Solar spectral conversion film for enhancing solar cell and module photovoltaic performance
The application of a quantum dot conversion film on solar panels addresses the efficiency gap by converting short-wavelength sunlight to longer-wavelength radiation, enhancing solar cell performance by up to 2.53% and offering potential for greater efficiency gains.
Patent Information
- Application Number
- PCT/CN2025/114157
- Authority / Receiving Office
- WO · WO
- Patent Type
- Applications
- Current Assignee / Owner
- Priority Date
- 2024-08-23
- Filing Date
- 2025-08-12
- Publication Date
- 2026-02-26
AI Technical Summary
Commercially available crystalline silicon solar cells have a conversion efficiency of about 24%, falling short of the theoretical maximum of 30% due to limitations in spectral response, particularly in the ultra-violet and infrared regions, necessitating improvements to enhance their efficiency.
A conversion film comprising nano-sized quantum dots is applied to solar panels, which absorb short-wavelength sunlight and emit longer-wavelength radiation, optimizing the spectrum for higher conversion efficiency in photovoltaic elements.
The conversion film enhances solar cell and module performance by increasing efficiency up to 2.53% compared to unmodified panels, demonstrating potential for further improvements with advanced NIR-emitting materials.
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Figure CN2025114157_26022026_PF_FP_ABST
Abstract
Description
SOLAR SPECTRAL CONVERSION FILM FOR ENHANCING SOLAR CELL AND MODULE PHOTOVOLTAIC PERFORMANCEField of Invention
[0001] The present invention relates to a method for modifying a solar panel, to the modified a solar panel, to methods for using the modified solar panel, and to a conversion film provided on a solar panel.Background of the invention
[0002] Various forms of solar cell are in widespread use. Solar cells are assembled into solar panels as part of a photovoltaic system to generate solar power from sunlight. One example of a solar cell is a crystalline silicon (c-Si) cell in which the dominant semiconductor material employed in photovoltaic elements of the solar cell is either polycrystalline silicon or monocrystalline silicon.
[0003] A c-Si cell has a spectral range of 400nm-1100nm. Currently, commercial mono-crystalline (mono-Si) solar cells can achieve about 24%conversion efficiency. That is, the power which the cell can develop is 24%of the energy of solar radiation (sunlight) incident on the solar panel. However, according to Shockley-Queisser limit, a crystalline silicon (c-Si) photovoltaic cell could in principle achieve a maximum efficiency of about 30%. Therefore, it is desirable to propose improvements to known solar cells, such as c-Si cells, which bring their conversion efficiency closer to the theoretical limit.Summary of the invention
[0004] In general terms, the present disclosure proposes that a pre-existing solar panel is modified by adding to it a laminar body referred to as a “conversion film” , which comprises nano-sized particles commonly referred to as “quantum dots” . In the modified solar panel, the quantum dots are positioned on an optical path along which, when the modified solar panel is in use, solar electromagnetic radiation passes towards a photovoltaic region of the solar panel in which one or more photovoltaic elements generate an electrical voltage from the electromagnetic radiation. Upon the quantum dots absorbing solar radiation (light) having a first wavelength, they emit light having a second wavelength which is higher than the first wavelength. The first wavelength is one which is present in solar radiation and for which photovoltaic elements have a first conversion efficiency value. The second wavelength is one for which the photovoltaic elements have a second, higher conversion efficiency value. Thus, the present invention provides a conversion film for broadening the range of wavelengths absorbable by a pre-existing solar panel.
[0005] The photovoltaic element (s) are typically sets of semiconductor layers, and may be formed of crystalline silicon, e.g. polycrystalline silicon or monocrystalline silicon. The photovoltaic elements may be provided as one or more solar cells.
[0006] In fact, solar radiation includes a spectrum composed of wavelength components having a wavelength range ( “first wavelength range” ) . The quantum dots modify the solar spectrum to a modified spectrum having a second wavelength range. The modified spectrum is downshifted in frequency compared to the solar spectrum. That is, the second wavelength range is higher in wavelength than the first wavelength range. For example, a midpoint of the second wavelength range may be a higher wavelength than the midpoint of the first wavelength range. The photovoltaic elements have a higher conversion efficiency value for the modified spectrum than for the (original) solar spectrum.
[0007] For example, the photovoltaic element (s) may generate a maximum power (e.g. for an output voltage of the solar panel which maximises the power generated by the photovoltaic element (s) ) which is higher upon the photovoltaic elements receiving the modified spectrum than when the photovoltaic elements receive the (original) solar spectrum.
[0008] These maximum powers may be measured when the modified spectrum and the original solar spectrum have the same total energy content. In practice, the presence of the conversion layer may reduce the total power which reaches the photovoltaic elements (e.g. due to scattering of light by the conversion layer) .
[0009] In some embodiments the conversion layer may provide an additional role, such as being operative to perform the function of an anti-reflection layer which it is known to provide on the surface of a solar panel. A conventional anti-reflection layer may reduce the total energy of solar radiation which reaches the photovoltaic elements, for example due to scattering it causes. However, if the anti-reflection layer is implemented by a conversion layer according to the invention, the down-conversion performed by the quantum dots may mitigate, and indeed more than make up for, any reduction in electrical power generated by the photovoltaic element (s) due to the scattering.
[0010] In a first aspect, the invention proposes a method for modifying a (pre-existing) solar panel. A specific expression of this aspect of the invention is a method of forming a solar panel, the method comprising: obtaining a solar panel, the solar panel comprising a surface for receiving solar radiation, and one or more photovoltaic elements configured to generate an electrical voltage upon incidence of solar radiation on the surface (and generally also electrically conductive circuitry elements for transmitting electric power generated by the one or more photovoltaic elements, e.g. to a power transmission interface of the solar panel) ; and providing a conversion film on the surface of the solar panel, the conversion film comprising: a (solid) body of matrix material; and a plurality of quantum dots (QDs) embedded in the matrix material; the quantum dots being operative to absorb a solar radiation having a first wavelength range, and, upon absorbing the solar radiation, to emit electromagnetic radiation having a second wavelength range which is higher than the first wavelength range, the one or more photovoltaic elements having a first conversion efficiency value for electromagnetic radiation of the first wavelength range which is lower than a second conversion efficiency value of the one or more photovoltaic elements for electromagnetic radiation of the second wavelength range.
[0011] In a second aspect, the invention proposes a solar panel modified by the method.
[0012] In a third aspect, the invention proposes a method of generating electrical power using such a solar panel.
[0013] In a fourth aspect, the invention provides a conversion film for the surface of a solar panel comprising: nano-sized quantum dots (QDs) that emit in a range of wavelength that, as explained, is more readily absorbed by the solar panel than (unmodified) solar radiation.
[0014] The film may be provided as a solid film such as a laminate layer. Alternatively, it may be provided as a liquid layer operative to solidify into the conversion film. For example, it may be provided as a sprayed fluid film that solidifies into a laminate layer.
[0015] In particular, the conversion film provides a possibility of down-converting short wavelength sunlight into longer-wavelength emission. The second wavelength range may have an upper wavelength limit which is at least > 600 nm, and / or may be up to, or near, the wavelength of infrared light (900-1100 nm) . Because the down-converted wavelengths are more readily absorbed by the solar panel, solar cell / module photovoltaic (PV) performance is enhanced
[0016] Materials of key-interest for making the QDs are red-, deep-red and near infrared (NIR) emitting luminophores excitable by UV-and / or visible light. However, there are very few NIR emitting materials (>800 nm) fulfilling solar spectral down-converting application including luminescence quantum yield (QY) and cost-efficiency. Therefore, red-and deep-red emitting materials with high QY hold greatest application potential at large scale.
[0017] Initial characterization observes PV performance at 2.53%higher efficiency in solar panels modified with the proposed solar-spectral conversion film than in unmodified solar panels. This finding is significant for enhancing PV performance of solar cells and modules at large scale.Brief description of the Figures
[0018] Embodiments of the present invention will be described with the accompanying drawings, in which like integers refer to like parts. Fig. 1 shows schematically the structure of a known solar panel. Fig. 2 is composed of Figs. 2 (a) and 2 (b) which show a method for producing a solar panel which is a first embodiment of the invention. Fig. 3 shows a modification to a solar spectrum caused by quantum dots in the first embodiment. Fig. 4 is composed of Figs. 4 (a) and 4 (b) shows a solar panel which is a second embodiment of the invention. Fig. 5 is composed of Figs. 5 (a) which shows an experimentally-obtained current-voltage (I-V) and power- voltage (P-V) curves for two solar panels without a laminated surface layer, and Fig. 5 (b) which lists numerical results obtained from the graph of Fig. 5 (a) . Fig. 6 is composed of Figs. 6 (a) which shows experimentally-obtained I-V and P-V curves for two solar panels with a laminated surface layer, and Fig. 6 (b) which lists numerical results obtained from the graph of Fig. 6 (a) .Detailed description of embodiments
[0019] Referring first to Fig. 1, a conventional solar panel 100. The solar panel is generally laminar, and Fig. 1 shows in a cross-section including the thickness direction of the solar panel 100. The solar panel has a (usually flat) light absorbative surface 104, which is a major surface of the solar panel.
[0020] The solar panel comprises a set of stacked layers 101 which may be patterned. The stack of layers 101 may be positioned between two protective layers 102, 103. The layer 103 is transparent, and includes a light absorbative surface 104, which is the surface of the protective layer 103 facing away from the stack of layers 101.
[0021] The stack of layers 101 includes semiconductor layers constituting a photovoltaic element. For example, the layers 101 include an n-doped layer 105 and a p-doped layer 106, such as layers of crystalline silicon. When solar radiation (solar “light” , a term which is to be understood in this document as including electromagnetic wavelengths which are not necessarily in the visible range) is incident on the surface 104, it passes through the transparent layer 103 to the photovoltaic layers 105, 106 which constitute a photovoltaic element. The stack of layers 101 also includes patterned layers 107, 108 which form electrical circuitry to transmit electrical power generated by the photovoltaic element to a power transmission interface (not shown) of the solar panel. The power transmission interface may be a connector element which can be connected to other electrical devices, so that the other electrical devices can receive and be powered by electrical power generated by the solar panel. Alternatively, the connector element may be connected to a power transmission network, for transmitting electrical power over larger distances.
[0022] Although only a single stack of layers 101 is shown in Fig. 1, there may be multiple stacks of layers 101, e.g. spaced apart in direction (s) parallel to directions on the surface 104, and constituting separate solar cells of the solar panel 101.
[0023] The solar panel 101 may be one produced by a solar panel manufacturer, as a completed commercial product suitable for use to generate power.
[0024] Turning to Fig. 2 a first step is shown of a method of method of modifying the pre-existing solar panel 100. The method may be performed by an entity different from the solar panel manufacturer, and which has obtained the solar panel by receiving it (e.g. from the solar panel manufacturer) . Alternatively, it may in principle be performed by the solar panel manufacturer, who obtained the solar panel by manufacturing it.
[0025] As shown in Fig. 2 (a) , a liquid layer 201 is formed on the light absorbative surface 201. This may be formed by a spraying (as shown schematically by the arrays) a measured amount of a liquid onto the light absorbative surface 201. The liquid is a fluid mixture ( “quantum dot mixture” ) comprising a fluid component ( “solvent” ) . The fluid component includes a suspension of quantum dots (QDs) 202. The quantum dots 202 are semiconductor particles which are “nano-sized” , that is each particle has a maximum diameter which is measured in nanometers (nm) , e.g. the maximum diameter of each particle may be less than 20nm, or less than 10 nm. The liquid layer 201 is not applied covering the pre-existing power transmission interface of the pre-existing solar panel 100, which is not exposed to the liquid layer 201. The liquid layer 201 may extend substantially uninterruptedly.
[0026] The fluid component of the liquid layer 201 is one which solidifies (e.g. by drying) when subject to ambient temperature (e.g. 20 degrees Celsius) and pressure (e.g. 1 atmosphere) , and optionally exposed to air, to form a solid body of matrix material. Thus, the layer 201 forms a film (referred to as a “conversion film” ) on the light absorbative surface 104 of the solar panel. The conversion film 201 includes the (solid) body of matrix material, and the quantum dots 202 embedded in the body of matrix material. The conversion film 201 is spaced from the stack of layers 101 providing the photovoltaic element and the associated circuitry by the protective layer 103.
[0027] As shown in Fig. 2 (b) , a solid protective layer 203 (e.g. of glass, such as low-iron tempered glass) may be provided over the conversion film 201, e.g. laminated to the solid protective layer 203 by an adhesive “interlayer” (not shown) .
[0028] The effect of the conversion layer on the solar panel 100 will be explained with reference to Fig. 3. The spectrum of solar radiation is shown as 301. The vertical axis labels the amplitude of corresponding components of solar radiation having a wavelength λ given on the horizontal axis. The solar spectrum 301 has a “first” wavelength range 303 given by the lower double-headed arrow in Fig. 3. Optionally, the “wavelength range” of a certain spectrum may be defined as an interval between two wavelength endpoints such that a certain proportion (e.g. 1%) of the energy of the radiation of the spectrum is transmitted by wavelength components having a wavelength above the lower endpoint of the range, and the same proportion of the energy of the radiation of the spectrum is transmitted by wavelength components having a wavelength below the higher endpoint of the range.
[0029] The photovoltaic element of the stack of layer 101 may be such that for wavelength components having a wavelength below a certain value λ1 the power conversion efficiency value (proportion of the energy of the wavelength component which the photovoltaic element is capable of converting to electrical power) is below a certain threshold. Thus, the portion of the solar spectrum 301 with a wavelength below λ1 will be converted with low efficiency. For example, it is known that the spectral response range for a c-Si cell is 400 nm-1100 nm. Therefore, c-Si cell is inefficient in the harvesting of ultra-violet part (UV, 180 nm-400 nm) of sunlight. Currently, a commercial mono-crystalline (mono-Si) solar cell can achieve about 24%conversion efficiency, which results from the loss because of sunlight reflection and blockage on the cell surface.
[0030] The effect of the quantum dots is to modify the solar spectrum, as the light passes through the conversion layer 201, so that the light which reaches the photovoltaic element has a modified spectrum 302. This has a second wavelength range 304 shown by the upper double-headed arrow in Fig. 3. The second wavelength range 304 has a higher wavelength than the first wavelength range 303. For example, a median position in the second wavelength range 304 (i.e. half-way between the endpoints of the first wavelength range) is higher than a median position in the first wavelength range 301. From another point of view, the maximum wavelength in the second wavelength range 304 is higher than the maximum wavelength in the first wavelength range 303. Similarly, the wavelength in the second wavelength range 304 with peak amplitude in the modified solar spectrum 302, is higher than the wavelength in the first wavelength range 303 of the original solar spectrum 301.
[0031] Specifically, a higher proportion (e.g. all) of the power spectrum 302 is at a longer wavelength than the below λ1 than for the solar spectrum 301, and thus the photovoltaic element of the stack 101 is able to convert the modified spectrum with a higher power efficiency. In particular, in the case of photovoltaic element which is a c-Si cell, if the lower end of the second wavelength range 304 is above 400nm (e.g. if the second wavelength range is > 600 nm, e.g. with the lower endpoint of the second wavelength range being a wavelength which is at least “red” light, which means wavelengths in the range 620 to 750nm) , then substantially all wavelength components of the modified spectrum 302 can be converted to electrical power with acceptable power efficiency. According to Shockley-Queisser limit, the most popular crystalline silicon (c-Si) photovoltaic cell can achieve a maximum efficiency of about 30%at the band gap of 1.1 eV.
[0032] Note that the quantum dots may be chosen to provide a yet larger wavelength increase, e.g. such that the median value of the second wavelength range 302 is an infrared wavelength. It has been estimated that the efficiency of c-Si cell could be from increased from about 30%to about 40%, if the visible part of sunlight can be down-converted into longer-wavelengths near infrared light (900-1100 nm) , matching the most efficient spectral response range of a c-Si cell.
[0033] The conversion layer 201 may also have the effect of scattering some light, e.g. the modified spectrum 302 may have a lower maximum amplitude than the original solar power spectrum 301. This may reduce the power generated by the photovoltaic element of the stack 101, but this effect may be partially, or fully made up for by the increased power efficiency due to the frequency down-conversion of the light.
[0034] Quantum dots are not the only elements which are capable of down-converting the frequency of electromagnetic radiation. For example, near-infrared (NIR) emitting materials hold some promise for solar spectral conversion, and could be used in place of quantum dots. However, known NIR emitting materials have relatively lower quantum yield (QY) and higher cost, which hinder them from practical uses in down-converting process. Therefore, luminescent red-emitting QD are preferred for use in the solar spectral down-converter implemented as the conversion film 201.
[0035] Turning to Fig. 4 (a) a second embodiment of the invention is presented. In this embodiment, the received solar panel 100 is modified by laminating onto the light absorbative surface 104 a solid body 401 of matrix material, such as a layer of glass (e.g. low-iron tempered glass) . The layer of glass may be laminated to the surface 104 of the pre-existing solar panel 100 using an interlayer 402. The interlayer 402 may be an organic material, such as ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVA) or a polymer such as polyvinyl butyral (PVB) . In this case, the quantum dots, which may be of the same type described above, may be embedded in the solid body 401, e.g. the glass layer.
[0036] Figure 4 (b) shows a further possibility. Again, a solid laminar body 401, such as a glass layer, is laminated to the top surface 104 of the pre-existing solar panel 100, using an interlayer 402, but in this case the quantum dots are provided within the interlayer 402.
[0037] Note that in all three of the embodiments the QDs are provided within a conversion film which may be provided for other reasons, e.g. an anti-reflective layer in the case of the embodiment of Fig. 1, a protective glass layer 401 in the case of the embodiment of Fig. 4 (a) , or its interlayer 402 in the case of the embodiment of Fig. 4 (b) . In each case, the QDs can mitigate, or more than make up for, a loss of power efficiency caused by the addition of the conversion film, e.g. due to scattering. The embodiments may be combined, such that quantum dots are provided in more than one of a sprayed anti-reflective layer, an interlayer (e.g. on the sprayed layer) , and a glass layer laminated to the solar panel using the interlayer.
[0038] Experimental results will now be presented. In the first experiment, a liquid mixture comprising a solvent and red-emitting semiconductor QDs with a peak emission of 625 nm was air-sprayed onto the light absorbative layer of two mini solar modules. The light absorbative surface had an area of 9 cm x 3 cm. The nano-coating recipe and method are summarized in Table 1. Table 1. Spray-coating recipe and method for solar mini-modules
[0039] First, the 2 modules were fixed at the same position facing sunlight. The open-circuit voltages and closed-circuit current reading were captured at the same time using 2 set multimeters. Altogether, the data collection was done twice at different points of time. As such, the power differences were calculated (Table 2) . It was found that the 2 mini-modules had an average power difference of +10.45%.
[0040] Subsequently, the light absorbative surface of the mini-module which developed higher power was subject to a surface spray coating process using a liquid mixture including quantum dots (a “quantum dot mixture” ) to form a liquid film, which was allowed to solidify to form a conversion film. The light absorbative surface of both mini-modules was then subject to deposition of an EVA film, and then lamination of a glass layer onto the surface at a temperature of 120 degrees, using 480 seconds of vacuum and 720 seconds of pressing. Thus, panel A had the structure shown in Fig. 3.
[0041] PV performance evaluation was then performed again, on another day under direct sunlight irradiance. Table 2 shows the measured data. The data for the mini-module which was spray coated with a liquid mixture including quantum dots (a “quantum dot mixture” ) is underlined. Table 2: Photovoltaic characterization of solar mini-modules at direct sunlight irradiance
[0042] Table 2 shows that measurement shows that the power difference increased from +10.45%to +13.85%. It is reasoned that the larger power differences resulted from the surface spray coated QDs film on one mini-module but not on the other.
[0043] In a second experiment, the I-V and P-V profiles of two commercially available solar panels ( “Panel A” and “Panel B” ) were measured. The results are shown in Fig. 4 (a) , and certain numerical values which can be derived from this data are shown in Fig. 4 (b) . The two panels had very similar I-V and P-V profiles.
[0044] The light absorbative surface of Panel A was then spray-coated with a quantum dots mixture to form a liquid film, which was allowed to solidify to form a conversion film.
[0045] A layer of glass was then laminated onto the light absorbative surface of both solar panels. Thus, panel A had the structure shown in Fig. 3. The I-V and P-V profiles of “Panel A” and “Panel B” were measured. The results are shown in Fig. 5, and certain numerical values which can be derived from this data are shown in Fig. 6. Although the maximum output power of both panels was less as shown in Fig. 6 than in Fig. 5 , Panel A has a maximum power output (75.43 Mpp) which is 2.5%higher than Panel B (73.57 Mpp) . Such a large difference is not shown in Fig. 5, and it is inferred that it is due to the conversion film on Panel A.
[0046] In summary, it has been demonstrated that providing a conversion film including QDs leads to increased power efficiency. Highly luminescent QDs are readily available, so the described process provides cost-efficiency, using well-developed spray-coating technology and engineering processes. As the quantum yield and cost-efficiency issues of NIR-emitting and quantum-cutting materials are improved, they can be used directly in embodiments of this invention technology to further enhance solar cell and module efficiency.
Claims
1.A method of forming a solar panel, the method comprising:obtaining a solar panel, the solar panel comprising a surface for receiving solar radiation, and one or more photovoltaic elements configured to generate an electrical voltage upon incidence of solar radiation on the surface; andproviding a conversion film on the surface of the solar panel, the conversion film comprising:a body of matrix material; anda plurality of quantum dots (QDs) embedded in the matrix material;the quantum dots being operative to absorb solar radiation having a first wavelength range, and, upon absorbing the solar radiation, to emit electromagnetic radiation having a second wavelength range which is higher than the first wavelength range, the one or more photovoltaic elements having a first conversion efficiency value for electromagnetic radiation of the first wavelength range which is lower than a second conversion efficiency value of the one or more photovoltaic elements for electromagnetic radiation of the second wavelength range.2.A method according to claim 1 in which the conversion film is provided by applying a layer of fluid to the surface of the solar panel including the quantum dots in suspension, and solidifying the layer of fluid to form the body of matrix material.3.A method according to claim 1 or claim 2 in which the layer of fluid is applied to the surface by spraying.4.A method according to any preceding claim in which the surface of the solar panel is surface of an insulating element of the solar panel which covers the photovoltaic elements.5.A method according to claim 4 in which the insulating element also covers circuitry elements which transmit electrical power from the photovoltaic elements to a power transmission interface of the solar panel.6.A method according to any preceding claim further comprising laminating a transparent layer to the body of matrix material.7.A method according to any preceding claim in which the matrix material is polyvinyl butyral (PVB) or ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) .8.A method according to claim 1 in which providing the conversion film comprises attaching to the surface of the solar panel a solid body of matrix material including the embedded quantum dots embedded in the matrix material, and attaching the solid body of matrix material to surface of the solar panel.9.A method according to claim 9 in which the solid body of matrix material is a glass material.10.A method according to any preceding claim in which the matrix material is operative as an anti-reflective film for the solar panel.11.A solar panel formed by a method according to any preceding claim.12.A power generation comprising providing a solar panel according to claim 11, causing solar radiation to be incident on the solar panel, whereby the solar panel transmits electrical power though the power transmission interface.13.A conversion film provided on the surface of a solar panel, the solar panel having one or more photovoltaic elements configured to generate an electrical voltage upon incidence of solar radiation on a surface, and electrical circuitry for transmitting electric power generated by the one or more photovoltaic elements to a power transmission interface of the solar panel, the one or more photovoltaic elements having a first conversion efficiency value for electromagnetic radiation of a first wavelength range which is lower than a second conversion efficiency value of the one or more photovoltaic elements for electromagnetic radiation of the second wavelength range,the conversion film comprising:a body of matrix material embedded with nano-sized quantum dots (QDs) that are absorbative of electromagnetic radiation in the first wavelength range, and which, upon absorbing electromagnetic radiation in the first wavelength range, emit electrical radiation in the second wavelength range.14.A conversion film as claimed in claim 13, the film being a solidified layer of fluid sprayed onto the surface of the solar panel, the fluid being a suspension of the quantum dots.15.The conversion film of claim 13 in which the body of matrix material is a layer of glass.16.The conversion film of claim 13 in which the body of matrix material is a layer of polyvinyl butyral (PVB) or ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) .17.The conversion film of any of claims 13 to 16, wherein the second wavelength range of wavelengths includes red wavelengths;whereby the QDs down-converts the frequency of electromagnetic radiation components of solar radiation having a wavelength in first wavelength range which is shorter than a red wavelength, to red wavelength components.18.A quantum dots (QDs) mixture for spray-coating a solar panel, comprising QDs suspended in a liquid;the liquid being operative to solidify into a body of matrix material under ambient conditions when the mixture has been applied to a light absorptive surface of a solar panel by a spray.19.A quantum dots (QDs) mixture for spray-coating a solar panel, comprising a solvent and QDs suspended in the solvent, there being 5 mg of QDs for each 10 mL of solvent.
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