoir extension tube 959a matches the ID of the separator 957a . Alternatively, the inner reservoir extension tube 959a may attach under the separator 957a wherein the ID of the inner reservoir extension tube 959a is the larger than the ID of the separator, and the OD is less than that of the inner reservoir 959. The connection of a metal inner reservoir extension tube 959a to a metal separator may comprise a welded union at its top edge. The inner reservoir extension tube 959a may be cut at the same angle as the angle of the reservoirs (e.g. 5-25°, 10-16°, 11-13°, 12°) at the top and welded to a metal separator such as a SS one. The SS inner reservoir extension tube may extend inside of the inner reservoir 959. The gap between the OD of the SS inner reservoir extension and the ID of the inner reservoir 959 tube may provide electrical isolation between the tubes and any transverse injected molten metal such as tin from the nozzle 5q. The gap may be in the range of about 1 mm to 10 cm. The length of the extension of the inner reservoir extension 959a into the inner reservoir 959 and the narrowness of the gap between the inner reservoir extension 959a and the inner reservoir 959 may prevent transverse injected tin from overflowing the inner reservoir 959 into its gap with the outer reservoir 5c. The length of the extension of the inner reservoir extension 959a into the inner reservoir 959 may be in the range of about 1 mm to 20 cm. In an embodiment shown in Figure 7 to avoid molten metal being injected in the vicinity of the gap between the inner reservoir extension 959a and the inner reservoir 959 to prevent the two from electrically shorting, the inner reservoir extension 959a may comprise an electrically insulating, high temperature liner 959d such as a quartz or borosilicate glass liner or ceramic liner such as an alumina or zirconia liner or another liner of the disclosure. The liner may rest on an inner reservoir liner support 959f (Figure 7) that may be attached to the inner wall of the inner reservoir 959 and comprise molten metal return drainage channels. An exemplary inner reservoir liner support 959f comprises a slotted collar or pins welded to the inside of the inner reservoir 959. The height of the nozzle 5q inside of the inner reservoir liner 959d may be higher than the bottom of the inner reservoir liner 959d.

[0307] In an embodiment shown in Figure 8, the separator 957a may comprise a drainage channel 957c to return the molten metal such as tin while avoiding the returning molten metal from making contact with at least one of the injector section of the EM pump 5k61 and the nozzle 5q. The drainage channel 957c may comprise a slot 957d in the separator 957a such as one that forms a gap between the liner 959d and the inner reservoir extension 959a. In an exemplary embodiment, the separator drainage channel slot 957d spans a portion such as about 1% to 60% of the circumference of the ID of the separator 957a furthest from the region between the two nozzles 5q. The separator may further comprise a means to cause preferential directed flow of returning molten metal to the drainage channel 957c. In an embodiment, the separator 957a may be oriented in the outer reservoir 5c at an angle to tilt the separator toward the flow channel to cause preferential flow to the channel. In an embodiment, the separator 957a may comprise a flow channel to direct the flow to the drainage channel. The flow channel may comprise at least one of the reservoir hemispherical dome 960, the outer reservoir 5c, the separator 957a, the liner 959d which may be elevated above the separator 957a, and a diverter 959g. The diverter 959g may comprise an elevated extension of the inner reservoir extension 959a that may prevent returning molten metal from flowing into any gap between elevated liner 959d and the inner reservoir extension 959a. In an embodiment, the diverter 959g extends along the circumference of the liner 959d. The diverter 959g may span a portion such as about 1% to 60% of the circumference of the ID of the separator 957a closest to the region between the two nozzles 5q to direct the flow to the drainage channel 957c and separator drainage channel slot 957d in a farther portion wherein the return molten metal is directed to flow through the separator drainage channel slot 957d. In the case that returning molten metal does flow into the gap between the liner 959d and the inner reservoir extension 959a in the closest portion, the inner reservoir 959 may comprise an electrically nonconductive liner such as a quartz liner on at least one of the inner and outer surfaces to achieve electrical isolation such as isolation between the inner reservoir extension 959a and the inner reservoir 959.

[0308] In an embodiment, the separator drainage channel slot 957d comprises a metal wire screen or grid over the slot entrance to improve the Faraday cage comprising the inner reservoir extension 959a, the inner reservoir 959, and the separator 957a to prevent plasma from forming in the gap between the inner reservoir extension 959a and the inner reservoir 959.

[0309] In an embodiment, the injector section of the EM pump tube 5k61 such as the one shown in Figure 9 comprises an electrically insulating refractory sleeve such as a quartz, BN, AIN, or a ceramic such as alumina or zirconia sleeve to prevent the injector from electrically shorting such as electrically shorting with the outer reservoir assembly or opposing injector electrode due to contact with a shorting conductor such as retuning molten metal flow or plasma. The sleeve may comprise a plurality of materials such as a quartz sleeve with a more refractory end at the nozzle 5q such as at least one of carbon, BN, and AIN. A carbon sleeve or partial sleeve may be converted to CO2, so it may serve as a replaceable consumable part. The sleeve may cover the injector section of the EM pump tube 5k61 but not the nozzle 5q. In an embodiment, the nozzle 5q maybe at least partially covered with a sleeve such as a quartz sleeve wherein the sleeve is tightly fit to at least one of the injector section of the EM pump tube 5k61 and the nozzle 5q such that a molten metal pool forms at the end of the sleeve. A sealant such as high temperature tape may be applied between the tube and the sleeve to make a seal for the molten metal. The pool may at least partially cover the nozzle to protect it from the plasma while allowing the nozzle to eject the corresponding molten metal stream. The pool depth may be in the range of about 0. 1 mm to 10 cm or about 1 mm to 5 cm. In an exemplary embodiment, a pool cavity that maintains the molten metal pool to protect the nozzle comprises a plurality of concentric tube sleeves such as at least one of quartz, carbon, BN, AIN, or a ceramic such as alumina or zirconia that have a seal in between sleeves or on the base on which they sit such as a disc that is retards tin flow to maintain the pool. In an exemplary embodiment, the sleeves may be sealed in between contiguous tubes or at the bottom of the tubes by a sealant such as by a high temperature tape such as Eastwood Hotcoat High Temperature Fiberglass Masking Tape (Item 16324). The molten metal pool may cover the nozzle by 0. 1 mm to 20 mm.

[0310] In another embodiment, sleeve may further comprise a plurality of sleeves such as one that covers just the injector section of the EM pump tube 5k61 and another sleeve that forms an electrically insulating refractory conduit of the corresponding injected molten metal stream from the nozzle to inside the PV window cavity 5b4. In an exemplary embodiment, a larger quartz extension sleeve is inserted over one that only covers the injector section tube 5k61 to form a molten metal stream conduit. The smaller diameter sleeve may hold the larger diameter sleeve in position. The extension sleeve may move the reaction plasma away from the base of the reservoir hemispherical dome 960 wherein the plasma may be further excluded for the interior of the quartz extension sleeve. The exclusion may be due to the extension sleeve comprising a sufficiently small diameter and an electrical insulator to screen out the plasma from propagating into its interior. The sleeve diameter may be in the range of about 0.1 cm to 10 cm. In an emodiment comprising an inner reservoir extension liner, the at least one sleeve sits on a support attached to the injector section of the electromagnetic pump tube such that the corresponding sleeve or pool cavity length is less than about 5% to 50% of the length of the injector section of the electromagnetic pump tube.

[0311] In an embodiment, the surface area of the edges on the end of the extension sleeve may be increased to enhance electrostatic charging of the end surfaces to repel plasma to prevent it from damaging the extension sleeve.

[0312] The sleeve may be further extended to form a channel through which the molten metal may be injected wherein the plasma may be restricted from entering the channel due to the non-conductivity of the channel and the shielding or screening of the plasma from the interior by the plasma itself. Furthermore, the sleeve may comprise a plurality of sleeves, such as an inner sleeve of smaller inner diameter than a second concentric outer sleeve wherein the inner sleeve may form a tight fit on at least a portion of the injector portion of at least one of the EM pump tube 5k61 and the nozzle 5q. The outer sleeve may fit concentrically over the smaller diameter sleeve and extend beyond the inner sleeve to form at least one of a larger molten metal pool and a larger molten metal injection channel than an extension of the inner sleeve itself. At least one sleeve, may comprise a vessel at its end to maintain a pool of liquid metal into which the nozzle is housed wherein it is at least partially submerged. The vessel that houses the molten metal pool may be angled to maintain a level surface relative to gravity. In an exemplary embodiment wherein the outer 5c and inner 959 reservoirs are at 12° from the -z-axis the pool may be tilted at 12° from the +z-axis wherein the z-axis is the vertical axis.

[0313] In an embodiment, an injection and return molten metal flow system may comprise (i) an outer reservoir 5c, (ii) an inner reservoir 959, (iii) an EM pump 5kk that that receives metal from the inner reservoir and injects it through an ejector may comprise an injector EM pump tube 5k61 and a nozzle 5q, (iv) a separator 957a welded into and across the opening of the outer reservoir 5c with an opening to allow passage of at least one of the molten metal injector and injected molten metal and further provide passage of return molten metal, (v) an inner reservoir extension 959a welded to the bottom of the separator, (vi) a separator drainage channel slot 957d on the side of the separator opposite the junction of reservoirs to the reservoir hemispherical dome 960, (vii) a separator drainage channel 957c flow to allow return molten metal flow to separator drainage channel slot 957d, (vii) a diverter 959g positioned circumferentially along a portion of the separator that serves as a barrier to molten metal flowing into the section of the separator opening spanned by the diverter and further directing molten metal flow to the separator drainage channel 957c, and (ix) an inner reservoir extension liner 959d that lines the portion of the inner reservoir extension 959a towards the center of the reservoir hemispherical dome 960 with a non-electrical conducting conduit and permits molten metal flow through the separator drainage slot 597d on the outside of the liner and inside of the reservoir extension on the portion of the liner away from the center of the reservoir hemispherical dome 960 to return metal to the inner reservoir 959.

[0314] The injection system may comprise a separator 957a comprising a dripper 959h such a flat perforated metal ring or screen in the area between the inner reservoir extension liner 959d and the outer separator edge connected to the inside of the outer reservoir 5c. The separator may further comprise the welded-in inner reservoir extension 959a under the separator to direct return molten metal flow into the inner reservoir 959. The injection system may comprise a molten metal pool in the inner reservoir below the dripper and inner reservoir extension that is maintained in the housing comprising a portion of the inner reservoir wall and a pool floor 1002 attached to a bracket 996 welded to the inner reservoir wall that positions the floor level to the horizontal axis. The pool floor may comprise a ball and socket joint 999 through which at least one of the injector section of the EM pump 5k61 and the nozzle 5q passes wherein the ball and socket joint may permit the adjustment of the orientation of the nozzle by the adjustment of the adjustors 917a, 921a, 981, 981a. The pool floor may further comprise inlet risers 991 comprising molten metal overflow tubes to maintain a desire depth of molten metal in the pool. The nozzle 5q may be housed in the inner reservoir extension liner 959d which may sit on at least one inlet riser 991 and may extend above the separator to a desired height such as about 1 mm to 10 cm to at least one of maintain a desired depth of molten metal in the reservoir hemispherical dome 960 and serve as an injector sleeve. The sleeve may further serve to prevent plasma from contacting that nozzle. In an embodiment, the ball and socket may further house a plasma-rejection gas line to permit gas flow through the sleeve to protect the nozzle from plasma damage.

[0315] In an embodiment, the injection section of the EM pump tube 5k61 and nozzle 5q may extend to a desired height relative to the inner reservoir 959, reservoir hemispherical dome 960, and PV baseplate 5b31c wherein at least one sleeve has a corresponding length to achieve the desired extension relative to the length of the nozzle. In an exemplary embodiment, the injection section of the EM pump tube 5k61 and nozzle 5q are positioned 1 to 2 inches above the baseplate 5b31c, and the sleeve length is adjusted to match the position of the nozzle or longer to achieve the nozzle protection from the plasma. In an embodiment, the separator may comprise a separator extension such as a tube welded to the separator 957a that extends above the separator wherein the inner reservoir extension liner 959d passes through the separator extension, the hole in the separator, and the inner reservoir extension 959a. The inner reservoir extension liner 959d may also serve as the separator extension liner. The liner 959d may comprise a flange at the top that rests on the top end of the separator extension. In an embodiment to maximize the area of the separator hole for a given inner reservoir extension ID, the separator extension may be attached at the ID of the separator hole wherein the relative diameters the separator components are: (i) inner reservoir extension 959a ID greater than the separator hole ID, (ii) separator hole ID equal to at least one of the separator extension ID or OD, and (iii) inner reservoir extension liner 959d OD about equal to the separator extension ID. The separator extension may extend above the separator such that the return molten metal is pooled in the corresponding space between the separator extension and at least one of the inner wall of the outer reservoir 5c and the reservoir hemispherical dome 960. At least one inner reservoir extension liner 959d of a diameter and length selected to protect the nozzle from plasma damage may comprise a sleeve.

[0316] In an embodiment, the ball and socket nozzle pool assembly 998 and pool floor plate 996 with optional pool floor plate gasket 995 may be mounted in an extension above the separator 957a such as an extension of the inner reservoir 959 or inner reservoir extension liner 959d. In an exemplary embodiment shown in Figure 10, the extension 959a comprises an alumina electrical break such as one by MPF, Ceramic Break, 60KV Isolation, 1.37" Inner Dia, 2.16" QF / KF Flange (https: / / mpfjn.com / shop / uhv-isolators / 60kv-uhv-breaks / a0597-5- qf / ) wherein (i) the Kovar weldable tube and optionally flange on at least one end of the ceramic tube is oriented at about the angle of the reservoirs from the vertical such as about 12°, (ii) the top Kovar or Kovar flange end is connected to ball and socket nozzle pool assembly 998, pool floor plate 996 with optional pool floor plate gasket 995, and a pool walls as part of ball and socket nozzle pool assembly 998, and (iii) the ceramic extension tube at the opposite end (i.e. the one inside of the inner reservoir 959) rests on and is attached to supports in the wall of the inner reservoir, or at least one of a Kovar weldable tube and flange attached to the Kovar weldable tube at the opposite end are attached to the inside of the inner reservoir 959 by supports wherein the supports comprise channels to permit return molten metal flow to pass to the inner reservoir 959. The braze of the ceramic break to the Kovar may comprise a high temperature braze such as copper.

[0317] In an alternative elevated ball and socket pool embodiment, the ball and socket pool are attached to a rigid metal pool assembly support such as a tubular or a plurality of tubular sections connected to the inner reservoir 959 such as to the inside wall of the inner reservoir that may be protected for shorting with at least one of outer reservoir 5c, reservoir hemispherical dome 960, and PV window cavity baseplate 5b31c by an electrical insulating sleeve such as a quartz sleeve. In an exemplary embodiment, the pool assembly support is connected to the inner reservoir 959 below the inner reservoir extension liner 959d at a depth to avoid shorting with returning molten metal and is housed in the liner 959d that is supported at the bottom by supports such as pins or shelves attached to the inner reservoir 959 wall or attached to the wall of the pool assembly support. The pool assembly support may extend into the reservoir hemispherical dome 960 and optionally past the PV window cavity baseplate 5b31c wherein the pool assembly support is connected to the pool assembly comprising the ball and socket nozzle pool assembly 998, pool floor plate 996 with optional pool floor plate gasket 995, and a pool walls as part of ball and socket nozzle pool assembly 998. In another embodiment, the liner 959d extends beyond the pool floor plate 1002 by a distance that establishes the depth of the pool as it serves as the walls of the pool where in the liner 959d maybe cut at an angle to maintain a level pool height to the horizontal such as at the same angle as the reservoir such as about 12°. In an embodiment, rather than set by the height of the inlet risers 991, the ball and socket nozzle pool assembly 998 may overflow to maintain the pool height determined by the depth of the nozzle ball and socket pool floor plate 1002 relative to the walls formed by the top of the inner reservoir extension liner 959d. In an embodiment, metal pool assembly support may comprise a plurality of SS sections and corresponding liners that have different cross-sectional sizes and heights such as a bottom section comprising a large diameter tube than that of a top section of a smaller diameter that supports the molten metal pool. The two support sections may be welded together and further comprise a washer at the junction point to seal the transition from the larger to smaller diameter radius. The top and bottom sections may each comprise an electrical insulator liner such as quartz liner of slightly larger diameter than that of the corresponding SS support section.

[0318] In an embodiment of at least one of the electrode pool cavity and pool and the elevated ball and socket pool, a sleeve or the liner 959d extends to about the level of the tip of the nozzle to enable pooling of metal at the end of the sleeve or liner 959d that at least partially submerges the nozzle in a liquid metal pool such that it may be protected from the plasma in the PV cavity dome 5b4. In other embodiments, the sleeve top or liner 959d may be within about 2 cm to 0 cm below the tip of the nozzle or extend beyond the nozzle tip in the length range from about 1 mm to 25 cm. In the former case, the nozzle tip may concentrate the plasma in the region of the nozzle tip which may be at about the center of the pool. In the latter case, the extended sleeve or liner 959d may maintain a deeper pool wherein the nozzle may eject molten metal through the protective pool metal covering the tip of the nozzle. In an embodiment, at least the top of at least one sleeve and liner 959d may be clad, coated, or metalized with a coating or layer to protect the sleeve. Exemplary coatings are W, dense chrome, nickel, a BN, TiN, CrC, CrN, Ta such as Tanatline coating, Mo, Nb, Nb(94.33 wt%)-Mo(4.86 wt%)-Zr(0.81 wt%), Os, Ru, Hf, Re, 347 SS, Cr-Mo SS, silicide, carbon, a ceramic such as Si3N4, Shapal, AIN, Sialon, AI2O3, ZrCh, or HfCh, MgO, SiC, a high temperature capable adhesive such as a quartz-to-quartz adhesive such as Aremco Ceramabond 618-N, Ceramabond™ 503, Ceramabond™ 571, Ceramabond™ 835M, or Ceramabond™ 865^a diffusion coating such as aluminide (Hitemco), and others of the disclosure of Mills Prior Patents. Alternatively, at least one sleeve such as the outer most sleeve may at least partially comprise a metallic sleeve such as a refractory metal sleeve such as a tungsten tube, which may be at least partially electrically isolated from the molten metal pool by an at least one inner nonconductor sleeve such as a quartz sleeve. The outer most metallic sleeve may comprise a partial sleeve, such as one in the upper portion of the pool cavity.

[0319] In an embodiment, at least one of the pool cavity and the elevated ball and socket pool that comprises a flow-through structure or channel comprising at least one drainage opening that receives inward flow of molten metal from at least one of one or more side openings and from at least one nozzle while draining from at the least one pool drainage opening for outward flow wherein the rate of inward flow versus outward flow may be such that the steady state flow at least partially fdls the channel. The steady state flow may be maintained without accumulation of a molten metal pool of any substantial height, such as no more than 1% to 75% fdled. In an embodiment, the pool floor of at least one of the pool cavity and elevated ball and socket pool comprises drainage outlet holes. The pool may comprise one or more sleeves that rest on the pool floor while being at least one of unsealed, unattached, or loosely attached to the floor such that molten metal drainage occurs at the sleeve-floor union. In another embodiment, at least the outermost sleeve may comprise side drainage holes. The steady state flow may serve to at least one of cool and protect the nozzle.

[0320] The pool floor may comprise a metal or alternatively, an electrical nonconductor such as a BN, alumina, zirconia, quartz, or another ceramic such as one of the disclosure to prevent electrical contact between at least a portion of the pool molten metal and the pool floor. In an exemplary embodiment, (i) the pool floor such as the cavity pool floor, comprises three concentric quartz sleeves that form a cavity for the nozzle and rest unsealed on an alumina disc supported by a collar on the injector section of the EM pump tube, (ii) drainage occurs at the sleeve-floor union, and the alumina disc may comprise at least one hole for drainage, (3) the corresponding injector section of the EM pump tube within the pool cavity may comprise at least one side opening to supply molten metal to the flow through the pool, and (iv) the sleeve cavity may function as a flow-through channel to cool and protect the nozzle while avoiding plasma current conduction through the molten metal pool.

[0321] In an embodiment to provide nozzle protection wherein the hydrino reaction rate is highest at of one the two electrodes such as at the positive electrode, the ignition system further comprises a switch to periodically reverse the polarity of the ignition current supplied to the electrodes such that the corresponding higher reaction power is intermittently switched back-and-forth between the two electrodes to prevent the nozzle exposed to the higher power from overheating and being damaged. The switching rate selected to prevent nozzle damage may be in the frequency range of about 1000 Hz to 10'4Hz.

[0322] In an embodiment of at least one of the electrode pool cavity and pool and the elevated ball and socket pool, at least one of the injector section of the EM pump tube 5k6 and the nozzle 5q may comprise at least one pool-filling opening such as one or more side openings to allow some molten metal pumped by the electromagnetic pump to flow into the pool cavity or ball and socket pool to maintain the molten metal pool to protect the nozzle from plasma damage. The at least one opening may comprise a baffle to at least partially decrease the force of the stream flowing from the opening. The pool level may also be at least partially maintained by molten metal ejected by either electromagnetic pump that falls into a pool cavity or ball and socket pool. The pool filling sources such as at least one of the (a) one or more pool-filling openings that are of sufficient size and number and (b) sufficient flow ejected from a nozzle that falls into the pool sustains the required molten metal flow to maintain the pool filled and cause molten metal to overflow the pool cavity to cool the pool and pool cavity or ball and socket pool and prevent the molten metal of the pool and pool cavity or ball and socket pool from overheating wherein the pool temperature is maintained below a desired temperature in the range of about 300 °C to 1000 °C. The pool may further comprise at least one drainage opening that maintains flow of molten metal out of the pool with a balanced input of molten metal to the pool from the pool-filling sources to cool at least one of the pool cavity or ball and socket pool, the pool molten metal, the injector section of the electromagnetic pump tube, and the nozzle.

[0323] In an embodiment, at least one of the injector section of the EM pump tube 5k61and the EM pump tube 5k6 comprises at least one of a coaxial, side-by-side, and juxtaposed plasma-rejection gas line that may also be housed in the at least one sleeve. The plasmarejection gas line may supply a gas such as a plasma reactant gas such as at least one of hydrogen, oxygen, or an inert gas such argon through at least a portion of the sleeve. The gas flow such as gas flow through the sleeve may be sufficient to at least partially protect at least one of the injector section of the EM pump tube 5k61 and the nozzle 5q from damage from the plasma in at least one of the PV window cavity 5b4 and reservoir hemispherical dome 960. The gas flow may push or expel the plasma from the at least one sleeve. The gas from the plasma-rejection gas line may at least one of participate in the hydrino plasma reaction and be removed from the reaction cell chamber comprising the PV window cavity 5b4 and reservoir hemispherical dome 960 by a vacuum pump. The plasma-rejection gas line may be connected to a penetration out of the inner reservoir 959 such as a welded-in penetration through the EM pump baseplate 5kkl. The line may further connect to a mass flow controller, a pressure gauge, and at least one gas tank. The flow may be controlled by a controller that controls the mass flow controller. In an embodiment, the SunCell comprises a source of microwaves to irradiate electrons moving directionally to cause them to accelerate in the direction of motion to further spread the plasma in the PV window cavity. The source may further comprise at least one microwave reflector to increase the efficiency of the absorption of microwaves by the plasma electrons. In an embodiment, the SunCell further comprises a source of photons such as radio frequency or microwave photons such as a microwave generator, and it means to irradiate plasma electrons confined in the photovoltaic window cavity 5b4 such as at least one ofh an antenna and a reflector. The electrons absorb the photons and are accelerated in the direction of propagation due to space drive. The application of the microwaves may be such that space drive causes the plasma to be confined to desired region such as that between the upper portion of the photovoltaic window cavity 5b4. The systems and mechanism of the space drive is given by Mills, which is here in incorporated by reference in its entirety [R. Mills, D. Hsieh, K. Sadman, “Reactionless propulsion”, (2025), submitted for publication, https: / / brilhantlightpower.com / pdf / Space-Drive-Paper-wfigures.pdfi R. Mills, SYSTEM AND METHOD FOR INCREASING THE KINETIC ENERGY OF A DIRECTIONAL PLASMA FLOW WITH MHD FLOW ARRESTING, US Provisional Application No. 63 / 825,359, Filed: June 17, 2025],

[0324] In an embodiment, electrically insulating packing may be positioned in the gap between the inner reservoir 959 and the outer reservoir 5c. In an exemplary embodiment, the electrical insulating packing between the inner reservoir 959 and outer reservoir 5c is provided by a braised ceramic such as a braided silica sleeve such as Flexo Silica Sleeve (https: / / www.techflex.com / high-temperature / silica-sleeve7product selected=SLN3.00NT). The sleeve may comprise an ID that is about equal to the OD of the inner reservoir.

[0325] In an embodiment, the braided ceramic sleeve on the exterior of the inner reservoir 959 extends over the top of the inner reservoir 959 and turns down into an upper portion of the inside of the inner reservoir to serve as an electrically insulating sleeve between the inner reservoir 959 and the inner reservoir extension 959a. The extent of sleeve inside of the inner reservoir may be in the range of 1% to 200% of the length of the inner reservoir extension inside of the inner reservoir. As a further embodiment to achieve electrical isolation, the inner reservoir 959 may comprise an electrically nonconductive liner such as a quartz liner on at least one of the inner and outer surfaces.

[0326] In an embodiment shown in Figures 10-11, the SunCell comprises a collar or annulus 980 on the bottom or the electrical break 913 connected to the outer reservoir 5c and a matching collar or annulus 981 on the inner reservoir 959. In an embodiment, shown in Figures 5 and 6, an inner reservoir assembly 978 comprises all the parts connected to the inner reservoir 959 such as the inner reservoir 959, the reservoir bellows 917a, the EM pump baseplate 5kkl, inlet riser 5qa, EM pump tube coupler 5k62, the EM pump assembly 5kk (comprising EM pump tube 5k6 and EM pump bus bar5ka2), injector section of the EM pump tube 5k61, nozzle 5q, adjustor swivel joint 921a, adjustor frame 981a, screw, bolt and nut 921, and inner reservoir annulus or collar 981. The inner reservoir assembly 978 may further comprise ball and socket nozzle pool assembly 998 and injector-base ball and socket joint 1004. In an embodiment, shown in Figure 8, an outer reservoir assembly 977 comprises all of the parts connected to the outer reservoir 5c such as the outer reservoirs 5c, PV window cavity baseplate 5b31c and retention ring 5bl0, reservoir hemispherical dome 960, separator 957a, inner reservoir extension 959a, diverter 959g, separator drainage channel 957c, separator drainage channel slot 957d, inner reservoir extension liner 959d, electrical break with collars 913, and annulus or collar 980. In an embodiment, the inner reservoir assembly 978 may be reversibly connected to the outer reservoir assembly 977 by a union between the collar 981 on the inner reservoir assembly and the collar 980 on the outer reservoir assembly. The union may comprise Conflat flanges that are bolted together with an intervening gasket or a seam weld around the perimeter of the collars. The inner reservoir assembly may be removed from the outer reservoir assembly by reversing the union between the collar 980 on the inner reservoir assembly and the collar 981 on the outer reservoir assembly.

[0327] In an embodiment, at least one of the reservoir bellows and the EM pump tube bellows may be coated with a coating to prevent alloy formation with the molten metal such as tin. Exemplary coatings are W, tantalum, BN, TiN, CrC, and others of the disclosure. An exemplary tantalum coated bellows comprise one by Tanatline (https: / / tantaline.com / application-notes / tantaline-treated-bellows / ). At least one of the bellows may comprise a tantalum-coated bellows such as one made by Tantaline CVD APS (https: / / tantaline.com / application-notes / tantaline-treated-bellows / ). In an embodiment, at least one SunCell component such as the inner reservoir 959, EM pump bus bar assembly 5ka2, the EM pump tube 5k6, EM pump baseplate 5kkl, the bellows reservoir 917a, the reservoir baseplate 5kk2, the EM pump assembly 5ka2, the reservoir hemispherical dome 960, and PV dome baseplate 5c31c may comprise a tantalum coat such as a diffusion coated such as one by Tantaline CVD APS. Alternatively, a metal that does not alloy with the molten metal may be electroplated on the inner surface of the bellows reservoir 917a. An exemplary non-alloy coating is W, on a stainless-steel reservoir bellows with a nickel bound coat. In an embodiment, at least one of the nozzles 5q and the injector section of the EM pump tube 5k61 comprises a refractory metal such as Ta or W or SS comprising a coating such as Ta, BN, or aluminide to prevent alloy formation with the molten metal such as tin.

[0328] In an embodiment such as shown in Figures 14 and 16, the separator 957a comprises at least one dripper such as a lead shot dripper. The return molten metal may flow through the dripper to form separate metal droplets at its outlet to break the return molten metal stream and thereby break the corresponding electrical connection such as one that may form between the inner reservoir extension 959a and one or more of the inner reservoir 959, inner reservoir liner support 959f, and nozzle pool assembly 998 (Figures 2 and 11). In an embodiment, each dripper comprises a plurality of penetration or holes in the separator 957a of sufficiently small diameter to cause the formation of molten metal droplets when the return molten metal flows through a hole. The holes may be in the area between the outer radius of the inner reservoir extension liner 959d and the inner reservoir extension 959a such that the droplets fall in the corresponding space between them. In an exemplary embodiment, the holes may be evenly spaced in the area between the extension 959a and the liner 959d such along at least one circumference between the extension 959a and the liner 959d. In an embodiment, the dripper has an inner diameter in the range of about 0.001 inches to 0.25 inches. The separator may comprise a plurality of drippers wherein the number may be sufficient for the aggregate through-put rate or flow rate through the holes to match or exceed the injection flow rate from the EM pump injectors 5k61 and nozzles 5q. In an embodiment, the separator 957a may comprise a molten metal pool on top of it to increase molten metal through-put rate by increasing molten metal head pressure.

[0329] In an embodiment, the plurality of drippers comprises a dripper assembly. The dripper assembly may comprise at least one of a ceramic frit, metal screen, or perforated metal sheet or screen that may be connected to the top of the separator 97a over the separator drainage channel slot 957d. The mesh or hole size may be optimized to increase the flow rate through the drippers while causing the return molten metal flow such as tin to form droplets and break the electrical connection of the stream. In an embodiment, the screen mesh opening size or hole size may be in the range of about 0.010 inches to 0.5 inches. In an embodiment, the dripper assembly comprising a ceramic frit, metal screen, or perforated metal sheet may be circumferential to the liner and have an outer diameter less than the inner diameter of the inner reservoir extension. The dripper assembly may be at least tack welded to the separator at one or more spots along the separator or supported by posts such as ones from the separator. In an exemplary embodiment, three posts may be separated by 120° circumferentially to a dripper assembly that spans 360°.

[0330] In embodiment shown in Figure 14 a separator dripper comprising a perforated annulus is welded to the separator 957a around the outer perimeter of the annulus, and the inner reservoir extension liner 959d is inserted into and supported by the inner diameter edge of the separator dripper 959h.

[0331] Due to the liner height and its finite diameter the nozzle may be tilted from in-line with the corresponding exterior reservoir to an extent that the injected molten metal stream is blocked by the inner reservoir extension liner 959d. In an embodiment, the inner reservoir extension liner 959d may be off center towards the center of the SunCell such that nozzle tilt angle may be increased before the blocking occurs.

[0332] In an embodiment, the separator dripper 959h comprises a nonconductor and further comprises an overlaid bead bed to break the electrical continuity or connection of the return molten metal stream to avoid an electrical connection of at least one of the reservoir 5c or reservoir hemispherical dome 960 wall with at least one of the inner reservoir 959, ball and socket nozzle pool assembly 998, and the corresponding molten metal pool. The bead bed may contain electrical insulator beads such as quartz beads that may be resistant to thermal shock. The separator dripper may comprise a retainer cage to retain the beads against flowing with the molten metal such as one comprising a retention plate such as a perforated BN plate or metal screen on top of the bead bed. The retention plate may comprise a perimeter solid ring to serve as at least one of a drip edge and cause the returning molten metal to flow through the beads away for the reservoir 5c or reservoir hemispherical dome 960 wall. In the case of a metal retention plate, the plate may be welded to one or more of the reservoir 5c or reservoir hemispherical dome 960 wall along the perimeter.

[0333] In an embodiment shown in Figures 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 10, 11, 13, 14, and 16 the inner reservoir 959 or inner reservoir extension 959a comprises nozzle pool assembly that maintains about a constant level of the returning molten metal in a molten metal pool to at least one of surround and at least partially cover the nozzle 5q to protect it from plasma damage. In an embodiment, the nozzle pool assembly comprises a molten metal pool called a nozzle pool, a molten metal pool level controller, and a nozzle positioner to maintain a desired position of the nozzle 5q. The nozzle pool may comprise a pool floor across the inner reservoir 959 that is penetrated by at least one of the nozzle 5q and the injector section of the EM pump tube 5k61. A level of molten metal in the pool may be maintained by return molten metal flow from the molten metal injected by the injector 5k61 and nozzle 5q. The depth of a nozzle pool (Figure 11) from the bottom of the inner reservoir extension 959a may be sufficient to provide electrical isolation between the return molten tin flow and the pool. The nozzle pool depth from the bottom of the inner reservoir extension 959a may be in the range of about 1 mm to 25 cm.

[0334] The pool may comprise a pool floor plate connected across the inner reservoir walls. The pool floor may comprise a pool floor plate such as a horizontal plate that may be welded to the inner reservoir walls at the perimeter. In an embodiment, the pool floor plate may be positioned perpendicular to the axis of the inner reservoir 959. The pool may comprise a pool inlet riser that controls the height of the molten metal in the pool. The pool inlet riser may comprise a tube with a hole at the top and a penetration of the pool floor plate at the bottom wherein the height of the tube is the desired height of the molten metal in the nozzle pool. Overfill return molten metal may flow out of the pool and through the tube to a lower position in the inner reservoir 959. The molten metal pool height may be about level or covering the height of the nozzle.

[0335] In an alternative embodiment shown in Figures 2, 3, 4, and 5, the nozzle pool assembly comprises a nozzle joint. In an embodiment, a ball and socket nozzle pool assembly 998 comprises a ball and socket joint 999 comprising a ball 1000 and a housing or casing 1001 in which the ball is seated. The ball may comprise a center penetration or a full- diameter channel 1000a for at least one of the injector section of the EM pump tube 5k61 and the nozzle 5q that facilitates the positioning of the angle of orientation of the injector section of the EM pump 5k61 and the attached nozzle 5q. The ball and socket joint 999 may comprise a single ball or a plurality of balls such as a compound ball and socket joint (e.g. smaller ball inside of a larger ball) to permit additional degrees of freedom of motion while adjusting the angular position of the injector section of the EM pump 5k61 and the nozzle 5q. The ball and socket joint 999 may be welded into the pool floor plate 1002. In exemplary embodiments, the ball joint casing 1001 may be welded to the top of nozzle pool floor 1002 or to the bottom of the nozzle pool floor 1002 at a penetration for the injector section of the EM pump tube 5k61. In an embodiment the ball and socket nozzle pool assembly 998 shown in Figures 2-3 may further comprise an inner reservoir floor plate attachment plate 996, gasket 995 such as a carbon gasket, perimeter screw holes, and screws to permit the assembly 998 to be removable for purposes such as assembly 998 replacement and for molten metal loading and addition. In alternative embodiment, the socket nozzle pool assembly 998 comprises an inner reservoir floor plate attachment plate 996, gasket 995 such as a carbon gasket, and threads on the perimeter of the pool floor plate 1002 and the attachment plate 996 such that the ball and socket nozzle pool assembly 998 threads into the pool attachment plate 996.

[0336] In an embodiment comprising the ball and socket nozzle pool assembly 998, the injector penetrates the ball 1000 of the nozzle ball and socket joint 999 through its channel 1000a and is free to slide in the ball channel 1000a. The bottom of the injector 5k61 may be connected to the EM pump baseplate 5kkl by coupler 5k62. Considering the orientation with the PV window cavity on top of the SunCell, the reservoir bellows 917a may be welded into the inner reservoir tube 959 at a position more vertical from the EM pump baseplate 5kkl such as welded to the collar 981. The inner reservoir 959 may comprise a section of straight tube between the bellows 917a and the EM pump bases plate 5kkl or a second bellows. The bellows 917a may be compressed on one side and expanded on the opposite side by the adjustor bolts and nuts 921 to cause the baseplate 5kkl to move laterally while maintaining the height of the nozzle at a desired one such as the one with the nozzle tip height equal to the height of the inlet risers 991. The length on the straight section of inner reservoir tubing may be increased to increase the lateral baseplate 5kkl movement and the angle change of the nozzle 5q. The adjustor may comprise bolts and nuts positioned between two collars or plates 981 and 981a (Figures 5, 6, 10, and 11) across the bellows wherein collar 981 may serve as the stationary frame, and another on the opposite side of the bellows may serve as the moveable frame.

[0337] In an embodiment, the molten metal injector system comprises an adjustor to position the nozzles such as one comprising bellows and threaded rods or servomotor-driven actuators that cause the nozzles to tilt, a processor, and sensors such as ignition voltage and current sensors. The processor may adjust the position of the injector nozzles 5q according to the current and voltage sensed by corresponding sensors wherein the desired alignment achieves the maximum current and minimum voltage.

[0338] In an embodiment, the nozzle pool floor 1002, may comprise a liner connected to the bottom of the floor plate that receives return flow molten metal through the pool inlet risers 991 and serves as a conduit for the molten metal flow to the lower portion of the inner reservoir 959 while preventing the bellows 917a from being wetted by the molten metal to avoid alloy corrosion. The liner may comprise a metal liner such as a stainless-steel liner welded to the floor plate having an outer diameter smaller than the inner diameter of the bellows or the inner reservoir such that the liner does not impact either when the bellows is differentially expanded or contracted on one side versus the other. In an embodiment, the liner comprises an extension of the nozzle pool inlet risers 991 under the nozzle pool floor plate 1002.

[0339] In an embodiment, the injector of the ball and socket nozzle pool assembly comprising the injector section of the EM pump tube 5k61 and the nozzle positioned by the ball and socket nozzle pool assembly 998 further comprises a second or injector base, ball and socket joint assembly. The injector base, ball and socket joint 1004 shown in Figure 4 comprises an injector base, a ball 1005 and base socket housing or casing 1006 in which the ball is seated, a cap socket housing or casing 1007 to seal the ball in the corresponding full socket, and further comprises a chamber 1008 to receive molten metal from the EM pump 5k6. The cap socket housing or casing 1007 may be connected to the base socket housing or casing 1006, by a welded, pressed, threaded, or other cap-to-base, ball and socket connection known in the art. The injector base, ball and socket joint 1004 may be positioned on top of the EM pump baseplate 5kkl with a bottom opening of the chamber 1008 at a penetration in the EM pump baseplate to receive the molten metal from the EM pump tube 5k6 and allow it to flow through the ball 1005 to the injector. The ball 1005 may be seated in the base of the socket casing 1006 such that the base 1006, ball 1005, and cap casing 1007 seal the top of the chamber 1008. In an embodiment, the ball 1005 may comprise a full-diameter channel 1005a wherein one channel opening comprises an inlet that is in contact with molten metal injected into the chamber 1008 by the EM pump and the opposite opening comprises an outlet with a connection such as a welded or threaded connection to the injector section of the EM pump tube 5k61. The EM pump comprising an inlet EM pump tube connected to the inlet riser 5qa and an outlet EM pump tube connected to at least one of the EM pump baseplate, and the chamber 1008 may pump molten metal through its outlet EM pump tube 5k6 and pressurize the molten metal in the chamber and further cause the molten metal to flow through the ball channel 1005a into the injector section of the EM pump tube 5k61. In an embodiment, the ball channel is oriented about along the axis of the injector comprising the injector section of the EM pump tube and nozzle such as the axis of the reservoirs from the vertical (e.g. 5-25°, 10-16°, 11-13°, 12°). The adjustor may cause the axis of the injector and the ball channel 1005a to rotate at an angle relative to the angle of the axis of reservoirs to cause a desired position of intersection of the molten metal streams injected by the EM pumps through the corresponding injectors. In an embodiment at least one ball of the ball and socket joint may comprise a bushing that reduces friction such as a graphite or BN bushing or a packaging such as a carbon rope or ceramic fiber packing.

[0340] In another embodiment, the second ball and socket joint and its molten metal chamber may be positioned under the EM pump baseplate 5kkl . In an embodiment, the top of the socket casing 1007 may be welded to the bottom of the EM baseplate 5kkl with the outlet of the ball channel 1005a in contact with the inside of the inner reservoir 959 through a hole in the baseplate 5kkl wherein the injector section is the EM pump tube 5k61 is connected to the outlet of the channel. The base casing 1006 may be welded to the top of the molten metal chamber 1008. The outlet EM pump tube 5k6 may be connected to the chamber 1008. An exemplary connection comprises a welded connection to the bottom of the chamber 1008 at a penetration for the flow of molten metal into the chamber. The molten metal may exist the chamber through the ball channel and flow through the injector section of the EM pump tube 5k61 to the nozzle 5q.

[0341] In an embodiment, the surfaces of the joint such as the ball and socket joint or joints may be coated with a coating such as BN or carbon that performs at least one function of protecting the joint for corrosion by alloy formation and lubricates the joint. Exemplary coatings are ones from the disclosure such as BN and tantalum such as the coating by Tantaline CVD APS (https : / / tantaline .com / application-notes / tantaline-treated-bellows / ) . In an embodiment, the section of the inner reservoir 959 below the pool floor plate 999 may have a liner such as a quartz or BN liner or another of the disclosure to prevent the inner reservoir walls from contacting molten metal which may prevent alloy formation with the wall.

[0342] The angle of the injector section of the EM pump 5k61 and nozzle 5q may be adjusted with the adjustor such as bolts and nuts 921 that may compress and expand sections of the reservoir bellows 917a and cause the EM pump baseplate 5kkl to at least one of tilt, transverse horizontally, and transverse vertically. The height of the nozzle may be compensatorily adjusted by the adjustor as the nozzle is tilted wherein the injector portion of the EM pump tube may slide through the joint penetration. The compensatory adjustment may occur manually or by a programmable logic controller (PLC) and programmed actuators. Typically, the compensatory adjustment may adjust the nozzle height to the approximate level of the molten metal surface in the pool (the surface height of which may be set by the pool inlet risers). This adjustment may protect the nozzle during operation and plasma generation. The nozzle height may be maintained at a height about equal to that of the pool wherein the pool height may be maintained by the height of the inlet risers. Since the nozzle position in the horizontal plane is fixed, the alignment adjustors comprising the reservoir bellows 917a may undergo at least one of extension and contraction on opposing sides such that the EM pump baseplate 5kkl undergoes at least one of vertical and lateral translation. In an embodiment, the bellows may comprise at least one of a universal bellows joint on each end and a plurality of bellows units (Figure 6) that undergo alternate compression and expansion on one side and the opposite on the other side of contiguous units. In the latter case, each unit may comprise an independent adjustor such as plates bolts and nuts 921, or the adjustors may crisscross to cause opposing sides of continuous units to compress or expand simultaneously. In an embodiment, the adjustor comprises a stationary frame such as stationary collar 981 and a moving frame such as a moving collar 981a spanned by a threaded rod further comprising nuts 921 to move the moving frame. The threaded rod may be fastened to the stationary collar 981 by a joint 921a such as one that can pivot or swivel to allow the threaded rod to move in the direction of all three Cartesian axes wherein the movement allows the threaded rod to tilt with the moving collar as one side of the bellows is contracted or expanded relative to the other. The adjustor may comprise a plurality of threaded rods, each with a swivel joint 921a (Figure 5) connected to the stationary collar 981 wherein the opposite end of each threaded rod penetrates a hole on the moving collar 981a, and the length of the rod through the penetration is adjusted with the nuts.

[0343] In an embodiment comprising a ball and socket nozzle pool assembly 1000, the gap between the inner reservoir extension 959a and the inner reservoir 959 may be sealed by a wet seal. The molten metal of the wet seal may comprise the nozzle pool molten metal. As shown in Figures 10, 11, 14, and 16, the inner reservoir extension 959a may comprise an electrically insulating, high temperature liner 959d such as a quartz liner or ceramic liner such as an alumina or zirconia liner, or another liner of the disclosure. The bottom of the inner reservoir extension liner 959d may be submerged in the molten metal of the nozzle pool to form the wet seal. In another exemplary embodiment shown in Figure 10 wherein the inner reservoir extension 959a comprises a metal tube such as a Kovar tube that may be cut at the top at the same angle as the angle of each reservoirs from the vertical and welded to the separator 957a with the bottom of the Kovar tube brazed to a ceramic tube section 959e of the extension 959a, the bottom of the ceramic section 959e may be submerged in the nozzle pool molten metal wherein the bottom of the ceramic may be horizontally cut to position the bottom parallel to a horizontal pool floor plate 999. In an embodiment, the inlet risers 991 may be positioned such that they do not interfere with the positioning of the inner reservoir extension 959a. In an exemplary embodiment, the inlet risers are located on the side of the pool floor plate 999 towards the SunCell center line and inside of the inner reservoir extension 959a.

[0344] In an embodiment, the top of the inner reservoir 959 may be cut at the same angle as the angle of the reservoirs 5c from the vertical (e.g. 5-25°, 10-16°, 11-13°, 12°) to form a horizontal top to allow for the top to have the same distance from the separator 957a along the perimeter of the inner reservoir.

[0345] In an embodiment, the space between the inner reservoir 959 and outer reservoir 5c comprises at least one refractory nonconductor spacer to prevent the inner reservoir from shifting position relative to the outer reservoir during thermal cycling causing shorting between the inner and outer reservoirs. An exemplary spacer comprises three quartz, S N-i. AIN, or alumina-silica fiber blocks or wedges placed 120° apart at the top of the gap between the inner reservoir 959 and the outer reservoir 5c. In another embodiment, the gap between the inner reservoir 959 and the outer reservoir 5c may be at least partially filled with an electrical insulating packing to prevent the inner reservoir from electrically shorting with the outer reservoir. In an embodiment, the packing may comprise an electrical isolation layer comprising an electrical nonconductor and an electrically conductive layer wherein isolation is provided by the nonconductor layer. The conductive layer may comprise a reversibly compressible metal foam or mesh. The packing may comprise one of the disclosure. Exemplary nonconductor packings or spacers are ceramic beads or rods such as alumina, zirconia, or quartz beads or rods. The packing or spacer may be permeable to gases such as hydrogen, oxygen, water vapor, argon, atmospheric gases.

[0346] In an embodiment shown in Figure 20, the inlet riser 5qa comprises a wet seal to prevent at least one of metal oxide and oxygen from entering the EM pump tube 5k6. The wet seal may comprise a hat 5qa3 on the top of the inlet riser 5qa that is closed at the top end and open at the bottom wherein the inlet(s) 5qa2 to the inlet riser is higher than the bottom of the hat 5qa3 such that the minimum height of the molten metal level in each reservoir is higher than the bottom of the hat. Since any metal oxide such as tin oxide may float on the top of the molten metal such that no oxide is permitted to flow inside the inlet riser. Oxygen is also sealed for entering the inlet riser due to the molten metal level being higher than the bottom of the hat. Alternatively, the inlet riser may comprise a plurality of inlet holes of hole size that allows for an inflow rate sufficient to maintain the injection flow rate while preventing oxide from flowing into the inlet riser due to its small size and the high surface tension of the oxide.

[0347] In embodiments shown in Figures 7, 9-18 and 21-23, the heater may comprise at least one inductively coupled heater wherein each one is connected by leads 5f6 in at least one of series or parallel to at least one coil 5f that induces current in a component of the SunCell to be heated. The inductively coupled heater may comprise a RF power shield such as a conductive plate or sheet such as a ferrite shield such as a ferrite plate in between each of a plurality of coils that may interfere with each other such as two adjacent coils powered by different inductively coupled heaters. In an embodiment, the antenna leads 5f6 such as main leads from the RF power supply may pass through the SunCell frame or stand 953 (Figure 12) wherein the frame 953 may be shielded from heating by the leads by at least one of a conductive and ferrite tube frame penetration liner. The assembly 5f7 may comprise sections with interconnections 5f6 on the coil 5f ends that may be assembled by connecting the interconnections. The assembly may have a geometry that optimizes at least one of ease of assembly and the heating efficiency. An exemplary coil may be circumferential to both inner reservoirs (e.g. a circular, oval or dumbbell shape around both inner reservoirs) or an assembly may comprise separate circumferential coils around each inner reservoir. The coils may each be covered by ceramic cloth insulation to prevent electrical shorting.

[0348] In an embodiment, an inductively coupled heater coil assembly 5f7 comprises at plurality of coils 5f connected by leads 5f6 in at least one of series and parallel. In an exemplary embodiment, one inductively coupled heater powers one inductively coupled heater coil assembly 5f7 comprising four coils 5f connected in parallel (Figure 13) or in series (Figure 17) wherein the assembly may comprise (i) a coil around heat transfer blocks 963 of each EM pump that distributed heat applied to the blocks to the housed EM pump tube 5k6, a coil around the bottom of each inner reservoir 959, and one under the PV window cavity baseplate 5b31c.

[0349] In an embodiment, the inductively coupled heater coil array such as one comprising at least two coils 5f connected in at least one of series or parallel and comprises at least one switch 5f8 (Figures 22-23) to turn off separate coils of the plurality of coils connected in series or parallel. In an exemplary embodiment, the coil array comprises a plurality of coils connected in parallel and a switch 5f8 at the location to separate a set of coils that are desired to be powered from a set to be disconnected for the parallel inductively coupled power feed. The switch 5f8 may comprise a reversible short 5f6 in the lead to the coil. The short may be a conductor placed or activated to connect and short the lead. The switch may be opened by removing the short. Exemplary switches are a solenoid, pneumatic, electromagnetic, or hydraulic switch between the parallel leads. The inductively coupled heater may be turned off during the action of opening or closing the switch.

[0350] In an embodiment, a parallel connected antenna switch 5f8 comprises a section of antenna 5f9 that comprises an electrical insulator such as at section of elastomer tubing such as Viton, Tygon, Teflon, silicone, PCV, polyurethane, fluoropolymers, or thermoplastic elastomers tubing connecting electrical conducting portions of the antenna such as copper tubing wherein at least one of the copper and elastomer tubing may provide a conduit for the flow of coolant such as water. The switch may further comprise a reversible electrical shunt across the nonconductive section such as a solenoid switch, other switch known in the art, a clam shell, or a pair of plates that reversible connect the conductive portions of the antenna on both sides of the nonconductive portion of the antenna.

[0351] In an embodiment shown in Figures 21-23, a parallel connected antenna switch 5f8 comprises opposing conductive switch blocks 5fl 0, each comprising two internally connected ports such as a coolant line input port and coolant line output port. The switch further comprises a nonconductive coolant line section such as a flexible section that may provide a conduit for the flow of antenna coolant such as water. The nonconductive coolant line section may comprise elastomer tubing such as Viton, Tygon, Teflon, silicone, PCV, polyurethane, fluoropolymers, or thermoplastic elastomer. The nonconductive coolant line section may connect to one of the ports of each block, and the opposite port of each block may be connected to the antenna coil or an antenna lead. Coolant may flow through the antenna, blocks, and nonconductive tubing section of each switch. Each block may comprise a short section of conductive tubing such as antenna tubing such as copper tubing soldered to the block port to connect to the nonconductive tubing by mean such as compression, clamp, and adhesive fitting. The corresponding antenna coil or an antenna lead may be connected to the opposite port of the block by solder. The switch may be closed by connecting the switch blocks by means such as bolts as shown in Figures 21-23 or by other means known in the art such as solenoid, pneumatic, electromagnetic, or hydraulic actuators. The switch may be opened by separating the switch blocks. In an exemplary embodiment shown in Figures 21- 22, six coils heat each of the PV baseplate 5b31c, reservoirs 5c, and EM pump tubes 5k6 independently.

[0352] In an embodiment each EM pump tube coil 5f may comprise two vertically oriented sub-coils around the ends of the pump tube 5k6 of each EM pump 5kk with the two sub-coils connected in series as shown in Figure 23.

[0353] In an embodiment the heat transfer block antennas each comprise a larger inner length and width than that of the heat transfer block to permit movement inside the coil while adjusting the adjuster for nozzle positioning, where the adjuster may comprise a bellows and a plurality of threaded rods to move the nozzle to a desired position. In an alternative embodiment, at least one lead 5f6 or antenna coil 5f may comprise an expansion joint such as bellows to permit the adjuster to adjust the position of the nozzles, such as the inductively coupled heater coil lead expansion joint 5 fl 1 shown in Figures 21-22.

[0354] In an embodiment, the heater to heat and maintain the molten metal in a molten state comprises at least one or more inductive heating coils and one or more resistive heaters such as heat tapes. The heat tape(s) may be powered by a power source such as at least one of the ignition current source, the EM pump current source, the PV converter, and an external source such as at least one of line current, at least one battery, and at least one supercapacitor. In an exemplary embodiment, three coils heat each of the PV baseplate 5b31c and reservoirs 5c independently, and the EM pump tubes 5k6 are independently heated resistively by at least one resistive heater such as at least one heat tape.

[0355] In an embodiment, the gap between the outer reservoir 5c and the inner reservoir 959 comprises a heat transferer between these two components. In an embodiment, the heat transferer comprises a packing or spacer such as an AIN spacer or another of the disclosure between the inner and outer reservoir to conduct heat from the outer to the inner reservoir at a desired location such as at the location of the ball and socket molten metal pool such as during startup and vice versa during operation to remove excess heat.

[0356] In an embodiment, the EM pumps are heated by at least one of heat transfer blocks 5k7 and EM pump induction heater antennas 5f7. The EM pump bus bar 5k2 may be heated by at least one of applying pump current in the absence of the magnets 5k4 which are reversibly removed, local resistive heater such as heater tapes, induction heater antennas such as ones that heat the heat transfer blocks (Figures 21-23), and by shunting the ignition current though the EM pump tubes 5k and bus bars 5k2. In an embodiment, the EM pumps comprise actuators such as ones with servomotors to reversibly remove EM pump magnets 5k4 during startup to permit the flow of current through the EM pump bus bars 5k2 to resistively heat them. Alternately, the EM pump magnets comprise electromagnets that are deactivated during the resistive heating startup up procedure. In another embodiment, the injectors 5k61 are heated with a heat lamp such as one external to the PV window cavity 5b4 that transmits the thermal power though the PV window cavity.

[0357] In an embodiment, the SunCell comprises a plasma cell to provide plasma in the region between the two nozzles 5q. The injectors 5k61 may heated by flowing current though the injectors by electrically connecting the injectors at the nozzles through the plasma that serves as a switch. The plasma may be generated by a plasma cell located in the reservoir hemispherical dome 960. The plasma cell may comprise at least one of a glow discharge, microwave, radio frequency (RF), inductively or capacitively-coupled RF plasma, and another plasma cell known in the art. An exemplary discharge cell 900 shown in Figure 15 comprises a stainless-steel vessel or glow discharge plasma chamber 901 with a Conflat flange 902 on the top with a mating top plate 903 sealed with a copper, silver-plated copper, or tantalum gasket or O-ring, or alternately sealed by welding. The flanges may be coated with a coating such as BN that prevents alloy formation with the molten metal. The top plate may have a high voltage power feedthrough 904 to an inner electrode such as a tungsten rod electrode 905. The electrode may be hollow to allow for gas being supplied to the reaction cell chamber. Alternatively, the flange 902 may further comprise a gas line with a penetration through the flange. The cell body may be grounded to serve as the counter electrode. The top flange may further comprise at least one gas inlet 906 for hydrino reaction mixture gases such as at least one of EE. O2, air, H2O, and a noble gas (e.g., Ar), or mixtures thereof (e.g., H2 / O2, FE / air, H2 / H2O, FE / noble gas, Ch / noble gas, H2 / O2 / H2O, FE / Ch / noble gas, FE / FEO / noblc gas, Ch / EEO / noble gas, FE / Ch / FEO / noble gas, FE / Ch / air, FE / air / FEO, FE / air / noble gas, FE / Ch / air / FEO, FE / Ch / air / noble gas, FE / Ch / air / FEO / noble gas). To increase the desired yield of HOH catalyst production while adding argon to the hydrino reaction mixture, hydrogen gas and oxygen gas may be flowed through the discharge cell, and argon may be flowed through a separate gas inlet into the reaction cell chamber 5b31. The bottom plate 907 of the stainless-steel vessel may comprise a gas outlet to the reaction cell chamber. The glow discharge cell further comprises a power source such as a DC power source with a voltage in the range of about 10 V to 5kV and a current in the range of about 0.01 A to 100 A.

[0358] Another exemplary discharge cell shown in Figure 16 comprises (i) a high temperature capable, high voltage power feedthrough 904 attached to an electrode such as one comprising copper or other high temperature ceramic -to-metal braze and a high temperature capable electrode 905 such as a stainless steel or tungsten electrode, and (ii) the reservoir hemispherical dome 960 as the counter electrode that may be grounded. The electrode and power feedthrough conductor may be hollow to serve as a gas inlet for hydrino reaction mixture gases.

[0359] The plasma connection between the nozzles may also be maintained by a high voltage power supply (e.g. 50V to 1MV) with leads connected to the injectors 5k61 by connections of opposite polarity to the inner reservoir 959 such as at the adapter plate with ignition bus bar connection 1111.

[0360] In an embodiment, the connectors to the EM bus bars 5k2 comprises reversible quick disconnects that may be removed during the warmup part of the SunCell startup procedure so that they do not act as large heat sinks. Following melting of the molten metal such as tin in the inner reservoir 959 and EM pump tubes 5k6, the connections to the EM pumps bus bars 5k2 may be reestablished and the EM pumps activated. The disconnection and reconnection may be achieved by an automated system such as a mechanical, electromechanical, actuator, pneumatic, piezoelectric or other type of connection system known in the art. The disconnection and reconnection may be controlled by a processor.

[0361] In an embodiment, the heater to heat at least one component of the SunCell to maintain the molten metal in the molten state comprises at least one switch to cause an electrical connection between at least two current leads to cause a resistive current flow between the leads to resistively heat the component. The current source may be at least one of the ignition current source, the EM pump current source, the PV converter, and an external source such as at least one of line current, at least one battery, and at least one supercapacitor. In an exemplary embodiment, the current may be run between the two EM pump bus bars 5k2 to heat the EM pump wherein the current may be supplied by the EM pump current source. In an exemplary embodiment, the EM pump 5kk may be resistively heated by running current through at least one of the EM pump tube 5k6 and the EM pump bus bars 5k2. The switch may cause current to flow between two electrical connections to the pump tube 5k6 such as the ignition lead 5k2al and EM pump busbar 5k2 on each EM pump wherein the current may be supplied by the ignition or EM pump current source.

[0362] In another exemplary embodiment, both EM pumps 5kk may be resistively heated by running current through each EM pump tube 5k6 and the EM pump bus bar 5k2. The switch may connect an electrical connection such as a jumper between the bus bar 5k2 of a first EM pump to the bus bar of a second EM pump such that current flows from the ignition bus bar 5k2al connected to the electromagnetic pump baseplate 5kkl of the first EM pump to the first EM pump, the bus bar 5k2 of a first EM pump, the jumper, the bus bar 5k2 of the second EM pump, the second EM pump, and the ignition bus bar 5k2al of the second EM pump connected to the electromagnetic pump baseplate 5kkl of the second EM pump wherein the current may be supplied by the ignition or EM pump current source. The switch may also disconnect the EM pump current source during the resistive heating and disconnect the jumper while reconnecting the ignition or EM pump current source following heating.

[0363] In an embodiment, any solidified molten metal in the injector portion of the EM pump 5161 and the nozzle 5q is melted by the ignition current. An ignition current heating system may comprise a jumper that electrically shorts at least one of the nozzles 5q and the injector portion of the EM pump to permit ignition current to flow between the injectors to resistively heat them. The jumper may comprise metal tube such as a SS tube that tightly fits over the nozzles. In an alternative embodiment, the inner reservoirs 959 are fill sufficiently with molten metal such as tin such that heat is conducted from the reservoir inductively couple antenna 5f to the injector 5k61 such that tin in the ejector is melted or remains molten.

[0364] In an embodiment, a sufficient molten metal level height is maintained in the inner reservoirs to heat the nozzles and injection section of the electromagnetic pump tube above the melting point of the molten metal by conduction of heat through the molten metal that is heated in a lower region towards the inner reservoir base by inductively coupled heating, resistive heating, or torch heating.

[0365] In another embodiment, the inductively coupled heater coil array comprises a means such as a current, voltage, electrical resistance, or power controller to controllably vary the current, voltage, or power to at least one specific coil of the series or parallel connected coils. The EM pump may be further heated by at least one of conduction through the pump tube 5k6 wall and by the metal inside pump tube and by conduction through the heat transfer blocks 5k7. The diameter of the EM pump tube may be increased to increase the conduction heat transfer. In an embodiment, the injector tube 5k61 may be empty at a desired distance above the molten metal level in the corresponding reservoir 5c or inner reservoir 959 such that all the molten metal in the tube below this point is melted during startup by means such as heat conduction along the injector tube 5k61.

[0366] In an exemplary embodiment, the switch comprises an actuator, at least one screw such as a machine screw, and mating threads that are electrically isolated from the electrically conductive blocks wherein the switch is opened and closed by the actuator such as a mechanical actuator comprising the screw driven by the servomotor. The switch may comprise bushings comprising electrical insulators such as ceramic bushings. Threaded plates for the screw to push and pull to open and close the switch may be attached to the bushings by means such as solder or another fastener means known in the art. Other actuators known in art may serve as the means to open and close the switch such as a rack and pinion, solenoid, pneumatic, electromagnetic, or hydraulic actuator.

[0367] In an embodiment that comprises at least one switch to select which coil or coils to power during SunCell operation, the heater may comprise one inductively coupled heater RF power source. The inductively coupled heater (ICH) may comprise a power supply such as a DC power supply such as a battery such as a lithium-ion battery and at least one inverter and an adjustable or variable impedance matching network to match to the ICH to the load when switching between coil configurations. Alternatively, the matching network may comprise a plurality of fixed networks, each having a specific impedance match to the load of specific coil configuration. The ICH may comprise a controller to adjust the impedance of the variable impedance network, or the controller may switch between fixed impedance networks with the switching between coil configurations wherein the latter may be achieved using the coil leads switch. In an alternative embodiment, each coil or group of coils may comprise separate inverters that may be separately controlled. The inverters may have a common or separate power sources such as a battery or batteries.

[0368] In an embodiment (Figure 24) to permit ease of installation of the reservoir inductively coupled heater coils, the EM baseplate 5kkl may comprise a geometry that permits the corresponding coil to be applied passing over the EM pump 5k6 and the EM pump baseplate. The EM pump baseplate may be circular with an OD less than or equal to the antenna ID. The circular EM pump baseplate may further comprise an adapter that connects to the EM pump baseplate after installation of the reservoir ICH coils and comprises a geometry to permit the attachment of at least one of the ignition bus bars and the EM pump magnet support brackets with magnet cooling plates 5kal (Figure 12). The adapter may bolt to the EM baseplate.

[0369] In an exemplary embodiment shown in Figure 24, the EM baseplate 5kkl comprises a plurality of parts capable of being disassembled and assembled to serve the function of the EM baseplate 5kkl such as (i) seal at least one of the exterior reservoir 5c and internal reservoir 959, (ii) provide sealed penetrations for the inlet and outlet of the EM pump, (iii) provide a connection to the ignition bus bar, (iv) provide a support to attach the EM pump magnet brackets 964 (Figure 18) that support the EM pump magnets 5k4, and (v) permit ease of installation of at least one inductively coupled heater coil 5f. The EM baseplate 5kkl shown in Figure 24 may comprise (i) a reservoir baseplate 1009 to seal the internal reservoir 959 and provide sealed penetrations for the inlet and outlet of the EM pump, (ii) an adapter plate 1010 to provide a support to attach the EM pump magnet brackets 964, and (iii) an adapter plate 1011 to provide a support to attach the EM pump magnet brackets and provide a connection to the ignition bus bar 5k2al . The inductively coupled heater coils 5f such as those that heat the inner reservoirs 959 may be slide over the reservoir baseplates 1009, and the adapter plates 1010 and 1011 wherein the adapter plates 1010 and 1011 capable of being reversibly fastened to the reservoir baseplate may be reversibly fastened to the reservoir baseplate 1009 by fasteners such as adapter plate bolts 1012.

[0370] The coil may comprise water-cooled tubing such as copper tubing. In an embodiment, the inductively coupled heater assembly 5f7 comprises a coolant system such as one comprising a coolant loop. The coolant system may comprise a pump, a coolant reservoir, a chiller such as a radiator, a coolant temperature sensor, a coolant flow meter, and a controller whereby coolant is circulated in a loop through the coils by the pump. In an exemplary embodiment, the coolant is flowed from the coils through the chiller to cool the coolant which is recirculated through the coils. The coolant of the coolant reservoir may be cooled by the chiller. The reservoir may serve to buffer any changes in the rate heat or coolant is delivered to the chiller and also serve as a tank to provide or store coolant on demand by the coolant system. The chiller may chill at least one of the assembly 5f7, the EM pump magnets 5k4, and at least one SunCell component such as the inner reservoirs 959, the reservoirs 5c, and the PV window cavity baseplate 5b31c. The coils of the assembly may serve as a heat exchanger to remove heat from at least one SunCell component and deliver it to the chiller.

[0371] In a thermophotovoltaic SunCell embodiment, the inner PV window 5ab4 is replaced with a refractory material such as W, niobium, tantalum, Mo, Ni, Ti, or Fe or alloys to serve as a blackbody radiator to emit light for PV conversion. The blackbody radiator may be sealed by mean such as braze, glue, gaskets and brackets, or a wet seal. In an embodiment, the SunCell may comprise an outer an outer PV window 5b4 capable or forming a vacuum- tight seal. In a thermophotovoltaic SunCell embodiment, the PV window cavity 5b4 (Figures 1 and 19) comprises an opaque refractory material to serve as a blackbody radiator. In an exemplary embodiment, a quartz, BN, alumina, graphite, or other ceramic blackbody radiator 5b4 is attached to the base 5b31c by a seal of the disclosure such as a wet seal. The quartz PV window cavity may be made opaque by mirroring the outer surface or by cladding the outer surface with a refractory metal or coating. The blackbody radiator may comprise a metal such as W, niobium, tantalum, Mo, Ni, Ti, or Fe or alloys. The blackbody radiation emitted from the blackbody emitter 5b4 may be incident the PV converter 26a wherein the light may be recycled to the blackbody emitter by mirrored PV cells of the PV converter to greatly increase ethe electrical conversion efficiency of the PV converter.

[0372] Experimental Power Measurement

[0373] In an experimental embodiment, the SunCell shown in Figure 18 was operated with 5 kg molten tin per each of the two reservoirs wherein the molten tin was injected through tungsten nozzles and into the PV window cavity 5b4 by the corresponding electromagnetic pump. The two molten metal streams intersected at 5 inches above the baseplate 5b31c. A DC ignition voltage of 11 V and a DC current of 400A was applied through the circuit completed by the intersection of the molten tin streams. A bright plasma formed in the 6- inch diameter, 6-inch height, 6-mm thick quartz PV window cavity that was sealed to the baseplate 5b31c with a graphite gasket and a molten tin wet seal. The optical power transmitted through the PV window cavity was measured with a Thor S322C Power Meter. For an input power of 4.4 kW, the optical power was measured to be 20.75 kW. The thermal power was measured by determining the temporal thermal energy increase and the heat loss. Specifically, the increase in thermal energy inventory over the time of the experiment was determined using the increase in temperature of each component and its corresponding heat capacity, and the heat loss was determined using a prior study of the heat loss at a steady state as a function of SunCell operating temperature. The total power output was 34.75 kW corresponding to a gain of 790%.

[0374] In an embodiment, hydrino atoms catalyze one-electron ions to lower energy states. A reactor to catalyze ions to lower energy states comprises a SunCell to form hydrino and a source of one-electron ions in proximity to the hydrino atoms whereby the one-electron ions undergo transitions to lower energy states with collisions with the hydrino atoms. The source of one-electron ions may comprise plasma source cell such as glow, rf, microwave and other plasma cell known in the art to form such ions such as He+, Li2+, etc.

[0375] In an embodiment, a hydrogen storage material comprises H2(l / 4)-H2 dimer that is trapped in a crystalline lattice such as that of an inorganic compound or a mixture of inorganic compounds such as at least one of at least one metal cation such as an alkali, alkaline earth, or transition metal cation and at least one anion such as a halide, oxide, hydroxide, carbonate, and hydrogen carbonate anion. The hydrogen storage material may be synthesized by supplying a mixture of hydrogen and H2(l / p) gas to the inorganic compound that traps H2(l / 4)-H2 dimer. The source of FbQ / p) gas may comprise a hydrino reaction of a hydrino reaction mixture such as one of those of the disclosure.

[0376] Gas Chromatography of H2(l / 4)

[0377] Ball milling has an effect equivalent to heating to drive chemical reactions [T. Markmaitree, R. Ren, L. L. Shaw, “Enhancement of lithium amide to lithium imide transition via mechanical activation”, J. Phys. Chem. B., Vol. 110, No. 41, pp. 20710-20718.]. FeOOH was ball milled for 6 hours at 400 RPM intermittently reversing direction using a Retsch PM 100 Planetary ball mill. The ball milling propagated reactions to form H2(l / 4) are 4FeOOH to 2Fe2O3+ 2H + HOH +l / 2O2H + HOH(catalyst) to H(l / 4) + H2O 2H(l / 4) to H2(l / 4)

[0378] 0.5g of the product was placed into a sixty-five-milliliter stainless-steel vessel, 5 ml of concentrated HC1 was added to the vessel, and the vessel was vacuum-sealed using a rubber O-ring that set into matching grooves in the vessel and a flanged plate secured to the vessel by six circumferential bolts. One of two valved ports of the plate was connected to the inlet port and a six-way valve to supply gas sample to a pneumatic valve of the gas chromatograph. Using an Agilent 8890 gas chromatograph system with a single filament thermal conductivity detector (TCD), gas chromatography was performed on the gases released by the reaction of iron oxyhydroxide to iron chloride wherein the hydrogen was also released with a source being H2(1 / 4):H2 [Wilfred R. Hagen, Randell L. Mills, “General EPR pattern from molecular hydrino produced in various reactors”, (2024), submitted; https: / / brilliantlightpower.eom / / pdf / General_EPR_pattem_from_molecular_hydrino_produce d_in_various_reactors.pdf] .

[0379] Known gases such as hydrogen, helium, nitrogen, and oxygen were first run to identify their migration times to compare to the results of the FeOOH product sample gas. The pressure controller was set at 35.4 PSI for the flow of argon carrier gas at 3.2 ml / min on a capillary column (Agilent molecular sieve 5 A, (50 m x 0.32, df = 30 pm) at 303 K (30 °C) with the TCD at 135 °C. The gas inlet injected a 1000 ul sample onto the column wherein the volume was precision-controlled by electronic pneumatic controllers run by compressed nitrogen. The Agilent 8890 system sensed and compensated for atmospheric pressure fluctuations, and a microchannel-based architecture protected against gas contaminants. The data was analyzed using Agilent OpenLab CDS. Hydrogen was confirmed to be a product gas. To add product gas onto the column, ultrapure hydrogen gas was introduced into the second (intel port) of the vessel and the product gas plus the corresponding hydrogen carrier gas was loaded onto the column by closed inlet valve, opening the outlet value, and then the instrument six-way valve to the column. The gas chromatograph of hydrino gas evolved by room temperature treatment of the FeOOH product for less than one hour is shown in Figure 25. The known hydrogen peak was observed at 4.597 minutes, an oxygen peak was observed at 7.455 minutes, and that nitrogen peak was observed at 13.886 minutes. Two novel peaks were observed before the hydrogen peak at 4.049 minutes and 4.2 minutes. The molecular sieve separates gases by size and weight with hydrogen being the lightest gas that is similar to the other smallest gas, helium. Helium has a retention time slightly greater than that of hydrogen (4.7 minutes). In fact, no gas chromatographic peak has ever been observed before the H2 peak on a molecular sieve gas chromatographic column. The novel peaks at 4.049 minutes and 4.2 minutes were assigned to para and ortho H2(l / 4), respectively. The property of molecular hydrino peak having a shorter retention time than any known gas was attributed to its decreased molecular size of 64 times geometrically smaller than H2 and corresponding smaller ballistic cross section.

[0380] Molecular hydrogen occurs in two nuclear isomeric forms, one with its two proton nuclear spins aligned parallel (orthohydrogen), the other with its two proton spins aligned antiparallel (parahydrogen) [https: / / en.wikipedia.org / wiki / Spin_isomers_of_hydrogen] . Parahydrogen is in a lower energy state than is orthohydrogen. Ordinally hydrogen ortho para spin isomers may be separated chromatographically at cryogenic temperature such as liquid nitrogen temperature. However, due to the much higher energies of hydrino compared to ordinary hydrogen ortho para hydrogen may be separated at room temperature. It is also known that the higher energy ortho isomer converts to the more stable para on Fe(III) catalysts such as iron oxide and iron chloride. Overtime more stable para hydrogen is formed at low temperatures. Para hydrogen may be obtained at essentially 100% yield in liquified H2 in the presence of an iron catalyst. Similarly, it is predicted that ortho H2(l / 4) converts to 100% para form at room temperature upon standing. The gas released initially upon addition of concentrated HC1 to ball milled FeOOH showed both ortho and para hydrogen by gas chromatography that converted to 100% para isomeric form upon standing at room temperature for 1 week as shown in Figure 26.

[0381] As reported in the Raman section of Mills [R. Mills, “Hydrino States of Hydrogen”, https: / / brilliantlightpower.com / pdf / Hydrino_States_of_Hydrogen_Paper.pdf. submitted for publication], the series of peaks assigned to H2(l / 4) were eliminated by HC1 treatment of the ball milled FeOOH sample. The gas chromatographic results confirm that the source of the Raman peaks was H2(l / 4). The presence of the two spin isomers that catalytically interconvert is further confirmation that the novel peaks with faster migration times than hydrogen are another form of hydrogen, specifically p-H2(l / 4) and o-H2(l / 4).

Claims

CLAIMSWhat Is Claimed Is:

1. A power generation system comprising: a) at least one vessel comprising a baseplate capable of maintaining at least one of a pressure below atmospheric, atmospheric pressure, and a pressure above atmosphere comprising a reaction chamber; b) a source of reactant gases comprising a non-stoichiometric H2 / O2 mixture (e.g., an H2 / O2 mixture having less than 1 / 3 mole % O2 or from 0.01% to 30%, or from 0.1% to 20%, or less than 10%, or less than 5%, or less than 3% O2 by mole percentage of the mixture) and additionally and optionally argon in excess relaive to the non-stoichiometric H2 / O2 mixture, c) two electrodes each in fluid communication with molten metal contained in a corresponding reservoir attached to a metal reaction cavity (e.g. stainless steel hemispherical dome), wherein the molten metal is configured to flow between the electrodes to complete a circuit with a molten metal pump system, wherein the molten metal pump system comprises at least one electromagnetic pump with an electromagnetic pump tube and an electromagnetic pump current source to cause molten metal ejection through an injector section of each electromagnetic pump tube to form at least one molten metal stream; d) a power source connected to said two electrodes, wherein the two electrodes comprise a cathode and anode, and the power source applies an ignition current between the cathode and anode when said molten metal completes a circuit therebetween and the circuit comprises the at least one molten metal stream; e) a molten metal pool to at least partially submerge each electrode; f) optionally, a plasma generation cell (e.g., glow discharge cell) to induce the formation of a first plasma from a gas; wherein effluence of the plasma generation cell is directed towards the circuit (e.g., the molten metal, the anode, the cathode, each supplied molten metal by its molten metal reservoir); wherein when current is applied across the circuit, the effluence of the plasma generation cell undergoes a reaction to produce a second plasma and reaction products wherein energy from second plasma produces radiation; g) a transparent window and reaction cavity to transmit radiation produced from the second plasma, wherein the transparent window and reaction cavity is in contact with the baseplate of the transparent window and reaction cavity connected to the top of the metal reaction cavity (e.g., SS hemispherical dome); h) optionally, an optically opaque reaction cell chamber that is heated by the plasma and emits blackbody radiation from its exterior surfaces; i) a wet seal between the transparent window and the baseplate comprising a wet seal molten metal,j) optionally a flanged or welded seal between the opaque reaction, cell chamber, and the base plate; k) optionally, a power adapter configured to receive the radiation transmitted through the transparent window and reaction cavity or the exterior surfaces of opaque reaction cell chamber and convert and / or transfer energy from the second plasma into mechanical, thermal, and / or electrical energy, and l) a power adapter comprising a photovoltaic (PV) converter.

2. The power generation system of claim 1, wherein the molten metal is supplied to the electrodes to close the circuit by two molten metal injector systems comprising the molten metal pump system, wherein each molten metal injector system forms a molten metal stream in contact with one of the electrodes, wherein the molten metal streams intersect to close the circuit, and each molten metal injector system comprises: a) at least a reservoir that contains some of the molten metal, a molten metal pump system (e.g. , one or more electromagnetic pumps) configured to receive molten metal in the reservoir through an inlet and deliver the molten metal in the reservoir and through the injector section of the electromagnetic pump tube to a nozzle that provides a molten metal stream and serves as an electrode, and the reservoir for receiving a returning molten metal stream following injection; b) an inlet riser tube on the inlet to control the molten metal level in the reservoir; c) an electrical break in the wall of the reservoir to electrically isolate each of the corresponding electrodes from the electrode of opposite polarity, and d) an alignment mechanism to change the orientation of the electrode injector such that the two streams of the two electrodes intersect to complete the circuit.

3. The power generation system of claim 1, wherein the alignment mechanism to position the nozzles comprises bellows and threaded rods or servomotor-driven actuators that cause the nozzles to tilt, a processor, and ignition voltage and current sensors wherein the processor adjusts the position of the injector nozzles according to the current and voltage sensed by corresponding sensors wherein the desired alignment achieves the maximum current and minimum voltage.

4. The power generation system of claim 1, wherein the electromagnetic pump comprises an induction type comprising:(i) an electrical insulator loop comprising a ceramic or quartz tube loop filled with the metal to be pumped with an inlet and outlet to the loop,(ii) a time varying magnetic field source through the loop such as an electromagnetic yoke to induce a current flow around the loop, and(iii) a synchronized electromagnet that provides an electromagnetic field perpendicular to the time varying induction current in the loop to cause a Lorentz force to pump the molten metal from the inlet through the outlet wherein at least one of the inlet andoutlet of the ceramic or quartz tube may be metalized and brazed to a metal flange that is connected to a component to at least one of the outlet of the reservoir or the injector portion of the electromagnetic pump such by a gasket flange seal or a weld.

5. The power generation system of claim 3, wherein the induction type electromagnetic pump comprises a straight ceramic or quartz tube that is driven by linear electromagnetic excitation.

6. The power generation system of any one of claims 1-5, wherein the inlet riser comprises a wet seal to prevent at least one of metal oxide and oxygen from entering the electromagnetic pump tube.

7. The power generation system of claim 6, wherein the wet seal comprises a hat on the top of the inlet riser that is closed at the top end and open at the bottom wherein an inlet to the inlet riser is higher than the bottom of the hat such that the minimum height of the molten metal level in each reservoir is higher than the bottom of the hat.

8. The power generation system of claim 7, wherein the inlet riser comprises a plurality of inlet holes of hole size that allows for an inflow rate sufficient to maintain the injection flow rate while preventing metal oxide from flowing into the inlet riser (e.g., due to its small size and / or the high surface tension of the metal oxide).

9. The power generation system of any one of claims 1-8, comprising a constant pressure flow controller and a vacuum pump to maintain the reaction gases under constant pressure in the range of about 0. 1 Torr to 100 atm when one or more reactants are flowing into the vessel.

10. The power generation system of claim 9 wherein the reactant gases additionally comprise argon gas, and the system further comprises a recirculator to recirculate gases from and to the vessel wherein at least one of reaction products is removed during recirculation and at least one consumable gas of the group of hydrogen and oxygen are resupplied from sources thereof.

11. The power generation system of any one of claims 1-10, wherein the system comprises a separator with a passage between where the molten streams close the circuit and an inner reservoir for the molten metal, wherein flowed molten metal returns to the inner reservoir through the passage after closing the circuit; the separator optionally further comprises an inner reservoir extension comprising a conduit for the separator passage that is welded under the separator and extends into the inner reservoir.

12. The power generation system of claim 11, comprising an injection and return molten metal flow system comprising:(i) an outer reservoir,(ii) an inner reservoir,(iii) an electromagnetic pump that that receives metal from the inner reservoir and injects it through an injector section of the electromagnetic pump tube and a nozzle,(iv) the separator welded into and across the opening of the outer reservoir with an opening to allow passage of at least one of the molten metal injector and injected molten metal and further provide passage of return molten metal,(v) the inner reservoir extension welded to the bottom of the separator,(vi) a separator drainage channel slot on the side of the separator opposite the junction of reservoirs to a reservoir hemispherical dome,(vii) a separator drainage channel to allow return molten metal flow to separator drainage channel slot,(vii) a diverter positioned circumferentially along a portion of the separator that serves as a barrier to molten metal flowing into the section of the separator opening spanned by the diverter and further directing molten metal flow to the separator drainage channel, and(ix) an inner reservoir extension liner that lines the portion of the inner reservoir extension towards the center of the reservoir hemispherical dome with a non-electrical conducting conduit and permits molten metal flow through the separator drainage slot on the outside of the liner and inside of the reservoir extension on the portion of the liner away from the center of the reservoir hemispherical dome to return metal to the inner reservoir.

13. The power generation system of claim 12, wherein the separator comprises a dripper comprising a flat perforated metal ring or screen in the area between the inner reservoir extension liner and the outer separator edge connected to the inside of the outer reservoir.

14. The power generation system of claim 13, futher comprising a molten metal pool in the inner reservoir below the dripper and inner reservoir extension that is maintained in the housing, wherein the housing comprises a portion of the inner reservoir wall and a pool floor attached to a bracket welded to the inner reservoir wall that positions the floor level (parallel) to the horizontal plane.

15. The power generation system of claim 14, wherein(i) the pool floor comprises a ball and socket joint which permits the adjustment of the orientation of a nozzle (e.g., the injection nozzle) by an alignment mechanism (e.g., one that reorients the injector section of the electromagnetic pump tube and the nozzle that pass through the ball and socket joint),(ii) the pool floor further comprises inlet risers comprising molten metal overflow tubes to maintain a desired depth of molten metal in the pool, and(iii) the nozzle is housed in the inner reservoir extension liner which sits on at least one inlet riser and extends above the separator to a desired height to at least one of maintain a desired depth of molten metal in the reservoir hemispherical dome and serve as an injectorsleeve which may optionally further prevent the first and / or second plasma from contacting a nozzle; and wherein optionally the ball and socket further houses a plasma-rejection gas line to permit gas flow through the sleeve to protect the nozzle from plasma damage.

16. The power generation system of any one of claims 13-15, wherein the separator dripper comprises at least one of a nonconductor (e.g. non conducting material) and further comprises an overlaid bead bed to break the electrical continuity or connection of the return molten metal stream to avoid an electrical connection of at least one of the reservoir or reservoir hemispherical dome wall with at least one of the inner reservoir, ball and socket nozzle, inlet risers, and molten metal pool.

17. The power generation system of claim 1, comprises an electrode pool cavity and pool wherein the injector section of the electromagnetic pump tube comprises an electrically insulating refractory cover or sleeve sealed to the tube (e.g., to prevent the electrode from electrically shorting, serving as a pool cavity to maintain a molten metal pool of the corresponding depth of the sleeve that at least partially covers the electrode to protect it from plasma damage).

18. The power generation system of claim 17, wherein the pool cavity comprises a plurality of concentric tube sleeves and at least partial seals between the concentric tube sleeves and on the base of the sleeves.

19. The power generation system of any one of claims 1-18, further comprising a plurality of sleeves wherein an innermost sleeve covers the injector section of the electromagnetic pump tube and at least one other sleeve fits concentrically on a contiguous inner sleeve and forms an electrically insulating refractory conduit of the corresponding injected molten metal stream from the nozzle to inside the transparent window and reaction cavity.

20. The power generation system of any one of claims 11-19, comprising an inner reservoir extension liner that extends below the separator to prevent electrical shorting between the injector section of the electromagnetic pump tube and the inner reservoir extension, wherein at least one sleeve sits on a support attached to the injector section of the electromagnetic pump tube such that the corresponding sleeve or pool cavity length is less than about 5% to 50% of the length of the injector section of the electromagnetic pump tube.

21. The power generation system of claim 20, wherein the sleeve diameter is in the range of about 0. 1 cm to 10 cm.

22. The power generation system of any one of claims 14-21, further comprising an elevated ball and socket pool wherein the molten metal pool floor comprises a ball and socket joint for the injector section of the electromagnetic pump tube, anda ball and socket pool is mounted on a structural extension (e.g. tubular or a plurality of tubular sections), wherein the structural extension extends from at least one support attachment inside the inner reservoir below the separator to a height at least one of the inside the metal reaction cavity (e.g. stainless steel hemispherical dome) and the transparent window; and the rigid connections to supports to the inner reservoir interior wall are sufficiently below the separator such that returning metal does not short to the supports; optionally the supports are spaced apart to form channels to allow for flow of returning molten metal; and optionally the structural extension is protected from shorting to the outer reservoir, hemispherical dome, transparent window and reaction cavity baseplate, and opposing electrode by an electrical insulating sleeve (e.g. inner reservoir extension liner) that extends from the supports to past the pool floor mounted on the structural extension; and the molten metal pool cavity if formed by walls comprising a perpendicular extension of the pool floor, or the electrical insulating sleeve extending beyond the pool floor by a distance that establishes the depth of the pool as it serves as the walls of the pool; the electrical insulating sleeve serving as walls of the pool is cut at an angle to maintain a level pool height to the horizontal being about at the same angle as the reservoir, and the pool molten metal overflows the pool walls to maintain the pool height determined by the depth of the nozzle ball and socket pool floor relative to the walls formed a perpendicular extension of the pool floor or the top portion of the electrical insulating sleeve.

23. The power generation system of claim 22, wherein the structural extension comprises a plurality of SS sections that have different cross-sectional sizes and heights (e.g. a bottom section comprising a large diameter tube than that of a top section of a smaller diameter that supports the molten metal pool), the support sections are welded together and further comprise a washer at each junction point to seal the transition from the larger to smaller diameter radius, and each section comprises an electrical insulator (e.g. quartz) liner of slightly larger diameter than that of the corresponding SS support section.

24. The power generation system of claim 22 or 23, wherein(i) the structural extension comprises a ceramic electrical break comprising Kovar brazed to a metalized ceramic tube by high temperature braze (e.g. copper braze) at one or both ends and optional comprising a metal flange attached at one or more ends welded to the Kovar;(ii) the Kovar weldable tube and an optionally a flange on at least one end is oriented at about the angle of the reservoirs from the vertical (e.g. about 12°),(iii) a top ceramic tube Kovar or flange end is connected to a ball and socket nozzle pool floor and the pool walls, and(iv) the ceramic extension tube at the opposite end (i.e. the one inside of the inner reservoir) rests on and is attached to supports in the wall of the inner reservoir, or at least one of a Kovar weldable tube and flange attached to the Kovar weldable tube at the opposite end are attached to the inside of the inner reservoir by supports wherein the supports comprise channels to permit return molten metal flow to pass to the inner reservoir.

25. The power generation system of any one of claims 17- 24, comprising at least one of the electrode pool cavity and pool and the elevated ball and socket pool, wherein(i) at least one of the injector section of the electromagnetic pump tube and the nozzle further comprise at least one pool-filling opening to allow some molten metal pumped by the electromagnetic pump to flow into the pool cavity or ball and socket pool to maintain the molten metal pool to protect the nozzle from plasma damage; wherein the at least one poolfilling opening may comprise a baffle to at least partially decrease the force of the stream flowing from the pool-filling opening;(ii) the pool level is at least partially maintained by molten metal ejected by either electromagnetic pump that falls into a pool cavity or ball and socket pool;(iii) pool filling sources comprising at least one of the (a) one or more pool-filling openings of sufficient size and number and (b) sufficient flow ejected from a nozzle that falls into the pool sustains the required molten metal flow to maintain the pool filled and cause molten metal to overflow the pool cavity to cool the pool and pool cavity or ball and socket pool and prevent the molten metal of the pool and pool cavity or ball and socket pool from overheating wherein the pool temperature is maintained below a desired temperature in the range of about 300 °C to 1000 °C; and(iv) the pool (e.g., electrode pool, elevated ball and socket pool) further comprises at least one drainage opening that maintains flow of molten metal out of the pool with a balanced input of molten metal to the pool from the pool-filling sources to cool at least one of the pool or ball and socket pool, the pool molten metal, the injector section of the electromagnetic pump tube, and the nozzle.

26. The power generation system of any one of claims 17-25, comprising the electrode pool cavity and pool and the elevated ball and socket pool walls that enable pooling of metal at the end of the sleeve or liner, wherein the pool formed by the at least one sleeve or liner at least partially submerges the nozzle in a liquid metal pool such that it is at least partially protected from the plasma in the transparent window and reaction cavity wherein the top of at least one sleeve or the liner extends to less than about 2 cm (e.g., 0 cm, 0. 1 cm) below the tip of the nozzle such that the nozzle tip concentrates the plasma in the region of the nozzle tip which may be at about the center of the pool, orthe top of at least one sleeve or liner extends beyond the nozzle tip in the length range from about 1 mm to 25 cm such that the extended sleeve or liner maintains a deeper pool wherein the nozzle may eject molten metal through the protective pool metal covering the tip of the nozzle.

27. The power generation system of claim 26, comprising the electrode pool cavity and pool and the elevated ball and socket pool wherein at least the top of at least one sleeve or liner is clad, coated, or metalized with a coating or layer to protect the sleeve or liner from the group of W, dense chrome, nickel, a BN, TiN, CrC, CrN, Ta such as Tanatline coating, Mo, Nb, Nb(94.33 wt%)-Mo(4.86 wt%)-Zr(0.81 wt%), Os, Ru, Hf, Re, 347 SS, Cr- Mo SS, silicide, carbon, a ceramic such as Si3N4, Shapal, AIN, Sialon, AI2O3, ZrO2, or HfO2, MgO, SiC, a high temperature capable adhesive such as a quartz -to-quartz adhesive such as Aremco Ceramabond 618-N, Ceramabond™ 503, Ceramabond™ 571, Ceramabond™ 835M, or Ceramabond™ 865, and a diffusion coating (e.g. aluminide (Hitemco)).

28. The power generation system of claim 27, comprising the electrode pool cavity and pool and the elevated ball and socket pool that comprises a flow-through structure or channel comprising at least one drainage opening that receives inward flow of molten metal from at least one of one or more side openings and from at least one nozzle while draining from at the least one pool drainage opening comprising at least one of side holes, floor holes, and at least one channel at the sleeve-floor union for outward flow wherein the rate of inward flow versus outward flow is such that the steady state flow at least partially fdls the channel without accumulation of a molten metal pool of any substantial height, (e.g. no more than 1% to 75% fdled) wherein the steady state flow serves to cool and protect the nozzle.

29. The power generation system of claim 28, wherein the pool floor of at least one of the pool cavity and elevated ball and socket pool comprises a metal or alternatively, an electrical nonconductor such as a BN, alumina, zirconia, quartz, or another ceramic such as one of the disclosure to prevent electrical contact between at least a portion of the pool molten metal and the pool floor wherein the flow-through channel serves to cool and protect the nozzle while avoiding plasma current conduction through the molten metal pool.

30. The power generation system of claim 1 to provide nozzle protection, wherein the hydrino reaction rate is highest at of one the two electrodes (e.g. the positive electrode), the plasma ignition system further comprises a switch to periodically reverse the polarity of the ignition current supplied to the electrodes such that the corresponding higher reaction power is intermittently switched back-and-forth between the two electrodes to prevent the nozzle exposed to the higher power from overheating and being damaged wherein the switching rate selected to prevent nozzle damage is in the frequency range of about 1000 Hz to 10'4HZ.

31. The power generation system of any one of claims 17-30, comprising at least one of a sleeve, sleeve cavity, and ball ansd socket pool comprising a pool floor, inner reservoir liner walls, a ball and socket joint, at least one inlet riser, and an inner reservoir extension liner wherein at least one of the injector section of the electromagnetic pump tube and the electromagnetic pump tube comprises at least one of a coaxial, side-by-side, and juxtaposed plasma-rejection gas line housed in the at least one sleeve or liner to supply at least one of hydrogen, oxygen, or argon at its outlet through at least a portion of the sleeve, sleeve cavity, or liner at a sufficient gas flow rate to at least partially protect at least one of the injector section of the electromagnetic pump tube and the nozzle from plasma damage by pushing or expelling the plasma from the at least one sleeve or liner.

32. The power generation system of claim 31, wherein the plasma-rejection gas line is connected to a penetration out of the inner reservoir comprising a welded-in penetration through a baseplate of the electromagnetic pump, and at least one of passes through the ball and socket joint of the ball and socket pool and supplies gas to the inside of the liner supported by at least one inlet riser of a ball and socket pool below the separator; and the plasma-rejection gas line is further connected at the opposite end of the plasma-rejection gas line outlet to a mass flow controller, a pressure gauge, and at least one gas tank wherein the gas flow is controlled by a controller that controls the mass flow controller, and the gas participates in the second plasma reaction, and excess gas is removed by at least one of a vacuum pump and recirculator to maintain a reaction gas pressure (e.g., of about 0.1 Torr to 100 atm).

33. The power generation system of any one of claims 1-32, wherein the photovoltaic (PV) converter comprises(i) a cylindrical assemble of side column PV elements connected by interconnects wherein the side column PV elements comprises a column of PV cells on the front side facing the transparent window and reaction cavity are mounted on a copper mounting plate and a cold plate on the backside comprising an inlet for coolant from a coolant line or manifold and a channel spanning the length of the column PV element to receive heat from the PV cells and transfer it to the coolant that exists an outlet to an outlet coolant line or manifold, and(ii) a flat or domed top comprising an assemble of row PV elements each comprising PV cells on the front side facing the transparent window and reaction cavity that are mounted on a copper mounting plate and contact a cold plate on the backside comprising a coolant inlet line or manifold to provide coolant to the cold plate to receive heat from the PV cells and transfer it to the coolant that exists an outlet to an outlet coolant line or manifold.

34. The power generation system of claim 33, wherein the top cold plate comprises a common cold plate for the top assemble of row PV elements with at least oneinlet and one outlet to the cold plate that further comprises flow channels of a geometry selected to effectively circulate the coolant over the PV cells to efficiently cool the PV cells of the top section of the PV converter selected from the group of coolant channels comprising a circular geometry with in-heat-exchanger radial inlet and outlet manifolds at opposite ends of circular channels of different radii; a spiral coolant channel with a perimeter inlet and a central outlet, and a linear-transverse or separated back-and-forth channels comprising independent or common inlets and outlets.

35. The power generation system of claim 34, wherein the cold plate comprises an inlet at the ends of each row PV element that connect to radial channels that converge to a central outlet chamber or manifold.

36. The power generation system of claim 35, wherein each radial channel comprises at least one outlet hole on the top or center of the channel to a common series of outlet channels or a common outlet chamber or manifold on top of the radial inlet channels.

37. The power generation system of claim 36, wherein the inlet coolant lines or manifolds and the outlet coolant lines or manifolds are connected to a heat exchanger (e.g. a car or truck radiator) that provides cold coolant to the inlet coolant lines and manifolds and receives hot coolant from the outlet coolant lines and manifolds.

38. The power generation system according to any one of claims 1-37, further comprising a transparent window and reaction cavity fastener comprising a compressive or tightening mechanism to maintain a compressive attachment to the transparent window and reaction cavity to the transparent window and reaction cavity baseplate.

39. The power generation system according to claim 38, wherein the transparent window and reaction cavity fastener further comprises a tension applicator to maintain a desired compressive or tightening force of the clamp on the transparent window and reaction cavity during operation of the power generation system.

40. The power generation system according to claim 39, wherein the transparent window and reaction cavity fastener comprises a clamp and a spring wherein the spring applies compressive or tightening force to the clamp and compensates for thermal expansion of the clamp.

41. The power generation system according to claim 40, wherein at least one component of the compressive or tightening mechanism is removed from the hot region of the transparent window and reaction cavity molten metal wet seal.

42. The power generation system according to claim 41, wherein the transparent window and reaction cavity fastener comprises a spring-loaded T-bolt clamp comprising (i) a circumferential metal band and at least one tightening bolt wherein the band metal directly contacts the transparent window and reaction cavity wall and (ii) a spring tighteningmechanism wherein the spring is located remotely from the hot region of the clamp (e. g. between the outer retention ring and the inner retention ring).

43. The power generation system according to claim 42, comprising the transparent window and reaction cavity fastener wherein the remote spring tightening mechanism comprises(i) a rectangular bushing and 1stpost with a penetration for the tightening bolt wherein the outer wet seal retention wall is welded on opposite sides of the bushing and the transparent window and reaction cavity baseplate is welded to the bushing where they contact to form a seal to the wet seal molten metal,(ii) a clamp bolt bellows welded to the bushing and 1stpost on the side opposite the direction of penetration of the tightening bolt wherein the opposite end of the bellows is welded to the tightening bolt,(iii) an extended section of the tightening bolt,(iv) a baseplate clamping mechanism extension such as an extension of the transparent window and reaction cavity baseplate,(v) a second post welded to the extension having a penetration for the tightening bolt,(vi) a compression spring, and(vii) a washer and a nut on the tightening bolt wherein the spring is positioned between the second post and the washer and nut.

44. The power generation system according to claim 43, wherein transparent window and reaction cavity fastener comprises(i) a transparent window and reaction cavity or dome clamp comprising a compressive or tightening mechanism to maintain a compressive attachment to the transparent window and reaction cavity, and(ii) a dome clamp fastener that secures the transparent window and reaction cavity clamp to the Transparent window and reaction cavity baseplate.

45. The power generation system according to claim 44, wherein the dome clamp fastener to provide fastening force of the dome to the baseplate comprises at least one fastener attachment to the dome clamp and a fastener of the clamp fastener attachment to the transparent window and reaction cavity baseplate.

46. The power generation system according to claim 45, wherein the dome clamp fastener comprises clamp-bracket tabs fastened to the dome clamp and fasteners of the tabs to the transparent window and reaction cavity baseplate comprising clamp brackets that arefastened to a baseplate bracket mechanism extension by spring-loaded bolt fasteners comprising bracket bolts and bracket springs.

47. The power generation system according to claim 46, wherein the transparent window and reaction cavity fastener or at least one component comprises a tin alloy resistant material (e.g. Ta or W) or is coated with a tin alloy resistant material (e.g. Ta, BN, or Tantaline).

48. The power generation system according to any one of claims 1-47 comprising an inner reservoir for the molten metal, wherein the inner reservoir comprises an electromagnetic baseplate at its base comprising a plurality of parts capable of being disassembled and assembled to serve the functions of the electromagnetic baseplate, wherein the functions may comprise at least one from the group of(i) seal at least one of the exterior reservoir and internal reservoir,(ii) provide sealed penetrations for the inlet and outlet of the electromagnetic pump,(iii) provide a connection to an ignition bus bar,(iv) provide a support to attach electromagnetic pump magnet brackets that support electromagnetic pump magnets, and(v) permit ease of installation of at least one inductively coupled heater coil to maintain the molten metal in a molten state.

49. The power generation system according to claim 48, wherein the electromagnetic baseplate comprises(i) a reservoir baseplate to seal the internal reservoir and provide sealed penetrations for the inlet and outlet of the electromagnetic pump,(ii) an adapter plate to provide a support to attach the electromagnetic pump magnet brackets, and(iii) an adapter plate to provide a support to attach the electromagnetic pump magnet brackets and provide a connection to the ignition bus bar wherein at least one inductively coupled heater coil such as one that heats the inner reservoir may be slide over the reservoir baseplate, wherein the adapter plates are capable of being reversibly fastened to the reservoir baseplate by adapter plate bolts.

50. The power generation system according to any one of claims 1-49, further comprising an inductively couple heater and inductively coupled heater coil array to maintain the molten metal in a molten state wherein the inductively coupled heater coil array comprises at least two coils connected in at least one of series or parallel further comprises atleast one switch to turn off separate coils of the plurality of coils connected in series or parallel.

51. The power generation system according to claim 50, wherein the coil array comprises a plurality of coils connected in at least one of parallel and series and at least one switch, each at the location to separate a set of coils that are desired to be powered from a set to be disconnected from an inductively coupled power feed.

52. The power generation system according to claim 51, wherein the switch comprises a reversible electrical short within a lead to at least one coil or between the parallel leads between the two sets of coils.

53. The power generation system according to claim 52, wherein the switch comprises a flexible electrical insulator tubing connecting electrical conducting portions of the coil wherein the electrical insulator tubing provides a conduit for the flow of coolant.

54. The power generation system according to claim 53, wherein the switch comprises a reversible electrical shunt across a nonconductive section comprising at least one of a solenoid switch, a clam shell, or a pair of plates that reversible connect the conductive portions of the coil or antenna on both sides of the nonconductive portion of the coil.

55. The power generation system according to claim 54, wherein the switch comprises:(i) opposing conductive switch blocks, each comprising two internally connected ports (e.g. a coolant line input port and coolant line output port), and(ii) a nonconductive flexible coolant line section to provide a conduit for the flow of antenna coolant wherein the nonconductive coolant line section connects to one of the ports of each block, and the opposite port of each block is connected to the coil or a coil lead.

56. The power generation system according to claim 55, further comprising at least one of:(i) electromagnetic pump heat transfer blocks with a heat transfer block coil that at least partially heats the electromagnetic pump wherein the heat transfer block coil comprises a sufficiently larger inner length and width than that of the heat transfer block to permit movement inside the coil while nozzle positioning by an alignment mechanism, and(ii) electromagnetic pump heat transfer blocks with a heat transfer block coil that at least partially heats the electromagnetic pump wherein the heat transfer block coil comprises a coil comprising an expansion joint (e.g. bellows) to permit an alignment mechanism to adjust the position of the nozzle.

57. The power generation system according to claim 56, wherein at least one of the electromagnetic pump and electromagnetic pump tube is resistively heated by runningcurrent through at least one of the electromagnetic pump tube and bus bars of the electromagnetic pump wherein the current source is least one of the ignition current source, the electromagnetic pump current source, the power adapter, and an external source such as at least one of line current, at least one battery, and at least one supercapacitor.

58. The power generation system according claim 57, wherein current from each electromagnetic pump current source is run through the two electromagnetic pump bus bars of each electromagnetic pump, or the current from the ignition current source is run in the following sequence:(i) a positive electrical connection to the electromagnetic pump tube of the first electromagnetic pump (e.g., cathode electromagnetic pump, anode electromagnetic pump);(ii) a bus bar of the first electromagnetic pump;(iii) a jumper between a bus bar of the first electromagnetic pump shorted to a bus bar of the second electromagnetic pump (e.g., anode electromagnetic pump, cathode electromagnetic pump) wherein the short is controlled by a jumper switch that also disconnects the two electromagnetic pump current sources;(iv) the electromagnet pump tube of the second electromagnetic pump;(v) a negative electrical connection from the electromagnetic pump tube of the second electromagnetic pump to ignition power source, and the jumper switch disconnects the short while reconnecting the current sources of the two electromagnetic pumps following heating.

59. The power generation system according to any one of claims 1-58, further comprising a plasma cell that maintains plasma in at least one of the hemispherical dome and the transparent window and reaction cavity to provide plasma (e.g. the first plasma) in the region between the two nozzles to heat the nozzles and injection section of the electromagnetic pump tube by flowing current though the tube by electrically connecting the opposing electrodes through the plasma that serves as a switch.

60. The power generation system according to claim 59, wherein the plasma cell comprises at least one of a glow discharge, microwave, radio frequency (RF), inductively or capacitively-coupled RF plasma cell.

61. The power generation system according to claim 59 or 60, further comprising a molten metal level height in the inner reservoirs to heat the nozzles and injection section of the electromagnetic pump tube above the melting point of the molten metal by conduction of heat through the molten metal that is heated in a lower region towards the inner reservoir base by inductively coupled heating, resistive heating, or torch heating.

62. The power generation system according claim 61, further comprising a heat transfer packing or spacer (e.g. AIN) between an outer molten metal reservoir and the inner molten metal reservoir to transfer or conduct heat from the outer reservoir to the innerreservoir during melting the molten metal and vice versa during operation to remove excess heat.

63. A method of forming a wet seal between a transparent window and reaction cavity and a baseplate (e.g., in a power generation system of any of claims 1-62), wherein a fastener comprising a remote spring tightening mechanism which maintains compressive attachment between the window cavity and the baseplate, and the remote spring tightening mechanism comprises(i) a rectangular bushing and 1stpost with a penetration for the tightening bolt wherein the outer wet seal retention wall is welded on opposite sides of the bushing and the transparent window and reaction cavity baseplate is welded to the bushing where they contact to form a seal to the wet seal molten metal,(ii) a clamp bolt bellows welded to the bushing and 1stpost on the side opposite the direction of penetration of the tightening bolt wherein the opposite end of the bellows is welded to the tightening bolt,(iii) an extended section of the tightening bolt,(iv) a baseplate clamping mechanism extension such as an extension of the transparent window and reaction cavity baseplate(v) a second post welded to the extension having a penetration for the tightening bolt,(vi) a compression spring, and(vii) a washer and a nut on the tightening bolt wherein the spring is positioned between the second post and the washer and nut; and the method comprising tightening the nut to apply pressure on the spring to tighten the clamp and maintain compression on the transparent window and reaction cavity wall.

64. The power generation system according claim 1, wherein the product of the reaction of the reaction cell comprises a gas that is observed at room temperature as two gas chromatographic peaks before a hydrogen peak separated on a molecular sieve chromatographic column that separates gases by size and weight, and the two novel peaks show that characteristics of two nuclear spin isomers that catalytically interconvert to room temperature on standing.

65. A photovoltaic converter comprising a hollow inner cylindrical cavity and a plurality of photovoltaic cells dispersed radially around the hollow inner cavity and mounted on an external mounting plate, wherein the light receiving portion of each photovoltaic cell is oriented towards the hollow inner cavity and each photovoltaic cell in the plurality of photovoltaic cells is joined to the neighboring photovoltaic cell by one or more interconnects; anda cold plate connected to the mounting plate, wherein the cold plate comprises an inlet and / or outlet for coolant and a channel spanning one dimension (e.g., the major longitudinal axis of the hollow inner cavity) the corresponding location for each of the plurality of photovoltaic cells.

66. The photovoltaic converter according to claim 1, further comprising a flat or domed top covering the hollow inner cavity, wherein the top comprises a second plurality of photovoltaic cells mounted on a second external mounting plate connected to a second cold plate, wherein the light receiving portion of the second plurality of photovoltaic cells is oriented towards the hollow inner cavity.

67. The photovoltaic converter according to claim 66, wherein the second cold plate comprises one or more top plate coolant flow channels, wherein the top plate coolant flow channels are concentric circles with different radii, wherein the one or more channels connect between each concentric circle and a coolant inlet and coolant outlet on the perimeter of the second cold plate, spiral coolant channels with a perimeter inlet and central outlet, linear-transverse or separated back-and forth channels comprising independent or common inlets and / or outlets.

68. A system comprising a) at least one vacuum capable vessel capable of a maintaining a pressure below, equal to, and greater than atmospheric comprising a reaction chamber; b) a molten metal and two electrodes configured to allow a molten metal flow therebetween to complete a circuit; c) a power source connected to said two electrodes to apply a current therebetween when said circuit is closed; d) a plasma generation cell (e.g., glow discharge cell) to induce the formation of a first plasma from a gas; wherein effluence of the plasma generation cell is directed towards the circuit (e.g., the molten metal, the anode, the cathode, an electrode submerged in a molten metal reservoir); wherein when current is applied across the circuit, the effluence of the plasma generation cell undergoes a reaction to producing a second plasma and reaction products; and e) a power converter (e.g., a power converter such as the photovoltaic converter according to any one of claims 65-67), wherein the second plasma is generated in the hollow inner cylindrical cavity).

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