Energy storage and management system

Abstract

An energy storage and management system that comprises a battery consisting of a set of capacitors connected, in series or parallel and with the set of capacitors having input means for connection to a source of electrical power and output means for connection to an electrical circuit, and with the system being connected to a capacitor management system configured to at least perform capacitor balancing on the capacitors. The invention also extends to the capacitors and to the battery compared thereof.

Description

[0001] ENERGY STORAGE AND MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

[0002] FIELD OF THE INVENTION

[0003] This invention relates to a system to store and manage electrical energy for use by electrical devices.

[0004] BACKGROUND TO THE INVENTION

[0005] The reliable supply of electrical energy is posing an ever-increasing challenge to energy providers and energy consumers. Historically, electricity was generated and distributed by central entities, often being state owned entities. The consumption of electricity was low to moderate with few devices, such as fridges and freezers, being constantly powered, and other devices such as lights and appliances being used intermittently or only at certain times of the day.

[0006] In the modern era industrial, business, and residential use of electricity have increased dramatically, in terms of the amount of energy used and the frequency. Modern equipment such as computers and other ‘always-on’ devices place a constant demand on energy producers. Most electronic equipment is sensitive to the quality of electricity that power it, and spikes that accompany reconnection of an electrical supply that had been interrupted is typically detrimental to connected equipment, especially to electronic equipment. The addition of data centres and Al systems as electricity consumers place enormous strain on energy supply. Since such systems are considered essential, the provision to them is typically configured to be the last to be interrupted, which leaves ordinary consumers even more exposed to power supply interruptions.

[0007] The awareness of the negative impact of traditional, also known as non-renewable, forms of power generation, such as coal-fired power plants, places an additional burden on power generation by limiting further use of such power plants. In many countries, use of coal fired plants is being rapidly reduced, and for example recently the UK closed its last coal fired plant.

[0008] Many power producers struggle to keep up with demand and resort to rolling blackouts to prevent complete collapse of electrical grids. The cost of grid-supplied electricity is also increasing dramatically, in many instances outstripping inflation. For example, in South Africa the national electricity provider Eskom has requested the SA energy regulator to approve a tariff increase of 36.15% for 2025 for customers that receive electricity directly from Eskom. Customers that receive electricity through a local authority that purchase it from Eskom could face tariff increases of 43.55%. With such increases electrical power costs are driving inflation, at least in some economies.

[0009] This uncertainty in the quantity and quality of electrical supply, and the increasing cost, is motivating many consumers, in industrial, business, and residential sectors, to resort to energy systems that provide them with some form of backup and independence from the electrical grid. A common desire of consumers, in any of these sectors, is to go ‘off-grid’. This means a consumer can generate, through renewable sources, enough electricity of adequate quality to continuously power whatever electrical devices the consumer has in place.

[0010] Conventionally, this typically comprises using solar panels to generate electrical energy from renewable sources such as sunlight and, in coastal areas also from wind generators, and storing at least some of that energy in batteries as backup or for use after sunset.

[0011] The solar panel components of such systems are constantly developing and improving, and they continue to become much more affordable and efficient.

[0012] The storage component of such systems is still not adequate, at least not at a reasonable cost. Batteries used for energy storage have significant functional limitations. Conventional deep cycle gel batteries don’t have a great depth of discharge (‘DOD’), with typically less than 50% of a gel battery’s rated capacity being available for use. Lithium-Iron Phosphate (LiFePO4) or Lithium Ferro Phosphate (LFP) batteries fare better with DOD, although it still not 100%, and they are very expensive. The need for higher voltage batteries with higher power densities is ever growing in the world.

[0013] Another problem with batteries, even modern LFP batteries with better DOD performance, is that although they can provide a relatively high specific energy, and can supply energy for long periods of time, they cannot do so at great ‘speed’ - in effect the available current from a battery is relatively low. Conventional LFP batteries rely on a chemical reaction (a redox reaction) to store energy, which is rate limiting in terms of energy supply. This means that batteries struggle to provide the power required for starting up some electrical devices, such as power tools. This means a battery is more suitable for higher energy density applications, for example where a device needs to run for long periods on a single charge (low current). A problem with conventional high voltage batteries with high power densities is that they are very complex and are made up of strands of battery stacks and are secured together. Maintenance of such a battery typically requires decommissioning the battery. With global supply disruptions, relatively unreliable suppliers have entered the market and are supplying technically inadequate and unsafe batteries. These are leading to greater risk of lithium battery fires. In a recent report it is stated that the damage resulting from only 4 lithium battery fires resulted in damage of about R45m.

[0014] Even properly manufactured LFP batteries are susceptible to internal inconsistencies, and where the temperature of an LFP battery is not properly managed, it can rapidly overheat and lead to rapid catastrophic overheating and the explosion of such batteries. This often leads to extensive property damage, and in some instances to loss of life.

[0015] An alternative energy storage system is a supercapacitor, also known as an ultra-capacitor. This provides higher specific power than a battery, which means it can deliver a high current very fast, but it cannot do so for very long. The supercapacitor can deliver high current but it depletes its stored energy very fast, making it unsuitable for higher energy density applications.

[0016] There is a need for an energy storage and management system that provides a power supply with a high specific energy and high specific power, and adequate management of such system to render it practically useful.

[0017] OBJECT OF THE INVENTION

[0018] It is an object of the invention to provide an energy storage and management system which at least partly overcomes the abovementioned problem.

[0019] SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

[0020] In accordance with a first aspect of the invention there is provided a lithium metal capacitor including an assembly of a lithium metal cathode and a carbon anode separated by a separator comprising a porous membrane configured to physically separate the anode and cathode from each other and allowing ions to pass between them, with each of the anode and the cathode having a current collector configured to complete an electrical circuit between the anode and cathode connectable to an external circuit, with the assembly encased within shell, from which the current collectors extend.

[0021] There is further provided for the current collector for the anode to be comprised of copper and for the current collector for the cathode to be comprised of aluminium.

[0022] There is still further provided for the anode’s current collector is comprised of copper foil coated on both sides with carbon-based material, preferably graphite.

[0023] There is further provided for carbon-based material that coats the anode to preferably be comprised of a compound including about 94.5% mesocarbon microbeads (“MCMB”), about 2.25% binder more preferably comprising carboxymethyl cellulose (“CMC”), about 2.25% styrene-butadiene rubber (“SBR”), and about 1% conductive super P carbon black powder, mixed into a solvent about 120% by weight of the compound, more preferably comprising deionized water.

[0024] There is still further provided for the current collector for the cathode to be comprised aluminium foil coated with a compound from the group including lithium metal oxide or lithium metal phosphate, more preferably of lithium cobalt oxide, lithium iron phosphate, or lithium manganese oxide.

[0025] There is still further provided for the cathode to more preferably be comprised of a compound including about 93.5% Cathode Active Powder, more preferably comprising LiFePO4, LiCoO2 or similar lithium-based material, about 2.25% binder, about 4.25% carbon black conductive additive, mixed in a solvent by weight about 8 / 15 of the weight content of the compound.

[0026] There is still further provided for the cathode binder to comprise any one or more in combination of the group of compounds including Polyvinylidene Fluoride (“PVDF”), Polyvinylidene Chloride (“PVDC”), Polyacrylonitrile (“PAN”), Polyethylene Oxide (“PEO”), Carboxymethyl Cellulose (“CMC”), Styrene-Butadiene Rubber (“SBR”), and Polyethylene Glycol (“PEG”).

[0027] There is still further provided for the Cathode Active Powder to comprise any one or more in combination of the group of compounds including Lithium cobalt oxide (“LiCoO2”), Lithium Manganese Oxide (“LiMn204”), Lithium Nickel Cobalt Manganese Oxide (“NMC”), Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminium Oxide (“NCA”), Lithium Titanate (“Li4Ti5O12”), Lithium Vanadium Oxide (“LiV2O5”), and Sodium Cobalt Oxide (“NaCoO2”).

[0028] There is still further provided for the cathode solvent to comprise any one or more in combination of the group of solvents including N-Methyl-2-pyrrolidone (“NMP”), Dimethyl Sulfoxide (“DMSO”), Dimethylformamide (“DMF”), N-Ethyl-2-pyrrolidone (“NEP”), Propylene Carbonate (“PC”), and Gamma-Butyrolactone (“GBL”).

[0029] There is still further provided for the cathode carbon black conductive additive to comprise any one or more in combination of the group of compounds comprising Conductive Super C45, Carbon Nanotubes (“CNTs”), Graphene / Carbon Nanofibers (“CNFs”), Carbon Black Derived from Biomass, Graphite Nanoparticles and Conductive Polymers.

[0030] There is also provided for the separator to preferably comprise any one or more in combination of the group comprising Polyethylene (PE) Separator Film, Polypropylene (PP) Separator Film, Polyvinylidene Fluoride (PVDF) Separator Film, Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) Separator Film, Polyvinyl Alcohol (P A) Separator Film, Composite Separator Films, Nanostructured Separator Films, Micro porous Membranes, and Ceramic Separator Films.

[0031] There is still further provided for each capacitor to comprise a plurality of alternating layers of anodes and cathodes separated by a separator between each adjacent set of anodes and cathode layers, contained within an isolating pouch filled with electrolyte and which is sealed over the layers of anodes, cathodes and separators, and with electrodes from the anodes and cathodes extending from the pouch.

[0032] According to a still further feature of the invention, there is provided for a battery to be comprised of a set of capacitors as defined above connected, in series or parallel and with the set of capacitors having input means for connection to a source of electrical power and output means for connection to an electrical circuit.

[0033] There is further provided for the battery to be housed in a casing that is provided with a fluid inlet and a fluid outlet, with the fluid preferably comprising air, and with the configuration of the capacitors in the casing providing a fluid pathway from the inlet to the outlet, and for the casing to be provided with at least one fan, preferably a plurality of fans, to draw fluid, preferably air, in at the inlet and to drive it through pathway out of the outlet to cool the capacitors. There is further provided for the capacitors in the battery to preferably be connected by means electrical bus bars, and more preferably for the bus bars to be comprised of stainless steel or nickel coated alloys.

[0034] In accordance with a further aspect of this invention there is provided an energy storage and management system that comprises a set of capacitors as defined above connected, in series or parallel, to a capacitor management system configured to at least perform capacitor balancing on the capacitors, and with the set of capacitors having input means for connection to a source of electrical power and output means for connection to an electrical circuit.

[0035] There is further provided for the capacitor management system to be configured to perform capacitor balancing by executing a voltage-based balancing algorithm and a state of chargebased balancing algorithm.

[0036] There is further provided for the voltage-based balancing algorithm to comprise: an unbalanced capacitors recognition module, configured to measure the difference between one capacitor’s voltage and the mean value of all the capacitor voltages, determining whether the difference is greater than a predetermined threshold value ‘Vth’, and designating the capacitor as an abnormal capacitor if the difference is greater than the predetermined threshold Vth; and a balancing control module, configured to balance an abnormal capacitor and give feedback to the unbalanced capacitors recognition module, optionally to determine whether the capacitor previously designated as abnormal remains abnormal.

[0037] There is further provided for the unbalanced capacitors recognition module to utilise a Z- score standardized method to pre-process the characteristic parameters for eliminating the influence of units in respect of voltage and state of charge, including applying the formula: wherein, Z / / (i=1,... ,40 and j=1 ,2) is the standardization form of yth characteristic parameter of the / th capacitor (i.e., Z12 denotes the standard SOC of the first capacitor); Capacitor ij represents the original value of yth characteristic parameter of the _th capacitor (i.e., Capacitor denotes the original voltage of the second capacitor); Capacitor / describes the mean of th parameters; 5j denotes the standard deviation of the voltage or SOC when j equals to 1 or 2, respectively; and n is the number of cells.

[0038] There is still further provided for the unbalanced capacitors recognition module to determine a Euclid-distance to calculate the abnormal value of each capacitor in the pack, by applying the formula: wherein D2,(Zm’Zn)( / W=1,... ,40, M n) represents the Euclid-distance between the nth capacitor; Zm represents the mth capacitor which has two attributes (i.e., Zm=(ZmiZ7222);l / l / (Zm) denotes the summation of the Euclid distance between the mth capacitor and the others. The smaller W(Zm) is, the more normal the mth capacitor is. On the contrary, the mth pack is probably abnormal.

[0039] There is still further provided for unbalanced capacitors recognition module to designate a capacitor as normal if its range of outlier values is smaller than threshold VOA1 , and abnormal if its range of outlier values is greater than threshold VOA1, where VOA1 is defined and updated by the formula: n

[0040] There is still further provided for a provided a set of lithium-ion capacitors connected, in series or parallel, to a capacitor management system as defined above, which is configured to at least perform capacitor balancing on the capacitors, and with the set of capacitors having input means for connection to a source of electrical power and output means for connection to an electrical circuit. These and other features of the invention are described in more detail below.

[0041] BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0042] Preferred embodiments of the invention are described by way of example only and with reference to the accompanying drawings and table in which:

[0043] Figure 1 is a top front perspective view of 21.7 kWh battery according to the invention;

[0044] Figure 2 is a side perspective view of the battery of Figure 1 ;

[0045] Figure 3 is a diagrammatical representation of the single line layout of the battery of

[0046] Figure 1 ;

[0047] Figure 4 shows the bus-bar connections of the battery of Figure 1 ;

[0048] Figure 5 is a top front perspective view of a 108.5kWh battery according to the invention, comprised of 5 stacked modules of the 21.7 kWh battery shown in Figure 1 ;

[0049] Figure 6 shows the battery of Figure 5 in its enclosure;

[0050] Figure 7 graphically shows hot swapping of a cell in a battery according to the invention;

[0051] Figure 8 is a photograph of hot-swapping in process;

[0052] Figure 9 shows the casing for the battery of Figure 1 with cooling slots at the bottom to assist with heat dissipation;

[0053] Figure 10 graphically shows the cooling airflow through the battery of Figure 1;

[0054] Figure 11 shows the cooling fans on the battery of Figure 1 ;

[0055] Figure 12 shows the cooling fan assembly on the battery of Figure 1 ;

[0056] Figure 13 shows the cooling fans on the battery of Figure 5;

[0057] Table 1 shows the airflow from the cooling fans and air temperature through various parts of the battery of Figure 1 ;

[0058] Figure 14 graphically shows the SOA of a lithium-ion capacitor;

[0059] Figure 15 graphically shows the SOA of a lithium-ion battery;

[0060] Figure 16 graphically shows the configuration of the system of the invention;

[0061] Figure 17 graphically shows the integration of the process flow for outlier detection, used in determining whether a capacitor is abnormal, in the system;

[0062] Figure 18 graphically shows the capacitor bank’s input-current I and output- SOC, current I, and terminal voltage II;

[0063] Figure 19 graphically shows the process flow for detecting abnormal capacitors; and

[0064] Figure 20 graphically shows the balancing circuit for each capacitor in the system. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

[0065] Before embodiments of the invention are explained in detail, it is to be understood that the invention is not limited in its application to the details of construction and the arrangement of components set forth in the following description or illustrated in the following drawings.

[0066] The invention is capable of other embodiments and of being practiced or of being carried out in various ways. Also, it is to be understood that the phraseology and terminology used herein is for the purpose of description and should not be regarded as limiting.

[0067] The use of "including," "comprising," or "having" and variations thereof herein is meant to encompass the items listed thereafter and equivalents thereof as well as additional items.

[0068] Unless specified or limited otherwise, the terms "mounted", "connected", "engaged" and variations thereof are used broadly and encompass both direct and indirect mountings, connections, supports, and couplings and are thus intended to include direct connections between two members without any other members interposed therebetween and indirect connections between members in which one or more other members are interposed therebetween. Further, "connected" and "engaged" are not restricted to physical or mechanical connections or couplings. Additionally, the words "lower", "upper", "upward", "down" and "downward" designate directions in the drawings to which reference is made.

[0069] The terminology includes the words specifically mentioned above, derivatives thereof, and words or similar import. It is noted that, as used in this specification and the appended claims, the singular forms "a," "an," and "the," and any singular use of any word, include plural referents unless expressly and unequivocally limited to one referent.

[0070] As used herein, the term “include” and its grammatical variants are intended to be nonlimiting, such that recitation of items in a list is not to the exclusion of other like items that can be substituted or added to the listed items.

[0071] A system according to the invention includes a battery that is comprised of a set of capacitors, and which is managed by a capacitor management system (CMS). Each capacitor is a lithium metal capacitor that included an assembly of a lithium metal cathode and a carbon anode separated by a separator comprising a porous membrane configured to physically separate the anode and cathode from each other and allowing ions to pass between them, with each of the anode and the cathode having a current collector configured to complete an electrical circuit between the anode and cathode connectable to an external circuit, with the assembly encased within shell, from which the current collectors extend.

[0072] The current collector for the anode is comprised of copper and the current collector for the cathode is comprised of aluminium.

[0073] The anode’s current collector is comprised of copper foil coated on both sides with carbonbased material, preferably graphite.

[0074] The carbon-based material that coats the anode is preferably be comprised of a compound including about 94.5% mesocarbon microbeads (“MCMB”), about 2.25% binder more preferably comprising carboxymethyl cellulose (“CMC”), about 2.25% styrene-butadiene rubber (“SBR”), and about 1% conductive super P carbon black powder, mixed into a solvent about 120% by weight of the compound, more preferably comprising de-ionized water.

[0075] The current collector for the cathode is comprised of aluminium foil coated with a compound from the group including lithium metal oxide or lithium metal phosphate, more preferably of lithium cobalt oxide, lithium iron phosphate, or lithium manganese oxide.

[0076] The material that coats the cathode is comprised of a compound including about 93.5% Cathode Active Powder, more preferably comprising LiFePO4, LiCoO2 or similar lithium- based material, about 2.25% binder, about 4.25% carbon black conductive additive, mixed in a solvent by weight about 8 / 15 of the weight content of the compound.

[0077] The cathode binder is comprised of any one or more in combination of the group of compounds including Polyvinylidene Fluoride (“PVDF”), Polyvinylidene Chloride (“PVDC”), Polyacrylonitrile (“PAN”), Polyethylene Oxide (“PEO”), Carboxymethyl Cellulose (“CMC”), Styrene-Butadiene Rubber (“SBR”), and Polyethylene Glycol (“PEG”).

[0078] The Cathode Active Powder is comprised any one or more in combination of the group of compounds including Lithium cobalt oxide (“LiCoO2”), Lithium Manganese Oxide (“LiMn204”), Lithium Nickel Cobalt Manganese Oxide (“NMC”), Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminium Oxide (“NCA”), Lithium Titanate (“Li4Ti5O12”), Lithium Vanadium Oxide (“LiV2O5”), and Sodium Cobalt Oxide (“NaCoO2”).

[0079] The cathode solvent is comprised of any one or more in combination of the group of solvents including N-Methyl-2-pyrrolidone (“NMP”), Dimethyl Sulfoxide (“DMSO”), Dimethylformamide (“DMF”), N-Ethyl-2-pyrrolidone (“NEP”), Propylene Carbonate (“PC”), and Gamma- Butyrolactone (“GBL”).

[0080] The cathode carbon black conductive additive is comprised of any one or more in combination of the group of compounds comprising Conductive Super C45, Carbon Nanotubes (“CNTs”), Graphene / Carbon Nanofibers (“CNFs”), Carbon Black Derived from Biomass, Graphite Nanoparticles and Conductive Polymers.

[0081] The separator preferably comprises any one or more in combination of the group comprising Polyethylene (PE) Separator Film, Polypropylene (PP) Separator Film, Polyvinylidene Fluoride (PVDF) Separator Film, Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) Separator Film, Polyvinyl Alcohol (P A) Separator Film, Composite Separator Films, Nanostructured Separator Films, Micro porous Membranes, and Ceramic Separator Films.

[0082] Each capacitor is thus comprised of a plurality of alternating layers of anodes and cathodes separated by a separator between each adjacent set of anodes and cathode layers, contained within an isolating pouch filled with electrolyte and which is sealed over the layers of anodes, cathodes and separators, and with electrodes from the anodes and cathodes extending from the pouch.

[0083] A battery according to the invention is in turn comprised of a set of capacitors as defined above connected, in series or parallel and with the set of capacitors having input means for connection to a source of electrical power and output means for connection to an electrical circuit.

[0084] A system according to the invention includes a set of lithium-ion capacitors, connected in series or parallel, forming a battery and connected to a capacitor management system configured to perform capacitor balancing on the capacitors, and with the set of capacitors having input means for connection to a source of electrical power and output means for connection to an electrical circuit. The lithium-ion capacitors are managed by the capacitor management system (CMS), which regulates the power and energy of the system and record usage cycles for the customer and manufacturer, for guarantee and warranty purposes. In addition, the capacitor management system also provides real-time location tracking for security purposes.

[0085] In an example application, a 5kW 48V 108 A / H unit with a 21 000 F 4.2V lithium-ion capacitor is used. This is suitable for applications which does not draw more than 100A, which is suitable for a typical household. The charging time for this system is about 1.08 hours (108 / 100).

[0086] In another example application, a 5kW 48V 108 A / H unit with a 100 000 F 4.2V lithium-ion capacitor is used. This is suitable for applications which does not draw more than 300A, which is suitable for a small industrial setup. The charging time for this system is about 0.36 hours (108 / 300).

[0087] As will be apparent from the above, the charging time of the system is very fast, irrespective the actual configuration - the limitation is on the current that can be provided to the system, and not so much in the system itself.

[0088] More particularly in respect of the capacitor management system, it primarily focuses on the charge and discharge functionality of the complete system. It has a secondary function of balancing. As a result of using lithium-ion capacitor cells, if the resistance of the capacitors are the same and the same voltage capacitors are used, then capacitor balancing is achieved automatically.

[0089] Lithium-ion capacitors do not suffer from dendritic growth or lithium plating that cause thermal runaway situations and decreasing of battery capacity. The depth of discharge of the lithium-ion capacitor is 100% over its complete life span, so a regular Battery Management System (“BMS”) is unable to extract all the energy due to the normal voltage cut off value of 2,5V. This renders a regular BMS unsuitable for use with the system of the invention.

[0090] Another prohibition on using a regular BMS with the system of the invention is that due to the high-power densities of the lithium-ion capacitors a regular BMS would not be able to handle the high current requirements. The CMS make use of high current shunt sensors with low resistance that can operate in high current environments. The Safe Operating Area (“SOA”) for the lithium-ion capacitors of the system according to the invention is shown in Figure 1, in comparison with the SOA of conventional lithium batteries which is shown in Figure 2. It is clear that the system of the invention is useful, and safe, in a much larger area.

[0091] CMS ALGORITHM

[0092] Variables:

[0093] • 'V_max = 4.25V' (Maximum voltage of the pack)

[0094] • 'V_min = 2.7V' (Minimum voltage of the pack)

[0095] • 'Temp_max = X' (Maximum safe operating temperature, to be defined)

[0096] • 'R_max = Y' (Maximum allowable resistance, to be defined)

[0097] • 'CellPack [ ]': Array holding the state of each cell (voltage, temperature, resistance)

[0098] • 'Alarm = FALSE': Boolean flag for signaling an alarm

[0099] Initialization:

[0100] 1. Initialize all cells in 'CellPack [ ] ' with default values (voltage, temperature, resistance).

[0101] 2. Set 'Alarm = FALSE'.

[0102] Main Loop:

[0103] Step 1 : Monitor Cell Parameters

[0104] • For each cell in 'CellPack [ ]', perform the following:

[0105] 1. Measure 'voltage', 'temperature', resistance'.

[0106] 2. If 'voltage < V_min' or 'voltage > V_max' , self-balance the cell:

[0107] • Adjust voltage to stay within the range using internal balancing mechanisms.

[0108] 3. If 'temperature > Temp_max' or 'resistance > R_max' , trigger an alarm:

[0109] • Set 'Alarm = TRUE'.

[0110] • Log the anomaly for that specific cell.

[0111] • Notify the user / system of the specific anomaly (over-temperature, high resistance).

[0112] 4. If 'Alarm = TRUE' , take corrective action:

[0113] • Determine if the anomaly persists.

[0114] • If persistent, take the cell offline or engage emergency protocols.

[0115] • If transient, reset 'Alarm = FALSE' after the condition returns to normal

[0116] Step 2: Self-Balancing Mechanism

[0117] • Continuously monitor all cells' voltages. • If any cell’s voltage deviates significantly from others:

[0118] • Initiate balancing to ensure uniform voltage across all cells.

[0119] • Use passive balancing (resistor shunting) or active balancing (charge redistribution) depending on the deviation.

[0120] Step 3: Emergency Handling

[0121] • In the event of an anomaly ('Alarm = TRUE'):

[0122] 1. Isolate the affected cell pack if the system design allows.

[0123] 2. Notify the main control system of the issue.

[0124] 3. Continue monitoring the affected cell to prevent further issues

[0125] 4. If safe, reintroduce the cell pack after the issue is resolved.

[0126] Step 4: Logging & Reporting

[0127] • Maintain a log of all anomalies, including the time, cell ID, and type of anomaly (voltage, temperature, resistance).

[0128] • Periodically report the system status, including any recent anomalies and the health of all cells.

[0129] Self-check mechanism:

[0130] • Periodically perform a self-check of all monitoring circuits to ensure they are functioning correctly.

[0131] • Trigger an alarm if any monitoring component fails.

[0132] Shutdown Criteria:

[0133] • If multiple cells exceed the maximum resistance or temperature thresholds simultaneously, initiate a controlled shutdown to prevent damage.

[0134] End of Main Loop

[0135] The algorithm outlines a basic structure for managing a Kracht Quadri-Brid capacitor pack with self-balancing and emergency handling. The actual implementation would depend on the specific hardware, including the balancing circuit design, the method of resistance measurement, and temperature monitoring techniques.

[0136] ALGORITHM: SERIES-CONNECTED CAPACITOR SYSTEM

[0137] Given the series connection of 48 cell-packs to create a 108kWh system at 204V, the algorithm needs to be adjusted to account for the series configuration. Here’s how you can modify the algorithm to manage the entire battery system. Additional Variables:

[0138] • 'SeriesPack [ ] ': Array holding the state of each cell-pack (voltage, temperature, resistance) in the series.

[0139] • 'TotalVoltage': The total voltage of the system ('Total oltage = sum (SeriesPack [ ].viktage) ').

[0140] • 'System_Alarm = FALSE': Boolean flag for signaling an alarm in the entire series.

[0141] Initialization:

[0142] 1. Initialize all cell-packs in 'SeriesPack[ ]' with default values.

[0143] 2. Set 'System_Alarm = FALSE'.

[0144] Main Loop:

[0145] • Step 1: Monitor Each Cell-Pack

[0146] • For each cell-pack in 'SeriesPack [ ]' , perform the following:

[0147] 1. Measure 'voltage', 'temperature', and 'resistance' of each cell-pack.

[0148] 2. If 'voltage < V_min' or 'voltage > V_max' , self-balance the cell-pack:

[0149] • Adjust voltage within the pack using internal balancing mechanisms.

[0150] 3. If 'temperature > Temp_max' or 'resistance > R_max' , trigger a local alarm:

[0151] • Set the local 'Alarm' for that specific cell-pack.

[0152] • Log the anomaly and notify the system of the specific issue.

[0153] 4. If any cell-pack’s local 'Alarm = TRUE', set 'System_Alarm = TRUE'.

[0154] • Step 2: System-Level Monitoring

[0155] • Calculate 'TotalVoltage' from all the cell-packs in the series.

[0156] • If 'TotalVoltage' deviates significantly from expected range ('48 * V_min'

[0157] • to ' 48 * V_max'):

[0158] • Investigate individual cell-packs for imbalances.

[0159] • Trigger a 'System_Alarm' if a critical imbalance is detected.

[0160] • Step 3: System Self-Balancing

[0161] • Continuously monitor the total voltage and the voltage distribution across all cell-packs.

[0162] • If an imbalance is detected, initiate a balancing protocol:

[0163] • Reallocate charge across cell-packs to even out the voltage.

[0164] • Ensure that the balancing occurs at both the pack level and the cell level.

[0165] • Step 4: Emergency Handling

[0166] • If 'System_Alarm = TRUE': 1. Isolate the problematic cell-pack or the entire series if necessary.

[0167] 2. Trigger a system-wide alert to indicate that immediate action is required.

[0168] 3. Continue monitoring the system to determine if the issue is resolved or if further action is needed.

[0169] • Step 5: Logging & Reporting

[0170] • Maintain a system log for all anomalies, including details about affected

[0171] • cell-packs.

[0172] • Provide regular report on the health and status of the entire series.

[0173] • Step 6: System Shutdown Criteria

[0174] • If multiple cell-packs exceed the allowable resistance or temperature limits,

[0175] • initiate a controlled shutdown to prevent damage to the system.

[0176] End of Main Loop

[0177] This updated algorithm manages the entire 48-pack series, ensuring that each cell-pack is monitored and balanced, while also providing system-level protection against anomalies. The implementation will require careful consideration of how to handle the series connection, especially in terms of balancing and emergency isolation procedures.

[0178] SIMPLIFIED, HIGH-LEVEL FORMULA THAT ENCAPSULATES THE KEY ELEMENTS OF THE ALGORITHM

[0179] System Health Check Formula:

[0180] Where:

[0181] • Vpack.i is the voltage of the ithcell-pack.

[0182] • min and max are the minimum and maximum voltage thresholds for each cell-pack.

[0183] • Rpack is the resistance of the ithcell-pack

[0184] • Rmax is the maximum allowable resistance.

[0185] • Tpack Is the temperature of the ithcell-pack.

[0186] • Tmax is the maximum allowable temperature.

[0187] Is the total voltage of the entire series-connected system. Explanation:

[0188] • The system is healthy (System_Health = TRUE) if all cell-packs are within their specified voltage, resistance, and temperature ranges, and if the total voltage of the series is within the expected range.

[0189] • The system is not healthy (System_Health = FALSE) if any individual cell-packs parameters exceed the specified limits or if the total series voltage deviates significantly from the expected range.

[0190] This formula provides a high-level check on the overall health of the system, condensing the complex monitoring and balancing operations into a single conditional expression.

[0191] | L.'~! k rated *

[0192] MODIFIED SYSTEM HEALTH CHECK FORMULA WITH POWER DISSIPATION:

[0193] To incorporate power dissipation in degrees Celsius into the existing formula, consideration needs to be given to the heat generated by the power dissipation and how it affects the temperature of each cell-pack.

[0194] This can be modelled by adding a term that accounts for the temperature increase due to power dissipation. i FALSE,, any

[0195] System_Health= J deviates significantly from expected:

[0196] \ TRUE, otherwise

[0197] Where:

[0198] • Vpackj is the voltage of the ithcell-pack.

[0199] • Vmin and Vmax are the minimum and maximum voltage thresholds for each cell-pack.

[0200] • Rpackj is the resistance of the ithcell-pack

[0201] • Rmax Is the maximum allowable resistance.

[0202] • Tpackj Is the temperature of the ithcell-pack.

[0203] • temperatureincrease due to power dissipation for the ithcellpack. • Tmax Is the maximum allowable temperature.

[0204] • is the total voltage of the entire series-connected system.

[0205] Explanation:

[0206] T ,.

[0207] • - dissipation,! represents the additional temperature rise due to the power dissipated in the cell-pack. This need to be calculated based on the power dissipation formula P=I2R where is Pthe power, I is the current, and R is resistance.

[0208] • The system checks if the combined temperature (base temperature plus temperature increase form dissipation) exceeds the maximum allowable temperature. If it does, the system health is marked as FALSE.

[0209] Inclusion in Overall System:

[0210] • Calculate “ * dissipars*n,i for each cell-pack based on its resistance and current, and then add it to the base temperature before comparing to Tmax.

[0211] This modified formula takes into account both the operational parameters (voltage, resistance) and the thermal effects of power dissipation, ensuring the system can monitor and manage both electrical and thermal anomalies.

[0212] ENHANCED COULOMB COUNTING EQUATION WITH TEMPERATURE FACTOR

[0213] To enhance the Coulomb counting algorithm by incorporating a temperature correction factor, you can modify the basic Coulomb counting equation to account for temperature variations. Coulomb counting typically involves integrating the current over time to estimate the stat of charge (SOC) of a battery or capacitor.

[0214] The basic Coulomb counting equation is:

[0215] •

[0216] • iSthe initial state of charge at time to. • jS t|ie nomina| capacity of the cell.

[0217] • 7 f r' ■l■■ is the current at time .

[0218] Incorporating Temperature Correction:

[0219] Temperature affects the actual capacity of the cell and the internal resistance, which can lead to inaccuracies in SOC estimation if not accounted for. A temperature correction factor,a0 ) adjusts the nominal capacity based on the current temperature.

[0220] The enhanced equation is:

[0221] Where:

[0222] • the temperature correction factor which is a function of the temperature T

[0223] • T is the temperature at time t

[0224] Temperature Correction factor,

[0225] The temperature correction factor, the nominal capacity to reflect the changes in capacity due to temperature variations. This factor can be determined experimentally or based on a known relationship between temperature and capacity. Typically, this factor is less than 1 at low temperatures and may be slightly greater than 1 at high temperatures.

[0226] For example:

[0227] Where: n

[0228] • is a coefficient that represents the sensitivity of the capacity to temperature changes.

[0229] • is a reference temperature (usually the temperature at which the nominal capacity is defined). Enhanced Algorithm Steps:

[0230] 1. Measure current and temperature:

[0231] • Measure the current and temperature at each time step.

[0232] 2. Calculate temperature Correction factor: ( )

[0233] • Compute the temperature correction factor ' '' based on the current temperature.

[0234] 3. Integrate Current with Temperature correction:

[0235] • Integrate the current over time, applying the temperature correction to the nominal capacity.

[0236] 4. Update SOC:

[0237] • Update the SOC using the enhanced Coulomb counting equation.

[0238] Final Enhanced Equation:

[0239] This enhanced equation accounts for temperature variations, making the SOC estimation more accurate under varying thermal conditions. The correction factor ensures that temperature-induced capacity changes are reflected in the SOC calculation, reducing the risk of false readings due to temperature effects.

[0240] ALGORITHM DESIGN TO MANAGE THE STATE OF CHARGE (SOC) FOR A STACK OF BATTERIES:

[0241] System Overview:

[0242] • Each cell-pack: 5 Cells in parallel, 108Ah at 4.25V

[0243] • Each battery: 48 cell-packs in series, 108Ah at 204V (21.7kWh)

[0244] • Total System: 5 batteries in series, 108Ah at 1020V (108kWh)

[0245] Variables:

[0246] • ' I (t)': Current at time

[0247] • 'T(t)': Temperature at time

[0248] • 'C_{\text{nominal}}=108 text{Ah}': Nominal capacity of each cell-pack.

[0249] • '\alpha(T)': Temperature correction factor, a function of the current temperature.

[0250] • '\beta': Temperature sensitivity coefficient. • 'T_{ text{ref}}': Reference temperature for nominal capacity (typically 25°C)

[0251] • 'SOC_{ text{battery}}[i]' : State of charge of the battery in the stack.

[0252] • 'SOC_{ text{system}}' : State of charge of the entire system.

[0253] Initialization:

[0254] 1. Initialize 'SOC_{ text{battery}}[i]' for all = 1 to 5 to a starting SOC value (e.g., 100%)

[0255] 2. Initialize 'SOC_{ text{system}}' as the average of all 'SOC_{ text{battery}}[i]' :

[0256] Main Loop:

[0257] Step 1: Measure Current and Temperature

[0258] • Measure 'l(t) and 'T(t)' for each battery in the system.

[0259] Step 2: Calculate Temperature Correction Factor

[0260] • For each battery / in the system:

[0261] Step 3: Update SOC for Each Battery

[0262] • For each battery / in the system, update the SOC using the enhanced Coulomb counting equation:

[0263] • Ensure that the SOC remains within the valid range (0% to 100%)

[0264] Step 4: Calculate System-Level SOC

[0265] Calculate the system-level SOC as the average of the individual battery SOCs:

[0266] Step 5: Temperature Anomaly Detection

[0267] • If any T * * r i exceeds a critical threshold T critical trigger a warning and adjust the system operation (e.g., reduce load, initiate cooling).

[0268] • If returns to normal, clear the warning.

[0269] Step 6: Logging and Reporting

[0270] • Log the current, temperature, and SOC values for each battery.

[0271] • Periodically report the SOC and temperature status of the entire system. Step 7: System Shutdown Criteria

[0272] If any battery acritical SOC threshold or if exceeds the maximum allowable temperature, initiate a controlled shutdown or reduce the load on the system.

[0273] End of Main Loop

[0274] Algorithm Summary:

[0275] This algorithm continuously monitors the current and temperature for each battery in the system calculates a temperature-corrected SOC for each battery, and updates the overall system SOC. The inclusion of the temperature correction factor ensures that SOC estimates are accurate under varying thermal conditions. Anomalies such as excessive temperature are detected and can trigger protective actions to prevent damage to the system.

[0276] This algorithm is designed to ensure the reliable operation of the battery stack, taking into account both electrical and thermal factors.

[0277] TEMPERATURE EFFECT ON CYCLES CAPACITY

[0278] Temperature can have a significant effect on a battery’s capacity, performance, and overall lifespan especially over many charge-discharge cycles. The impact of temperature on a battery’s capacity can be summarized as follows:

[0279] 1. Low Temperatures:

[0280] • Reduced Capacity: At low temperatures (below 0°C), the electrolyte’s viscosity increases, and the chemical reactions within the battery slow down, leading to a higher internal resistance. This result in a reduction of the battery’s capacity, as the ions move more slowly and the battery cannot deliver its full charge.

[0281] • Slower Charging and Discharging Rates: The battery’s ability to accept or deliver charge is reduced, and attempting to charge a battery at low temperatures can also cause lithium plating in lithium-ion batteries, which can permanently reduce capacity.

[0282] Cycle Life Impact: Repeated cycling at low temperatures can degrade the battery’s performance more quickly, reducing its overall lifespan. 2. High Temperatures:

[0283] • Increased capacity (Short-Term): Initially, at moderately high temperatures (up to around 40°C), reducing internal resistance.

[0284] • Accelerated Degradation: However, sustained high temperatures cause accelerated chemical reactions that lead to side reactions within the battery, such as electrolyte decomposition and anode or cathode material degradation. This leads to faster capacity fade and reduced cycle life.

[0285] • Thermal Runaway Risk: At very high temperatures (above 60°C), there is a risk of thermal runaway, especially in lithium-ion batteries, where the heat generated by the cell can lead to catastrophic failure.

[0286] Quantifying the Effect:

[0287] • Capacity Reduction per °C (Low Temp): in some cases, battery capacity can drop by as much as 20-40% at temperatures below 0°C. For every 10°C drop below room temperature, the capacity might reduce by around 10-20%.

[0288] • Capacity Loss per °C (High Temp): At high temperatures, the degradation rate can increase by approximately 2-3 times for every 10°Cincrease above room temperature, which leads to a more rapid loss of capacity over time.

[0289] • Cycle Life Reduction: The cycle life of a battery can be cut in half with every 10°C increase above the optimal operating temperature range. For example, if a battery typically ha a cycle life of 1000 cycles at 25°C this might reduce to 500 cycles at 35°C and even lower at higher temperatures.

[0290] Long Term Effects:

[0291] • Over the long term, both low and high operating temperatures will degrade the battery’s materials, leading to a permanent loss of capacity. This effect accumulates over many cycles, meaning that if a battery is regularly exposed to suboptimal temperatures; it will experience significant capacity loss over its lifetime.

[0292] Practical Considerations:

[0293] • Thermal Management: To mitigate the effects of temperature on battery capacity, proper thermal management systems are often employed in battery packs, especially in electric vehicles and large-scale energy storage systems.

[0294] Operating Temperature Range: Ideally, batteries should be operated within a specific temperature rang (typically 20-25°C) to maximize both their immediate capacity and long-term cycle life. Conclusion:

[0295] Temperature has a profound effect on both the immediate capacity and the long-term cycle life of a battery. Managing temperature effectively is crucial to ensuring that batteries maintain their capacity and performance over time, and to prevent premature degradation.

[0296] UPDATED ALGORITHM: TEMPERATURE-ENHANCED COULOMB COUNTING WITH CAPACITY DEGRADATION

[0297] Variables:

[0298] 'l(t)': Current at time t

[0299] 'T(t)': Temperature at time t

[0300] 'C_{\text{nominal}}=108 text{Ah}': Nominal capacity of each cell-pack at reference temperature.

[0301] '\alpha(T)': Temperature correction factor for capacity, a function of the current temperature.

[0302] '\beta': Temperature sensitivity coefficient for capacity adjustment.

[0303] '\gamma': Temperature sensitivity coefficient for cycle life degradation.

[0304] 'T_{ text{ref}}': Reference temperature for nominal capacity (typically 25°C)

[0305] 'T_{ text{crit}}' : Critical temperature threshold for triggering alerts or protective actions.

[0306] 'SOC_{ text{battery}}[i]' : State of charge of the Ithbattery in the stack.

[0307] 'SOC_{ text{system}}' : State of charge of the entire system.

[0308] 'Cycle_Loss(t)':The cumulative degradation in capacity due to temperature over time.

[0309] Initialization:

[0310] 1. Initialize 'SOC_{ text{battery}}[i]' for all / = 1 to 5 to a starting SOC value (e.g., 100%)

[0311] 2. Initialize 'SOC_{ text{system}}' as the average of all 'SOC_{ text{battery}}[i]' .

[0312] 3. Initialize 'Cycle_Loss(t) = O' for all batteries.

[0313] Main Loop:

[0314] Step 1: Measure Current and Temperature

[0315] • Measure 'l(t) and 'T(t)' for each battery in the system.

[0316] Step 2: Calculate Temperature Correction Factor for Capacity

[0317] • For each / battery in the system:

[0318] Step 3: Calculate Capacity Degradation Due to Temperature

[0319] • For each battery / in the system T- ( f - M

[0320] I i ■ • deviates fromi = iaccumulate the degradation effect:

[0321] • The actual capacity of each battery decreases with accumulated cycle loss:

[0322] Step 4: Update SOC for Each Battery

[0323] • For each battery in the system, update the SOC using the enhanced Coulomb counting equation:

[0324] 1

[0325] ■S'^ ^’batterytn CO “ ^^battery U] (fo) + T - effective J

[0326] • Ensure that the SOC remains within the valid range (0% to 100%)

[0327] Step 5: Calculate System Level SOC

[0328] • Calculate the system-level SOC as the average of the individual battery SOCs:

[0329] Step 6: Temperature Anomaly Detection

[0330] • Monitor the temperature of each battery:

[0331] • If any exceeds the critical threshold ^critical , trigger a warning and adjust the system operation (e.g., reduce load, initiate cooling).

[0332] •V 7returns to normal, clear the warning.

[0333] Step 7: Logging and Reporting

[0334] • Log the current, temperature, SOC, and cycle loss values for each battery.

[0335] • Periodically report the SOC, temperature status, and capacity degradation of the entire system.

[0336] Step 8: System Shutdown Criteria

[0337] • If any battery below a critical SOC threshold or if

[0338] ^‘ (t) exceeds the maximum allowable temperature, initiate a controlled shutdown or reduce the load on the system.

[0339] End of Main Loop Explanation of the Algorithm:

[0340] • Temperature Effect on Capacity: The algorithm adjusts the capacity of each battery based on temperature. The correction factora^^accounts for immediate capacity changes due to temperature, while the 'Cycle_Loss(t)' variable accumulates longterm degradation effects due to sustained high temperatures.

[0341] • Cycle Life Management: The algorithm tracks the cumulative degradation ('Cycle_Loss(t)', which reduces the effective capacity of the batteries over time. This allows the system to predict and manage the declining capacity due to prolonged exposure to suboptimal temperatures.

[0342] • System-Level Management: The overall SOC of the system is managed by averaging the SOCs of the individual batteries, ensuring that the system operates within safe limits.

[0343] The algorithm ensures that the system accounts for both immediate and long-term effects of temperature on battery capacity and SOC, leading to more accurate management of the battery stack over its lifecycle.

[0344] A SINGLE COMREHENSIVE EQUATION THAT ENCAPSULATES THE KEY COMPONENTS OT THE ALGORITHM, INCLUDING TEMPERATURE EFFECTS ON CAPACITY AND CYCLE LIFE DEGRADATION, FOR A BATTERY STACK.

[0345] Unified Equation:

[0346] Where: is the overall state of charge of the system at time t

[0347] . 5OCbattery[i](to) Is the initial state of charge of the Ithbattery at the start time .

[0348] C nominal jS nomjna| capacity of each battery (108Ah). z is the temperature sensitivity coefficient for cycle life degradation.

[0349] T. f

[0350] 1' is the temperature of the fhbattery at time t. * ref is the reference temperature (typically 25°C) f B is the temperature sensitivity coefficient for immediate capacity adjustment. is the integrated current (Coulombs) over time from to to t

[0351] Explanation:

[0352] Cycle Life Degradation Factor

[0353] This part of the equation accumulates the degradation in capacity due to elevated temperatures over time, reducing the effective capacity of each battery.

[0354] Temperature Correction Factor

[0355] This adjusts the nominal capacity for immediate temperature effects at the current time t

[0356] Coulomb Counting

[0357] -t a KDdT)

[0358] This part integrates the current over time to determine the charge that has been added or removed from the battery.

[0359] How it Works:

[0360] • The equation calculates the SOC for each of the 5 batteries, considering both temperature-related capacity degradation over time and the immediate effect of temperature on the capacity.

[0361] • The overall system SOC is then the average SOC of all 5 batteries.

[0362] This single equation effectively manages and tracks the stat of charge for the entire battery system, incorporating both immediate and long-term temperature effects.

[0363] EQUATION EVALUATED EVERY 1000 CYCLES TO ASSESSS THE STATE OF HEALTH (SOH) OF THE BATTERIES (INCLUDING A COMPARISON STEP FOR SOH ASSESSMENT) Modified Unified Equation with SOH check:

[0364] State of Health (SOH) Comparison:

[0365] Let k be the cycle number.

[0366] • Every 1000 cycles following SOH check is performed: cn u ri / l Effective (^- 1000) 50Wbattery[i](k) = - - -

[0367] ^nominal

[0368] Where:

[0369] • ^effective ly the effective capacity after & X 1000 cycles

[0370] • nominal capacity (108Ah).

[0371] SOH-Based Decision:

[0372] • If , trigger a maintenance or replacement alert for the fhbattery.

[0373] • Otherwise, continue operation and monitor the next cycle.

[0374] Incorporating SOH in the Algorithm:

[0375] 1. Cycle Counter: Maintain a cycle counter for each battery.

[0376] 2. Every 1000 Cycles:

[0377] • Calculate the current SOH for each battery using the SOH equation.

[0378] • Compare SOH with a predefined threshold (e.g., 80% of nominal capacity).

[0379] • If SOH is below the threshold, log the event, trigger maintenance, or recommend battery replacement.

[0380] 3. Continue Monitoring: Reset the cycle counter after each SOH check and continue normal operation. SOH Comparison and Unified Equation:

[0381] The SOH check is independent of the SOC calculation and serves as an additional layer of monitoring. While SOC provides a real-time estimate of the available charge, SOH gives insight into the long-term health and remaining capacity of the battery.

[0382] The overall system state of charge is still managed using the unified SOC equation, while the SOH check every 1000 cycles ensures that any degradation beyond acceptable limits is caught early and addressed.

[0383] This combined approach ensures both the accurate tracking of the state of charge and proactive maintenance based on the state of health over the battery’s lifecycle.

[0384] IMPLEMENTING A SYSTEM THAT AUTOMATICALLY SWITCHES BETWEEN DIFFERENT POSITIONS OF A 3-WAY CIRCUIT BREAKER BASED ON THE STATE OF ONE OF THE 5 BATTERIES.

[0385] THE ALGORITHM INCLUDES THE FOLLOWING LOGIC:

[0386] Variables:

[0387] • 'SOC_{ text{battery}}[i]': State of charge of the Ithbattery.

[0388] • 'SOH_{ text{battery}}[i]': State of health of the Ithbattery.

[0389] • ' Position [i] ' : Position of the circuit breaker for the Ithbattery.

[0390] • 'Position T: Battery is on and operating normally.

[0391] • 'Position 2': Battery is bypassed (isolated due to anomaly).

[0392] • 'Position 3': Battery is off (manually or automatically turned off for maintenance).

[0393] Main Loop:

[0394] Step 1: Monitor SOC and SOH

[0395] • Continuously monitor the state of charge ('SOC_{ text{battery}}[i]')and state of health ('SOH_{ text{battery}}[i]') for each battery.

[0396] Step 2: Check for Anomalies

[0397] • Evaluate each battery for anomalies:

[0398] • If 'SOC_{ text{battery}}[i]' drops below a critical threshold, or 'SOH_{ text{battery}}[i]' is below the acceptable limit:

[0399] • Log the anomaly.

[0400] • Initiate the circuit breaker logic for that battery. Step 3: Circuit Breaker Logic

[0401] • For each battery / , based on the detected condition:

[0402] • Position 1 (Normal Operation):

[0403] • If 'SOC_{ text{battery}}[i]' is within normal range and 'SOH_{ text{battery}}[i]' is above the threshold:

[0404] • Set 'Position[i]= 1' (Battery is on and operating normally).

[0405] • Position 2 (Battery Bypass):

[0406] • If an anomaly is detected that requires isolation, but the system can continue operating without immediate human intervention:

[0407] • Set ' Position[i]= 2' (Battery is bypassed).

[0408] • Isolate the battery from the circuit while keeping the system operational.

[0409] • Position 3 (Battery Off):

[0410] • If a critical fault is detected, or if human maintenance is required:

[0411] • Set ' Position[i]= 3' (Battery is off).

[0412] • Fully disconnect the battery to ensure safety during maintenance.

[0413] Step 4: Notification and Logging

[0414] • If ' Position[i]= 2' or ' Position[i]= 3', send an alert to the maintenance team indicating that the battery has been bypassed or turned off.

[0415] • Log the event and the reason for the switch in the circuit breaker position.

[0416] Step 5:System-Level Operation

[0417] • Continue monitoring the other batteries while the isolated battery is either bypassed or off.

[0418] • Adjust the operation of the remaining batteries to compensate for the loss of one battery if possible.

[0419] Algorithm Flow Summary:

[0420] 1. Normal Monitoring:

[0421] • All batteries operate normally under Position 1 (circuit breaker set to allow battery operation),

[0422] 2. Anomaly Detection:

[0423] • When an anomaly is detected in a battery:

[0424] • Minor Anomaly: Switch to Position 2 to bypass the battery but keep the system operational.

[0425] • Critical Anomaly: Switch to Position 3 to turn off the battery for safe maintenance. 3. Alerting and Logging:

[0426] • Alert the maintenance team and log the event whenever the circuit breaker changes position.

[0427] 4. System Operation:

[0428] • The remaining batteries continue to operate, ensuring the systems overall stability while one battery is isolated or turned off.

[0429] 3-Way Circuit Breaker Functionality:

[0430] This circuit breaker logic allows the system to dynamically manage anomalies by isolating problematic batteries or turning them off when necessary, ensuring that the overall system remains functional and safe. The positions provide a clear, automatic response to various levels of battery issues, minimizing downtime and ensuring the safety of the system.

[0431] FUNCTIONAL ALGORITHM THAT INCORPORATES ALL THE ABOVE CONCEPTS Algorithm: Battery Management System with Temperature-Enhanced SOC, SOH Monitoring, and Circuit Breaker Logic

[0432] Initialization:

[0433] • Variables: o 'l(t)': Current at time t o 'T(t)': Temperature at time t

[0434] ° 'C_{\text{nominal}}=108 text{Ah}': Nominal capacity of each cell-pack. o '\alpha(T)': Temperature correction factor for capacity, based on temperature T(f ). o '\beta': Temperature sensitivity coefficient for capacity adjustment. o '\gamma': Temperature sensitivity coefficient for cycle life degradation. o 'T_{ text{ref}}': Reference temperature (e.g., 25°C) o 'T_{ text{crit}}' : Critical temperature threshold for triggering protective actions, o 'SOC_{ text{battery}}[i]' : State of charge of the Ithbattery. o 'SOH_{ text{battery}}[i]' : State of health of the Ithbattery. o 'Cycle_Loss(t)': cumulative degradation in capacity due to temperature. o ' Position[i]' : cumulative breaker position for the Ithbattery (1=Normal, 2=Bypass, 3=0ff). o 'Cycle_Count[i]':Number of cycles completed by the Ithbattery.

[0435] • Initial Conditions: o Set 'SOC_{ text{battery}}[i]'for all / = 1 to 5 to 100% (full charge). o Initialize 'SOC_{ text{system}}' as the average of all 'SOC_{ text{battery}}[i]' o Set 'Cycle_Loss(t)= O' for each battery. o Set 'Cycle_Count[i]=0' for each battery. o Set 'Position[i]=1' (Normal operation) for each battery.

[0436] 2. Main Loop (Continuous Monitoring and Management):

[0437] Step 1: Measure Current and Temperature

[0438] • Measure 'l(t)' and 'T(t)' for each battery.

[0439] Step 2: Calculate Temperature Correction Factor

[0440] • For each battery / in the system:

[0441] Step 3: Calculate Capacity Degradation Due to Temperature

[0442] • For each battery / :

[0443] • Accumulate degradation if (7}) deviates from Tref

[0444] • Adjust the effective capacity:

[0445] Step 4: Update SOC for Each Battery

[0446] • Update 'SOC_{\text{battery}}[i]'using the temperature-adjusted Coulomb counting method:

[0447] Slattery

[0448] • Ensure 'SOC_{ text{battery}}[i]' is within the valid range (0% to 100%)

[0449] Step 5: Calculate System-Level SOC

[0450] • Calculate the system-wide SOC as the average:

[0451] Step 6: SOH Check (Every 1000 Cycles) For each battery / , every 1000 cycles: nominal

[0452] • If 'SOH_{ text{battery}}[i]< text{SOH}_{\text{threshold}}', log the event and alert for maintenance.

[0453] • Increment 'Cycle_Count[i]'.

[0454] Step 7: Circuit Break Logic

[0455] • For each battery determine the appropriate circuit breaker position: o Position 1 (Normal Operation): o If 'SOC_{\text{battery}}[i]'and 'SOH_{\text{battery}}[i]'are within normal ranges: o Set 'Position[i]=1'. o Position 2 (Bypass Mode): o If a non-critical anomaly is detected: o Set ' Position[i]=2' . o Bypass the battery while keeping the system operational. o Position 3 (Off Mode): o If a critical anomaly is detected: o Set ' Position[i]=3' . o Disconnect the battery for safe maintenance.

[0456] Step 8: Notification and Logging

[0457] • If 'Position[i]=2'or ' Position[i]=3' , send an alert and log the event.

[0458] Step 9: System-Level Management

[0459] • Adjust operation to compensate for any bypassed or off batteries.

[0460] • Continue normal operation with the remaining batteries.

[0461] 3. End of Main Loop

[0462] Summary:

[0463] This algorithm continuously monitors and manages the state of charge (SOC) and state of health (SOH) of a battery system, incorporating the effects of temperature. It includes a mechanism to evaluate SOH every 1000 cycles and implements a 3-way circuit breaker logic to handle anomalies, ensuring safe and efficient operation.

[0464] ALGORITHM TO DESCRIBE SYSTEM, INCORPORATING THE DETAILED MONITORING AND CIRCUIT BREAKER LOGIC FOR A BATTERY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM.

[0465] • Cells per Cell-Pack:

[0466] • Each cell has a resistance of 1.5 milliohms (nominal), with and acceptable range of

[0467] • +-5%.

[0468] • Each cell-pack consists of multiple cells in parallel.

[0469] • Each cell-pack has a maximum voltage of 4.25V and a minimum voltage of 2.7V.

[0470] • Battery Configuration:

[0471] • 48 cell-packs are connected in series to form one battery (204V).

[0472] • 5 batteries are connected in parallel to form the complete system.

[0473] • 3-way circuit breakers are installed between each battery, with a master circuit

[0474] • breaker for the entire system.

[0475] 1. Initialization:

[0476] • Variables: o ' I (t)': Current at time t o 'T(t)': Temperature at time t for each cell-pack.

[0477] ° V_{\text{cell-pack}}[i]': Voltage of the Ithcell-pack. o ' R_{\text{cell}}[j]' : Resistance of the1cell within the cell-pack. o 'SOC_{ text{battery}}[k]' : State of charge of the k111battery. o 'SOH_{ text{battery}}[i]': State of health of the k111battery. o 'Position[k]': Circuit breaker position for the battery (1=Normal, 2=Bypass,3=Off). o 'Master_Circuit_Breaker': Position of the master circuit breaker (0n=1,0ff=0). o 'Cycle_Loss(t)': cumulative degradation in capacity due to temperature. o 'Cycle_Count[k]':Number of cycles completed by k01battery. o '\alpha(T)','\beta','\gamma','T_{ text{ref}}' ,'T_{ text{crit}}','C_{ text{nom inal}}':Same as defined previously.

[0478] • Initial Conditions: o Set 'SOC_{ text{battery}}[k]':for all k = 1 to 5 to 100% (full charge). o Initialize 'SOC_{ text{system}}'as the average of all 'SOC_{ text{battery}}[k]' o Set 'Cycle_Loss(t)= O'for each battery. o Set 'Cycle_Count[k]= O' for each battery. o Set 'Position[k]=O' (Normal operation) for each battery. o Set "Master_Circuit_Breaker = 1'(On).

[0479] 2. Main Loop (Continuous Monitoring and Management):

[0480] Step 1: Monitor Each Cell-Pack

[0481] • For each cell j within each cell-pack / , measure:

[0482] • 'V_{\text{cell-pack}}[i]': Voltage of the cell-pack. o ' R_{\text{cell}}[j]' : Resistance of the cell (ensure it is within +-5% of 1.5 milliohms).

[0483] • 'T(t)': Temperature of the cell-pack.

[0484] Step 2: Evaluate Cell-Pack Health

[0485] • Voltage Check:

[0486] • If 'V_{\text{cell-pack}}[i]>4.25V' or 'V_{\text{cell-pack}}[i]<2.7V', log the anomaly and evaluate if the cell-pack needs to be isolated.

[0487] • Resistance Check:

[0488] • If ' R_{\text{cell}}[j]' is outside the nominal range of 1.425 to 1.575 milliohms, log the anomaly and consider bypassing the battery.

[0489] • Temperature Check:

[0490] • Calculate \alpha(t_i)'for each cell-packs to adjust the effective capacity.

[0491] Step 3: Update SOC and SOH for Each Battery

[0492] • For each battery k:

[0493] • Calculate temperature-adjusted SOC:

[0494] • Ensure 'SOC_{ text{battery}}[k]' remains within the valid rang (0% to 100%).

[0495] • SOH Check (Every 1000 Cycles):

[0496] • For each battery k, every 1000 cycles:

[0497] • If 'SOH_{ text{battery}}[k]'falls below the acceptable threshold, log the event and alert for maintenance.

[0498] Step 4: Circuit Breaker Logic

[0499] • For each battery k

[0500] • Position 1 (Normal Operation): • If all cell-packs are within the nominal range and 'SOC_{ text{battery}}[k]' and 'SOH_{ text{battery}}[k]' are within normal ranges:

[0501] • Set 'Position[k]=1'.

[0502] • Position 2 (Bypass Mode):

[0503] • If an anomaly is detected that doesn’t require immediate shutdown:

[0504] • Set 'Position[k]=2'.

[0505] • Isolate the battery from the circuit while keeping the system operational.

[0506] • Position 3 (Off Mode):

[0507] • If a critical anomaly is detected, or if maintenance is required:

[0508] • Set 'Position[k]=3'.

[0509] • Fully disconnect the battery.

[0510] • Master Circuit Breaker Logic:

[0511] • If multiple batteries are in Positions or if a critical system-level fault is detected:

[0512] • Set 'Master Circuit_Breaker = O' (Turn off the entire system).

[0513] Step 5: Notification and logging

[0514] • If 'Position[k]=2' or 'Position[k]=3', send an alert and log the event.

[0515] • Log any changes to the 'Master_Circuit_Breaker'.

[0516] 3. System-Level Management:

[0517] Adjust operation to compensate for any bypassed or off batteries.

[0518] 4. End of Main Loop

[0519] Summary:

[0520] The algorithm continuously monitors and manages the state of charge (SOC), state of health (SOH), voltage, resistance, and temperature of a complex battery system. It includes mechanisms for handling anomalies at both cell-pack and battery levels, with appropriate actions taken via a 3-wayt circuit breaker and a master circuit breaker to ensure safe and efficient operation. The system dynamically adjusts based on the status of individual components, ensuring continued operation or safe shutdown as needed.

[0521] 4. INDEPENDENT THERMAL MANAGEMENT

[0522] Thermal control System Overview:

[0523] The system includes an independent cooling circuit specifically for maintaining the internal temperature of the battery, which is crucial for ensuring optimal performance and longevity. The core component of the cooling system is an egg incubator circuit or any other simply yet reliable low temperature control circuit, repurposed to keep the battery’s temperature as close to 25°C as possible, which is identified as the ideal temperature for maximizing the usable capacity of the battery.

[0524] Temperature Control Logic:

[0525] Temperature Range: The relay that controls the cooling circuit is configured to operate within a temperature range of 25.5°C to 60°C.

[0526] Ideal Temperature: The system is tuned to maintain the battery temperature around 25°C. This precision is vital because at this temperature, the battery performance at its best, delivering the maximum capacity without compromising its lifespan.

[0527] Voltage Drift: There is a voltage drift of 0.5V in the temperature sensor readings. This means that the actual temperature may slightly vary due to this drift, but our system is designed to account for this, ensuring that the cooling process remains effective within the set temperature range.

[0528] Immediate Relay Response: The relay controlling the cooling circuit has an instantaneous response time, changing state with a 0-second delay. This ensures that the cooling system reacts immediately to any temperature fluctuations, providing rapid thermal management to protect the battery from overheating.

[0529] High-Temperature Safeguard:

[0530] Critical Temperature Threshold: If the temperature of the battery rises to 60°C, which is well above the ideal operating range, our system has an additional safety feature. A dedicated monitoring and control circuit will automatically disengage the affected battery. This is a critical safeguard to prevent potential damage to the battery, ensuring the safety and reliability of the entire system.

[0531] Practical Application:

[0532] In practice, this setup this system maintains a stable internal environment for the battery. The immediate relay response, combined with the cooling system adapted from an egg incubator, ensures that the battery remains within a safe temperature range, avoiding the risks associated with overhearing while maximizing its operational efficiency.

[0533] This system is particularly important for applications where the battery is under continuous load or in environment where external temperatures might fluctuate significantly. By maintaining a consistent temperature, you not only extend the life of the battery but also ensure that it delivers its rated capacity reliably, even under varying conditions.

[0534] EXAMPLE 21.7kWh BATTERY MODULE ACOCORDING TO THE INVENTION

[0535] A first example embodiment of a battery module according to the invention comprises a 21.7 kWh module as shown in Figures 1 to 4. Each 21.7kWh module is made up with the following:

[0536] • 240 Individual cells

[0537] • 48 CP (Cell Packs) each cell pack consists of 5 individual cells

[0538] EXAMPLE 108.5kWh BATTERY MODULE ACOCORDING TO THE INVENTION

[0539] A first example embodiment of a battery module according to the invention comprises a 108,5kWh module as shown in Figures 5 and 6. Each 108.5kWh module is made up with the following:

[0540] • 5 x 21.7kWh Modules

[0541] • 1200 Individual cells

[0542] • 240 CP (Cell Packs) each cell pack consists of 5 individual cells

[0543] CMS (Capacitor management system)

[0544] A capacitor management system is a simplified version of a Battery management system that primarily focuses on the charge and discharge functionality of the complete system.

[0545] A secondary function is balancing, due to the lithium ion capacitor cells, if the resistance of the capacitors are the same and, the same voltage capacitors are used capacitor balancing would be automatic,

[0546] Lithium-ion capacitors don’t suffer from dendritic growth or lithium plating that causes thermal runaway situations and decreasing of battery capacity.

[0547] The depth of discharge of the lithium-ion capacitor is 100% over the complete life span, so a regular BMS would not be able to extract all of the energy due to the voltage cut off value of 2,5v, as shown in Figure 15.

[0548] Due to the high-power densities of the lithium-ion capacitors a regular BMS is not able to handle high current requirements that lithium-ion capacitors can serve. The CMS make use of high current shunt sensors with low resistance that can operate in high current environments. A capacitor management system uses a similar algorithm as a BMSA where the main difference is the SOA (safe operating Area) as shown in Figure 14.

[0549] The Physical properties of the capacitor management system (CMS)

[0550] A typical configuration of the CMS is shown in Figure 16. Most connections are by way of bus bar to ensure equal resistance and equal load distributions. It can also be provided in conductive stainless-steel form or nickel coated alloy form to ensure best weather resistant operating conditions.

[0551] The advantages of using bus bars include that they:

[0552] • Are more compact and robust than a wiring harness

[0553] • Distribute power efficiently

[0554] • Are easily customised for whatever purpose

[0555] • Are more cost effective in the long run

[0556] Where there are need for wires, nickel coated wire are to be used for best operations in harsh conditions.

[0557] The advantages of using nickel coated copper wires

[0558] • Same resistance thru wide range of temperature

[0559] • High corrosion resistance

[0560] • Reduces losses in frequency which results in better performance

[0561] • Retain strength at high temperatures compared to alloys without nickel

[0562] If soldering needs to be done lead free soldering would be used, ex. Bismuth.

[0563] Master terminals are made of conductive stainless steel which, are able to operate in high current and voltage conditions without melting like lead and there is no corrosion through its life span so no contact or resistance problems will develop.

[0564] Two algorithms are used for capacitor balancing: voltage-based balancing algorithm and state of charge-based balancing algorithm. The voltage-based balancing is that when the difference between one capacitor voltage and the mean value of capacitor voltages is larger than the threshold Vth, the capacitor is probably considered to be an abnormal capacitor.

[0565] BALANCING ALGORITHM BASED ON OUTLIER DETECTION

[0566] Outlier detection algorithm

[0567] As shown in Figure 17, the outlier detection balancing algorithm includes two modules: the imbalanced (unbalanced) capacitors recognition module and the balancing control module. The former module gets normal and abnormal capacitors by outlier detection algorithm while the latter balances the abnormal capacitors and gives feedback to the former. There are N capacitors in the power capacitor pack. The characteristic parameters of the capacitors are provided to the unbalanced capacitor recognition module.

[0568] The capacitor bank’s input-current I and output SOC, current I, and terminal voltage U are shown in Figure 18. The characteristic parameters of voltage and SOC are used to calculate each capacitors outlier value.

[0569] Unbalanced Capacitor Recognition

[0570] Abnormal capacitors are picked up as outliers by the outlier detection method in unbalanced capacitors recognition module. First, a Z-score standardized method is used to pre-process the attribute of the capacitor bank.

[0571] Second, the outlier detection method based on the distance of multidimensional attribute is adopted to calculate each capacitor’s outlier value which is the summation of distances from one capacitor to the others.

[0572] Third, the capacitor pack will be balanced if the abnormality range is not less than the threshold designated as VOA1 , otherwise the unbalanced capacitors will be obtained by the dynamic cluster method.

[0573] Finally, passive equalization is applied to the abnormal capacitor cells.

[0574] THE PROCESS OF ACQUIRING ABNORMAL CAPACITOR CELLS With reference to Figure 19:

[0575] Input. The number of capacitor cells N and the initial threshold of abnormality range VOA1 are input.

[0576] Step 1. If the attribute values of the capacitor cells are equal, the process ends, and the pack is considered balanced; otherwise it goes to Step 2.

[0577] Step 2. Z-score standardized method is adopted to pre-process the characteristic parameters for eliminating the influence of units. Namely, the formula (1) to pre-process the Voltage II and the SOC as follows:

[0578] ZU — Capac tlorij — Capacitor}

[0579] Sj

[0580] Where Z / / (i=1,... ,40 and j=1,2) is the standardization form of jth characteristic parameter of the / th capacitor (i.e., Z12 denotes the standard SOC of the first capacitor); Capacitor ij represents the original value of jth characteristic parameter of the _th capacitor (i.e., Capacitor denotes the original voltage of the second capacitor); Capacitor / describes the mean of jth parameters; 5j denotes the standard deviation of the voltage or SOC when j equals to 1 or 2, respectively; n is the number of cells.

[0581] Then, the Euclid-distance is used to calculate the abnormal value of each capacitor in the pack. The calculation formula is defined as follows: Where D2,(Zm’Zn)( / W=1,... ,40, M # n) represents the Euclid-distance between the nth capacitor; Zm represents the mth capacitor which has two attributes (i.e., Zm=(ZmiZ72f);l / l / (Zm) denotes the summation of the Euclid distance between the mth capacitor and the others. The smaller W(Zm) is, the more normal the mth capacitor is. On the contrary, the mth pack is probably abnormal.

[0582] Step 3. If the range of outlier values (the difference of the outlier value between capacitor with the lowest and that with the highest outlier value) of the capacitor is smaller than the threshold VOA1, the process ends and the pack is considered balanced; otherwise it goes to step 4 where VOA1 is defined and updated by the formulation as follows: n

[0583] Step 4. Set the cell with the lowest and that with the highest outlier value as initial clustering centroids.

[0584] Step 5. The other capacitors are assigned to their nearest cluster centroid, all at once, followed by recalculation of cluster centroid. Then the other capacitors are individually reassigned if doing so will reduce the sums of squared error, and cluster centroids are recomputed after each reassignment. The process of obtaining the minimum sums of squared error ye; is formulated as follows:

[0585] Where Jm denotes the squared error of mth capacitor; is the sums of all the squared errors; Cj is initial cluster centroid: Sj is the normal category or the abnormal category. When Je converges to a global minimum, the process jumps to the next step. Output. The capacitor pack is either balanced or unbalanced.

[0586] By this time, the unbalanced capacitors are recognized by the outlier detection algorithm and can be balanced with the passive balancing circuit.

[0587] Balancing Control

[0588] At present, the balancing circuit can be divided into two main groups: passive balancing circuit and active capacitor balancing circuit. Typical passive capacitor balancing circuit also named shunt method uses switches to control balancing.

[0589] Specifically, the shunt method is designed to use a resistor to discharge the unbalanced capacitors detected by outlier detection algorithm. With active capacitor balancing circuit, charge can be transferred between the capacitors in the power pack by capacitor or an inductor. Very little energy would be wasted in this case compared to the passive balancing method. However, more switches and associated components are needed in the active balancing circuit. And these additional components may lead to higher cost and unreliability. Hence, passive cell balancing circuit is used in this embodiment of the invention.

[0590] As shown in Figure 20, every capacitor has a balancing circuit which comprises a resistor and a switch in series.

[0591] The energy storage and management system of the invention, in particular the set of lithium- ion capacitors, has no degradation over its guaranteed life span and has high resistance to overcharge. What this translates to is that instead of using the modern method of terminal laser welding causing a battery to be a fixture on which no maintenance can be done, the battery of the invention (the set of lithium-ion capacitors) utilises terminal clamping which allows configuration of high voltage batteries by stacking cells in series. For example, using 400 x 4.2V cells in series, creates a single battery (a set of lithium-ion capacitors) of 1680V. Adding these batteries in parallel provides the required capacity.

[0592] HOT SWAP ABILITY

[0593] Hot swap ability refers to the ability to replace or exchange components of the battery system without shutting the entire system down or interrupting its operation. This is a key feature in systems that require continuous availability, such as servers, storage devices or industrial equipment. If one of these cells of 4.2V gets to a state that it needs to be replaced it can be decommissioned while the other cells in parallel shares the load of the battery with the faulty cell. The faulty cell can then be replaced when it is isolated from the rest of the stack while it is still in place and being used. The structure of the battery that facilitates hot swap ability, and an example of it being done is shown in Figures 7 and 8.

[0594] Key Points of Hot swap ability:

[0595] 1. Uninterrupted Operation:

[0596] The primary benefit of hot swap ability is that it allows a system to continue running while components are being replaced or upgraded. This is critical in environments where downtime can be costly or disruptive.

[0597] 2. Design Considerations:

[0598] Hot-swappable components are designed with connectors and interfaces that allow them to be removed and replaced without damaging the system.

[0599] 3. Software and Firmware Support:

[0600] In many systems, hot-swapping also requires software or firmware that can detect the removal and insertion of component and manage the process without causing errors.

[0601] 4. User-Friendly:

[0602] The process is usually straightforward, with components designed to be easily accessible and removable by A technician.

[0603] Hot swap ability enhances the flexibility, reliability, and maintainability of systems, particularly in environments where continuous operation is crucial.

[0604] Process for replacing cells (Hot swap ability)

[0605] Step 1. Isolate the battery module from grid by switching OFF the circuit breaker.

[0606] Step 2: Switch off U / C cell board witch is connected to cells in question.

[0607] Step 3: Loosen the Allen cap bolts of bus bars that connects the effected cells with an electric isolated Allen key.

[0608] Step 4: Isolate these cells to avoid bus bars touching and creating a short.

[0609] Step 5: Pull the effected cell out and insert a new cell, ensuring the positive and negative is the right way around.

[0610] Step 6: Terminal should be in position the same way as the effected cell which was removed Step 7: Measure Voltage and resistance to verify if this is in spec. Step 8: Double check measurements manually with Multimeter and then turn ON ll / C cell board.

[0611] Confirm the reading of the software of NMS Lite on monitoring device that all values are correct.

[0612] Step 9: Switch ON circuit breaker to reconnect battery to the grid.

[0613] COOLING SOLUTION and CASING DESIGN

[0614] Overview

[0615] For prolonged usage, an elevated temperature of 60°C is suboptimal.

[0616] The casing for the battery is provided with a set of slots in its bottom that facilitates heat exchange. The casing of battery according to the first embodiment shown in Figure 1 is shown in Figure 9.

[0617] The slotted design is complimented with the application of forced air cooling, which is shown in Figures 10 to 13, and the effects of the forced air cooling is shown in Table 1. The system starts forced air cooling at 40°C.

[0618] Each module, containing 21.7 kWh of capacity, is equipped with 11 cooling fans. In the event of a fan failure or shutdown, supplementary fans will engage to ensure proper cooling of the capacitor.

[0619] As shown in Figure 10, air is drawn into the module at one end at a speed of about 2m / s which increase, by means of the venturi effect, to slightly more at about 2.05m / s at opposite end of the module.

[0620] Each 108.5kWh battery module includes of 55 fans, which provides eleven times more redundancy.

[0621] For larger applications, the capacitors are mounted on sliding racks (rack mounts) located within either a container or a building structure (Controlled Environment). To accommodate such larger scale projects, supplementary cooling systems will be integrated, with the cooling capacity tailored according to the specific size and requirements of each project

[0622] The design incorporates modular features, making it easier to handle and install. Not only does this enhance convenience, but it also significantly reduces safety concerns. How to solve heat dissipation

[0623] By way of example, a test was conducted:

[0624] The bus bar temp was 18°C the temp rose to 50°C in 144 minutes. To calculate the heat energy in Watts for the aluminium bus bar, given that its temperature rose from 18°C to 50°C in 144 Minutes, following formula is used:

[0625] Power (W) = mass (kg) x specific heat capacity (J / kg°C) x Temperature change per second (°C / s)

[0626] Convert the time from minutes to seconds and calculate the temperature change per second.

[0627] 1. Total temperature change = 50°C- 18°C

[0628] 2. Total Time = 144 minutes = 144 x 60 seconds

[0629] 3. Temperature change per second = Total temperature change I Total time in seconds

[0630] Calculating the power assuming the mass of the aluminium bus bar is 1kg. The heat energy of the 1kg aluminium bus bar, under the conditions described, is approximately 3.33 Watts. The battery of the modular design uses an 6.816kg aluminium bus bar. With a mass of 6.816kg the heat energy of the aluminium bus bar under the specified conditions is approximately 22.72 Watts.

[0631] Cool down

[0632] • Cooling method =fan at 2.5 m / s inlet velocity

[0633] • The ambient temperature is 20°C

[0634] • The aluminium grade is 2024-t4

[0635] • Sitting at 50°C

[0636] • The surface area to cool is 339372 square millimetres

[0637] • Heat energy of the aluminium is 22.72Watts.

[0638] To estimate the cooling time of the aluminium bus bars from 50°C to 25°C given the specific parameters apply the concept of heat transfer, particularly convective cooling. The calculation involves several factors, including the properties of aluminium (specifically aluminium grade 2024-T4) the surface area, the ambient temperature and the heat energy involved.

[0639] In a simplified approach using the rate of heat loss ant the specific heat capacity, the cooling time can be estimated. The rate of heat loss is given by: Rate of heat loss (W) =Heat energy (W)

[0640] And the energy required to cool the aluminium from 50°C to 25°C is calculated using:

[0641] Energy required (J)=mass (kg)x specific heat capacity (J / kg°C)x temperature Change (°C)

[0642] From this cooling time can be estimated by:

[0643] Time (s) =Energy required (J) Rate of heat loss (W)

[0644] This is used to calculate the estimated cooling time with the given parameters.

[0645] • The mass of the aluminium is 6.816kg

[0646] • Specific heat capacity of aluminium is 900J / kg°C

[0647] • The temperature change is form 50°C to 25°C

[0648] • The rate of heat loss is 22.72 Watts.

[0649] Estimated time for the aluminium bus bars to cool down from 50°C to 25°C given the specified conditions is approximately 112.5 minutes.

[0650] This is a simplified estimation. The actual cooling time could vary based on factors such as the precise conditions of airflow, the specific properties of aluminium 2024-T4, and the environmental conditions not accounted for in this basic calculation.

[0651] It will be appreciated that the embodiment described above is given by way of example only and is not intended to limit the scope of the invention. It is possible to alter aspects of the embodiment without departing from the essence of the invention.

Claims

CLAIMS1. A lithium metal capacitor including an assembly of a lithium metal cathode and a carbon anode separated by a separator comprising a porous membrane configured to physically separate the anode and cathode from each other and allowing ions to pass between them, with each of the anode and the cathode having a current collector configured to complete an electrical circuit between the anode and cathode connectable to an external circuit, with the assembly encased within shell, from which the current collectors extend.

2. A capacitor as claimed in claim 1 in which the current collector for the anode is comprised of copper and the current collector for the cathode is comprised of aluminium.

3. A capacitor as claimed in claim 1 or 2 in which the anode’s current collector is comprised of copper foil coated on both sides with carbon-based material, preferably graphite.

4. A capacitor as claimed in claim 3 in which carbon-based material that coats the anode is comprised of a compound including about 94.5% mesocarbon microbeads (“MCMB”), about 2.25% binder, about 2.25% styrene-butadiene rubber (“SBR”), and about 1% conductive super P carbon black powder, mixed into a solvent about 120% by weight of the compound.

5. A capacitor as claimed in claim 4 in which the binder comprises carboxymethyl cellulose (“CMC”), about 2.25% styrene-butadiene rubber (“SBR”), and the solvent comprises de-ionized water.

6. A capacitor as claimed in any one of claims 1 to 5 in which the current collector for the cathode is comprised aluminium foil coated with a compound from the group including lithium metal oxide or lithium metal phosphate, more preferably of lithium cobalt oxide, lithium iron phosphate, or lithium manganese oxide.

7. A capacitor as claimed in claim 6 in which the compound that coats the aluminium foil includes about 93.5% Cathode Active Powder, more preferably comprising LiFePO4, LiCoO2 or similar lithium-based material, about 2.25% binder, about 4.25% carbonblack conductive additive, mixed in a solvent by weight about 8 / 15 of the weight content of the compound.

8. A capacitor as claimed in claim 7 in which the cathode binder comprises any one or more in combination of the group of compounds including Polyvinylidene Fluoride (“PVDF”), Polyvinylidene Chloride (“PVDC”), Polyacrylonitrile (“PAN”), Polyethylene Oxide (“PEO”), Carboxymethyl Cellulose (“CMC”), Styrene-Butadiene Rubber (“SBR”), and Polyethylene Glycol (“PEG”).

9. A capacitor as claimed in claim 7 or 8 in which the Cathode Active Powder comprises any one or more in combination of the group of compounds including Lithium cobalt oxide (“LiCoO2”), Lithium Manganese Oxide (“LiMn204”), Lithium Nickel Cobalt Manganese Oxide (“NMC”), Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminium Oxide (“NCA”), Lithium Titanate (“Li4Ti5O12”), Lithium Vanadium Oxide (“LiV2O5”), and Sodium Cobalt Oxide (“NaCoO2”).

10. A capacitor as claimed in any one of claims 7 to 9 in which the cathode solvent comprises any one or more in combination of the group of solvents including N-Methyl- 2-pyrrolidone (“NMP”), Dimethyl Sulfoxide (“DMSO”), Dimethylformamide (“DMF”), N- Ethyl-2-pyrrolidone (“NEP”), Propylene Carbonate (“PC”), and Gamma-Butyrolactone (“GBL”).

11. A capacitor as claimed in any one of claims 7 to 10 in which the cathode carbon black conductive additive comprises any one or more in combination of the group of compounds comprising Conductive Super C45, Carbon Nanotubes (“CNTs”), Graphene / Carbon Nanofibers (“CNFs”), Carbon Black Derived from Biomass, Graphite Nanoparticles and Conductive Polymers.

12. A capacitor as claimed in claim 1 to 11 in which the separator preferably comprises any one or more in combination of the group comprising Polyethylene (PE) Separator Film, Polypropylene (PP) Separator Film, Polyvinylidene Fluoride (PVDF) Separator Film, Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) Separator Film, Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA) Separator Film, Composite Separator Films, Nanostructured Separator Films, Micro porous Membranes, and Ceramic Separator Films.

13. A capacitor as claimed in claim 1 to 12 in which each capacitor comprises a plurality of alternating layers of anodes and cathodes separated by a separator between each adjacent set of anodes and cathode layers, contained within an isolating pouch filled with electrolyte and which is sealed over the layers of anodes, cathodes and separators, and with electrodes from the anodes and cathodes extending from the pouch.

14. A battery comprised of a set of capacitors as claimed in any one of claims 1 to 13 connected, in series or parallel and with the set of capacitors having input means for connection to a source of electrical power and output means for connection to an electrical circuit.

15. A battery as claimed in claim 14 which is housed in a casing that is provided with a fluid inlet and a fluid outlet, with the fluid preferably comprising air, and with the configuration of the capacitors in the casing providing a fluid pathway from the inlet to the outlet, and for the casing to be provided with at least one fan, preferably a plurality of fans, to draw fluid, preferably air, in at the inlet and to drive it through pathway out of the outlet to cool the capacitors.

16. A battery as claimed in claim 14 in which the capacitors are connected by means electrical bus bars, and more preferably for the bus bars to be comprised of stainless steel or nickel coated alloys.

17. An energy storage and management system that comprises a battery as claimed in any one of claims 14 to 16 connected to a capacitor management system configured to at least perform capacitor balancing on the capacitors of which the battery is comprised.

18. An energy storage and management system as claimed in claim 17 in which the capacitor management system is configured to perform capacitor balancing by executing a voltage-based balancing algorithm and a state of charge-based balancing algorithm.

19. An energy storage and management system as claimed in claim 18 in which the voltage-based balancing algorithm comprises: an unbalanced capacitors recognition module, configured to measure the difference between one capacitor’s voltage and the mean value of all the capacitorvoltages, determining whether the difference is greater than a predetermined threshold value ‘Vth’, and designating the capacitor as an abnormal capacitor if the difference is greater than the predetermined threshold Vth; and a balancing control module, configured to balance an abnormal capacitor and give feedback to the unbalanced capacitors recognition module, optionally to determine whether the capacitor previously designated as abnormal remains abnormal.

20. An energy storage and management system as claimed in claim 18 or 19 in which the unbalanced capacitors recognition module utilises a Z-score standardized method to pre-process the characteristic parameters for eliminating the influence of units in respect of voltage and state of charge, including applying the formula:wherein, Z / / (i=1,... ,40 and j=1 ,2) is the standardization form of jth characteristic parameter of the / th capacitor (i.e., Z12 denotes the standard SOC of the first capacitor); Capacitor / / represents the original value of yth characteristic parameter of the _th capacitor (i.e., Capacitor denotes the original voltage of the second capacitor); Capacitor / describes the mean of yth parameters; <5j denotes the standard deviation of the voltage or SOC when j equals to 1 or 2, respectively; and n is the number of cells.

21. An energy storage and management system as claimed in any one of claims 18 to 20 in which the unbalanced capacitors recognition module determines a Euclid-distance to calculate the abnormal value of each capacitor in the pack, by applying the formula:wherein D2,(Zm’Zn)( / W=1,... ,40, M t n) represents the Euclid-distance between the nth capacitor; Zm represents the mth capacitor which has two attributes (i.e., Zm=(ZmiZ72 );l / l / (Zm) denotes the summation of the Euclid distance between the mth capacitor and the others.

22. An energy storage and management system as claimed in any one of claims 18 to 21 in which the unbalanced capacitors recognition module designates a capacitor as normal if its range of outlier values is smaller than threshold VOA1, and abnormal if its range of outlier values is greater than threshold VOA1, where VOA1 is defined and updated by the formula:n23. An energy storage and management system as claimed in any one of claims 18 to 22 which is configured to at least perform capacitor balancing on the capacitors, and with the set of capacitors having input means for connection to a source of electrical power and output means for connection to an electrical circuit.

24. A capacitor substantially as herein described with reference to the drawings.

25. A battery substantially as herein described with reference to the drawings.

26. An energy storage and management system substantially as herein described with reference to the drawings.

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