Infrared plasma light recovery thermophotovoltaic hydrogen power generator

Abstract

A power generator providing at least one of electrical and thermal power is described that includes (i) at least one reaction cell for a reaction involving an atomic hydrogen product identifiable by unique analytical and spectral characteristics, (ii) a molten metal injection system that includes at least one pump such as an electromagnetic pump, and (iii) an ignition system, the apparatus includes an electrical power source that provides low voltage, high current electrical energy to at least one stream of molten metal to ignite a plasma to initiate a fast kinetic and energy gain of the reaction.

Description

[0001] Middle L. Mills Randall L. Mills

[0002] CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

[0003] This application claims the benefit of U.S. patent application No. 63 / 332,111 filed on April 18, 2022, U.S. patent application No. 63 / 339,949 filed on May 9, 2022, U.S. patent application No. 63 / 343,971 filed on May 19, 2022, U.S. patent application No. 63 / 355,562 filed on June 24, 2022, U.S. patent application No. 63 / 368,602 filed on July 15, 2022, U.S. patent application No. 63 / 370,106 filed on August 1, 2022, U.S. patent application No. 63 / 371 filed on August 17, 2022, 754, U.S. Patent Application No. 63 / 375,530 filed on September 13, 2022, U.S. Patent Application No. 63 / 429,914 filed on December 2, 2022, U.S. Patent Application No. 63 / 477,760 filed on December 29, 2022, U.S. Patent Application No. 63 / 481,384 filed on January 24, 2023, U.S. Patent Application No. 63 / 449,948 filed on March 3, 2023, and U.S. Patent Application No. 63 / 457,108 filed on April 4, 2023, the entire contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference herein. Technical Field

[0004] The present disclosure relates to the field of power generation, and more specifically, to systems, devices, and methods for generating power. More specifically, embodiments of the present disclosure relate to power generation devices and systems and related methods that generate photodynamic forces, plasma, and thermal forces and generate electricity via magnetohydrodynamic power converters, photodynamic-electrical converters, plasma-electrical converters, photon-electrical converters, or thermal-electrical converters. In addition, embodiments of the present disclosure describe systems, devices, and methods that utilize the ignition of water or a water-based fuel source to generate photodynamic forces, mechanical forces, electricity, and / or thermal forces using photovoltaic power converters. These and other related embodiments are described in detail in the present disclosure. Background Art

[0005] Power generation can take a variety of forms by extracting power from plasmas. Successful commercialization of plasmas may depend on power generation systems that can efficiently form plasmas and then capture the power of the generated plasma.

[0006] During the ignition of certain fuels, plasma may form. These fuels may include water or water-based fuel sources. During ignition, a plasma cloud composed of atoms stripped of electrons forms and can release high photodynamic forces. The high photodynamic forces of the plasma can be exploited by the electrical converters disclosed herein. Ions and excited atoms can recombine and undergo electron relaxation, thereby emitting photodynamic forces. This photodynamic force can be converted into electricity through photovoltaics. Summary of the Invention

[0007] The present disclosure relates to a power system for generating at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy, comprising:

[0008] at least one container capable of maintaining a subatmospheric pressure;

[0009] reactants capable of undergoing a reaction that generates sufficient energy to form a plasma in the container, the reactants comprising:

[0010] a) a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen, and / or

[0011] water vapor, and / or

[0012] A mixture of hydrogen and water vapor;

[0013] b) molten metal;

[0014] a mass flow controller for controlling the flow of at least one reactant into the container;

[0015] a vacuum pump for maintaining the pressure in the vessel below atmospheric pressure while one or more reactants are flowing into the vessel;

[0016] a molten metal injector system comprising at least one reservoir for holding some of the molten metal, a molten metal pump system (e.g., one or more electromagnetic pumps) configured to deliver the molten metal in the reservoir and through the injector tube to provide a stream of molten metal, and at least one non-injector molten metal reservoir for receiving the stream of molten metal;

[0017] at least one ignition system comprising a source of electrical power or ignition current to supply electrical power to said at least one molten metal stream to ignite said reaction while said hydrogen and / or oxygen and / or water vapor are flowing into said vessel;

[0018] a reactant supply system for replenishing the reactants consumed in the reaction;

[0019] A power converter or output system is used to convert a portion of the energy generated from the reaction (e.g., light and / or heat output from the plasma) into electricity and / or heat.

[0020] The power system of the present disclosure (referred to herein as a "SunCell") may include:

[0021] a) at least one vessel capable of maintaining a pressure below atmospheric pressure, comprising a reaction chamber;

[0022] b) two electrodes configured to allow molten metal to flow therebetween to complete an electrical circuit;

[0023] c) a power source connected to the two electrodes for applying a current between the two electrodes when the circuit is closed;

[0024] d) a plasma generating pool (e.g., a glow discharge cell) for initiating formation of a first plasma from the gas; wherein the effluent of the plasma generating pool is directed to the circuit (e.g., the molten metal, the anode, the cathode, an electrode immersed in a molten metal storage tank);

[0025] wherein when an electric current is applied across the circuit, the effluent from the plasma generating cell reacts to produce a second plasma and reaction products; and

[0026] e) a power adapter configured to convert and / or transfer energy from the second plasma into mechanical energy, thermal energy, and / or electrical energy. In some embodiments, the gas in the plasma generation pool is a mixture of hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2). For example, the relative molar ratio of oxygen to hydrogen is 0.01% to 50% (e.g., 0.1% to 20%, 0.1% to 15%, etc.). In certain embodiments, the molten metal is gallium. In some embodiments, the reaction product has at least one spectral characteristic as described herein. In various aspects, a second plasma is formed in a reaction cell, and the walls of the reaction cell include a lining having increased resistance to alloying with the molten metal and a high permeability of the lining and the walls of the reaction cell to the reaction products (e.g., stainless steel such as 347 SS such as 4130 alloy SS or Cr-Mo SS, nickel, Ti, niobium, vanadium, iron, W, Re, Ta, Mo, niobium, and Nb (94.33 wt%)-Mo (4.86 wt%)-Zr (0.81 wt%)). The lining can be made of at least one of a crystalline material such as SiC, BN, quartz, and / or a refractory metal such as Nb, Ta, Mo, or W. In certain embodiments, a second plasma is formed in a reaction cell, wherein the walls of the reaction cell chamber include a first section and a second section,

[0027] The first section is composed of stainless steel such as 347SS such as 4130 alloy SS or Cr-Mo SS, nickel, Ti, niobium, vanadium, iron, W, Re, Ta, Mo, niobium and Nb (94.33 wt%)-Mo (4.86 wt%)-Zr (0.81 wt%);

[0028] The second section includes a refractory metal different from the metal in the first section;

[0029] The union between the different metals is formed by a laminate material (eg, a ceramic such as BN).

[0030] The power system of the present disclosure may include:

[0031] a.) a container capable of maintaining a pressure below atmospheric pressure, comprising a reaction chamber;

[0032] b) a plurality of electrode pairs, each pair comprising electrodes configured to allow molten metal to flow therebetween to complete an electrical circuit;

[0033] c) a power source connected to the two electrodes for applying a current between the two electrodes when the circuit is closed;

[0034] d) a plasma generating pool (e.g., a glow discharge cell) for initiating formation of a first plasma from the gas; wherein the effluent of the plasma generating pool is directed to the circuit (e.g., the molten metal, the anode, the cathode, an electrode immersed in a molten metal storage tank);

[0035] wherein when an electric current is applied across the circuit, the effluent from the plasma generating cell reacts to produce a second plasma and reaction products; and

[0036] e) a power adapter configured to convert and / or transfer energy from the second plasma into mechanical energy, thermal energy, and / or electrical energy;

[0037] At least one of the reaction products (eg, intermediates, final products) has at least one spectral characteristic as described herein.

[0038] The power generation system may include:

[0039] a) at least one vessel including a bottom plate capable of maintaining a pressure below atmospheric pressure, comprising a reaction chamber;

[0040] b) two electrodes, each in fluid communication with molten metal contained in a corresponding tank, wherein the molten metal is configured to flow between the electrodes to complete an electrical circuit;

[0041] c) a power source connected to the two electrodes comprising a cathode and an anode for applying an ignition current between the two electrodes when the circuit is closed;

[0042] d) optionally, a plasma generating cell (e.g., a glow discharge cell) for initiating formation of a first plasma from the gas; wherein effluent from the plasma generating cell is directed to the circuit (e.g., the molten metal, the anode, the cathode, each supplied with molten metal via its molten metal storage tank);

[0043] wherein when current is applied across the circuit, effluent from the plasma generating cell reacts to produce a second plasma and reaction products, wherein energy from the second plasma produces radiation;

[0044] e) a transparent window cavity for transmitting radiation generated by the second plasma, wherein the transparent window cavity is in contact with the bottom plate of the container;

[0045] f) a wet seal between the transparent window cavity and the base plate, comprising a wet seal molten metal, and

[0046] g) a power adapter configured to receive radiation transmitted through a transparent window cavity and convert and / or transfer the energy from the second plasma into mechanical energy, thermal energy, and / or electrical energy. In some embodiments, the container is a stainless steel dome. The base plate may be disposed on top of the container. In a number of specific implementations, a window having a cavity (e.g., a quartz window cavity) may be disposed on the base plate of the container, and the reaction chamber may be considered as a space defined by the cavity and the base plate (e.g., igniting reactants in the window cavity). In a number of specific implementations, the container is a reaction chamber. In some embodiments, the window and cavity are part of the container. In some embodiments, the container comprises a spherical, hemispherical, or parabolic dome section (to which the storage tank is connected) and further comprises a drip edge at the connection to each external storage tank.

[0047] The molten metal may be supplied to the electrodes to close the circuit by two molten metal injector systems, each forming a stream of molten metal in contact with one of the electrodes, wherein the streams of molten metal intersect to close the circuit. The molten metal injector systems may include:

[0048] a) a storage tank containing some of the molten metal; a molten metal pump system (such as one or more electromagnetic pumps) configured to deliver the molten metal in the storage tank and pass through the injector tube to provide a molten metal stream, and the storage tank is used to receive the molten metal stream returned after injection;

[0049] b) an inlet riser for controlling the molten metal level in the tank;

[0050] c) an electrical circuit breaker in the wall of the tank to electrically isolate each of the corresponding electrodes from an electrode of opposite polarity, and

[0051] d) an alignment mechanism for changing the orientation of the electrode injectors so that the two streams corresponding to the two electrodes intersect to complete the circuit. In various embodiments, each injector tube can be covered by an electrically insulating sleeve that resists wetting by the molten metal. The sleeve can comprise at least one of quartz, boron nitride, carbon, and a plurality of carbon segments separated by electrically insulating segments of boron nitride or quartz, and can comprise at least two sections, an upper section and a lower section. The electromagnetic pump can include an EM bus bar assembly internally coated with a coating (such as TiN) that is resistant to at least one of oxidation and alloying. In various embodiments, the electromagnetic pump can include a tungsten EM bus bar assembly and a tungsten pump tube that are laser welded at the joints with Kovar shims and further coated externally with tungsten disilicide or a precious metal.

[0052] In some embodiments, each tank further comprises an inner tank and an outer tank separated by a gap, wherein the outer tank is connected to the container and houses the inner tank under vacuum, the inner tank leading to the interior of the container and the window cavity and receiving a return flow of molten metal. The inner tank may further comprise a funnel (such as a quartz funnel) at its opening leading to the container so that the returning molten metal does not flow into the gap. In some embodiments, the funnel further comprises a graphite or BN gasket between the dripping edge and the funnel to seal the top of the funnel to the bottom of the dripping edge. The inner and outer tanks may further comprise a thermal conductor and an electrical insulator that conducts heat, which are located in the gap between the inner and outer tanks and allow heat conduction while maintaining electrical isolation of the two electrodes. The thermal conductor and the electrical insulator may be coupled together to provide for maintaining electrical isolation while also providing heat conduction. For example, the thermal conductor and electrical insulator may include a copper cylinder to provide thermal conductivity and a boron nitride cylinder to provide electrical isolation and thermal conduction; wherein the cylinders are concentric and fill the gap between the inner and outer tanks, include expansion slots, and have a height less than or equal to that of the inner tank. The system may also include a heater to heat the outer wall of the outer tank, whereby the thermal conductor conducts heat from the heater to the inner tank to melt the molten metal. In some embodiments, the heater includes at least one hydrogen torch.

[0053] The power generation system of the present disclosure may include a magnetohydrodynamic wet seal for maintaining a vacuum on one side of a photovoltaic (PV) window, the PV window including a cavity transparent to optical power; wherein the wet seal joins the PV window cavity and a base plate (such as a base plate of a container having penetrations for the top of one or more storage tanks) and includes a channel for containing molten metal, the PV window cavity being inserted into the channel;

[0054] wherein the molten metal is electrically connected to a power supply to generate an electric current in the molten metal in the channel, thereby inducing magnetic confinement of the molten metal in the housing to maintain the seal;

[0055] Light is generated on one side of a PV window, transmitted through the window, and collected in at least one photovoltaic cell to generate electricity. In some embodiments, the molten metal is exposed to a magnetic field such that the Lorentz force of the current on the molten metal in the channel and the magnetic field resists the external force on the molten metal to maintain a wet seal. In some embodiments, the wet seal is formed from multiple metal layers, wherein a liquid metal layer is disposed between two solid metal layers.

[0056] In some embodiments, the container is coupled to the window cavity, and the wet seal further comprises:

[0057] a) a window flange at the base of the window cavity;

[0058] b) base plate flange on the base plate;

[0059] c) a top flange at the top of the window cavity flange having a mechanical connection to the floor flange to provide pressure on the window flange against the floor flange;

[0060] d) a gasket (e.g., carbon) on the surface of at least one window cavity flange that contacts the top flange and the bottom plate flange;

[0061] e) at least one of an inner circumferential shell or retaining wall inside the window cavity and an outer circumferential shell or retaining wall outside the window cavity flange, and

[0062] f) a wet seal molten metal retained by the housing and retaining wall and the gasket to maintain a lower pressure inside the window cavity relative to the outside to maintain a pressure differential. The wet seal may include a flange seal with a graphite gasket for a transparent window cavity, the transparent window cavity including top and bottom sealing flanges bolted together with top and bottom graphite gaskets between each flange surface of the window cavity, and

[0063] The corresponding sealing flange also includes an angle ring or a channel ring around the periphery of the flange seal with graphite gasket, the angle ring or the channel ring being welded to at least one of the base plate and the bottom flange of the seal to form a cavity around the flange seal with graphite gasket, wherein the cavity is filled with wet sealing molten metal to form a wet seal.

[0064] Due to the pressure differential, the wet seal gasket (e.g., a graphite or carbon gasket) may be compressed by atmospheric pressure, thereby achieving at least one of the following: a reduction in mechanical tension on the flange and a force maintaining gasket compression provided solely by atmospheric pressure. In some embodiments, the wet seal comprises a barrier gasket that at least one of: supports the weight of the window cavity and prevents molten metal from flowing due to a downward force corresponding to the pressure differential between the atmosphere and the gas pressure within the window cavity. The wet seal may include at least one of the following:

[0065] a) a base of the window cavity having a precision flat surface that mates with a matching precision flat surface of the bottom plate;

[0066] b) a window flange at the base of the window cavity having a precision flat surface that mates with a matching precision flat surface of the base plate;

[0067] c) a gasket (e.g. carbon) between the base of the window cavity and the flange of the bottom plate;

[0068] d) a gasket (e.g., carbon) between at least a portion of the window cavity flange surface in contact with the base plate;

[0069] e) an outer circumferential housing or retaining wall external to the window cavity or window cavity flange;

[0070] f) an inner circumferential housing or retaining wall within the window cavity;

[0071] g) a wet seal molten metal retained by the housing and retaining wall and the gasket to maintain a lower pressure inside the window cavity relative to the outside to maintain a pressure differential, and

[0072] h) A wet seal molten metal maintained by precise fitting contact between the housing and retaining walls and the window cavity or window cavity flange and base plate to maintain a lower pressure inside the window cavity relative to the outside to maintain a pressure differential.

[0073] The wet seal molten metal (or a portion thereof) may solidify along at least one of: the outer periphery of the outer shell or retaining wall and below the base of the PV window cavity or its flange. In some embodiments, at least one of:

[0074] a) the height of the outer circumferential housing or retaining wall;

[0075] b) the width of the window cavity flange not covered by the gasket;

[0076] c) The width of the window cavity flange that is precisely matched to the base plate, and

[0077] d) Height of the window cavity flange

[0078] Sufficient to allow a wet seal to be formed (e.g., in the range of 1 mm to 100 mm). In various implementations, the wet seal includes precision and matching flatness of the window cavity flange and the base plate, and wherein at least one of the following exists:

[0079] a) The gap between the window cavity flange and the bottom plate is less than the height that the wet seal molten metal can penetrate;

[0080] b) The gap between the window cavity flange and the bottom plate with or without a wet seal gasket is less than the height of the wet seal molten metal outflow;

[0081] c) Any gap between the flange and the base plate is less than (or from 0.1 μm to) 1 mm (e.g., less than 100 μm, less than 10 μm);

[0082] d) The height of the circumferential portion of the gap between the precision-fit window cavity flange and the bottom plate can prevent

[0083] 1) Wet seal molten metal penetration, wherein the gap height maintains a barrier to inward wet seal molten metal flow to maintain a positive pressure differential between the interior and exterior of the window cavity, and / or

[0084] 2) the wet seal molten metal flows outward to retain the wet seal molten metal in the gap area, and

[0085] e) Due to the thickness of the gasket, the height of at least a circumferential portion of the gap between the window cavity flange and the base plate prevents outward wet seal molten metal flow and retains the wet seal molten metal in the gap area.

[0086] The wet seal molten metal is generally a molten metal that can fill the channel in a flowable state (such as by heating) and can maintain a pressure differential. The wet seal molten metal may include tin or gallium. In some embodiments, the wet seal molten metal is impregnated in a solid matrix.

[0087] The wet seal and the window cavity may further include a gasket interface, the gasket interface including a surface on each engaged component that allows relative torque between the gasket and the window cavity without causing destructive damage to the gasket. The gasket interface may include or be disposed at the base of the window cavity, or the flange may include an edge, each edge having a radius of curvature or a chamfer to form a smooth edge. In various embodiments, the wet seal includes at least one of an inner housing and an outer housing and a retaining ring, wherein at least one of the following is present:

[0088] a) the inner shell or inner retaining ring comprises a refractory metal from the group of W, Ta, Mo or Nb, or a ceramic such as quartz or alumina,

[0089] b) at least one of the walls of the inner and outer housings and the retaining ring is coated with BN, and

[0090] c) At least one housing and a retaining ring are at least partially embedded in the base plate.

[0091] In some implementations, the system (e.g., the base plate and / or the container) may further include a reflective lining on all surfaces that receives incident plasma radiation and reflects the incident light through the window cavity to the power adapter, wherein the lining also includes a penetration for the syringe, the penetration further covered by the reflective penetration lining. The reflector may include a quartz plate that conforms to the surface it is lined with, and the back side of the quartz plate is coated with a reflective coating. Exemplary reflective coatings include at least one of the following: Aremco Quartz Coating 850

[0092] https: / / news.thomasnet.com / fullstory / reflective-coating-handles- temperature-to-1-600-f-454985 , CP4040-S2-HT and LC4040-SG, Aremco Pyro-Duct TM 597-A (Adhesive) Pyro Duck TM 597-C (coating) (silver-filled, electrically and thermally conductive, one-component system for temperatures up to 1700°F (927°C)) ( https: / / www.aremco.com / conductive-compounds / ), Aremco 634BN SiC, reflective quartz material OM 100 (Heraeus, https: / / www.heraeus.com / media / media / hca / doc_hca / products_and_solutions_8 / solids / OM 100_EN.pdf ), metallic silver, aluminum, precious metal gold, rhodium, iridium, ruthenium, palladium, and platinum, and combinations thereof. In various embodiments, the reflective coating may be coated with a protective coating (e.g., BN) to prevent alloying with the molten metal. In various specific implementations, the system (e.g., one of the base plate, container, and internal storage tank) may further include an electromagnetic pump base plate, wherein the surface in contact with the molten metal is coated with a coating (e.g., boron nitride) that prevents alloying with the molten metal.

[0093] In certain embodiments, the molten metal used to close the circuit is tin. In various implementations, the tin does not wet the PV window. In some embodiments, the effluent from the plasma generation cell does not oxidize the tin. In some embodiments, the transparent window cavity (e.g., PV window) comprises at least one of quartz, sapphire, aluminum oxynitride, and MgF2.

[0094] In some embodiments, the power adapter is a thermal photovoltaic adapter. The power adapter may include a photovoltaic cell, and photons generated from the second plasma with energy less than the bandgap of the photovoltaic cell are reflected back into the reaction chamber, absorbed by the second plasma, and at least a portion of the absorbed energy is emitted as above-bandgap radiation, wherein the above-bandgap radiation is incident on the photovoltaic cell.

[0095] The power system of the present disclosure can be enhanced to increase light recovery and incidence of light generated by the second plasma on the power adapter. For example, the container can have a wetted floor and / or wetted walls, and the floor or wall of the container has a layer of molten metal deposited thereon to reflect the second plasma light through the window cavity to the power adapter. In various embodiments, the floor or wall has a film disposed thereon to provide the desired molten metal film coverage. The floor or wall can have a bead-liner disposed thereon and a bead-retaining support, the bead-retaining support comprising a tray for supporting beads of the bead-liner. In some embodiments, the tray has multiple depths of varying heights (e.g., with independently selected bead diameters to match the depths).

[0096] In some embodiments, the container further comprises a window cavity that transmits light from the second plasma and / or blackbody radiation in the container to the power adapter; the window cavity comprises a window cavity flange; and the window flange is attached to the bottom plate by a bottom plate flange that is attached to the container (or a portion thereof);

[0097] Wherein the seal between the window cavity flange and the base plate flange is formed in part by a wet seal formed by molten metal dispersed between the window cavity flange and the base plate flange and along the outer edge of the window cavity flange. In some embodiments, the window cavity flange includes a window cavity wall at its base. In various embodiments, the mating base plate or base plate flange and window cavity flange form a shell along the periphery of the window cavity flange, wherein the periphery can be filled with molten metal and the molten metal solidifies along the outer periphery of the shell.

[0098] A wet seal system for maintaining a vacuum on one side of a photovoltaic (PV) window is provided, wherein the wet seal may include a cavity that is transparent to optical power; wherein the wet seal joins a PV window cavity and a base plate (such as a base plate of a container having a penetration for a top of one or more storage tanks) and includes a channel for containing molten metal, into which the PV window cavity is inserted;

[0099] The molten metal rotates so that centrifugal force pushes the molten metal radially to maintain the seal against external forces.

[0100] A wet seal (such as a magnetohydrodynamic wet seal) for maintaining a vacuum on one side of a photovoltaic (PV) window may include a cavity that is transparent to optical power;

[0101] wherein the seal comprises an electrically insulating passage sized for insertion of the photovoltaic window chamber therein and extending around the PV window chamber when the PV window chamber is inserted into the passage;

[0102] wherein the channel is filled with molten metal;

[0103] wherein the electrically insulating channel has at least one positive lead electrode and at least one negative lead electrode at different points in the channel;

[0104] At least one current is applied through the molten metal in the channel, and the molten metal is exposed to at least one magnetic field applied by at least one magnet to generate at least one Lorentz force along a section of the channel, wherein the electrodes and magnets are constructed and oriented such that the Lorentz force corresponding to the current and magnetic field is in a vector direction opposite to the atmospheric pressure on the molten metal in the channel to generate a vacuum seal, and the Lorentz force of the current and magnetic field is sufficient to maintain the pressure differential (e.g., the vacuum seal). In some embodiments, the wet seal comprises two or more electrically insulated channels; wherein each channel has at least one positive lead electrode and a negative lead electrode;

[0105] wherein each channel is independently filled with molten metal when the PV window cavity including at least one edge is inserted into the at least one channel such that the two or more channels together extend around the PV window, and

[0106] One or more currents in each channel are independently biased and together interact with independent Lorentz fields to maintain a pressure differential (e.g., a vacuum seal). In various implementations, the PV window may be formed into a PV window cavity having a flange at its base, and the PV window flange rests on a window cavity floor; wherein the magnetohydrodynamic wet seal between the PV window cavity flange and the window cavity floor further comprises:

[0107] a) a molten metal (such as tin or gallium) reservoir on the periphery of the PV window cavity flange, which supplies molten metal (such as tin or gallium) to the gap between the bottom of the PV window flange and a portion of the base plate;

[0108] b) a continuous separator in the gap between the outer wall of the molten metal (such as tin or gallium) storage tank wall and the vertical edge of the PV window flange, and in the gap between the bottom of the PV window flange and the base plate;

[0109] c) a magnetic field source such as a permanent magnet, wherein the magnetic field generated from the magnetic field source is perpendicular to the gap between the PV window flange and the base plate;

[0110] d) current suppliers and electrodes on opposite sides of the continuous separator connected to a molten metal (such as gallium) to supply current to corresponding tin or gallium wet seal circuits, wherein the current generates radial MHD forces in the gap between the PV window flange and the baseplate in the presence of a crossed magnetic field, and

[0111] e) an MHD-to-atmospheric pressure balancing processor operably connected to at least one of sensors at the wet seal location, such as at least one optical sensor and one conductivity sensor, an MHD current sensor and controller, an evacuation rate sensor, such as a pressure gauge and controller, a vacuum valve, such as a needle valve, and its controller, and a vacuum pump and its controller, wherein the MHD-to-atmospheric pressure balancing processor can receive sensor inputs and repeatedly adjust the MHD current and vacuum rate to achieve and maintain a stable wet seal as the PV window cavity is evacuated. In various embodiments, the MHD-to-atmospheric pressure balancing processor can set the current supply controller to provide a current corresponding to an increased MHD force relative to the maximum atmospheric pressure, such that when a vacuum is established within the PV window cavity, the external atmospheric pressure causes more molten metal (such as tin or gallium) to flow into the gap between the PV window flange and the base plate, resulting in an increase in the width of the wet seal and an increase in the MHD current flow, while the opposing MHD force also increases until a stable wet seal is established.

[0112] Methods of using the systems of the present disclosure are also provided. For example, a method of maintaining a pressure differential (e.g., a vacuum) between two sides of a first solid material may include:

[0113] a) mating a first solid material and a second solid material with a molten metal disposed therebetween; wherein the molten metal has a magnetic field applied thereto when mated;

[0114] b) applying an electric current through the molten metal;

[0115] c) reducing the pressure on the molten metal;

[0116] The force generated by the current and magnetic field opposes the force generated by the pressure reduction to maintain the pressure differential.

[0117] A method of maintaining a pressure differential (e.g., a vacuum) between two sides of a molten metal seal between a first solid material and a second solid material may include having magnetic fields of opposite polarity for each 1 / 2 of the periphery with opposite currents such that the Lorentz forces are in the same direction relative to the channel (e.g., 1 / 2 of the channel may be magnetized with a magnetic field in the +z direction, while 1 / 2 of the channel may be magnetized with a magnetic field in the -z direction).

[0118] A method for maintaining a pressure differential (e.g., a vacuum) between two sides of a molten metal seal between atmosphere and a closed cavity may include: a channel loop including molten metal for carrying an electric current; a plurality of current leads for supplying a plurality of current segments between at least one pair of the plurality of leads in a clockwise or counterclockwise direction along a periphery of the channel loop, and further comprising: a plurality of magnetic field sources perpendicular to a direction of each of the plurality of current segments, each magnetic field having a polarity such that corresponding Lorentz forces of the current segments and magnetic fields are in a direction opposite to a force generated by a pressure reduction relative to the channel to maintain the pressure differential.

[0119] The power system may include a gas mixer for mixing hydrogen and oxygen and / or water molecules and a hydrogen and oxygen recombiner and / or a hydrogen dissociator. In some embodiments, the hydrogen and oxygen recombiner includes a plasma pool. The plasma pool may include a central positive electrode and a grounded tubular counter electrode, wherein a voltage (such as a voltage in the range of 50V to 1000V) is applied across the electrodes to initiate the formation of a plasma from a mixture of hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2). In some embodiments, the hydrogen and oxygen recombiner includes a recombiner catalytic metal supported by an inert carrier material. In certain embodiments, a gas mixture supplied to a plasma generation cell to generate a first plasma comprises a non-stoichiometric H2 / O2 mixture (e.g., an H2 / O2 mixture having less than 1 / 3 mole percent O2 or 0.01% to 30%, or 0.1% to 20%, or less than 10%, or less than 5%, or less than 3% O2, based on the mole percentage of the mixture), which is flowed through a plasma cell (e.g., a glow discharge cell) to generate a reaction mixture capable of reacting with sufficient exotherm to generate a second plasma. The non-stoichiometric H2 / O2 mixture can pass through the glow discharge to generate an outflow of atomic hydrogen and nascent H2O (e.g., a mixture having water at a concentration and having an internal energy sufficient to prevent the formation of hydrogen bonds);

[0120] The glow discharge effluent is directed into a reaction chamber where an ignition current is provided between two electrodes (e.g., between which molten metal passes) and a reaction between nascent water and atomic hydrogen is initiated when the effluent interacts with a biased molten metal (e.g., gallium or tin), e.g., in forming an arc current.

[0121] The power system may include at least one of a reaction chamber (e.g., where nascent water and atomic hydrogen undergo a plasma-forming reaction) and / or a storage tank comprising a lining of at least one refractory material that resists alloying with the molten metal. The inner wall of the reaction chamber may include a ceramic coating, a carbon lining lined with W, Nb, or Mo lining, or a W plate. In some embodiments, the storage tank comprises a carbon lining and the carbon is covered by the molten metal contained in the storage tank. In various embodiments, the reaction chamber wall comprises a material that is highly permeable to the reaction product gases. In various embodiments, the reaction chamber wall comprises at least one of stainless steel (e.g., Mo-Cr stainless steel), niobium, molybdenum, or tungsten.

[0122] The power system may include a condenser to condense the molten metal vapor and the metal oxide particles and vapor and return them to the reaction cell chamber. In some embodiments, the power system may further include a vacuum line, wherein the condenser includes a section of the vacuum line from the reaction cell chamber to the vacuum pump, the section being perpendicular to the reaction cell chamber and comprising an inert, high-surface-area filler material that condenses the molten metal vapor and the metal oxide particles and vapor and returns them to the reaction cell chamber while allowing the vacuum pump to maintain the vacuum pressure in the reaction cell chamber.

[0123] The powered system may include a black body radiator and a window to output light from the black body radiator. These embodiments may be used to generate light (eg, for lighting).

[0124] In some embodiments, the power system may further include a gas mixer for mixing hydrogen and oxygen and a hydrogen and oxygen recombiner and / or a hydrogen dissociator. For example, the power system may include a hydrogen and oxygen recombiner, wherein the hydrogen and oxygen recombiner comprises a recombiner catalytic metal supported by an inert support material.

[0125] The power system can be operated at parameters that maximize the reaction (specifically, the reaction that can output sufficient energy to maintain plasma generation and net energy output). For example, in some embodiments, the pressure of the vessel during operation is in the range of 0.1 Torr to 50 Torr. In certain implementations, the hydrogen mass flow rate exceeds the oxygen mass flow rate by a factor ranging from 1.5 to 1000. In some embodiments, the pressure can be above 50 Torr and a gas recirculation system can also be included.

[0126] In some embodiments, an inert gas (such as argon) is injected into the container. The inert gas can be used to extend the life of certain reactants formed in situ (such as nascent water).

[0127] The power system can include a water microinjector configured to inject water into the container such that the plasma generated by the energy output of the reaction comprises water vapor. In some embodiments, the microinjector injects water into the container. In some embodiments, the H2 mole percentage is in the range of 1.5 to 1000 times the mole percentage of water vapor (e.g., water vapor injected by the microinjector).

[0128] The power system may further include a heater to melt the metal (such as tin, gallium, silver, copper, or a combination thereof) to form a molten metal. The power system may further include a molten metal recovery system configured to recover the molten metal after the reaction, the molten metal recovery system including a molten metal overflow channel for collecting overflow from the non-injector molten metal storage tank.

[0129] The molten metal injection system may further include electrodes located in the molten metal reservoir and the non-injection molten metal reservoir; and the ignition system may include an electrical power source or ignition current source to supply opposite voltages to the injector reservoir electrode and the non-injector reservoir electrode; wherein the electrical power source supplies current and power flow through the molten metal stream to induce a reaction of reactants to form a plasma within the vessel.

[0130] The power source typically delivers electrical energy at a current (e.g., high current) sufficient to cause the reactants to react and form a plasma. In certain embodiments, the power source includes at least one supercapacitor. In various implementations, the current from the molten metal ignition system can range from 10A to 50,000A.

[0131] Typically, a molten metal pump system is configured to pump molten metal from a molten metal storage tank to a non-injection storage tank, wherein a molten metal stream is formed between the molten metal storage tank and the non-injection storage tank. In some embodiments, the molten metal pump system is one or more electromagnetic pumps and each electromagnetic pump includes one of the following:

[0132] a) a DC or AC conductive type comprising a source of DC or AC current and a source of constant or in-phase alternating vector cross magnetic fields supplied to the molten metal through electrodes, or

[0133] b) Inductive type, which comprises a source of alternating magnetic field passing through a short circuit of the molten metal, which induces an alternating current in said metal; and a source of vectorial cross-magnetic field alternating in phase.

[0134] In some embodiments, the circuit of the molten metal ignition system is closed by the molten metal stream to induce ignition, thereby further inducing ignition (e.g., at an ignition frequency of less than 10,000 Hz). The injector tank may include an electrode in contact with the molten metal therein, and the non-injector tank may include an electrode in contact with the molten metal provided by the injector system.

[0135] In various implementations, the non-syringe reservoir is aligned above the injector (e.g., vertically aligned with the injector) and the injector is configured to generate a molten stream oriented toward the non-syringe reservoir such that molten metal from the molten metal stream can be collected in the reservoir and the molten metal stream is in electrical contact with the non-syringe reservoir electrode; and wherein the molten metal collects on the non-syringe reservoir electrode. In certain embodiments, the ignition current to the non-syringe reservoir may include:

[0136] a) a hermetically sealed, high-temperature-tolerant feedthrough penetrating the container;

[0137] b) electrode bus bars, and

[0138] c) Electrodes.

[0139] The ignition current density can be related to the vessel geometry for at least the following reasons: the vessel geometry is related to the final plasma shape. In various implementations, the vessel can include an hourglass-shaped geometry (e.g., a geometry in which the cross-section of the middle portion of the vessel's inner surface area is within 20%, 10%, or 5% smaller than the cross-section at each distal end along the major axis) and is oriented in a vertical orientation in the cross-section (e.g., the major axis is approximately parallel to gravity), with the syringe reservoir below the waist and configured such that the molten metal level in the reservoir is approximately adjacent to the waist of the hourglass to increase the ignition current density. In some embodiments, the vessel is symmetrical about the longitudinal major axis. In some embodiments, the vessel can have an hourglass-shaped geometry and include a refractory metal lining. In some embodiments, the syringe reservoir of a vessel having an hourglass-shaped geometry can include a positive electrode for the ignition current.

[0140] The molten metal may comprise at least one of silver, gallium, a silver-copper alloy, copper, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the molten metal has a melting point below 700° C. For example, the molten metal may comprise at least one of bismuth, lead, tin, indium, cadmium, gallium, antimony, or an alloy such as Rose's metal, Cerrosafe, Wood's metal, Field's metal, Cerrolow 136, Cerrolow 117, Bi-Pb-Sn-Cd-In-Tl, and gallium indium tin (Galinstan). In certain aspects, at least one of the components of the power generation system that contacts the molten metal (e.g., a storage tank, an electrode) comprises, is clad with, or is coated with one or more anti-alloying materials that resist alloying with the molten metal. Exemplary resistant alloy materials are W, Ta, Mo, Nb, Nb (94.33 wt%)-Mo (4.86 wt%)-Zr (0.81 wt%), Os, Ru, Hf, Re, 347 SS, Cr-Mo SS, silicide coatings, carbon, and ceramics such as BN, quartz, Si3N4, Shapal, AlN, Sialon, Al2O3, ZrO2, or HfO2. In some embodiments, at least a portion of the container is composed of ceramic and / or metal. The ceramic may include at least one of a metal oxide, quartz, aluminum oxide, zirconium oxide, magnesium oxide, hafnium dioxide, silicon carbide, zirconium carbide, zirconium diboride, silicon nitride, and glass ceramics. In some embodiments, the metal of the container includes at least one of stainless steel and a refractory metal.

[0141] The molten metal may react with water to form atomic hydrogen in situ. In various embodiments, the molten metal is gallium and the power system further includes a gallium regeneration system to regenerate gallium from gallium oxide (e.g., gallium oxide produced in the reaction). The gallium regeneration system may include a source of at least one of hydrogen gas and atomic hydrogen to reduce the gallium oxide to gallium metal. In some embodiments, hydrogen gas is delivered to the gallium regeneration system from a source external to the power generation system. In some embodiments, hydrogen gas and / or atomic hydrogen are generated in situ. The gallium regeneration system may include an ignition system that delivers electricity to the gallium (or gallium / gallium oxide combination) produced in the reaction. In several embodiments, the electricity may electrolyze gallium oxide on the gallium surface to gallium metal. In some embodiments, the gallium regeneration system may include an electrolyte (e.g., an electrolyte comprising an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal halide). In some embodiments, the gallium regeneration system may include an alkaline pH aqueous electrolysis system, means for transporting gallium oxide into the system, and means for returning the gallium to the vessel (e.g., to a molten metal storage tank). In some embodiments, the gallium regeneration system includes a skimmer and a bucket elevator to remove gallium oxide from the gallium surface. In various implementations, the power system may include an exhaust line to a vacuum pump to maintain an exhaust gas flow and an electrostatic precipitation system in the exhaust line to collect gallium oxide particles in the exhaust gas flow.

[0142] In some embodiments, the power generation system generates a water / hydrogen mixture through a plasma generation pool, which is directed to a molten metal pool. In these embodiments, a plasma generation pool, such as a glow discharge cell, initiates the formation of a first plasma from a gas (e.g., a gas comprising a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen); wherein the effluent from the plasma generation pool is directed to any portion of a molten metal circuit (e.g., molten metal, an anode, a cathode, an electrode immersed in a molten metal storage tank). When the biased molten metal interacts with the effluent, a second plasma (higher energy than the plasma generated by the plasma generation pool) can be formed. In these embodiments, a mixture of hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2) with a molar excess of hydrogen can be supplied to the plasma generation pool so that the effluent contains atomic hydrogen (H) and water (H2O). The water in the effluent can be in the form of newly generated water, which is fully energized and at a concentration such that it does not hydrogen bond with other components in the effluent. The effluent may proceed to a second, more energetic reaction involving said H and HOH, which reaction forms a plasma that, upon interaction with the molten metal and an external current provided through at least one of the molten metal and the plasma, may generate additional atomic hydrogen (from H2 in the effluent) to further propagate the second, more energetic reaction.

[0143] In some embodiments, the power system may further include at least one heat exchanger (e.g., a heat exchanger coupled to a wall of the vessel, a heat exchanger that can transfer heat to or from the molten metal, or to or from the molten metal storage tank). In some embodiments, the heat exchanger comprises one of (i) a plate heat exchanger, (ii) a block-in-shell heat exchanger, (iii) a SiC annular trough heat exchanger, (iv) a SiC multi-block heat exchanger, and (v) a shell and tube heat exchanger. In certain implementations, the shell and tube heat exchanger comprises piping, a manifold, a distributor, a heat exchanger inlet line, a heat exchanger outlet line, a shell, an external coolant inlet, an external coolant outlet, baffles, at least one pump for recirculating hot molten metal from the storage tank through the heat exchanger and returning cold molten metal to the storage tank, and one or more water pumps and water coolant or one or more air blowers and air coolant for flowing cold coolant through the external coolant inlet and the shell, wherein the coolant is heated by heat transfer from the piping and exits the external coolant outlet. In some embodiments, a shell and tube heat exchanger includes piping, a manifold, a distributor, heat exchanger inlet and outlet piping, a housing, an external coolant inlet, an external coolant outlet, and baffles comprising stainless steel. The piping, manifold, distributor, heat exchanger inlet and outlet piping comprise carbon, forming a lining and expanding independently of the piping, manifold, distributor, heat exchanger inlet and outlet piping. The external coolant in the heat exchanger comprises air, and air from a microturbine compressor or a microturbine regenerator forces cold air through the external coolant inlet and the housing. The coolant is heated by heat transfer from the piping and exits the external coolant outlet. The hot coolant output from the external coolant outlet flows into the microturbine to convert heat into electricity.

[0144] In some embodiments, the power system includes at least one power converter or output system for reactive power output, including at least one of the following groups: a thermophotovoltaic converter, a photovoltaic converter, a photoelectric converter, a magnetohydrodynamic converter, a plasmadynamic converter, a thermionic converter, a thermoelectric converter, a Sterling engine, a supercritical CO2 cycle converter, a Brayton cycle converter, an external burner Brayton cycle engine or converter, a Rankine cycle engine or converter, an organic Rankine cycle converter, an internal combustion engine and heat engine, a heater, and a boiler. The container may include at least one of a light-transmitting photovoltaic (PV) window that transmits light from the interior of the container to the photovoltaic converter and a container geometry.

[0145] The power converter or output system may include a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) converter comprising a nozzle connected to the vessel, a magnetohydrodynamic channel, electrodes, a magnet, a metal collection system, a metal recycling system, a heat exchanger, and an optional gas recycling system. In some embodiments, the molten metal may include silver. In embodiments having a magnetohydrodynamic converter, oxygen may be delivered to the magnetohydrodynamic converter to form silver nanoparticles (e.g., having a molecular size of less than about 10 nm or less than about 1 nm) after interacting with the silver in the molten metal stream, wherein the silver nanoparticles are accelerated through the magnetohydrodynamic nozzle to impart kinetic energy to the power generated from the reaction. A reactant supply system may supply oxygen to the converter and control the delivery of oxygen to the converter. In various embodiments, at least a portion of the kinetic energy of the silver nanoparticles is converted into electrical energy in the magnetohydrodynamic channel. This form of electrical energy may cause the nanoparticles to agglomerate. The nanoparticles can coalesce into molten metal that at least partially absorbs oxygen in the condensation section of the magnetohydrodynamic converter (also referred to herein as the MHD condensation section), and the molten metal containing the absorbed oxygen is returned to the injector reservoir via a metal recirculation system. In some embodiments, the oxygen can be released from the metal by the plasma in the container. In some embodiments, the plasma is maintained in the magnetohydrodynamic channel and the metal collection system to enhance the absorption of oxygen by the molten metal.

[0146] The molten metal pump system may include a first stage electromagnetic pump and a second stage electromagnetic pump, wherein the first stage includes a pump for a metal recirculation system and the second stage includes a pump for a metal injector system.

[0147] Reactions induced by the reactants generate sufficient energy to initiate plasma formation in the container. These reactions may produce hydrogen products characterized by one or more of the following:

[0148] a) a molecular hydrogen product H2 (e.g., H2 (1 / p) (p is an integer greater than 1 and less than or equal to 137) containing an unpaired electron), which produces an electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy signal;

[0149] b) a molecular hydrogen product H2 (e.g., H2(1 / 4)), having an EPR spectrum comprising a main peak with a g-factor of 2.0046386, said main peak optionally split into a series of paired peaks, the members of which are separated by spin-orbit coupling energies, said spin-orbit coupling energies being functions of the corresponding electron spin-orbit coupling quantum numbers, wherein

[0150] (i) based on the antimagnetic susceptibility of H2(1 / 4), the unpaired electron magnetic moment induces an antimagnetic moment in the paired electrons of the H2(1 / 4) molecular orbital;

[0151] (ii) the corresponding magnetic moment of the intrinsic paired-unpaired current interaction and the magnetic moment caused by the relative rotational motion about the internuclear axis generate the spin-orbit coupling energy;

[0152] (iii) each spin-orbit splitting peak is further sub-split into a series of equally spaced peaks matching an integer number of flux quanta energies as a function of the electron flux quantum number corresponding to the number of angular momentum components involved in the transition, and

[0153] (iv) Furthermore, since the magnetic energy increases with increasing magnetic linkage of the molecular orbital accumulation, the spin-orbit splitting increases with the spin-orbit coupling quantum number on the low-field side of the series of paired peaks.

[0154] c) For the EPR frequency of 9.820295 GHz,

[0155] (i) The low-field peak position is shifted by the combination of magnetic energy and spin-orbit coupling energy of H2(1 / 4). for

[0156]

[0157] (ii) Has quantized spin-orbit splitting energy E S / O and the high-field peak positions for electron spin-orbit coupling quantum numbers m = 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 5.... for

[0158] and / or

[0159] (iii) For the electron flux quantum number m Φ = 1, 2, 3, the spacing ΔB of the integer series peaks at each spin-orbit peak position Φ for

[0160] and

[0161] d) The hydride ion H contains paired and unpaired electrons in a common atomic orbital - (such as H - (1 / p)), which demonstrates the high-resolution visible spectrum in the range of 400-410 nm in H - The magnetic flux observed on (1 / 2) is quantized in units of h / 2e.

[0162] e) When the rotational energy levels of H2(1 / 4) are excited by laser irradiation during Raman spectroscopy and by collisions of high-energy electrons from an electron beam with H2(1 / 4), magnetic linkages quantized in units of h / 2e are observed;

[0163] f) Molecular hydrinos (e.g., H2(1 / p)), which have a Raman spectral transition due to spin-orbit coupling between the spin magnetic moment of the unpaired electron and the orbital magnetic moment induced by the molecular rotation, where

[0164] (i) The energy of the rotational transition is shifted by these spin-orbit coupling energies, which are functions of the corresponding electron spin-orbit coupling quantum numbers;

[0165] (ii) the molecular rotational peak shifted by the spin-orbit energy is further shifted by the flux quantum chain energy, where each energy corresponds to its electron flux quantum number, which depends on the number of angular momentum components involved in the rotational transition, and / or

[0166] (iii) the observed sub-splitting or shift of the Raman spectral peak is due to the magnetic linkage in units of magnetic flux quantum h / 2e during the spin-orbit coupling between the spin magnetic moment and the molecular rotational magnetic moment when the rotational transition occurs;

[0167] g) H2(1 / 4), which has exemplary Raman spectral transitions including

[0168] (i) Pure H2(1 / 4) J=0 to J′=3 rotational transition with spin-orbit coupling and flux quantum coupling; E Raman =ΔE J＝0→J′ +E S / O，rot +E Φ，rot =11701cm -1 +m528cm -1 +m Φ 31cm -1 ,

[0169] (ii) A cooperative transition involving the J = 0 to J′ = 2,3 rotational transition and the J = 0 to J = 1 spin rotational transition:

[0170] E Rama n=ΔE J＝0→J′ +E S / O，rot +E Φ，rot =7801cm -1 (13,652cm -1 )+m528cm -1 +m Φ3 / 2 46cm -1 ,or

[0171] (iii) Final rotational quantum number J′ p =2 and J′ c =1 double transition:

[0172] Among them, the corresponding spin-orbit coupling and flux quantum coupling were also observed in pure transitions, cooperative transitions and double transitions;

[0173] h) H2(1 / 4) UV Raman peak (e.g. at 12,250-15,000 cm -1 Regions observed were recorded on the composite GaOOH:H2(1 / 4):H2O and Ni foil exposed to reactive plasma, where exemplary spectral lines match cooperative pure rotational transitions ΔJ=3 and ΔJ=1 spin transitions with spin-orbit coupling and flux quantum chain splitting:

[0174] E Raman =ΔE J0→3 +ΔE J＝0→1 +E S / O，rot +E Φ，rot =13,652cm -1 +m528cm -1 +m Φ 31cm -1 );

[0175] i) The rotational energy of the HD(1 / 4) Raman spectrum is shifted by a factor of 3 / 4 relative to that of the H2(1 / 4);

[0176] j) Exemplary rotational energies of the HD(1 / 4) Raman spectra match those below:

[0177] (i) Pure HD(1 / 4) J=0 to J′=3,4 rotational transition with spin-orbit coupling and flux quantum coupling:

[0178]

[0179] (ii) A concerted transition involving the J=0 to J′=3 rotational transition and the J=0 to J=1 spin rotational transition: or

[0180] (iii) Final rotational quantum number J′ p =3; J′ c =1 double transition:

[0181]

[0182] Spin-orbit coupling and flux quantum coupling were also observed in both pure and cooperative transitions.

[0183] k) H2(1 / 4)-noble gas mixture irradiated with high-energy electrons of an electron beam exhibits line emissions with equal 0.25 eV spacing in the ultraviolet (150-180 nm) region with a cutoff at 8.25 eV, said line emissions matching the H2(1 / 4) v=1 to v=0 vibrational transitions with a series of rotational transitions corresponding to the H2(1 / 4) P branch, wherein

[0184] (i) The spectrum fits well with 4 2 0.515eV-4 2 (J+1)0.01509; J=0, 1, 2, 3.... 0.515eV and 0.01509eV are the vibrational energy and rotational energy of ordinary molecular hydrogen, respectively.

[0185] (ii) Small satellite lines are observed, which match the rotational spin-orbit splitting energy also observed by Raman spectroscopy, and (iii) the rotational spin-orbit splitting energy spacing matches m528cm -1 n = 1, 1.5, where 1.5 involves splitting between m = 0.5 and m = 1;

[0186] l) Spectral emission of the H2(1 / 4)P branch rotational transition with v=1 to v=0 vibrational transition was observed by electron beam excitation of H2(1 / 4) trapped in the KCl crystal matrix, where

[0187] (i) The rotation peak matches the rotation peak of the free rotor;

[0188] (ii) the vibrational energy is displaced due to the increase in effective mass caused by the interaction of the vibration of H2(1 / 4) with the KCl matrix;

[0189] (iii) The spectrum fits well with the 5.8 eV-4 2 (J+1)0.01509; J=0, 1, 2, 3, ..., and

[0190] (iv) The relative magnitude of the H2(1 / 4) vibrational energy shift matches the relative contribution to the vibrational-rotational spectrum caused by ordinary H2 trapped in KCl;

[0191] m) Raman spectroscopy using HeCd energy laser shows a peak at 8000 cm -1 Up to 18,000cm -1 The area has 1000cm -1 (0.1234eV) series of equal energy intervals, where the Raman spectrum converted to fluorescence or photoluminescence spectrum will match the 1 / 2 energy virtual rotation spectrum revealed as H2(1 / 4), which corresponds to the 5.8eV-4 2(J+1) 0.01509; J = 0, 1, 2, 3 ... The electron beam excited emission spectrum of H2(1 / 4) in a KCl matrix is ​​given, and contains matrix-shifted v = 1 to v = 0 vibrational transitions with rotational transition peaks separated by 0.25 eV energy;

[0192] n) Above 4400cm -1 Infrared rotational transitions of H2(1 / 4) were observed in the energy region of , where the intensity increased with the application of a magnetic field in addition to the intrinsic magnetic field, and rotational transitions coupled with spin-orbit transitions were also observed;

[0193] o) Compton-allowed H2(1 / 4) double ionization corresponding to a total energy of 496 eV was observed by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS);

[0194] p) considering that hydrogen and helium have the fastest previously known migration rates and correspondingly the shortest retention times, gas chromatography observed H2(1 / 4) which exhibited a faster migration rate than any known gas;

[0195] q) Extreme Ultraviolet (EUV) spectroscopy recording EUV continuum radiation with a 10.1 nm cutoff (e.g., such as the EUV continuum radiation corresponding to the hydrino reaction transition H to H(1 / 4) catalyzed by the nascent HOH catalyst);

[0196] r) Proton magic angle spin nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy ( 1 H MAS NMR) recorded an upfield matrix-water peak in the −4 ppm to −5 ppm region;

[0197] s) bulk magnetism such as paramagnetism, superparamagnetism, and even ferromagnetism when the magnetic moments of multiple hydrogen product molecules interact cooperatively, with superparamagnetism being observed, for example, by measuring the magnetic susceptibility of a compound comprising the reaction product using a vibrating sample magnetometer;

[0198] t) by the unique observation that the M+2 multimeric unit (e.g., K + [H2:K2CO3] n and K + [H2:KOH] n , where n is an integer) and the strong H generated by the stability of the hydrogen ion - peaks, time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) and electrospray time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ESI-ToF) recorded on K2CO3 and KOH exposed to a molecular gas source from the reaction product show that the reaction product (e.g., H2(1 / 4) gas) is complexed with an inorganic compound containing an oxygen anion, and

[0199] u) a reaction product composed of molecular hydrogen nuclei that behaves like an organic molecule, as evidenced by chromatographic peaks on an organic molecule matrix column, that fragments into inorganic ions. In various embodiments, the reaction produces high-energy features that can be characterized as one or more of the following:

[0200] (i) anomalous Doppler broadening of the H Balmer alpha line exceeding 100 eV in plasmas containing H atoms and nascent HOH or H-based catalysts, such as Argon-H2, H2 and H2O vapor plasmas,

[0201] (ii) H excited state line inversion,

[0202] (iii) Abnormal H plasma afterglow duration,

[0203] (iv) a shock wave propagation velocity and corresponding pressure equivalent to approximately 10 moles of gunpowder, wherein only approximately 1% of the power is coupled to the shock wave,

[0204] (v) up to 20 MW of optical power from 10 μl of hydrated silver shot, and

[0205] (vi) Calorimetry of a SunCell power system demonstrated at a power level of 340,000 W. These reactions may produce hydrogen products characterized by one or more of the following:

[0206] a) Hydrogen products having Raman peaks in one or more of the following ranges: 1900 to 2200 cm -1 5500 to 6400cm -1 and 7500 to 8500cm -1 , or range 1900 to 2200cm -1 an integer multiple of ;

[0207] b) a hydrogen product having multiple Raman peaks spaced apart at integer multiples of 0.23 to 0.25 eV;

[0208] c) between 1900 and 2000 cm -1 The hydrogen product has an infrared peak in the range of an integer multiple of ;

[0209] d) a hydrogen product having a plurality of infrared peaks spaced apart at integer multiples of 0.23 to 0.25 eV;

[0210] e) a hydrogen product having a plurality of UV fluorescence emission spectrum peaks spaced apart at integer multiples of 0.23 to 0.3 eV in the range of 200 to 300 nm;

[0211] f) a hydrogen product having a plurality of electron beam emission spectrum peaks spaced apart at integer multiples of 0.2 to 0.3 eV in the range of 200 to 300 nm;

[0212] g) having a wavelength between 5000 and 20,000 cm -1 The range is 1000±200cm -1 A hydrogen product having multiple Raman spectral peaks spaced apart by an integer multiple of ;

[0213] h) a hydrogen product having an X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy peak at an energy in the range of 490 to 525 eV;

[0214] i) hydrogen products that cause high-field MAS NMR matrix shifts;

[0215] j) a hydrogen product having a high-field MAS NMR or liquid NMR shift greater than -5 ppm relative to TMS;

[0216] m) a hydrogen product comprising at least one of a metal hydride and a metal oxide further comprising hydrogen, wherein the metal comprises at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, and W;

[0217] o) contains inorganic compound M x X y and H2, wherein M is a cation and X is an anion having M(M x X y H2) at least one of an electrospray ionization time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ESI-ToF) and a time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) peak of n, wherein n is an integer;

[0218] p) a hydrogen product comprising at least one of K2CO3H2 and KOHH2 having a hydrogen content of and at least one of an electrospray ionization time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ESI-ToF) and a time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) peak;

[0219] q) a magnetic hydrogen product comprising at least one of a metal hydride and a metal oxide, the metal oxide further comprising hydrogen, wherein the metal comprises at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, W, and a diamagnetic metal;

[0220] r) a hydrogen product comprising at least one of a metal hydride and a metal oxide, the metal oxide further comprising hydrogen, wherein the metal comprises at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, W, and a diamagnetic metal that exhibits magnetism by magnetic susceptometry;

[0221] s) a hydrogen product comprising a metal that is inactive in an electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectrum, wherein the EPR spectrum comprises at least one of: a g-factor of about 2.0046±20%, splitting of the EPR spectrum into a series of peaks having a spacing of about 1 to 10 G, wherein each main peak is sub-split into a series of peaks having a spacing of about 0.1 to 1 G;

[0222] t) a hydrogen product comprising a metal that is inactive in an electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectrum, wherein the EPR spectrum comprises at least about m1 x 7.43 x 10 -27 J±20% of the electron spin-orbit coupling splitting energy and about m2X 5.78X10 -28 J±20% of the magnetic flux quantum splitting energy and about 1.58X10 -23 J ± 20% of the dimer magnetic moment interaction splitting energy;

[0223] v) a hydrogen product comprising a gas having a negative gas chromatography peak when using a hydrogen or helium carrier gas;

[0224] w) has The quadrupole moment of hydrogen product / e, where p is an integer;

[0225] x) a proton hydrogen product comprising a molecular dimer having a molecular weight of 44.30 cm at (J+1) -1 ±20cm -1 The tumble rotational energy of the transition from integer J to J+1 in the range of , wherein the corresponding rotational energy of the dimer of the molecule containing deuterium is 1 / 2 of the corresponding rotational energy of the dimer containing protons;

[0226] y) a hydrogen product comprising a molecular dimer having at least one parameter from the group consisting of: The distance between hydrogen molecules, (ii) 23cm -1 ±10% of the vibrational energy between hydrogen molecules, and (iii) 0.0011 eV ±10% of the van der Waals energy between hydrogen molecules;

[0227] z) a hydrogen product comprising a solid having at least one parameter from the group consisting of: The distance between hydrogen molecules, (ii) 23cm -1 ±10% of the vibrational energy between hydrogen molecules, and (iii) 0.019 eV ±10% of the van der Waals energy between hydrogen molecules;

[0228] aa) has (i)(J+1)44.30cm -1 ±20cm -1 、(ii)(J+1)22.15cm-1 ±10cm -1 and (iii) 23 cm -1 ±10% for FTIR and Raman spectral features, and / or displays X-ray or neutron diffraction pattern of hydrogen molecular spacing, and / or calorimetric determination of vaporization energy of hydrogen product of 0.0011 eV ± 10% per molecule;

[0229] bb) has (i)(J+1)44.30cm -1 ±20cm -1 、(ii)(J+1)22.15cm -1 ±10cm -1 and (iii)

[0230] 23cm -1 ±10% for FTIR and Raman spectral features, and / or displays An X-ray or neutron diffraction pattern of hydrogen molecular spacing, and / or a solid hydrogen product having a calorimetric determination of the vaporization energy of 0.019 eV ± 10% per molecule of hydrogen;

[0231] cc) hydrogen products comprising hydrino hydride ions that are magnetic and connect flux with magnetic units in their bound-free binding energy region; and

[0232] dd) A hydrogen product, wherein high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) using an organic column with an aqueous solvent shows a chromatographic peak with a retention time longer than the carrier void volume time, wherein detection of the peak by mass spectrometry such as ESI-ToF shows fragments of at least one inorganic compound.

[0233] In various implementations, the hydrogen products may be similarly characterized as products formed from various hydrino reactors (such as those formed by line detonation in an atmosphere containing water vapor). Such products may:

[0234] a) comprising at least one of a metal hydride and a metal oxide further comprising hydrogen, wherein the metal comprises at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, and W and the hydrogen comprises H;

[0235] b) contains inorganic compound M x X y and H2, wherein M is a metal cation and X is an anion, and at least one of electrospray ionization time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ESI-Tof) and time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) comprises M(M x X y H(1 / 4)2)n peak, where n is an integer;

[0236] c) being magnetic and comprising at least one of a metal hydride and a metal oxide further comprising hydrogen, wherein the metal comprises at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, W, and a diamagnetic metal, and the hydrogen is H(1 / 4); and

[0237] d) comprising at least one of a metal hydride and a metal oxide further comprising hydrogen, wherein the metal comprises at least one of Zn, Fe, Mo, Cr, Cu, W, and a diamagnetic metal, and H is H(1 / 4), wherein the product exhibits magnetism as determined by magnetic susceptibility measurement.

[0238] In some embodiments, the hydrogen product formed by the reaction comprises a hydrogen product complexed with at least one of: (i) an element other than hydrogen; (ii) an element comprising H + , Ordinary H2, Ordinary H - and ordinary (iv) an inorganic substance. In some embodiments, the hydrogen product comprises an oxyanion compound. In various implementations, the hydrogen product (or the recovered hydrogen product from an embodiment comprising a getter) may comprise at least one compound having a structural formula selected from the group consisting of:

[0239] a) MH, MH2 or M2H2, wherein M is an alkali metal cation and H or H2 is a hydrogen product;

[0240] b) MHn, wherein n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth metal cation, and H is a hydrogen product.

[0241] c) MHX, wherein M is an alkali metal cation, X is one of a neutral atom such as a halogen atom, a molecule, or a singly negatively charged anion such as a halide anion, and H is a hydrogen product;

[0242] d) MHX, wherein M is an alkaline earth metal cation, X is a singly negatively charged anion, and H is a hydrogen product;

[0243] e) MHX, wherein M is an alkaline earth metal cation, X is a doubly negatively charged anion, and H is a hydrogen product;

[0244] f) M2HX, wherein M is an alkali metal cation, X is a singly negatively charged anion, and H is a hydrogen product;

[0245] g) MHn, wherein n is an integer, M is an alkali metal cation, and the hydrogen content Hn of the compound comprises at least one of the hydrogen products;

[0246] h) M2Hn, wherein n is an integer, M is an alkaline earth metal cation, and the hydrogen content Hn of the compound comprises at least one of the hydrogen products;

[0247] i) M2XHn, wherein n is an integer, M is an alkaline earth metal cation, X is a singly negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content Hn of the compound comprises at least one of the hydrogen products;

[0248] j) M2X2Hn, wherein n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth metal cation, X is a singly negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content Hn of the compound comprises at least one of the hydrogen products;

[0249] k) M2X3H, wherein M is an alkaline earth metal cation, X is a singly negatively charged anion, and H is the hydrogen product;

[0250] 1) M2XHn, wherein n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth metal cation, X is a doubly negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content Hn of the compound comprises at least one of the hydrogen products;

[0251] m) M2XX'H, wherein M is an alkaline earth metal cation, X is a singly negatively charged anion, X' is a doubly negatively charged anion, and H is the hydrogen product;

[0252] n) MM'Hn, wherein n is an integer from 1 to 3, M is an alkaline earth metal cation, M' is an alkali metal cation, and the hydrogen content Hn of the compound comprises at least one of the hydrogen products;

[0253] o) MM'XHn, wherein n is 1 or 2, M is an alkaline earth metal cation, M' is an alkali metal cation, X is a singly negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content Hn of the compound comprises at least one of the hydrogen products;

[0254] p) MM'XH, wherein M is an alkaline earth metal cation, M' is an alkali metal cation, X is a doubly negatively charged anion, and H is a hydrogen product;

[0255] q) MM'XX'H, wherein M is an alkaline earth metal cation, M' is an alkali metal cation, X and X' are singly negatively charged anions, and H is a hydrogen product;

[0256] r) MXX'Hn, wherein n is an integer from 1 to 5, M is an alkali or alkaline earth metal cation, X is a singly or doubly negatively charged anion, X' is a metal or metalloid, a transition element, an inner transition element, or a rare earth element, and the hydrogen content Hn of the compound comprises at least one of the hydrogen products; s) MHn, wherein n is an integer, M is a cation such as a transition element, an inner transition element, or a rare earth element, and the hydrogen content Hn of the compound comprises at least one of the hydrogen products;

[0257] t) MXHn, wherein n is an integer, M is a cation such as an alkali metal cation, an alkaline earth metal cation, X is another cation such as a transition element, an inner transition element, or a rare earth element cation, and the hydrogen content Hn of the compound comprises at least one of the hydrogen products;

[0258] u)(MH m MCO3) n , where M is an alkali metal cation or other +1 cation, m and n are each integers, and the hydrogen content of the compound is H m comprising at least one of said hydrogen products;

[0259] v) Where M is an alkali metal cation or other +1 cation, m and n are integers, X is a single negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content of the compound is H m comprising at least one of said hydrogen products;

[0260] w)(MHMNO3) n , wherein M is an alkali metal cation or other +1 cation, n is an integer, and the hydrogen content H of the compound comprises at least one of the hydrogen products;

[0261] x)(MHMOH) n , wherein M is an alkali metal cation or other +1 cation, n is an integer, and the hydrogen content H of the compound comprises at least one of the hydrogen products;

[0262] y)(MH m M'X) n , wherein m and n are each integers, M and M' are each alkali metal or alkaline earth metal cations, X is a singly or doubly negatively charged anion, and the hydrogen content of the compound is H m comprising at least one of said hydrogen products; and

[0263] z) wherein m and n are each integers, M and M' are each alkali metal or alkaline earth metal cations, X and X' are single or double negatively charged anions, and the hydrogen content of the compound is H m Contains at least one of the hydrogen products.

[0264] The anions of the hydrogen product formed by the reaction can be one or more singly negatively charged anions, including halides, hydroxides, bicarbonates, nitrates, doubly negatively charged anions, carbonates, oxides, and sulfates. In some embodiments, the hydrogen product is embedded in a crystal lattice (e.g., by using a getter such as K2CO3 located in, for example, a container or in an exhaust line). For example, the hydrogen product can be embedded in a salt lattice. In various embodiments, the salt lattice can comprise an alkali metal salt, an alkali metal halide, an alkali metal hydroxide, an alkaline earth metal salt, an alkaline earth metal halide, an alkaline earth metal hydroxide, or a combination thereof.

[0265] Also provided is an electrode system comprising:

[0266] a) a first electrode and a second electrode;

[0267] b) a stream of molten metal (e.g., molten silver, molten gallium) in electrical contact with the first electrode and the second electrode;

[0268] c) a circulation system comprising a pump to draw said molten metal from a storage tank and convey it through a conduit (e.g., a pipe) to produce a stream of said molten metal exiting said conduit;

[0269] d) an electrical power source configured to provide a potential difference between the first electrode and the second electrode;

[0270] The molten metal stream is simultaneously in contact with the first electrode and the second electrode to generate an electric current between the electrodes. In some embodiments, the electric power is sufficient to generate an electric current exceeding 100A.

[0271] Also provided is a circuit, which may include:

[0272] a) a heating member for producing molten metal;

[0273] b) pumping means for conveying said molten metal from a storage tank through a conduit to produce a stream of said molten metal exiting said conduit;

[0274] c) a first electrode and a second electrode in electrical communication with a power supply member for generating a potential difference across the first electrode and the second electrode;

[0275] wherein the molten metal stream is in contact with the first electrode and the second electrode simultaneously to form an electrical circuit between the first electrode and the second electrode. For example, in an electrical circuit comprising first and second electrodes, the modification may comprise passing the molten metal stream across the electrodes to permit current to flow between them.

[0276] Additionally, systems for generating plasmas that can be used in the power generation systems described herein are provided. These systems may include:

[0277] a) a molten metal injector system configured to generate a molten metal stream from a metal storage tank;

[0278] b) an electrode system for generating an induced current to flow through the molten metal stream;

[0279] c) at least one of: (i) a water injection system configured to contact a metered volume of water with the molten metal, wherein a portion of the water reacts with a portion of the molten metal to form an oxide of the metal and hydrogen, (ii) a mixture of excess hydrogen and oxygen, and (iii) a mixture of excess hydrogen and water vapor, and

[0280] d) a power supply configured to supply the current;

[0281] wherein the plasma is generated when an electric current is supplied through the metal stream. In some embodiments, the system may further comprise:

[0282] A pumping system configured to transfer the metal collected after generating the plasma to the metal storage tank. In some embodiments, the system may include:

[0283] A metal regeneration system configured to collect the metal oxide and convert the metal oxide into the metal; wherein the metal regeneration system comprises an anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte; wherein an electrical bias is applied between the anode and the cathode to convert the metal oxide into the metal. In certain embodiments, the system may include:

[0284] a) a pumping system configured to transfer metal collected after generating the plasma to the metal storage tank; and

[0285] b) a metal regeneration system configured to collect the metal oxide and convert the metal oxide into the metal; wherein the metal regeneration system comprises an anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte; wherein

[0286] supplying an electrical bias between the anode and the cathode to convert the metal oxide into the metal;

[0287] wherein the metal regenerated in the metal regeneration system is transferred to the pumping system. In certain specific implementations, the metal is gallium, silver, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the electrolyte is an alkali metal hydroxide (e.g., sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide).

[0288] The system for generating plasma of the present disclosure may include:

[0289] a) a molten metal injector system configured to generate a stream of molten metal from a metal storage tank;

[0290] b) an electrode system for generating an induced current to flow through the molten metal stream;

[0291] c) at least one of: (i) a water injection system configured to contact a metered volume of water with molten metal, wherein a portion of the water reacts with a portion of the molten metal to form an oxide of the metal and hydrogen, (ii) a mixture of excess hydrogen and oxygen, and (iii) a mixture of excess hydrogen and water vapor, and

[0292] d) a power supplier configured to supply the electric current;

[0293] wherein the plasma is generated when an electric current is supplied through the metal stream. In some embodiments, the system may further comprise:

[0294] a) a pumping system configured to transfer metal collected after generating the plasma to the metal storage tank; and

[0295] b) a metal regeneration system configured to collect the metal oxide and convert the metal oxide into the metal; wherein the metal regeneration system comprises an anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte; wherein an electrical bias is supplied between the anode and the cathode to convert the metal oxide into the metal;

[0296] The metal regenerated in the metal regeneration system is transferred to the pumping system.

[0297] A system for generating plasma, comprising:

[0298] a) two electrodes configured to allow molten metal to flow therebetween to complete an electrical circuit;

[0299] b) a power source connected to the two electrodes to apply a current between the two electrodes when the circuit is closed;

[0300] c) a recombiner cell (e.g., a glow discharge cell) to initiate formation of nascent water and atomic hydrogen from the gas; wherein the effluent of the recombiner is directed to the circuit (e.g., the molten metal, the anode, the cathode, an electrode immersed in a molten metal storage tank);

[0301] When current is applied across the circuit, the effluent from the recombiner cell reacts to generate plasma. In some embodiments, the system is used to generate heat from the plasma. In various implementations, the system is used to generate light from the plasma.

[0302] The system of the present disclosure may include (or be part of) a mesh network comprising a plurality of power-system-transmitter-receiver nodes that transmit and receive electromagnetic signals in at least one frequency band, wherein the frequency of the frequency band may be a high frequency because the nodes can be locally located at a short separation distance, wherein the frequency may be in at least one range of approximately 0.1 GHz to 500 GHz, 1 GHz to 250 GHz, 1 GHz to 100 GHz, 1 GHz to 50 GHz, and 1 GHz to 25 GHz.

[0303] The unique spectral signatures measured in the reaction products produce hydrogen products with unique characteristics. These hydrogen reaction products can be used in various devices and in various parts of this disclosure.

[0304] Methods are also provided. For example, the method can generate electricity or light, or generate plasma using one or more systems of the present disclosure. In some embodiments, the method includes:

[0305] a) applying an electrical bias to the molten metal;

[0306] b) directing effluent from a plasma generating cell (e.g., a glow discharge cell) to interact with the biased molten metal and initiate formation of a plasma. In certain implementations, the effluent from the plasma generating cell is generated by a hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2) gas mixture passing through the plasma generating cell during operation. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0307] The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated into and constitute a part of this specification, illustrate several embodiments of the present disclosure and, together with the description, serve to explain the principles of the present disclosure. In the drawings:

[0308] Figure 66C -D is an inverted Y geometry according to an embodiment of the present disclosure Schematic diagram of the power generator, the The power generator includes dual reservoirs and a DC EM pump injector as a liquid electrode with the reservoirs joined to form a reaction cell chamber connected to the PV window.

[0309] Figure 66E A photovoltaic converter and an inverted Y geometry according to an embodiment of the present disclosure Schematic diagram of the power generator, the The power generator includes dual reservoirs and a DC EM pump injector as a liquid electrode with the reservoirs joined to form a reaction cell chamber connected to the PV window.

[0310] Figures 66F-66G According to the embodiment of the present disclosure, the thermophotovoltaic Schematic diagram of the power generator, the The power generator includes: a dual EM pump injector as liquid electrode, showing an inclined electromagnetic pump assembly with an inlet riser; an inner PV window and an outer PV window; and one or two storage tanks including an electrical circuit breaker and bellows.

[0311] Figures 66H-66L Thermophotovoltaic according to an embodiment of the present disclosure Schematic diagram of the power generator, the The power generator includes: dual EM pump injectors as liquid electrodes, each showing an inclined electromagnetic pump assembly with an inlet riser; an inner PV window; an outer PV window; at least one storage tank including an electrical circuit breaker; and at least one storage tank including a bellows.

[0312] Figures 66M-66N According to the embodiment of the present disclosure Schematic diagram of the power generator, the The power generator comprises a dual reservoir and a DC EM pump injector as a liquid electrode with the reservoir joined to form a reaction cell chamber.

[0313] Figures 66O-66T According to the embodiment of the present disclosure Schematic diagram of a power generator comprising a dual reservoir and DC EM pump injector as liquid electrode with the reservoir joined to form a reaction cell chamber, and a PV window chamber sealed to the reservoir by a wet seal.

[0314] Figure 66U According to the embodiment of the present disclosure Schematic diagram of the EM pump tubing, EM pump bus bar assembly, reflective base plate, and bead retention housing.

[0315] Figures 66V-66X According to the embodiment of the present disclosure Schematic diagram of a power generator comprising: internal and external dual reservoir sections and an external reservoir and a DC EM pump injector as a liquid electrode with the reservoirs joined to form a chamber, which is joined to a base plate; and a PV window chamber sealed to the base plate by a wet seal.

[0316] Figures 66Y-66ZAAccording to the embodiment of the present disclosure Schematic diagram of a power generator comprising: an inner and outer dual reservoir section and an outer reservoir and a DC EM pump injector as a liquid electrode having a reservoir intersecting and engaging a hemispherical dome connected to a base plate; and a PV window chamber sealed to the base plate by a wet seal.

[0317] Figure 2I132 According to the embodiment of the present disclosure Schematic diagram of a power generator showing details of the light distribution and photovoltaic converter systems.

[0318] Figure 2I133 Schematic diagram of triangular elements of a geodesic dense receiver array for a photovoltaic converter or heat exchanger according to an embodiment of the present disclosure.

[0319] Figures 2I143-2I144 Thermophotovoltaic according to an embodiment of the present disclosure Schematic diagram of a power generator comprising a dual EM pump injector as a liquid electrode showing an inclined electromagnetic pump assembly with an inlet riser, and a PV converter with an increased radius to reduce blackbody light intensity. DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0320] Disclosed herein are power generation systems and methods for power generation that convert energy output from reactions involving atomic hydrogen into electrical and / or thermal energy. These reactions may involve a catalyst system that releases energy from atomic hydrogen to form a lower energy state where the electron shell is closer to the nucleus. The released power is used for power generation, and in addition, new hydrogen species and compounds are desired products. These energy states are predictable by classical laws of physics, and a catalyst is required to accept the energy from the hydrogen in order to undergo the corresponding energy-releasing transition.

[0321] A theory that can explain the exothermic reaction produced by the power generation system of the present disclosure involves the non-radiative transfer of energy from atomic hydrogen to certain catalysts (such as nascent water). Classical physics provides closed-form solutions for hydrogen atoms, hydride ions, molecular hydrogen ions, and hydrogen molecules, and predicts corresponding substances with fractional principal quantum numbers. Atomic hydrogen can undergo catalytic reactions with certain substances (including itself) that can accept an energy m·27.2 eV, where m is an integer, that is an integer multiple of the potential energy of atomic hydrogen. The predicted reaction involves the resonant non-radiative energy transfer from the originally stable atomic hydrogen to a catalyst capable of accepting the energy. The product is H(1 / p), which is a fractional Rydberg state of atomic hydrogen called a "hydrino atom," where n=1 / 2, 1 / 3, 1 / 4, ..., 1 / p (p≤137, an integer) replaces the well-known parameter n=integer in the Rydberg equation for hydrogen excited states. Each hydrino state also contains electrons, protons, and photons, but the field contribution from the photons increases the binding energy rather than decreases it, corresponding to energy desorption rather than absorption. Because the potential energy of atomic hydrogen is 27.2 eV, m H atoms act as catalysts for the other (m+1)th H atom with m·27.2 eV [R. Mills, The Grand Unified Theory of Classical Physics; September 2016 edition, published at https: / / brilliantlightpower.com / book-download-and-streaming / ("Mills GUTCP" or "MillsGUT")]. For example, an H atom can accept 27.2 eV from another H via cross-space energy transfer (such as through magnetic or induced electric dipole-dipole coupling) and act as its catalyst, thereby forming a short-wavelength-limited and The intermediate decays by emitting a continuous band of energy. In addition to atomic H, molecules that accept m×27.2 eV from atomic H with an accompanying decrease in molecular potential energy can also act as catalysts. The potential energy of H2O is 81.6 eV. Then, by the same mechanism, it is predicted that the newly formed H2O molecules (not hydrogen bound in the solid, liquid, or gaseous state) formed by the thermodynamically favorable reduction of the metal oxide will act as catalysts to form H(1 / 4), releasing energy of 204 eV, which includes the transfer of 81.6 eV to HOH and the release of continuous radiation with a cutoff wavelength of 122.4 eV at 10.1 nm.

[0322] Involving the jump to In a catalytic reaction of H atoms in the state, m H atoms act as catalysts for the m·27.2 eV of the other (m+1)th H atom. Then, the reaction between m+1 hydrogen atoms (whereby m atoms resonantly and non-radiatively accept m·27.2 eV from the (m+1)th hydrogen atom, causing mH to act as a catalyst) is given by:

[0323]

[0324]

[0325]

[0326] And the overall reaction is

[0327]

[0328] The catalytic reaction of the potential energy of nascent H2O (m=3) [R. Mills, The Grand Unified Theory of Classical Physics; published in September 2016, available at https: / / brilliantlightpower.com / book-download-and-streaming / ]

[0329]

[0330]

[0331]

[0332] And the overall reaction is

[0333]

[0334] After energy is transferred to the catalyst (Eqs. (1) and (5)), an intermediate is formed with a radius of H atom and a central field m+1 times that of the proton central field. The radius is predicted to decrease as the electron undergoes radial acceleration to a stable state with a radius 1 / (m + 1) of the radius of the uncatalyzed hydrogen atom, and releases m 2 ×13.6eV energy. The EUV continuum radiation bands caused by the intermediates (e.g., Eqs. (2) and (6)) are expected to have short-wavelength limits and energies given by

[0335]

[0336] and extends to wavelengths longer than the corresponding cutoff wavelength. Here, it is predicted that due to H*[a H / 4] The extreme ultraviolet continuous radiation band caused by the decay of the intermediate is at E=m 2 ·13.6=9·13.6=122.4eV (10.1nm) has a short wavelength limit [where p=m+1=4 and m=3 in Equation (9)] and extends to longer wavelengths. A continuous radiation band at 10.1nm and reaching longer wavelengths is observed for the theoretically predicted H transition to lower energy (the so-called "hydrino" state H(1 / 4)), which is caused only by the pulse pinch gas discharge containing some hydrogen. Another observation predicted by Equations (1) and (5) is that the fast H + Recombination forms fast excited-state H atoms. These fast atoms cause broadening of the Balmer alpha emission. Balmer alpha line broadening greater than 50 eV indicates the presence of a population of hydrogen atoms with unusually high kinetic energy in certain mixed hydrogen plasmas. This is a well-established phenomenon, attributed to the energy released in the formation of hydrinos. Fast H atoms have been observed in continuous emission hydrogen pinch plasmas.

[0337] Other catalysts and reactions to form hydrinos are possible. Specific species (such as He) that can be identified based on their known electronic energy levels are required. + 、Ar + 、Sr + , K, Li, HCl, and NaH, OH, SH, SeH, nascent H2O, nH (n = integer)) are present together with atomic hydrogen to catalyze the process. The reaction involves non-radiative energy transfer, followed by q×13.6 eV continuous emission or q×13.6 eV transfer to H to form an abnormally hot excited state H and a hydrogen atom with an energy lower than the unreacted atomic hydrogen corresponding to the fractional principal quantum number. That is, in the formula for the principal energy level of the hydrogen atom:

[0338]

[0339] n=1,2,3,... (11)

[0340] where a H is the Bohr radius of the hydrogen atom (52.947 pm), e is the magnitude of the electron charge, and ε o is the vacuum permittivity, fractional quantum number:

[0341] where p = 137, an integer (12) replaces the well-known parameter n = integer in the Rydberg formula for hydrogen excited states and represents the lower energy state of hydrogen atoms called "hydrinos". The n = 1 state of hydrogen and the The state is nonradiative, but transitions between two nonradiative states (e.g., n = 1 to n = 1 / 2) are possible via nonradiative energy transfer. Hydrogen is a special case of the stable state given by Equations (10) and (12), where the corresponding radius of the hydrogen or hydrino atom is given by:

[0342]

[0343] where p = 1, 2, 3, .... To conserve energy, energy must be transferred from the hydrogen atom to the catalyst in units of the potential energy of the normal n = 1 hydrogen atom, and the radius jumps to Hydrinos are formed by reacting ordinary hydrogen atoms with a suitable catalyst having the following net enthalpy of reaction:

[0344] m×27.2 eV (14) where m is an integer. It is believed that the rate of catalysis increases as the net reaction enthalpy more closely matches m×27.2 eV. Catalysts having a net reaction enthalpy within ±10%, preferably ±5%, of m×27.2 eV have been found to be suitable for most applications.

[0345] Catalytic reactions involve a two-step energy release: a nonradiative energy transfer to the catalyst, followed by additional energy release as the radius decreases until the corresponding stable final state is reached. The general reaction is thus given by:

[0346]

[0347]

[0348] Cat (q+r)+ +re - →Cat q+ +m×27.2eV and (17)

[0349] The overall reaction is

[0350]

[0351] q, r, m, and p are integers. has the radius of a hydrogen atom (corresponding to 1 in the denominator) and a central field equal to (m+p) times the central field of a proton, and The radius is H The corresponding steady state.

[0352] The catalyst product H(1 / p) can also react with electrons to form hydrino hydride ions H - (1 / p), or two H(1 / p) can react to form the corresponding molecular hydrino H2(1 / p). Specifically, the catalyst product H(1 / p) can also react with the electron to form a hydrogen with a binding energy E BThe new hydrogen ion H - (1 / p):

[0353]

[0354] Where p = integer > 1, s = 1 / 2, is Planck's constant bar, μ o is the magnetic permeability of vacuum, m e is the mass of the electron, μ e for the reason The reduced electron mass is given by p is the mass of the proton, a o is the Bohr radius, and the ionic radius is According to Eq. (19), the calculated ionization energy of hydrogen anion is 0.75418 eV, and the experimental value is 6082.99 ± 0.15 cm -1 (0.75418 eV). The binding energy of the hydrino hydride ion can be measured by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS).

[0355] The upfield-shifted NMR peak is direct evidence for the presence of lower-energy hydrogen, which has a reduced radius relative to the ordinary hydrogen ion and increased diamagnetic shielding from the proton. The shift is given by the sum of the contributions from the diamagnetic properties of the two electrons and the photon field of magnitude p (Mills GUTCP Equation (7.87)):

[0356]

[0357] The first one applies to H - , where p = 1 and for H - (1 / p), p = integer > 1, and α is the fine structure constant. The predicted hydrino hydride ion peak is abnormally shifted upfield relative to the ordinary hydride ion. In one embodiment, the peak is upfield of TMS. The NMR shift relative to TMS can be greater than that of the ordinary hydride ion alone or in a compound. - , H, H2 or H +The shift may be greater than at least one of the following: 0, -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, -7, -8, -9, -10, -11, -12, -13, -14, -15, -16, -17, -18, -19, -20, -21, -22, -23, -24, -25, -26, -27, -28, -29, -30, -31, -32, -33, -34, -35, -36, -37, -38, -39, and -40 ppm. The absolute shift range relative to a bare proton (where TMS has a shift of about -31.5 relative to a bare proton) may be (p29.9 + p29.9). 2 2.74) ppm (Eq. (20)), which is within the range of at least one of the following: ±5 ppm, ±10 ppm, ±20 ppm, ±30 ppm, ±40 ppm, ±50 ppm, ±60 ppm, ±70 ppm, ±80 ppm, ±90 ppm, and ±100 ppm. The absolute shift relative to a bare proton may range from -(p29.9 + p 2 1.59×10 -3 ) ppm (Formula (20)), which is approximately in the range of at least one of: 0.1% to 99%, 1% to 50%, and 1% to 10%. In another embodiment, the presence of hydrino species (such as hydrino atoms, hydride ions, or molecules) in a solid matrix (such as a matrix of hydroxides such as NaOH or KOH) may cause the matrix protons to shift upfield. The matrix protons (such as matrix protons of NaOH or KOH) may exchange. In an embodiment, this shift may result in a matrix peak in the range of about -0.1 ppm to -5 ppm relative to TMS. NMR measurements may include magic angle spinning 1 H NMR spectroscopy (MAS 1 HNMR).

[0358] H(1 / p) can react with a proton and two H(1 / p) can react to form H2(1 / p) respectively. + The charge and current density functions, bond distances, and energies of hydrogen molecular ions and molecules are solved from the Laplacian in ellipsoidal coordinates using nonradiative constraints.

[0359]

[0360] The total energy E of the hydrogen molecular ion with a central field of +pe at each focus of the prolate ellipsoidal molecular orbital is T (Mills GUT formula (11.192-11.194)) is:

[0361] E T =p 216.253 (22)

[0362] The total energy E of a hydrogen molecule with a central field of +pe at each focus of the prolate spheroidal molecular orbital is T (MillsGUT formula (11.239-11.242)) is:

[0363] E T =p 2 31.667 (23)

[0364] The bond dissociation energy E of hydrogen molecule H2(1 / p) D (Mills GUT formula (11.249-11.253)) is the total energy corresponding to the hydrogen atom and E T The difference between:

[0365] E D =E(2H(1 / p))-E T (twenty four)

[0366] in

[0367] E(2H(1 / p))=-p 2 27.20eV (25)

[0368] E D Given by formula (23-25):

[0369] E D =E(2H( / p)–E T =p 2 27.20–E T =p 2 4.478eV (26)

[0370] H2(1 / p) can be identified by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), where the ionization products other than the ionized electrons can be at least one of the following possibilities: such as those containing two protons and one electron, hydrogen (H) atoms, hydrino atoms, molecular ions, hydrogen molecular ions, and H2(1 / p) + , where energy can be displaced by the matrix.

[0371] The NMR of the catalytic product gases provides a definitive test of the theoretically predicted chemical shifts of H2(1 / p). In general, the 1H NMR resonances of H2(1 / p) are predicted to be upfield from the NMR resonances of H2 due to the fractional radius in ellipsoidal coordinates (where the electrons are significantly closer to the nucleus). The predicted shifts of H2(1 / p) are It is given by the sum of the contributions of the diamagnetism of the two electrons and the photon field of magnitude p (Mills GUTCP equations (11.415-11.416)):

[0372]

[0373]

[0374] The first term applies to H2, where p=1, and for H2(1 / p), p=>1 integer. The experimental absolute H2 gas phase resonance shift of -28.0 ppm is very consistent with the predicted absolute gas phase shift of -28.01 ppm (Eq. (28)). The peak of the predicted molecular hydrino is abnormally shifted upfield relative to ordinary H2. In one embodiment, the peak is upfield of TMS. The NMR shift relative to TMS can be greater than that of ordinary H2 alone or in a compound. - , H, H2 or H + The shift may be greater than at least one of the following: 0, -1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, -7, -8, -9, -10, -11, -12, -13, -14, -15, -16, -17, -18, -19, -20, -21, -22, -23, -24, -25, -26, -27, -28, -29, -30, -31, -32, -33, -34, -35, -36, -37, -38, -39, and -40 ppm. The range of absolute shift relative to a bare proton (where TMS has a shift of about -31.5 ppm relative to a bare proton) may be -(p28.01 + p28.01). 2 2.56) ppm (Eq. (28)), which is approximately within at least one of the following ranges: ±5 ppm, ±10 ppm, ±20 ppm, ±30 ppm, ±40 ppm, ±50 ppm, ±60 ppm, ±70 ppm, ±80 ppm, ±90 ppm, and ±100 ppm. The absolute shift relative to a bare proton may range from -(p28.01 + p 2 1.49×10 -3 )ppm (Formula (28)), which is approximately in the range of at least one of the following: 0.1% to 99%, 1% to 50%, and 1% to 10%.

[0375] The vibrational energy E of the hydrogen molecule H2(1 / p) transitioning from υ=0 to υ=1 vib for:

[0376] E vib =p 2 0.515902 eV (29)

[0377] Where p is an integer.

[0378] The rotational energy E of the hydrogen molecule H2(1 / p) from J to J+1 rotfor:

[0379]

[0380] where p is an integer and I is the moment of inertia. Rotational vibrational emission of H2(1 / 4) has been observed on electron beam excited molecules in gas and trapped in solid matrices.

[0381] Rotational energy p 2 The correlation arises from the inverse p-dependence of the internuclear distance and the corresponding effect on the moment of inertia I. The predicted internuclear distance 2c' from H2(1 / p) is

[0382]

[0383] At least one of the rotational energy and vibrational energy of H2(1 / p) can be measured by at least one of electron beam induced emission spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. H2(1 / p) can be trapped in a matrix for measurement, such as at least one of MOH, MX, and M2CO3 (M = alkali metal; X = halide ion).

[0384] In one embodiment, the ion is observed as about 1950 cm -1 The IRE peak is enhanced by using a conductive material containing roughness features or grains of a size comparable to the wavelength of the Raman laser that supports surface enhanced Raman scattering (SERS).

[0385] I. Catalyst

[0386] In the present disclosure, terms such as hydrino reaction, H catalysis, H catalytic reaction, catalysis when hydrogen is involved, reaction of hydrogen to form hydrinos, and hydrino forming reaction all refer to reactions such as those of formulas (15-18) in which the catalyst defined by formula (14) forms a hydrogen state having energy levels given by formulas (10) and (12) with atomic H. When referring to a reaction mixture that catalyzes H to an H state or a hydrino state having energy levels given by formulas (10) and (12), corresponding terms such as hydrino reactants, hydrino reaction mixture, catalyst mixture, reactants that form hydrinos, and reactants that produce or form low-energy hydrogen or hydrinos are also used interchangeably.

[0387] The catalytic low-energy hydrogen transition of the present disclosure requires a catalyst that accepts energy from atomic H to cause the transition, and the catalyst can be in the form of an endothermic chemical reaction of an integer m times the potential energy of uncatalyzed atomic hydrogen of 27.2 eV. The endothermic catalyst reaction can be the ionization of one or more electrons from a substance such as an atom, ion, or molecule, and can also include a cooperative reaction of bond breaking and the ionization of one or more electrons from one or more partners of the initial bond. An integer number of hydrogen atoms can also act as a catalyst with an integer multiple of 27.2 eV enthalpy. In one embodiment, the catalyst can be about 27.2 eV ± 0.5 eV and An integer unit of one of receives energy from atomic hydrogen.

[0388] Classical laws of physics predict that atomic hydrogen can undergo catalytic reactions with certain substances (including itself) that can accept energy that is an integer multiple of the potential energy of atomic hydrogen, m·27.2 eV, where m is an integer. The predicted reaction involves a resonant, nonradiative energy transfer from otherwise stable atomic hydrogen to a catalyst capable of accepting the energy. The product is H(1 / p), which is a fractional Rydberg state of atomic hydrogen called a "hydrino atom," where n = 1 / 2, 1 / 3, 1 / 4, ..., 1 / p (p ≤ 137, an integer) replaces the well-known parameter n = integer in the Rydberg equation for hydrogen excited states. Each hydrino state also contains electrons, protons, and photons, but the field contribution from the photons increases the binding energy rather than decreasing it, corresponding to energy desorption rather than absorption. Because the potential energy of atomic hydrogen is 27.2 eV, the m H atoms act as catalysts for the other (m+1)th hydrogen atom, with m·27.2 eV. For example, an H atom can act as a catalyst for another H by accepting 27.2 eV from it via cross-space energy transfer (such as by magnetic or induced electric dipole-dipole coupling). In addition to atomic H, a molecule that accepts m·27.2 eV from atomic H with an accompanying decrease in the magnitude of the molecular potential energy can also act as a catalyst. The potential energy of H2O is 81.6 eV [Mills GUT]. Then, by the same mechanism, a nascent H2O molecule (not hydrogen bonded in a solid, liquid, or gaseous state) can act as a catalyst. Based on the 10% energy change in the heat of vaporization of water from ice at 0°C to 100°C, the average number of hydrogen bonds per water molecule in boiling water is 3.6 [Mills GUT]; therefore, H2O must be chemically formed into separate molecules with appropriate activation energy in order to act as a catalyst to form hydrinos. The catalytic reaction with respect to the potential energy of nascent H2O (m=3) is

[0389]

[0390]

[0391]

[0392] And the overall reaction is

[0393]

[0394] After energy is transferred to the catalyst, an intermediate is formed with a radius of an H atom and a central field m+1 times that of a proton. (like is the intermediate in formula (1), wherein m=3, and H fast The radius is predicted to decrease as the electron undergoes radial acceleration to a stable state with a radius of 1 / (m+1) the radius of an uncatalyzed hydrogen atom, and releases m 2 13.6eV energy. The EUV continuum radiation band caused by the intermediate (as in Eq. (2a)) is expected to have a short-wavelength limit and energy given by

[0395]

[0396] and extend to wavelengths longer than the corresponding cutoff values.

[0397] II. Hydrino

[0398] With (where p is an integer greater than 1, preferably from 2 to 137) is a product of the H catalytic reaction of the present disclosure. The binding energy (also known as the ionization energy) of an atom, ion, or molecule is the energy required to remove one electron from the atom, ion, or molecule. The hydrogen atoms having the binding energies given in formula (10) and formula (12) are hereinafter referred to as "hydrino atoms" or "hydrinos." (where a H The symbol for a hydrino where (where p is an integer and π is the radius of an ordinary hydrogen atom) is With radius a H The hydrogen atom of α is 13.6 eV.

[0399] According to the present disclosure, a hydrino hydride ion (H-) having a binding energy according to formula (19) is provided, wherein the binding energy is greater than the binding energy of an ordinary hydride ion (about 0.75 eV) when p=2 to a maximum of 23, and the binding energy when p=24 (H-) is less than the binding energy of an ordinary hydride ion. For p=2 to p=24 of formula (19), the hydride ion binding energies are 3, 6.6, 11.2, 16.7, 22.8, 29.3, 36.1, 42.8, 49.4, 55.5, 61.0, 65.6, 69.2, 71.6, 72.4, 71.6, 68.8, 64.0, 56.8, 47.1, 34.7, 19.3, and 0.69 eV, respectively. Exemplary compositions comprising novel hydride ions are also provided herein.

[0400] Also provided are exemplary compounds comprising one or more hydrino hydride ions and one or more other elements. Such compounds are referred to as "hydrino hydride compounds."

[0401] Ordinary hydrogen species are characterized by the following binding energies: (a) hydride ion, 0.754 eV ("ordinary hydride ion"); (b) hydrogen atom ("ordinary hydrogen atom"), 13.6 eV; (c) diatomic hydrogen molecule, 15.3 eV ("ordinary hydrogen molecule"); (d) hydrogen molecular ion, 16.3 eV ("ordinary hydrogen molecular ion"); and (e)

[0402] 22.6 eV ("normal trihydrogen molecular ion"). Herein, "normal" and "ordinary" are synonymous with the form of hydrogen.

[0403] According to another embodiment of the present disclosure, there is provided a compound comprising at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, such as: (a) a hydrogen atom having about Such as (b) a hydride ion (H - ), which has approximately Such as a binding energy in the range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times that of , wherein p is an integer from 2 to 24; (d) Trihydrino molecular ion It has about Such as wherein p is an integer from 2 to 137; (e) dihydrino having a binding energy in the range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times that of Such as (f) a dihydrino molecular ion having a binding energy in the range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times that of Such as The binding energy of the present invention is in the range of about 0.9 times to 1.1 times of that of the present invention, wherein p is an integer, preferably an integer from 2 to 137.

[0404] According to another embodiment of the present disclosure, a compound is provided that includes at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, such as: (a) a dihydrino molecular ion having about

[0405] E T =p 2 16.253

[0406] Such as in E T =p 2 The total energy in the range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times 16.253, where p is an integer, is Planck's constant, m e is the mass of the electron, c is the speed of light in a vacuum, and μ is the reduced nuclear mass, and (b) a dihydrino molecule having approximately

[0407] E T =p 2 31.667

[0408] Such as in E T =p 2 The total energy in the range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times 31.667, where p is an integer and a o is the Bohr radius.

[0409] According to one embodiment of the present disclosure, wherein the compound comprises a negatively charged increased binding energy hydrogen species, the compound further comprises one or more cations such as protons, ordinary Or ordinary

[0410] Provided herein is a method for preparing a compound comprising at least one hydrino hydride ion. Such compounds are hereinafter referred to as "hydrino hydride compounds." The method comprises reacting atomic hydrogen with a net reaction enthalpy of about (wherein m is an integer greater than 1, preferably an integer less than 400) to produce a catalyst having a binding energy of about (wherein p is an integer, preferably an integer from 2 to 137). Another product of the catalysis is energy. The increased binding energy hydrogen atoms can react with an electron source to produce increased binding energy hydride ions. The increased binding energy hydride ions can react with one or more cations to produce a compound comprising at least one increased binding energy hydride ion.

[0411] In an embodiment, at least one of extremely high power and energy can be achieved by hydrogen undergoing a transition to hydrinos with high p values ​​in Eq. (18) through a process referred to herein as disproportionation (as given in Mills GUT, Chapter 5, which is incorporated by reference). Hydrogen atoms H(1 / p)p=1, 2, 3, ... 137 can undergo further transitions to lower energy states given by Eqs. (10) and (12), wherein the transition of one atom is catalyzed by another atom that resonantly and non-radiatively accepts m·27.2 eV with an opposite change in its potential energy. The overall general equation for the transition of H(1 / p) to H(1 / (p+m)) induced by the resonant transfer of m·27.2 eV to H(1 / p') given by Eq. (32) is represented by the following:

[0412] H(1 / p')+H(1 / p)→H+H(1 / (p+m))+[2pm+m 2 -p' 2 +1]·13.6eV (32)

[0413] EUV light from the hydrino process can dissociate dihydrino molecules and the resulting hydrino atoms can act as catalysts to transition to lower energy states. Exemplary reactions include catalysis of H to H(1 / 17) by H(1 / 4), where H(1 / 4) can be a reaction product of catalysis of another H by HOH. The disproportionation reaction of hydrinos is expected to produce features in the X-ray region. As shown by Equation (5-8), the reaction product of the HOH catalyst is Consider that there is a possible transition reaction in a hydrogen cloud containing H2O gas, in which the first hydrogen type atom is an H atom and acts as the second acceptor hydrogen atom of the catalyst for because The potential energy is 4 2 × 27.2 eV = 16 × 27.2 eV = 435.2 eV, so the transition reaction is given by:

[0414]

[0415]

[0416]

[0417] And the overall reaction is

[0418]

[0419] because The EUV continuum radiation band caused by the intermediate (as in Eqs. (16) and (34)) is expected to have a short-wavelength limit and energy given by

[0420]

[0421] and extends to wavelengths longer than the corresponding cutoff wavelength. Here, it is expected that The extreme ultraviolet continuum radiation band caused by the decay of the intermediate has a short-wavelength limit at E = 3481.6 eV; 0.35625 nm and extends to longer wavelengths. NASA's Chandra X-ray Observatory [E. Bulbul, M. MarkeVitch, A. Foster, R.K. Smith, M. Loewenstein, S.W. Randall, "Detection of an unidentified emission line in the stacked X-Ray spectrum of galaxy clusters," The Astrophysical Journal, Vol. 789, No. 1, (2014); A. Boyarsky, O. Ruchayskiy, D. Iakubovskyi, J. Franse, "An unidentified line in X-ray spectra of the Andromeda galaxy and Perseus galaxy clusters," cluster), (2014), arXiv:1402.4119[astro-ph.CO]] observed a broad X-ray peak with a critical value of 3.48 keV in the Perseus galaxy cluster, which does not match any known atomic transition. BulBul et al. attributed it to a 3.48 keV feature matching the unknown dark matter. The transition further confirmed the identity of hydrinos as dark matter.

[0422] The novel hydrogen composition of matter may comprise:

[0423] (a) at least one neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species (hereinafter "increased binding energy hydrogen species") having a binding energy of

[0424] (i) greater than the binding energy of ordinary hydrogen, or

[0425] (ii) greater than the binding energy of any hydrogen species for which the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species is unstable or is not observed because the binding energy of the ordinary hydrogen species is less than the thermal energy at ambient conditions (standard temperature and pressure, STP) or is negative; and

[0426] (b) at least one other element. Generally, the hydrogen products described herein are increased binding energy hydrogen species.

[0427] In this context, the term "other element" refers to an element other than the increased binding energy hydrogen species. Thus, the other element can be a normal hydrogen species or any element other than hydrogen. In one group of compounds, the other element and the increased binding energy hydrogen species are neutral. In another group of compounds, the other element and the increased binding energy hydrogen species are charged, such that the other element provides a balancing charge to form a neutral compound. The former group of compounds is characterized by molecular and coordinate bonding; the latter group is characterized by ionic bonding.

[0428] Also provided are novel compounds and molecular ions, including:

[0429] (a) At least one neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species having a total energy of

[0430] (i) greater than the total energy of the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species, or

[0431] (ii) greater than the total energy of any hydrogen species for which the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species is unstable or is not observed because the total energy of the ordinary hydrogen species is less than the thermal energy at ambient conditions or is negative; and

[0432] (b) at least one other element.

[0433] The total energy of a hydrogen species is the sum of the energies of all electrons removed from the hydrogen species. The total energy of a hydrogen species according to the present disclosure is greater than the total energy of a corresponding ordinary hydrogen species. A hydrogen species with increased total energy according to the present disclosure is also referred to as an "increased binding energy hydrogen species," even though some embodiments of the increased total energy hydrogen species may have a first electron binding energy that is less than the first electron binding energy of a corresponding ordinary hydrogen species. For example, when p = 24, the first binding energy of the hydride ion of formula (19) is less than the first binding energy of an ordinary hydride ion, while when p = 24, the total energy of the hydride ion of formula (19) is much greater than the total energy of the corresponding ordinary hydride ion.

[0434] Also provided herein are novel compounds and molecular ions comprising:

[0435] (a) Various neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species with the following binding energies

[0436] (i) greater than the binding energy of ordinary hydrogen, or

[0437] (ii) greater than the binding energy of any hydrogen species for which the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species is unstable or is not observed because the binding energy of the ordinary hydrogen species is less than the thermal energy at ambient conditions or is negative; and

[0438] (b) optionally one other element.

[0439] The increased binding energy hydrogen species may be formed by reacting one or more hydrino atoms with one or more of electrons, hydrino atoms, and a compound containing at least one of the increased binding energy hydrogen species and at least one other atom, molecule, or ion other than the increased binding energy hydrogen species.

[0440] Also provided are novel compounds and molecular ions, including:

[0441] (a) Multiple neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species with the following total energies

[0442] (i) greater than the total energy of ordinary molecular hydrogen, or

[0443] (ii) greater than the total energy of any hydrogen species for which the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species is unstable or is not observed because the total energy of the ordinary hydrogen species is less than the thermal energy at ambient conditions or is negative; and

[0444] (b) optionally one other element.

[0445] In one embodiment, a compound is provided comprising at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species selected from the group consisting of: (a) a hydride ion having a binding energy greater than the binding energy of an ordinary hydride ion (about 0.8 eV) for p = 2 up to 23 and less than the binding energy of an ordinary hydride ion (about 0.8 eV) for p = 24 according to formula (19) ("increased binding energy hydride ion" or "hydrino hydride ion"); (b) a hydrogen atom having a binding energy greater than the binding energy of an ordinary hydrogen atom (about 13.6 eV) ("increased binding energy hydrogen atom" or "hydrino"); (c) a hydrogen molecule having a first binding energy greater than about 15.3 eV ("increased binding energy hydrogen molecule" or "dihydrino"); and (d) a molecular hydrogen ion having a binding energy greater than about 16.3 eV ("increased binding energy molecular hydrogen ion" or "dihydrino molecular ion"). In the present disclosure, increased binding energy hydrogen species and compounds are also referred to as low-energy hydrogen species and compounds. The hydrino comprises an increased binding energy hydrogen species or equivalently a lower energy hydrogen species.

[0446] III. Chemical Reactor

[0447] The present disclosure also relates to other reactors for producing hydrogen species and compounds (such as dihydrino molecules and hydrino hydride compounds) with increased binding energy of the present disclosure. Depending on the cell type, other catalytic products are power and optional plasma and light. Such reactors may be referred to as "hydrogen reactors" or "hydrogen cells" hereinafter. The hydrogen reactor includes a cell for preparing hydrinos. The cell for preparing hydrinos may take the following forms: a chemical reactor or a gas fuel cell (such as a gas discharge cell), a plasma torch cell or a microwave powered cell, and an electrochemical cell. In one embodiment, the catalyst is HOH and the source of at least one of HOH and H is ice. The ice may have a high surface area to increase the rate of formation of the HOH catalyst and H from ice and at least one of the hydrino reaction rates. The ice may be in the form of fine slices to increase the surface area. In one embodiment, the cell includes an arc discharge cell comprising at least one electrode such that the discharge involves at least a portion of the ice.

[0448] In an embodiment, the arc discharge cell comprises a container, two electrodes, a high voltage power source (such as a power source capable of providing a voltage in the range of about 100V to 1MV and a current in the range of about 1A to 100kA), and a water source (such as a storage tank and a means for forming and supplying H2O droplets). The droplets can move between the electrodes. In an embodiment, the droplets initiate ignition of the arc plasma. In an embodiment, the water arc plasma comprises H and HOH that can react to form hydrinos. The ignition rate and corresponding power ratio can be controlled by controlling the droplet size and the rate at which the droplets are supplied to the electrodes. The high voltage source may include at least one high voltage capacitor that can be charged by the high voltage power source. In an embodiment, the arc discharge cell further comprises a means such as a power converter, such as a power converter of the present disclosure, such as at least one of a PV converter and a heat engine for converting power (such as light and heat) from the hydrino process into electricity.

[0449] Exemplary embodiments of cells for producing hydrinos may take the form of liquid fuel cells, solid fuel cells, heterogeneous fuel cells, CIHT cells, and SF-CIHT or Each of these cells comprises: (i) reactants including a source of atomic hydrogen; (ii) at least one catalyst for producing hydrinos selected from a solid catalyst, a molten catalyst, a liquid catalyst, a gaseous catalyst, or a mixture thereof; and (iii) a container for reacting hydrogen with the catalyst to produce hydrinos. As used herein and as contemplated by the present disclosure, unless otherwise specified, the term "hydrogen" includes not only protium ( 1 H), but also deuterium ( 2 H) and tritium ( 3H). Exemplary chemical reaction mixtures and reactors may include SF-CIHT, CIHT, or thermal cell embodiments of the present disclosure. Additional exemplary embodiments are provided in the "Chemical Reactor" section herein. Examples of reaction mixtures formed during the reaction of the mixture with H2O serving as a catalyst are provided in the present disclosure. Other catalysts may be used to form hydrogen species and compounds with increased binding energy. The reactions and conditions may be adjusted according to these exemplary cases in terms of parameters such as reactants, weight % of reactants, H2 pressure, and reaction temperature. Suitable reactants, conditions, and parameter ranges are those disclosed herein. Hydrinos and molecular hydrinos are products of the reactors of the present disclosure as shown by predicted continuous emission bands at integer multiples of 13.6 eV, ultrahigh H kinetic energy measured by Doppler broadening of the H lines, reversal of the H lines, plasma formation in the absence of a breakdown electric field, and anomalous plasma afterglow duration as reported in a previous publication by Mills. Data (such as that for CIHT cells and solid fuels) have been independently verified off-site by other researchers. The formation of hydrinos by the disclosed cell was also confirmed by the continuous output of electrical energy over long durations that was multiples of the electrical input, in most cases exceeding 10 times the input without an alternative source. The predicted molecular hydrinos, H2(1 / 4), were identified as products of the CIHT cell and solid fuel by: MAS H NMR, which showed a predicted upfield-shifted matrix peak at approximately -4.4 ppm; ToF-SIMS and ESI-ToFMS, which showed H2(1 / 4) recombined with the getter matrix as a m / e=M+n2 peak, where M is the mass of the parent ion and n is an integer; electron beam excited emission spectroscopy and photoluminescence emission spectroscopy, which showed predicted rotational and vibrational spectra of H2(1 / 4) with 16 times the energy of H2 or a quantum number p=4 squared; Raman and FTIR spectroscopy, which showed a peak at 1950 cm -1The results show that the rotational energy of H2(1 / 4) is 16 times that of H2 or a quantum number p=4 squared; XPS, which shows a predicted total binding energy of H2(1 / 4) of 500 eV; and a ToF-SIMS peak arriving before the m / e=1 peak, which corresponds to H with a kinetic energy of about 204 eV, which matches the predicted energy release from H to H(1 / 4) with the energy transferred to the third body H, as reported in: Mills previous publication and R. Mills X Yu, Y. Lu, G Chu, J. He, J. Lotoski, "Catalyst Induced Hydrino Transition (CIHT) Electrochemical Cell", International Journal of Energy Research, (2013) and R. Mills, J. Lotoski, J. Kong, G Chu, J. He, J. Trevey, “High-Power-Density Catalyst Induced Hydrino Transition (CIHT) Electrochemical Cell” (2014), which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

[0450] The formation of hydrinos by the disclosed cells (such as cells including solid fuels for generating heat) was confirmed using both a water flow calorimeter and a Setaram DSC 131 differential scanning calorimeter (DSC) by observing heat energy exceeding 60 times the maximum theoretical energy from the solid fuel for forming hydrinos. MAS H NMR showed the predicted H2(1 / 4) upfield matrix shift of about -4.4 ppm. Starting at 1950 cm -1 The Raman peak of 1 / 4 matches the free space rotation energy of H2(1 / 4) (0.2414 eV). These results were reported in a previous publication by Mills and in R. Mills, J. Lotoski, W. Good, J. He, "Solid Fuels that Form HOH Catalyst", (2014), which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

[0451] IV.SunCell and Power Converter

[0452] A power system that generates at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy (also referred to herein as a "SunCell") may include:

[0453] Containers capable of maintaining pressures below atmospheric pressure;

[0454] reactants capable of undergoing a reaction that generates sufficient energy to form a plasma in the container, the reactants comprising:

[0455] a) a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen, and / or

[0456] water vapor, and / or

[0457] A mixture of hydrogen and water vapor;

[0458] b) molten metal;

[0459] a mass flow controller for controlling the flow of at least one reactant into the container;

[0460] a vacuum pump for maintaining the pressure in the vessel below atmospheric pressure while one or more reactants are flowing into the vessel;

[0461] a molten metal injector system comprising at least one reservoir for containing some of the molten metal, a molten metal pump system (e.g., one or more electromagnetic pumps) configured to deliver the molten metal in the reservoir and through the injector tube to provide a stream of molten metal, and at least one non-injector molten metal reservoir for receiving the stream of molten metal;

[0462] at least one ignition system comprising a source of electrical power or ignition current to supply electrical power to said at least one molten metal stream to ignite said reaction while said hydrogen and / or oxygen and / or water vapor are flowing into said vessel;

[0463] a reactant supply system for replenishing reactants consumed in the reaction; and

[0464] A power converter or output system for converting a portion of the energy generated from the reaction (e.g., light and / or heat output from the plasma) into electricity and / or heat. In some embodiments, the effluent comprises (or consists of) nascent water and atomic hydrogen. In some embodiments, the effluent comprises (or consists of) nascent water and molecular hydrogen. In some embodiments, the effluent comprises (or consists of) nascent water, atomic hydrogen, and molecular hydrogen. In some embodiments, the effluent further comprises a noble gas.

[0465] In some embodiments, the power system may include an optical rectenna such as that described in A. Sharma, V. Singh, T.L. Bougher, B.A. Cola, “A carbon nanotube optical rectenna”, Nature Nanotechnology, Vol. 10, (2015), pp. 1027–1032, doi:10.1038 / nnano.2015.220, which is incorporated by reference in its entirety, particularly for its disclosure of thermodynamic-to-electrical power converters. In another embodiment, the container can have a pressure of at least one of atmospheric pressure, above atmospheric pressure, and below atmospheric pressure. In another embodiment, the at least one direct plasma-to-electric converter may include at least one of the following: a plasmadynamic power converter, Direct converters, magnetohydrodynamic power converters, magnetic mirror magnetohydrodynamic power converters, charge drift converters, post or Venetian blind power converters, gyrotrons, photon beam microwave power converters, and photoelectric converters. In another embodiment, the at least one thermal-to-electric converter may include at least one of the following groups: a heat engine, a steam engine, a steam turbine and generator, a gas turbine and generator, a Rankine cycle engine, a Brayton cycle engine, a Stirling engine, a thermionic power converter, and a thermoelectric power converter. Exemplary thermal-to-electric systems that may include closed coolant systems or open systems that reject heat to the ambient atmosphere are supercritical CO2, organic Rankine, or external burner gas turbine systems.

[0466] In addition to the UV photovoltaics and thermophotovoltaics of the present disclosure, Other electrical conversion components known in the art may be included, such as thermionic power conversion systems, magnetohydrodynamic power conversion systems, turbine power conversion systems, microturbine power conversion systems, Rankine or Brayton cycle turbine power conversion systems, chemical and electrochemical power conversion systems. Rankine cycle turbines may include supercritical CO2, organics (such as hydrofluorocarbons or fluorocarbons), or steam working fluids. In Rankine or Brayton cycle turbines, Heat may be provided to at least one of a preheater, a regenerator, a boiler, and an external burner type heat exchanger stage of the turbine system. In one embodiment, the Brayton cycle turbine includes a combustion section integrated into the turbine. Turbo heater. The turbine heater may include a duct that receives airflow from at least one of the compressor and the regenerator, wherein the air is heated and the duct directs the heated compressed air to the inlet of the turbine to perform pressure-volume work. The turbine heater may replace or supplement the combustor of the gas turbine.The Rankine or Brayton cycle may be closed, wherein the power converter further comprises at least one of a condenser and a cooler.

[0467] The converter may be a converter as given in Mills' prior publication and Mills' prior patent application. The hydrino reactants (such as a H source and a HOH source) and The system may include the hydrino reactants and Systems: Hydrogen Catalyst Reactor, PCT / US08 / 61455, filed April 24, 2008; Heterogeneous Hydrogen Catalyst Reactor, PCT / US09 / 052072, filed July 29, 2009; Heterogeneous Hydrogen Catalyst Power System, PCT / US10 / 27828, filed March 18, 2010; Electrochemical Hydrogen Catalyst Power System, PCT / US11 / 28889, filed March 17, 2011; H2O-Based Electrochemical Hydrogen-Catalyst Power System, PCT / US12 / 31369, filed March 30, 2012; CIHT Power System (CIHT Power System), PCT / US13 / 041938, filed May 21, 2013; Power Generation Systems and Methods Regarding Same, PCT / IB2014 / 058177, filed January 10, 2014; Photovoltaic Power Generation Systems and Methods Regarding Same, PCT / US14 / 32584, filed April 1, 2014; Electrical Power Generation Systems and Methods Regarding Same, PCT / US2015 / 033165, filed May 29, 2015; Ultraviolet Electrical Generation System Methods Regarding Same, PCT / US2015 / 065826, filed December 15, 2015; Thermophotovoltaic Electrical Power Generation Systems Generator (Thermophotovoltaic Power Generator), PCT / US16 / 12620, PCT filed January 8, 2016;Thermophotovoltaic Electrical Power Generator Network, PCT / US2017 / 035025, filed December 7, 2017; Thermophotovoltaic Electrical Power Generator, PCT / US2017 / 013972, filed January 18, 2017; Extreme and Deep Ultraviolet Photovoltaic Cell, PCT / US2018 / 012635, filed January 5, 2018; Magnetohydrodynamic Electric Power Generator, PCT / US18 / 17765, filed February 12, 2018; Magnetohydrodynamic Electric Power Generator, PCT / US2018 / 034842, filed May 29, 2018; Magnetohydrodynamic Electric Mills' prior patent applications include: Magnetohydrodynamic Electric Power Generator, PCT / IB2018 / 059646, filed December 5, 2018; Magnetohydrodynamic Electric Power Generator, PCT / IB2020 / 050360, filed January 16, 2020; Magnetohydrodynamic Hydrogen Electrical Power Generator, PCT / US21 / 17148, filed February 8, 2021; and Infrared Light Recycling Thermophotovoltaic Hydrogen Electrical Power Generator, PCT / IB2022 / 052016, filed March 8, 2022 (the "Mills Prior Patent Applications"), which are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties.

[0468] In an embodiment, H2O is ignited to form hydrinos while releasing high energy in the form of at least one of heat, plasma, and electromagnetic (photo) power. ("Ignition" in this disclosure means igniting from a set of reactants to produce a reaction, such as a reaction ignited by applying an electric current to a set of reactants to produce a plasma, which may be due to the very high reaction rate of H to hydrinos, which may appear as a burst, pulse, or other form of high power release). H2O may constitute a fuel that can be ignited by applying a high current, such as a high current in the range of about 10A to 100,000A. In an embodiment, the hydrino reaction rate depends on the application or formation of a high current. In In one embodiment, the reactants forming hydrinos are subjected to low voltage, high current, high power pulses that can result in extremely fast reaction rates and energy release. In an exemplary embodiment, the voltage is less than 15V peak at 60Hz and the current is 100A / cm 2 Up to 50,000A / cm 2 The peak power is within the range of 1000W / cm 2 Up to 750,000W / cm 2 In the range between 1 / 100 to 100 times of these parameters, other frequencies, voltages, currents and powers are suitable. In an embodiment, the hydrino reaction rate depends on the application or formation of a high current. In an embodiment, the voltage is selected to cause a high AC, DC or AC-DC mixed current in at least one range of 100A to 1,000,000A, 1kA to 100,000A, 10kA to 50kA. The DC or peak AC current density may be in the range of at least one of: 100A / cm 2 Up to 1,000,000A / cm 2 , 1000A / cm 2 Up to 100,000A / cm 2 and 2000A / cm 2 Up to 50,000A / cm 2 The DC or peak AC voltage may be in at least one range selected from the group consisting of approximately 0.1 V to 1000 V, 0.1 V to 100 V, 0.1 V to 15 V, and 1 V to 15 V. The AC frequency may be in the range of approximately 0.1 Hz to 10 GHz, 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 10 Hz to 100 kHz, and 100 Hz to 10 kHz. The pulse time may be in at least one range selected from the group consisting of approximately 10 -6 s to 10s, 10 -5 s to 1s, 10 -4 s to 0.1s and 10 -3 s to 0.01s.

[0469] Ignition system

[0470] In an embodiment, the ignition system includes a switch for at least one of: initiating current flow and interrupting current flow after ignition is achieved. The flow of current may be initiated by contact of a molten metal stream. Switching may be performed electronically by components such as at least one of an insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT), a silicon controlled rectifier (SCR), and at least one metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET). Alternatively, ignition may be switched mechanically. The current may be interrupted after ignition to optimize the energy produced by the output hydrinos relative to the input ignition energy. The ignition system may include a switch to allow a controllable amount of energy to flow into the fuel to cause detonation and to turn off power during the phase in which plasma is generated. In an embodiment, the power source for delivering short pulses of high current electrical energy comprises at least one of:

[0471] selecting a voltage for producing a high AC, DC, or AC-DC mixed current in a range of at least one of 100 A to 1,000,000 A, 1 kA to 100,000 A, and 10 kA to 50 kA;

[0472] DC or peak AC current density within the range of at least one of the following: 1 A / cm 2 Up to 1,000,000A / cm 2 , 1000A / cm 2 Up to 100,000A / cm 2 and 2000A / cm 2 Up to 50,000A / cm 2 ;

[0473] wherein the voltage is determined by the conductivity of the solid fuel, wherein the voltage is obtained by multiplying the desired current by the resistance of the solid fuel sample;

[0474] a DC or peak AC voltage in the range of at least one of 0.1 V to 500 kV, 0.1 V to 100 kV, and 1 V to 50 kV, and

[0475] The AC frequency is in the range of at least one of 0.1 Hz to 10 GHz, 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 10 Hz to 100 kHz, and 100 Hz to 10 kHz.

[0476] The system also includes a starting power / energy source, such as a battery (e.g., a lithium-ion battery). Alternatively, external power for starting, such as grid power, can be provided by connecting an external power source to the generator. The connection can include a power output bus. The starting power / energy source can perform at least one of the following: supply power to the heater to maintain the molten metal conductive matrix, power the injection system, and power the ignition system.

[0477] In one embodiment, A heater such as a combustion heater such as a combustion heater for performing oxyhydrogen combustion is included to melt molten metal such as the molten metal of the wet seal and the molten metal contained in the storage tank and the EM pump pipe. The heater may include multiple burner nozzles. An exemplary heater includes at least one of the following multiple burner nozzles: (i) below the base plate 5b31c and directed at the base plate to heat the base plate and the wet seal, (ii) around the storage tank at the location of the molten metal to heat the corresponding section of the storage tank and the molten metal inside, and (iii) directed at the EM pump pipe 5k6 to heat them and the molten metal inside. The burner or nozzle may include a material capable of high temperature operation such as stainless steel such as 310.

[0478] The segments can be heated well above the melting point to cause heating of the other components of the SunCell by conduction and by transport through EM pumping of the molten metal. Melting and heating can be performed during startup of the operation. The hydrogen supplying the heater can be contained in a tank which can also supply the hydrogen reactant for the hydrino reaction. The hydrogen can be produced by electrolysis of water, where the electrolysis power can be provided by the SunCell. In addition to the tank, the combustion heater gas system can also include an optional oxygen tank, a water electrolyzer, flow meters, pressure gauges, sensors, pressure and flow controllers, valves and a computer. After startup, the burner nozzle can act as a coolant injection jet to cool the corresponding Components such as tanks. Exemplary coolants are air and water.

[0479] In one embodiment, a burner heater nozzle can directly or indirectly heat the inner tank to melt the molten metal during startup. The nozzle can be positioned externally and facing the exterior of the outer tank to heat the inner tank by conduction. The gap between the inner and outer tanks can include a thermally conductive medium. In another embodiment, a heater, such as an electric cartridge heater or at least one burner nozzle, can be positioned within the housing or within a recess within the inner tank.

[0480] A high-pressure water electrolyzer may be included, such as an electrolyzer including a proton exchange membrane (PEM), which subjects water to high pressure to provide high-pressure hydrogen. Each of the H2 and O2 chambers may include a recombiner for eliminating the pollutants O2 and H2, respectively. The PEM may serve as at least one of a separator and a salt bridge between the anode and cathode compartments to allow hydrogen to be produced at the cathode and oxygen to be produced at the anode as a separate gas. The cathode may include a disulfide hydrogen evolution catalyst, such as a catalyst including at least one of niobium and tantalum, which may further include sulfur. The cathode may include cathodes known in the art, such as Pt or Ni. Hydrogen may be produced under high pressure and may be supplied to the reaction cell chamber 5b31 directly or by permeation through a hydrogen permeable membrane. An oxygen line may be included from the anode chamber to a point where the oxygen is delivered to a storage container or vent. In one embodiment, Includes sensors, processors and electrolysis current controllers.

[0481] In another embodiment, hydrogen fuel may be obtained according to: water electrolysis; reforming natural gas; at least one of a syngas reaction and a water-gas shift reaction by reacting steam with carbon to form H2 and CO and CO2; and other hydrogen production methods known to those skilled in the art.

[0482] In another embodiment, hydrogen can be produced by using supplied water and The hydrogen can be produced by pyrolysis using the heat generated. The pyrolysis cycle may include pyrolysis cycles disclosed herein or known in the art, such as pyrolysis cycles based on metals and their oxides, such as at least one of SnO / Sn and ZnO / Zn. In embodiments where the inductively coupled heater, EM pump, and ignition system consume power only during startup, hydrogen can be produced by pyrolysis, resulting in minimal additional power requirements. Batteries such as lithium-ion batteries may be included to provide power to operate systems such as gas sensors and control systems, such as those used for reactive plasma gases.

[0483] Molten metal stream generation

[0484] In one embodiment, such as Figures 66C-66N In the embodiment shown in Two tanks 5c are included, each including an electromagnetic (EM) pump such as the DC, AC, or another EM pump of the present disclosure and an injector that also serves as an ignition electrode and a tank inlet riser for leveling the molten metal level in the tank. The molten metal may comprise tin, silver, a silver-copper alloy, gallium, a gallium-indium-tin alloy, or another of the present disclosure. Also included is a reaction cell chamber 5b31, an electrically isolating flange between the reservoir and the reaction cell chamber (such as an electrically isolating conflat flange), and a drip edge on top of each reservoir to electrically isolate the reservoir and EM pump from each other, wherein the ignition current flows in contact with the intersecting molten metal streams of the two EM pump injectors. In one embodiment, at least one SunCell component, such as each reservoir 5c, reaction cell chamber 5b31, and EM pump tubing 5k6, is internally coated with a ceramic or includes a ceramic lining such as one of the following: BN, quartz, titanium dioxide, aluminum oxide, yttrium oxide, hafnium dioxide, zirconium oxide, silicon carbide, or a mixture such as TiO2-Yr2O3-Al2O3, or another of the present invention. In one embodiment, Also included is an external resistive heater, such as one wound around at least one Heating coils such as Kanthal wire on the outer surface of the components. In one embodiment, the outer surface of at least one component of the SunCell (such as the reaction cell 5b3, the storage tank 5c, and the EM pump tubing 5k6) is coated with ceramic to electrically isolate the resistive heater coils such as Kanthal wire wrapped around the surface. In one embodiment, It may also include at least one of a heat exchanger and a thermal insulator, which may be wrapped around at least one At least one of the heat exchanger and the heater may be enclosed in thermal insulation.

[0485] In one embodiment, the resistive heater may include a support for a heating element such as a heating wire. The support may include carbon that is hermetically sealed. The sealant may include a ceramic such as SiC. SiC may be formed by reacting Si with carbon at high temperature in a vacuum furnace.

[0486] The heater may be a resistive heater or an inductively coupled heater. The heater includes Kanthal A-1 (Kanthal) resistance heating wire, a ferrite-chromium-aluminum alloy (FeCrAl alloy) capable of operating temperatures up to 1400°C and having high resistivity and good oxidation resistance. Other FeCrAl alloys for suitable heating elements are at least one of Kanthal APM, Kanthal AF, Kanthal D, and Alkrothal. Heating elements such as resistance wire elements may include NiCr alloys operable in the range of 1100°C to 1200°C, such as at least one of Nikrothal 80, Nikrothal 70, Nikrothal 60, and Nikrothal 40. Alternatively, the heater 415 may comprise molybdenum disilicide (MoSi2) capable of operating in an oxidizing atmosphere in the range of 1500°C to 1800°C, such as at least one of Kanthal Super 1700, Kanthal Super 1800, Kanthal Super 1900, Kanthal Super RA, Kanthal Super ER, Kanthal Super HT, and Kanthal Super NC. The heating element may comprise molybdenum disilicide (MoSi2) alloyed with aluminum oxide. The heating element may have an oxidation-resistant coating such as an aluminum oxide coating. The heating element of the resistive heater may comprise SiC, which may be capable of operating at temperatures up to 1625°C.

[0487] Electromagnetic pumps can each include one of two main types of electromagnetic pumps for liquid metal: AC or DC conduction pumps, in which an AC or DC magnetic field is established across a tube containing the liquid metal, and an AC or DC current is fed to the liquid through electrodes connected to the tube wall; and induction pumps, in which a traveling wave field induces the desired current, as in an induction motor, where the current can intersect the applied AC electromagnetic field. Induction pumps can include three main types: circular linear, flat linear, and spiral. Pumps can include other pumps known in the art, such as mechanical pumps and thermoelectric pumps. Mechanical pumps can include centrifugal pumps with an electric motor-driven impeller. The power to the electromagnetic pump can be constant or pulsed to cause a corresponding constant or pulsed injection of molten metal, respectively. The pulsed injection can be driven by a program or function generator. The pulsed injection can maintain a pulsed plasma in the reaction cell chamber. The EM pump can include a multi-stage pump.

[0488] In one embodiment, the EM pump tube 5k6 includes a flow chopper to cause intermittent or pulsed molten metal injection. The chopper may include a valve, such as an electronically controlled valve further including a controller. The valve may include a solenoid valve. Alternatively, the chopper may include a rotating disk having at least one passageway that periodically rotates to intersect the molten metal flow to allow the molten metal to flow through the passageway, wherein the metal flow is blocked by a section of the rotating disk that does not include a passageway.

[0489] The molten metal pump may comprise a moving magnet pump (MMP).An exemplary commercial AC EM pump is the CMI Novacast CA15, where the heating and cooling systems may be modified to support pumping of molten metal.

[0490] In one embodiment, the EM pump may comprise an AC induction type, wherein the Lorentz force on the molten metal is generated by a time-varying current and a cross-synchronized time-varying magnetic field through the molten metal. The time-varying current through the molten metal may be generated by Faraday induction of a first time-varying magnetic field generated by an EM pump transformer winding circuit. The first time-varying magnetic field source may comprise a primary transformer winding, and the molten metal may serve as a secondary transformer winding, such as a single-turn short-circuited winding comprising an EM pump tubing section with a current loop and an EM pump current loop return section.

[0491] In embodiments where the molten metal injector includes at least one EM pump (which includes a current source and a magnet to induce a Lorentz pumping force), the EM pump magnet 5k4 may include a permanent magnet or an electromagnet, such as a DC or AC electromagnet. In the case where the magnet is a permanent magnet or a DC electromagnet, the EM pump current source includes a DC power source. In the case where the magnet 5k4 includes an AC electromagnet, the EM pump current source of the EM bus 5k2 includes an AC power source that provides a current in phase with the AC EM pump electromagnetic field applied to the EM pump tube 5k6 to generate the Lorentz pumping force. In embodiments where the magnet, such as an electromagnet, is immersed in a corrosive coolant, such as a water bath, the magnet, such as an electromagnet, may be sealed in a sealant, such as a thermoplastic, a coating, or a housing, which may be non-magnetic, such as a stainless steel housing.

[0492] In another embodiment, the ignition system comprises an induction system in which a power supply applied to the conductive molten metal to cause the hydrino reaction to ignite provides an induction current, voltage, and power. The ignition system may comprise an electrodeless system in which the ignition current is applied by induction through an induction ignition transformer assembly. The induction current may flow through intersecting molten metal streams from multiple injectors maintained by a pump (such as an EM pump). In one embodiment, the tank 5c may further comprise ceramic cross-connecting channels, such as channels between the bases of the tank 5c. The induction ignition transformer assembly may comprise an induction ignition transformer winding and an induction ignition transformer yoke that may extend through an induction current loop formed by the tank 5c, the intersecting molten metal streams from the multiple molten metal injectors, and the cross-connecting channels. The induction ignition transformer assembly may be similar to the induction ignition transformer assembly of the EM pump transformer winding circuit.

[0493] In one embodiment, the heater for melting the metal may include a resistive heater, such as a resistive heater including a wire such as Kanthal or other wires disclosed herein. The resistive heater may include a refractory resistive wire or wire that can be wrapped around the component to be heated. Exemplary resistive heater elements and components may include high-temperature conductors such as carbon, Nichrome, 300 series stainless steel, Incoloy 800 and Inconel 600, 601, 718, 625, Haynes 230, 188, 214, nickel, Hastelloy C, titanium, tantalum, molybdenum, TZM, rhenium, niobium, and tungsten. The wire or wire may be potted in a potting compound to protect it from oxidation. The heating element (such as a wire, wire, or mesh) may be operated in a vacuum to protect it from oxidation. Exemplary heaters include Kanthal A-1 (Kanthal) resistance heating wire, a ferrite-chromium-aluminum alloy (FeCrAl alloy) capable of operating temperatures up to 1400°C and having high resistivity and good oxidation resistance. Another exemplary wire is Kanthal APM, which forms a non-flaking oxide coating that is resistant to oxidizing and carburizing environments and is operable up to 1475°C. The heat loss rate at 1375K and an emissivity of 1 is 200kW / m 2 or 0.2W / cm 2 A commercially available resistive heater operating to 1475K has a resistance of 4.6 W / cm 2 Insulation on the outside of the heating element can be used to increase the heating.

[0494] An exemplary heater 415 includes Kanthal A-1 (Kanthal) resistance heating wire, which is a ferrite-chromium-aluminum alloy (FeCrAl alloy) capable of operating temperatures up to 1400° C. and having high resistivity and good oxidation resistance. Other FeCrAl alloys for suitable heating elements are at least one of Kanthal APM, Kanthal AF, Kanthal D, and Alkrothal. Heating elements such as resistance wire elements may include NiCr alloys operable in the range of 1100° C. to 1200° C., such as at least one of Nikrothal 80, Nikrothal 70, Nikrothal 60, and Nikrothal 40. Alternatively, heater 415 may comprise molybdenum disilicide (MoSi2) capable of operating in an oxidizing atmosphere within a range of 1500°C to 1800°C, such as at least one of Kanthal Super 1700, Kanthal Super 1800, Kanthal Super 1900, Kanthal Super RA, Kanthal Super ER, Kanthal Super HT, and Kanthal Super NC. The heating element may comprise molybdenum disilicide (MoSi2) alloyed with alumina. The heating element may have an oxidation-resistant coating, such as an alumina coating. The heating element of resistive heater 415 may comprise SiC, which may be capable of operating at temperatures up to 1625°C. The heater may comprise insulation to increase at least one of its efficiency and effectiveness. The insulation may comprise a ceramic, such as ceramics known to those skilled in the art, such as an insulation comprising alumina-silicate. The insulation may be at least one of removable or reversible. The insulation may be removed after startup to more efficiently transfer heat to a desired receiver, such as the ambient environment or a heat exchanger. The insulation can be mechanically removed. The insulation can include an evacuable chamber and a pump, where the insulation is applied by evacuation and reversed by adding a heat transfer gas such as a noble gas (such as helium). A vacuum chamber with a heat transfer gas such as helium that can be added or pumped away can act as an adjustable insulation.

[0495] The ignition current may be time-varying, such as approximately 60 Hz AC, but may have other characteristics and waveforms, such as a DC or AC waveform having a frequency in at least one range of 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 10 Hz to 10 kHz, 10 Hz to 1 kHz, and 10 Hz to 100 Hz, a peak current in at least one range of approximately 1 A to 100 MA, 10 A to 10 MA, 100 A to 1 MA, 100 A to 100 kA, and 1 kA to 100 kA, and a peak voltage in at least one range of approximately 1 V to 1 MV, 2 V to 100 kV, 3 V to 10 kV, 3 V to 1 kV, 2 V to 100 V, and 3 V to 30 V, wherein the waveform may include a sine wave, square wave, triangular wave, or other desired waveform, which may include a duty cycle such as in at least one range of 1% to 99%, 5% to 75%, and 10% to 50%. To minimize the skin effect at high frequencies, the windings of the ignition system may include at least one of braided wire, stranded wire, and Litz wire. In one embodiment, the ignition power waveform, such as a periodic square wave of the ignition current, along with the frequency and duty cycle, is selected to optimize at least one of output power and power gain, given by the ratio of power output to ignition power. An exemplary frequency square wave waveform ranges from 1 to 500 Hz. In another exemplary embodiment, the ignition power comprises a repeating pattern of varying currents over time, such as a square wave alternating between a high current, such as 1500 A, and a low current, such as 500 A, where the square wave widths for the high and low currents can be the same or different.

[0496] Power system and structure

[0497] At least a portion of the syringe EM pump tubing 5k61 and nozzle 5q can comprise carbon, wherein sections of the EM pump tubing, such as sections that come into contact with molten metals such as tin, can comprise metals such as stainless steel, W, or Ta to conduct the ignition current. The carbon can comprise a hard form such as glassy carbon, or a hard coating such as pyrolytically coated or CalCoat-coated carbon. In one exemplary embodiment, a coupler can be used to connect the carbon portion of the EM pump tubing or nozzle to the metal section of the EM pump tubing by gluing the components together using a glue such as Aremco Products Graphitic Bond 551RN. The carbon can be coated with a coating such as a pyrolytic carbon coating. In another embodiment, at least a portion of the syringe EM pump tubing 5k61 and nozzle 5q can include an oxide coating such as tungsten oxide or tantalum oxide on the W and Ta components, respectively. In one embodiment, the syringe EM pump tubing 5k61 includes a carbon-metal nozzle coupler to connect the carbon nozzle to the metal section of the EM pump tubing by means such as a potting compound or glue. The coupling member may be a carbide that facilitates coupling with the nozzle and avoids the formation of carbides associated with coupling member corrosion. An exemplary material for the latter case is at least one of W, Ta, and Ni. At least one nozzle, such as the cathode nozzle, may be submerged.

[0498] In an embodiment, at least a portion of the syringe EM pump tube 5k61 and the nozzle 5q, such as a portion comprising W, may be covered or coated with a material such as quartz, BN, alumina, carbon, or another ceramic such as one of the present disclosure to reduce or prevent conduction on the outer surface and at least one of the recombination of hydrino plasma ions and electrons. In an embodiment, at least a portion of the reaction cell chamber wall may include a conductive surface to facilitate hydrino plasma ion-electron recombination. An exemplary surface is a liquid wall or bottom surface comprising a molten metal and at least one refractory metal plate (such as at least one W plate, which may be a pure metal). The preferential ion-electron recombination in the reaction cell chamber may prevent the hydrino reaction plasma from accumulating in a storage tank such as a cathode storage tank.

[0499] In an embodiment, the separation distance between the injector electrodes is minimized to minimize the ignition voltage. The nozzles may be recessed into the reservoir to minimize exposure to the plasma, which could cause them to be thermally damaged. The degree of immersion may be determined by a balance between thermal protection and avoiding excessive ignition voltage (due to the increase in electrode separation with distance), where at least one of a large separation distance and a high ignition voltage may result in the undesirable result of plasma localization in at least one reservoir, such as the cathode reservoir. In an embodiment, an inert gas such as argon may be added to the reaction mixture at a sufficient pressure (such as a pressure in the range of about 0.1 Torr to 5 atmospheres) to prevent the plasma from being localized in at least one reservoir.

[0500] In one embodiment, the area of ​​the nozzle can be increased to increase radiative heat loss to prevent thermal damage. The nozzle emissivity can be maximized by means such as surface oxidation or roughening to maximize radiation. In an exemplary embodiment, the nozzle can include a large, heavy, surface-roughened or oxidized W disk or cylinder, such as a disk or cylinder with a mass in the range of about 10 g to 2 kg and a nozzle cone in the center. In another embodiment, the electrode can include an at least partially liquid or mixed solid-liquid electrode. The nozzle can include a pool for molten metal, wherein the molten metal can be used to cool the nozzle. In an alternative embodiment, the injector electrode can include a large injection hole located in the center of the nozzle and also include a plurality of smaller holes or pinholes around the nozzle and the injection EM pump tube. The nozzle outlet hole can have other geometric shapes other than circular, such as polygons, sectors, star patterns, and other geometric shapes known in the art to produce the desired geometry of the injection stream, such as a circular cross-sectional stream or a stream that is dispersed or distributed in at least one of space and time. The high ignition current may create a magnetic pinch effect, forcing the pinhole flow parallel to the syringe EM pump tubing and nozzle flow to maintain the molten metal on the nozzle for protecting the nozzle from plasma and heat damage.

[0501] In one embodiment, at least one nozzle may include multiple outlets, such as outlets connected to a central channel connected to an EM pump tube, to inject multiple streams of molten metal. The nozzle may include a larger central outlet and multiple other outlets, such as circumferential outlets surrounding the central outlet, which may be located on a flat-top nozzle. The multiple streams may inject molten metal into the hydrino reaction plasma to achieve at least one of the following: reduce the ignition voltage and increase the effectiveness of the injected molten metal in cleaning the PV window or PV window cavity.

[0502] In another embodiment, the nozzles may comprise W having sufficient thermal mass (such as a mass in the range of about 10 g to 1 kg) so that they do not melt when the nozzles are recessed a certain distance in the tank (such as a distance in the range of 0.5 mm to 10 cm from the top of the bottom plate lining 5b 31b). In another embodiment, the top of the tank, such as the cathode tank, may comprise a metal screen or grid, such as a refractory screen or grid, such as a W grid, which shields the nozzles from the plasma electric field while allowing the return molten metal flow and the injection metal flow to flow.

[0503] In one embodiment, at least one seal between the components of the SunCell may include a wet seal. The wet seal may include a seal formed by a molten solid that is constrained by the same or another solid constraining material. The solid constraining material may flow into the gap between the two components to be sealed together as a liquid, fill the gap, and solidify to constrain the molten solid, which forms a seal between the two components (such as a seal comprising molten tin constrained by solid tin in the gap between the two components sealed by molten tin). The wet seal may include at least one of a heater, a refrigerator, a temperature sensor, and a controller to maintain the molten (liquid) phase and the solid phase of the wet seal.

[0504] In one embodiment, hydrogen may be supplied to the cell through a hydrogen permeable membrane, such as a structurally reinforced Pd-Ag or niobium membrane. The hydrogen permeation rate through the hydrogen permeable membrane may be increased by maintaining a plasma on the outer surface of the permeable membrane. A semipermeable membrane may be included, which may constitute an electrode of a plasma cell, such as the cathode of a plasma cell (eg a glow discharge cell). Such as Figure 66C As shown in An external sealed plasma chamber may also be included, comprising an outer wall surrounding a portion of the wall of the cell 5b31, wherein a portion of the metal wall of the cell 5b31 constitutes an electrode of the plasma cell. The sealed plasma chamber may include a chamber around the cell 5b31, such as a housing, wherein the wall of the cell 5b31 may constitute the plasma cell electrode, and a separate electrode in the housing or the chamber may constitute a counter electrode. Also included may be a plasma power source and plasma control system, a gas source such as a hydrogen supply tank, a hydrogen supply monitor and regulator, and a vacuum pump.

[0505] The system can operate via the generation of two plasmas. An initial reaction mixture, such as a non-stoichiometric H2 / O2 mixture (e.g., H2 / O2 having less than 20%, less than 10%, less than 5%, or less than 3% O2, as a mole percentage of the mixture), can be passed through a plasma cell, such as a glow discharge, to produce a reaction mixture capable of catalytically reacting with sufficient heat release to produce a plasma as described herein. For example, a non-stoichiometric H2 / O2 mixture can be passed through a glow discharge to produce an effluent of atomic hydrogen and nascent H2O (e.g., a mixture having water at a concentration and having an internal energy sufficient to prevent the formation of hydrogen bonds). The glow discharge effluent can be directed into a reaction chamber where an electric current is supplied between two electrodes (e.g., by passing molten metal therebetween). When the effluent interacts with a biased molten metal (e.g., gallium or tin), a catalytic reaction between the nascent water and the atomic hydrogen is initiated, e.g., when an arc current is formed. The power system can include:

[0506] a) Plasma cells (such as glow discharge cells);

[0507] b) a set of electrodes in electrical contact with one another via the molten metal flowing therebetween so as to allow application of an electrical bias to the molten metal;

[0508] c) a molten metal injection system that causes the molten metal to flow between the electrodes;

[0509] wherein the effluent from the plasma cell is directed toward a biased molten metal (eg, a positive electrode or anode).

[0510] The SunCell may include a transparent window to act as a light source of wavelengths that are transparent to the window. The SunCell may include a blackbody radiator 5b4c that may act as a blackbody light source. In one embodiment, A light source such as a plasma from the reaction is included, wherein the hydrino plasma light emitted through the window is utilized in a desired lighting application such as residential, street, commercial, or industrial lighting, or for heating or processing such as chemical processing or photolithography.

[0511] In one embodiment, the electrical power source or ignition power source comprises a non-direct current (DC) source, such as a time-varying current source, such as a pulsed or alternating current (AC) source. The peak current may be within at least one range, such as 10A to 100mA, 100A to 10mA, 100A to 1mA, 100A to 100kA, 100A to 10kA, and 100A to 1kA. The peak voltage may be within at least one of a range of 0.5V to 1kV, 1V to 100V, and 1V to 10V. In one embodiment, the EM pump power source and AC ignition system may be selected to avoid inference that would result in at least one of ineffective EM pumping and distortion of the desired ignition waveform.

[0512] In one embodiment, the power source or ignition power source for supplying the ignition current may include at least one of a DC, AC, or DC and AC power supply, such as a power supply powered by at least one of AC, DC, or DC and AC power, such as a switch-mode power supply, a variable frequency drive (VFD), an AC-to-AC converter, a DC-to-DC converter, and an AC-to-DC converter, a DC-to-AC converter, a rectifier, a full-wave rectifier, an inverter, a photovoltaic array generator, a magnetohydrodynamic generator, and a conventional power generator, such as a generator powered by a Rankine or Brayton cycle, a thermionic generator, and a thermoelectric generator. The ignition power source may include at least one circuit element for generating the desired ignition current, such as a transition, an IGBT, an inductor, a transformer, a capacitor, a rectifier, a bridge (such as an H-bridge), a resistor, an operational amplifier, or another circuit element or power conditioning device known in the art. In one exemplary embodiment, the ignition power source may include a full-wave rectified high-frequency source, such as a full-wave rectified high-frequency source that supplies positive square wave pulses at a duty cycle of approximately 50% or greater. The frequency may be in the range of approximately 60 Hz to 100 kHz. An exemplary power supply provides approximately 30 to 40 V and 3,000 to 5,000 A at a frequency in the range of approximately 10 kHz to 40 kHz. In one embodiment, the power used to supply the ignition current may include a capacitor bank charged to an initial offset voltage (such as a voltage in the range of 1 V to 100 V) that may be connected in series with an AC transformer or power supply, wherein the resulting voltage may include a DC voltage with AC modulation. The DC component may decay at a rate dependent on its normal discharge time constant, or the discharge time may be increased or eliminated, wherein the ignition power source further includes a DC power supply to recharge the capacitor bank. The DC voltage component may assist in initiating the plasma, wherein the plasma may be maintained at a lower voltage thereafter. The ignition power supply, such as the capacitor bank, may include a fast switch, such as one controlled by a servo motor or solenoid, to connect and disconnect the ignition power to the electrode.

[0513] The hydrino reaction rate may increase with current; however, sustained high current and power may cause thermal damage to the SunCell. The SunCell ignition power source may include a charging power supply, a capacitor bank (such as a capacitor bank composed of multiple supercapacitors), a voltage sensor, a controller, and an ignition switch. In order to avoid thermal damage while achieving high hydrino reaction kinetics, a high current may be applied intermittently. This intermittent application of the ignition current may be achieved by continuously charging the capacitor bank with a power supply such as a DC power supply. Triggering the ignition switch may discharge the capacitor bank, which is then discharged from a first voltage set point to a second, lower voltage set point by triggering the ignition switch, which is controlled by a controller responsive to a voltage sensor. For example, the first and second voltage set points may be selected so that the peak ignition current during the capacitor discharge is greater than the charging current provided by the DC power supply.

[0514] In an embodiment, at least one of the hydrino plasma and the ignition current may comprise an arc current. The arc current may have the following characteristics: the higher the current, the lower the voltage. In an embodiment, at least one of the reaction cell chamber walls and the electrodes are selected to form and support at least one of the hydrino plasma current and the ignition current comprising an arc current (i.e., a current with very low voltage at very high current). The current density may be about 1 A / cm 2 Up to 100MA / cm 2 , 10A / cm 2 Up to 10MA / cm 2 , 100A / cm 2 Up to 10MA / cm 2 and 1kA / cm 2 Up to 1MA / cm 2 within at least one range.

[0515] In one embodiment, A vacuum system is included, comprising an inlet to a vacuum line, a vacuum line, a trap, and a vacuum pump. The vacuum pump may include a vacuum pump having a high pumping speed, such as a Roots pump, a scroll pump, or a multi-lobe pump. The vacuum system may have at least one of the following capabilities: ultra-high vacuum; and maintaining the reaction cell chamber operating pressure within at least one low range, such as approximately 0.01 torr to 500 torr, 0.1 torr to 50 torr, 1 torr to 10 torr, and 1 torr to 5 torr. The pressure may be maintained low in at least one of the following situations: (i) adding H2 while a trace amount of HOH catalyst is provided as a trace amount of water or as O2 that reacts with H2 to form HOH; and (ii) adding H2O. In the case where a noble gas such as argon is also supplied to the reaction mixture, the pressure may be maintained within at least one high operating pressure range, such as approximately 100 torr to 100 atmospheres, 500 torr to 10 atmospheres, and 1 atmosphere to 10 atmospheres, wherein argon may be in excess compared to other reaction cell chamber gases. The argon pressure may increase the lifetime of at least one of the HOH catalyst and atomic H and may prevent the plasma formed at the electrode from rapidly spreading so that the plasma intensity is increased.

[0516] In one embodiment, the vacuum pump may include at least one of: (i) a positive displacement pump, a momentum transfer pump, and a capture pump; (ii) a mechanical pump such as a vortex pump, a rotary vane pump, a dry screw pump, a diaphragm pump, a molecular drag pump, a turbo pump, or a Roots pump; (iii) a cryogenic pump; and (iv) a hydrogen recombiner that reacts with flowing hydrogen from at least one of the reaction cell chamber 5b31, the PV window chamber 5b5, and the storage tank 5c to form water. The vacuum pump may include multiple pumps that may be connected in at least one of series and parallel. The recombiner may include at least one of: a supported catalyst such as a noble metal or transition metal such as Pt, Pd, Ir, or Ni, Raney nickel on a high surface area support such as alumina or silica; a thermocatalytic surface such as heated W, noble metal, or Ni wire; and an oxidant such as oxygen or CuO. The supported catalyst may be heated for activation. In an alternative embodiment, the H2 / O2 recombiner includes a plasma source, such as a glow discharge plasma, a microwave plasma, a radio frequency (RF) plasma, an inductively or capacitively coupled RF plasma, or another plasma cell known in the art. Oxygen can be mixed with hydrogen as a vacuum pump carrier gas. Water can be pumped away or removed by at least one of a vacuum pump (such as a mechanical pump, a cryogenic pump) and a chemical absorbent (such as a moisture absorbent, such as a desiccant, such as silica gel, activated carbon, calcium sulfate, calcium chloride, and a molecular sieve (typically a zeolite)), as well as others known in the art.

[0517] In one embodiment, The system may include (i) a gas recirculation system having a gas inlet and an outlet, (ii) a gas separation system such as a gas separation system capable of separating at least two gases of a mixture of at least two of a noble gas (such as argon), O2, H2, HO, air, and hydrino gas, (iii) at least one noble gas, O2, H2, and HO partial pressure sensor, (iv) a flow controller, (v) at least one syringe, such as a microsyringe, such as a microsyringe for injecting water or water vapor, (vi) at least one valve, (vii) a pump, (viii) an exhaust gas pressure and flow controller, and (ix) a computer to maintain at least one of the noble gas, argon, O2, H2, HO, and hydrino gas pressures. The recirculation system may include a semi-permeable membrane to allow at least one gas (such as molecular hydrino gas) to be removed from the circulating gas. In one embodiment, at least one gas (such as a noble gas) may be selectively recirculated while at least one gas of the reaction mixture may flow out of the outlet and may be discharged through the exhaust port.

[0518] In one embodiment, the pressure sensor may include at least one of the following: (i) a thermal conductivity type, such as a Pirani meter, such as the MKS 925 series MicroPirani TM Vacuum pressure sensor, (ii) Capacitive type, such as the MKS600 series absolute analog Capacitive pressure gauges, and (iii) piezoresistive pressure gauges, such as the MKS 902B series piezoelectric sensors. Pirani type meters can be calibrated for SunCell gases such as hydrogen. In one embodiment, the meter can include multiple different sensors in the same or separate meters used in combination. Exemplary embodiments of piezoresistive and capacitive combination meters include the DCP Quantum | DuoSENS capacitive piezoresistive vacuum sensor 0.01 to 1000 Torr, which is gas independent. To be compatible with the temperature limits of the meter, the exhaust gas can be cooled by means such as a water bath, forced air, a radiator (such as a copper or aluminum block with optional coolant fins, such as air fins), and a heat exchanger (such as a heat exchanger using a heat exchanger and circulating coolant to cool the EM pump magnet).

[0519] In an embodiment, the SunCell comprises means for recording plasma spectral emissions such as a spectrometer and at least one mass flow controller. At least one component in the hydrino reaction mixture, such as at least one of oxygen, hydrogen, water vapor, air, and an inert gas, is controlled by monitoring at least one characteristic spectral emission with the spectrometer, wherein the intensity or relative intensity relative to at least one other characteristic plasma emission is used to control the flow rate of the component by the mass flow controller.

[0520] In one embodiment, The reaction cell chamber may be operated in a significantly closed manner with the addition of at least one of the reactants H2, O2, and H2O, wherein the reaction cell chamber atmosphere comprises the reactants and optionally a noble gas (such as argon). The total gas may be maintained within a desired pressure range, such as within a range of about 0.1 torr to 100 atmospheres. In an exemplary embodiment, the pressure is maintained within a range of about 1 to 10 torr by a control system, such as a control system comprising a processor and one or more pressure sensors, a gas flow controller, a valve, and a gas source. The atmosphere may be discharged or recycled through a recycling system in at least one of the following ways: continuously and periodically or intermittently. The discharge may remove at least one of hydrino gas and excess oxygen. Adding the reactant O2 together with H2 may be such that O2 is a minor species and substantially forms an HOH catalyst when O2 is injected into the reaction cell chamber together with excess H2. The lance may inject a mixture of H2 and O2, which reacts immediately to form an HOH catalyst and excess H2 reactant.

[0521] In one embodiment, the gas pressure in the reaction cell chamber can be at least partially controlled by controlling at least one of pumping rate and recirculation rate. At least one of these rates can be controlled by the valve controlled by pressure sensor and controller. Exemplary valves for controlling air flow are electromagnetic valves and variable flow limiting valves (such as butterfly valves and throttle valves controlled by pressure sensor and controller to maintain required gas pressure range) that open and close in response to higher and lower target pressures.

[0522] By increasing the vacuum pumping rate, the removal of molecular hydrino products can be further increased. Figures 66O-66T The SunCell shown in FIG may include multiple vacuum ports such as 711 connected to one or more vacuum pumps. In one embodiment, at least one of the EM pumping rate and capacity may be increased to act as a dripping metal vacuum pump. Molecular hydrinos absorbed on the surface of the returning molten metal and in the molten metal may be pumped through the molecular hydrino permeable section of the EM pump tube to discharge the hydrinos to the outside of the SunCell.

[0523] In one embodiment, Including a member for exhausting or removing molecular hydrino gas from the reaction cell chamber 5b31 or the PV window cavity 5b4. In one embodiment, at least one of the walls such as the PV window cavity, the storage tank, and the EM pump tube has a high permeation rate for molecular hydrinos such as H2(1 / 4). In one embodiment, at least one of the length and diameter of at least one wall (such as the wall of the storage tank and the EM pump tube) can be increased to increase the permeation rate. At least one of the wall thickness can be minimized and the wall operating temperature can be maximized. In one embodiment, the thickness of at least one of the walls can be in the range of 0.05mm to 5mm thick. In an exemplary embodiment, the reaction cell chamber material may include one or more of stainless steel such as 347SS such as 4130 alloy SS or Cr-Mo SS, nickel, Ti, niobium, vanadium, iron, W, Re, Ta, Mo, niobium, and Nb (94.33 wt%)-Mo (4.86 wt%)-Zr (0.81 wt%). Crystalline materials such as SiC may be more permeable to hydrinos than amorphous materials such as Sialon or quartz, making crystalline materials exemplary liners.

[0524] In an exemplary embodiment, the permeation of molecular hydrinos may pass through at least one wall or floor of the SunCell, such as the PV window cavity, the EM pump tube, and at least one of the tank wall and floor 5b31c. In an embodiment, at least one of the width and length of the EM pump tube may be increased to increase the molecular hydrino permeation rate, wherein the EM pump may be positioned on the side of the tank to accommodate the increased pump tube length while optimizing the size of the SunCell.

[0525] In an embodiment, at least one of: (i) vacuum pressure may be maintained and (ii) molecular hydrino gas may be removed by a Sprengel pump wherein molten metal such as tin is injected into a reaction cell chamber such as a PV window cavity and flows back to the tank in the form of droplets. The flow may pass through beads such as quartz beads. The Sprengel pump may include at least one Sprengel pump tube extending from the top to the bottom of the tank and vacuum sealed to the tank wall at the bottom of the tank, an electrical circuit breaker 913 ( Figures 66O-66T ) is connected here. Molten metal droplets can flow into the Sprengel pump tubing and capture gas from within the SunCell, such as from the PV window cavity, transporting and compressing it along each tube. The droplets can exit the tube at the bottom to release the gas. The compressed gas can be released in a vacuum-sealed chamber comprising bellows 917, which can contain the pool of molten metal and the inlet of the EM pump. The compressed molecular hydrino gas can be pumped out of the bellows chamber or allowed to permeate through the bellows wall.

[0526] In one embodiment, the Sprengel pump tube can extend into the EM pump. The molten metal can return through at least one of the Sprengel pump tube and the storage tank. The molten metal in the storage tank can flow into the inlet pipe of the EM pump, wherein the inlet may include an inlet riser to regulate the molten metal liquid level in the storage tank. The flows from the Sprengel pump tube and the EM pump tube inlet converge at the union of the EM pump. In one embodiment, at least one of the arms may include a gas permeable membrane. In one embodiment, the gas permeable membrane may include a frit comprising pores having an pore size smaller than the pore size through which molten metal, such as tin, can flow, such as pores having a diameter of less than 10 microns. At least a portion of the EM pump tube and the Sprengel pump tube wall may include a gas permeable membrane.

[0527] In an embodiment, the means for removing hydrino gas from the PV window cavity by permeation may comprise a gas selective membrane comprising (i) a frit having a pore size smaller than that of a molten metal (such as gallium) permeable, the frit forming at least a portion of a wall of a component of the SunCell, such as a PV window cavity wall, a tank wall, or a portion of an EM pump tubing wall, (ii) a chamber with an open top serving as a tank for the molten metal, wherein the frit serves as at least one wall, and (iii) molten metal filling the tank serving as a vacuum seal against atmospheric pressure and a path for hydrino gas to diffuse from the interior of the SunCell through the frit to the exterior, such as the atmosphere. The tank may be thin such that the molten metal in the tank may be thin (such as in the range of about 0.1 mm to 10 mm thick) to support diffusion of hydrino gas from the interior of the SunCell.

[0528] In one embodiment, a Sprengel type gas pump may include a tube attached to and penetrating the tank bottom plate 5kk1, wherein the tube may enter a vacuum sealed chamber. The tube may enter from the top of the chamber, and the chamber may serve as a tank chamber so that the returned molten metal droplets and the gas propelled by the droplets flow into the tank chamber. The gas may fill the top of the tank chamber, and the molten metal may fill the bottom of the tank chamber. The base of the tank chamber may include an inlet of an EM pump, which may inject molten metal into the reaction cell chamber or the PV window cavity to maintain the hydrino reaction plasma. The gas-containing portion of the tank chamber may include a penetration leading to a vacuum pump to evacuate the gas.

[0529] At least one wall of the reservoir chamber can include a permeable membrane, such as a permeable membrane comprising at least one of a frit and a thin molten metal seal. In one embodiment, the EM pump can include multiple stages, wherein the inlet to the reservoir chamber and the inlet from the reservoir can feed molten metal to different pump stages. In one exemplary embodiment, the reservoir chamber feeds the first stage, and the reservoir feeds the second stage, wherein the reservoir can include an inlet riser to control the molten metal level in the reservoir. The EM pump and the reservoir chamber can be juxtaposed with the reservoir to achieve suitable packaging.

[0530] In one embodiment, the SunCell may include an electrostatic precipitation system (ESP) system. The ESP system may include two separate electrical circuit breakers in the vacuum line 711 near the reaction cell chamber 5b31 to electrically isolate the positively polarized positive vacuum line segment. The positive segment may include a positive lead on the vacuum line, and components of the SunCell, such as the reaction cell chamber 5b31, may include a negative lead. The lead may be connected to a high-voltage power supply so that the positive segment is positively biased, while the SunCell components are negatively biased or grounded. The voltage applied to the positive segment may be in at least one range of about 10V to 10MV, 50V to 1MV, and 100V to 100kV, wherein the corresponding positive segment diameter is in at least one range of about 0.1mm to 1m, 1mm to 10cm, and 1mm to 5cm. The tube may be flattened so that the cross-sectional area for vacuum pumping remains similar to the cross-sectional area of ​​the connection segment of the vacuum line (such as the connection segment of the electrical circuit breaker 945). The corresponding electric field can be between about 1000 V / m and 10 8 V / m, wherein the gas pressure in the tube can be in the range of about 0.1 mTorr to 10 atmospheres. The plasma in the reaction cell chamber can cause oxide particles, such as gallium oxide or tin oxide particles, to be negatively charged, and such particles flowing through the vacuum line can be electrostatically attracted to the positively charged walls of an isolated, positively polarized vacuum line section. The vacuum line to the positive section can at least one of include or be lined with electrical insulators to prevent the charged particles from losing their charge before entering the positive vacuum line section. Particles accumulated by the ESP can fall back into the reaction cell chamber by gravity or be forced back by a component of a gas nozzle, such as a hydrogen or argon nozzle.

[0531] In one embodiment, the reaction cell chamber reaction cell mixture is controlled by controlling the reaction cell chamber pressure by at least one of controlling the injection rate of reactants and controlling the rate at which excess reactants and products of the reaction mixture are discharged from the reaction cell chamber 5b31. Comprise pressure sensor, vacuum pump, vacuum line, valve controller and valve, such as the pressure start valve of opening and closing to the vacuum line from reaction cell chamber to vacuum pump in response to the controller of processing pressure measured by sensor, such as solenoid valve or throttle valve.This valve can control the pressure of reaction cell chamber gas.This valve can remain closed until cell pressure reaches first high set point, and then this valve can be started to open, until pressure drops to second low set point by vacuum pump, and it can cause start valve to close.In one embodiment, controller can control at least one reaction parameter (such as reaction cell chamber pressure, reactant injection rate, voltage, current and molten metal injection rate) to maintain non-pulsed or substantially stable or continuous plasma.

[0532] In one embodiment, A hydrogen source (such as hydrogen) and an oxygen source (such as oxygen) are included. At least one of the hydrogen source and the oxygen source includes at least one or more gas storage tanks, a flow regulator, a pressure gauge, a valve, and a gas line to the reaction cell chamber. In one embodiment, the HOH catalyst is produced by the combustion of hydrogen and oxygen. Hydrogen and oxygen can be caused to flow into the reaction cell chamber. The inlet flow of the reactant (such as at least one of hydrogen and oxygen) can be continuous or intermittent. The flow rate and the discharge or vacuum flow rate can be controlled to achieve the desired pressure. The inlet flow can be intermittent, wherein the flow can be stopped at the maximum pressure of the desired range and started at the minimum value of the desired range. At least one of the H2 pressure and flow rate and the O2 pressure and flow rate can be controlled so that at least one of the HOH and H2 concentrations or partial pressures is maintained within the desired range to control and optimize the power from the hydrino reaction. In one embodiment, at least one of the hydrogen inventory and flow rate may be significantly greater than the oxygen inventory and flow rate. The ratio of at least one of the partial pressure of H2 to O2 and the flow rate of H2 to O2 may be in at least one of a range of approximately 1.1 to 10,000, 1.5 to 1000, 1.5 to 500, 1.5 to 100, 2 to 50, and 2 to 10. In one embodiment, the total pressure may be maintained within a range that supports a high concentration of nascent HOH and atomic H, such as within at least one of a pressure range of approximately 1 mTorr to 500 Torr, 10 mTorr to 100 Torr, 100 mTorr to 50 Torr, and 1 Torr to 100 Torr. In one embodiment, at least one of the storage tank and the reaction cell chamber may be maintained at an operating temperature that is higher than the decomposition temperature of at least one of gallium oxyhydroxide and gallium hydroxide. The operating temperature may be in at least one of a range of approximately 200°C to 2000°C, 200°C to 1000°C, and 200°C to 700°C. To suppress the formation of gallium oxyhydroxide and gallium hydroxide, the water inventory may be controlled in a gaseous state.

[0533] In one embodiment, A gas mixer is included to mix at least two gases, such as hydrogen and oxygen, flowing into the reaction cell chamber. In one embodiment, the microinjector for water includes a mixer for mixing hydrogen and oxygen, wherein the mixture forms HOH when it enters the reaction cell chamber. The mixer may also include at least one mass flow controller, such as a mass flow controller for each gas or gas mixture (such as a premixed gas). The premixed gas may contain the gases in a desired molar ratio of each gas, such as a mixture containing hydrogen and oxygen. The H2-O2 mixture may have a significant excess of H2 in mole percentage, such as in a mole ratio range of about 1.5 to 1000 times the mole percentage of O2. The mass flow controller may control the flow of hydrogen and oxygen and the subsequent combustion to form the HOH catalyst so that the resulting gas stream entering the reaction cell chamber contains an excess of hydrogen and HOH catalyst. In an exemplary embodiment, the H2 mole percentage is in a range of about 1.5 to 1000 times the mole percentage of HOH. The mixer may include a hydrogen-oxygen torch. The torch may include designs known in the art, such as commercial hydrogen-oxygen torches.

[0534] Formation of nascent water and atomic hydrogen

[0535] In one embodiment, the reaction cell chamber further comprises a dissociator chamber containing: a hydrogen dissociator such as Pt, Pd, Ir, Re or other dissociator metal on a support such as carbon or ceramic beads such as Al2O3, silica or zeolite beads; Ni Raney or Ni, niobium, titanium or other dissociator metals of the present disclosure in a form providing high surface area such as a powder, mat, braid or cloth. In one embodiment, A recombiner is included to catalyze the reaction of supplied H2 and O2 into HOH and H, which flow into the reaction cell chamber 5b31. The recombiner may also include a controller comprising at least one of a temperature sensor, a heater, and a cooling system (such as a heat exchanger), which senses the recombiner temperature and controls at least one of a cooling system (such as a water jet) and a heater to maintain the recombiner catalyst within a desired operating temperature range, such as within a range of approximately 60°C to 600°C. The upper temperature limit is limited by the temperature at which the recombiner catalyst sinters and loses effective catalyst surface area.

[0536] In another embodiment, the recombiner comprises a hot filament, such as a noble metal black coated Pt filament, such as a Pt black-Pt filament. The filament can be maintained at a sufficiently high temperature to maintain the desired recombination rate by resistive heating maintained by a power supply, a temperature sensor and a controller.

[0537] In one embodiment, the H2 / O2 recombiner includes a plasma source such as a glow discharge plasma, a microwave plasma, a radio frequency (RF) plasma, an inductively or capacitively coupled RF plasma. The discharge cell serving as the recombiner may be high vacuum tolerant. Figures 66C-66N The exemplary discharge cell 900 shown in FIG comprises a stainless steel container or glow discharge plasma chamber 901 having a conflat flange 902 on top with a mating top plate 903 sealed with a copper, silver-plated copper, or tantalum gasket or O-ring. The flange can be coated with a coating such as flameproof paint, alumina, CrC, TiN, CrN, TiAlN, Ta, or another disclosed method to prevent alloying with the molten metal. Gaskets or O-rings, such as Ta gaskets or O-rings, can be resistant to alloying. In one embodiment, the flange can be replaced by a flat metal plate (without bolt holes), such as a ring around the perimeter of each joined component. These plates can be welded together at the outer edges to form a seam. This seam can be cut or ground away to separate the two plates. The top plate can have a high-voltage feedthrough 904 to an internal tungsten rod electrode 905. The cell body can be grounded to serve as a counter electrode. The top flange may further include at least one gas inlet 906 for a hydrino reaction mixture gas such as at least one of H2, O2, air, H2O, and a noble gas such as Ar, or a mixture thereof such as H2 / O2, H2 / air, H2 / H2O, H2 / noble gas, O2 / noble gas, H2 / O2 / H2O, H2 / O2 / noble gas, H2 / H2O / noble gas, H2 / O2 / H2O / noble gas, H2 / O2 / air, H2 / air / H2O, H2 / air / noble gas, H2 / O2 / air / H2O, H2 / O2 / air / noble gas, H2 / O2 / air / H2O, H2 / O2 / air / noble gas, H2 / O2 / air / H2O / noble gas. In order to increase the desired yield of HOH catalyst production while adding argon to the hydrino reaction mixture, hydrogen and oxygen can be flowed through the discharge cell, and argon can be flowed into the reaction cell chamber 5b31 through separate gas inlets. The bottom plate 907 of the stainless steel container may include a gas outlet to the reaction cell chamber. The glow discharge cell also includes a power source, such as a DC power source having a voltage in the range of about 10V to 5kV and a current in the range of about 0.01A to 100A. The glow discharge breakdown voltage and the maintenance voltage for the desired gas pressure, electrode spacing, and discharge current can be selected according to Paschen's law. The glow discharge cell may also include components such as a spark plug ignition system to cause gas breakdown to initiate the discharge plasma, wherein the glow discharge plasma power operates at a lower maintenance voltage to maintain the glow discharge. The breakdown voltage can be in the range of about 50V to 5kV, and the maintenance voltage can be in the range of about 10V to 1kV. The glow discharge cell can be used with other Components such as the reaction cell chamber 5b31 and the storage tank 5c are electrically isolated to prevent short circuits in the ignition power. Pressure waves may cause the glow discharge to be unstable, which may cause changes in the reactants flowing into the reaction cell chamber 5b31 and may damage the glow discharge power supply. In order to prevent the back pressure wave caused by the hydrino reaction from propagating into the glow discharge plasma chamber, the reaction cell chamber 5b31 may include a baffle such as a baffle screwed into a BN sleeve on the electrode bus bar (where the gas line from the glow discharge cell enters the reaction cell chamber). The glow discharge power supply may include at least one surge protector element, such as a capacitor. The length of the discharge cell and the height of the reaction cell chamber can be minimized to reduce the distance from the glow discharge plasma to the positive electrode surface of the gallium, so as to increase the concentration of atomic hydrogen and HOH catalyst by reducing the distance for possible recombination.

[0538] The glow discharge cell may be replaced by other atomic hydrogen sources, such as those that operate by thermally dissociating hydrogen in a fine tungsten capillary heated by electron bombardment (a thermal hydrogen cracker), where molecular hydrogen is split into atomic hydrogen by bouncing along the hot walls. The atomic hydrogen source may be an atomic hydrogen source known in the art, such as an exemplary commercial atomic hydrogen source such as the H-flux Atomic Hydrogen Source from Tec-Tra Corporation ( https: / / tectra.de / sample- preparation / atomic-hydrogen-source / #:~:text=H%2Dflux%20Atomic% 20Hydrogen%20Source,is%20cracked%20to%20atomic%20hydrogen ).

[0539] In one embodiment, the connection area between the source of at least one of atomic H and HOH catalyst, such as a plasma cell, and the reaction cell chamber 5b31 can be minimized to avoid atomic H wall recombination and HOH dimerization. A plasma cell, such as a glow discharge cell, can be directly connected to an electrical isolator, such as a ceramic electrical isolator, such as an electrical isolator from Solid Seal Technologies, Inc., which is directly connected to the reaction cell chamber. The electrical isolator can be connected to the discharge cell and the flange by welds, flange joints, or other fasteners known in the art. The inner diameter of the electrical isolator can be large, such as about the diameter of the discharge cell chamber, such as in the range of about 0.05 cm to 15 cm. In which In another embodiment, the discharge cell can be directly connected to the reaction cell chamber and the main body of the discharge cell is maintained at the same voltage, such as ground level. The connector can include a weld, a flange joint, or other fasteners known in the art. The inner diameter of the connector can be large, such as about the diameter of the discharge cell chamber, such as in the range of about 0.05 cm to 15 cm.

[0540] In one embodiment, Including as a driven plasma cell such as a discharge cell such as a glow discharge, a microwave discharge or an inductively or capacitively coupled discharge cell, wherein the hydrino reaction mixture comprises a hydrino reaction mixture of the present disclosure such as a stoichiometric mixture of H2 (66.6%) to O2 (33.3%) molar percentage, with excess hydrogen to oxygen. The driven plasma cell may include a container capable of evacuation, a reaction mixture supplier, a vacuum pump, a pressure gauge, a flow meter, a plasma generator, a plasma power supplier and a controller. The plasma source for maintaining the hydrino reaction is given in Mills' prior patent application, which is incorporated herein by reference. The plasma source can maintain a plasma in a hydrino reaction mixture comprising a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen, the mixture of hydrogen and oxygen being oxygen deficient compared to a stoichiometric mixture of H2 (66.6%) to O2 (33.3%) molar percentage. The oxygen deficiency of the hydrogen-oxygen mixture may be in the range of about 5% to 99% of the stoichiometric mixture. The mixture may comprise mole percentages of about 99.66% to 68.33% H2 and about 0.333% to 31.66% O2. These mixtures, when passed through a plasma cell, such as a glow discharge, can produce a reaction mixture sufficient to initiate the catalytic reactions described herein when interacting with the biased molten metal in the reaction cell chamber.

[0541] In one embodiment, at least one The ceramic lining, coating or cladding of components (such as storage tanks, reaction chambers, ignition feedthroughs and EM pump tubes) may include at least one of metal oxides, aluminum oxide, zirconium oxide, titanium dioxide, zirconium oxide and yttria-stabilized zirconium oxide, hafnium oxide, magnesium oxide, mullite or mixtures such as ZrO2-TiO2-Y2O3, TiO2-Yr2O3-Al2O3, BN, BN-B2O3, quartz, fused silica, SiO2, silicon carbide, zirconium carbide, zirconium diboride, silicon nitride (Si3N4), glass ceramics such as Li2O×Al2O3×nSiO2 system (LAS system), MgO×Al2O3×nSiO2 system (MAS system), ZnO×Al2O3×nSiO2 system (ZAS system). At least one Components such as storage tanks, reaction cell chambers, EM pump tubing, liners, claddings or coatings may comprise refractory materials such as at least one of graphite (sublimation point = 3642°C), refractory metals such as tungsten (melting point = 3422°C) or tantalum (melting point = 3020°C), niobium, niobium alloys, vanadium, ceramics, ultra-high temperature ceramics, and ceramic matrix composites such as borides, carbides, nitrides and oxides (such as borides, carbides, nitrides and oxides of early transition metals such as hafnium boride (HfB2), zirconium diboride (ZrB2), hafnium nitride (HfN), zirconium nitride (ZrN), titanium carbide (TiC), titanium nitride (TiN), thorium dioxide (ThO2), niobium boride (NbB2) and tantalum carbide (TaC), and their related composites). Exemplary ceramics with the desired high melting point are magnesium oxide (MgO) (melting point = 2852°C), zirconium oxide (ZrO) (melting point = 2715°C), boron nitride (BN) (melting point = 2973°C), zirconium dioxide (ZrO2) (melting point = 2715°C), hafnium boride (HfB2) (melting point = 3380°C), hafnium carbide (HfC) (melting point = 3900°C), Ta4HfC5 (melting point = 4000°C), Ta4HfC5TaX4HfCX5 (4215°C), hafnium nitride (HfN) (melting point = 3385°C), zirconium diboride (ZrB2) (melting point = 3246°C), zirconium carbide (ZrC) (melting point = 3400°C), zirconium nitride (ZrN) (melting point = 2950°C), titanium boride (TiB2) (melting point = 3 225°C), titanium carbide (TiC) (melting point = 3100°C), titanium nitride (TiN) (melting point = 2950°C), silicon carbide (SiC) (melting point = 2820°C), tantalum boride (TaB2) (melting point = 3040°C), tantalum carbide (TaC) (melting point = 3800°C), tantalum nitride (TaN) (melting point = 2700°C), niobium carbide (NbC) (melting point = 3490°C), niobium nitride (NbN) (melting point = 2573°C), vanadium carbide (VC) (melting point = 2810°C) and vanadium nitride (VN) (melting point = 2050°C), and turbine blade materials such as one or more selected from the group consisting of superalloys, nickel-based superalloys containing chromium, cobalt and rhenium, nickel-based superalloys containing ceramic matrix composites, U-500, Rene 77, Rene N5, Rene N6, PWA 1484, CMSX-4, CMSX-10, Inconel, IN-738, GTD-111, EPM-102, and PWA 1497. Ceramics such as MgO and ZrO can resist reaction with H2.SunCell component coatings can be applied by at least one method from the following group: molecular vapor deposition, chemical vapor deposition, physical vapor deposition, diffusion coating, MOCVD, sputtering, high velocity spraying, electrostatic spraying, electrodeposition using plasma or electrolysis, electroplating and other deposition methods known in the art.

[0542] In one embodiment, the SunCell may include dual molten metal injectors 5k61, each in a reservoir 5c ( Figures 66F-66L ), each acting as an ignited current-carrying electrode, which may further include at least one of: an electrical disconnect 913, which may include an insulating lining, an electrical disconnect flange 914, a tank flange 915, an EM pump tube assembly 5kk, EM pump tubes 5k6, EM busbars 5k2, EM pump magnets 5k4, and an inlet riser 5qa. The SunCell may further include a vacuum line 711, a discharge cell 900 and body 901, a gas inlet such as a gas inlet 906a (through an electrical feedthrough) Figures 66J-66L ), the reaction cell chamber 5b31, the top flange 26e which may include a solid plate or an inner PV window flange, the PV chamber 916, the inner PV window 5ab4, the base 26e1 for the inner PV window, and the outer PV window 5b4. In an exemplary embodiment, the positive lead of the glow discharge power supply is connected to the gas line extension of the feedthrough-gas inlet 906a, and the negative lead is attached to the discharge cell flange 906b or chamber 901 or reaction cell chamber 5b31, wherein the negative connection can be made by connecting to a gas line such as argon line 906 ( Figure 66C ) and is indirect. The battery body 901 can be as follows Figure 66G The discharge unit 900 is shown as being directly mounted on the reaction cell chamber 5b31, or can be mounted on the reaction cell chamber 5b31 through a connector such as an elbow, which allows the discharge cell body to be oriented in another desired direction such as a vertical direction. In one embodiment, the discharge unit 900 can be mounted on the top of the reaction cell chamber 5b31 in a desired orientation (such as vertically).

[0543] Thermophotovoltaic converters

[0544] Z. Omair et al. "Ultraefficient thermophotovoltaic power conversion by band-edge spectral filtering", PNAS, Vol. 116, No. 3, (2019), pp. 15356-15361 reported tests of single-junction III / V semiconductor PV conversion with 1207°C blackbody emission and infrared light recycling, which is incorporated by reference in its entirety. Omair et al. achieved a conversion efficiency of 30% and predicted 50% efficiency with improvements in reflectors, PV, blackbody emissivity, view factor, series resistance, and other improvements. The thermophotovoltaic (TPV) conversion efficiency of a 3000K SunCell emission was calculated to be 84% and was actually expected to be 50% using a single-junction concentrating silicon PV cell operating at 120°C. In one embodiment, A thermophotovoltaic (TPV) converter is included, which includes at least one photovoltaic cell and at least one blackbody radiator or emitter. The blackbody radiator for thermophotovoltaic conversion with light recovery includes one or more of the following: (i) at least one of the outer walls of the SunCell assembly and (ii) a hydrino plasma in the reaction cell chamber that emits light through the PV window to the PV converter. The SunCell assembly with outer walls that act as blackbody radiators may include at least one of the following: a reaction cell chamber and a storage tank containing a refractory material that resists alloying with molten metal, such as a wall containing a Mo, Ta, W, Nb, Ti, Cr, Zr alloy and coated internally with steel or stainless steel or refractory metal such as VHT fire retardant paint or similar ceramic paint or ceramic coating. Alternatively, the wall may include at least one of the following: carbon, quartz, fused silica and ceramics such as alumina, hafnium dioxide, zirconium oxide, silicon carbide, boron nitride (BN) and another of the present disclosure. In one embodiment, the blackbody radiator may include a filter to block infrared light from being emitted to the TPV cell. The TPV cell may include at least one of a filter, such as an infrared filter, on the front surface and a reflector, such as an infrared reflector, on the rear surface. Photons entering the PV cell with energy below the cell bandgap may be reflected through the PV window back to the SunCell, such as back to at least one of the SunCell assembly wall and the reaction cell chamber, to recover the corresponding low-energy photons.

[0545] Because the plasma and recycled light are reflected and multiply reflected by the molten metal in the reaction cell chamber, the percentage of direct plasma emission, stray plasma and SunCell component emission (such as wall, molten metal and positive electrode emission), and recycled light that may leave the reaction cell chamber or may be transmitted through the PV window can be 100%. In an embodiment, at least one of the reaction cell chamber and the storage tank can be thermally insulated so that the power delivered from the SunCell through the PV window to the load (such as a PV converter, furnace absorber or boiler absorber) is dominated by radiation. The percentage of radiated hydrino reaction power varies with the molten metal emissivity and the reaction cell chamber wall temperature, with the molten metal emissivity typically in the range of about 0 to 0.3, and the reaction cell chamber wall temperature, which can be in the range of 500°C to 3500°C. The percentage of transmitted radiation can increase with decreasing molten metal emissivity and increasing reaction cell chamber wall temperature. In an exemplary embodiment comprising an upper transparent semi-dome PV window connected to a lower reaction cell chamber, the transmission through the PV window was calculated to be approximately 100% with a plasma blackbody temperature of 3000 K, a molten metal emissivity of 0.3, and a reaction cell chamber wall temperature of 1700°C.

[0546] In one embodiment, the SunCell may include a dual storage tank and an injector electrode that injects molten metal so that the injected molten metal streams intersect to form a plasma. In one embodiment, at least one reaction cell chamber wall may be transparent to at least one of visible light and infrared light. The reaction cell chamber wall may include a PV window. The SunCell may include a reaction cell chamber having a polygonal shape such as a square, rectangle, pentagon, hexagon, etc. The surface of the reaction cell chamber may be coated with a PV cell such as a thermophotovoltaic (TPV) cell, wherein a gap may exist between the reaction cell chamber wall and the PV cell. In one embodiment, at least one window or filter includes a component such as a surface texture or a quarter wave plate to reduce reflection. In another embodiment, the SunCell may further include a PV window, which includes a chamber connected to the reaction cell chamber by a joint such as a flanged joint. The TPV cell may surround the PV window to receive plasma emissions and convert them into electricity. The TPV cell can reflect light that is not converted into electricity, such as infrared light, back to the plasma for recovery.

[0547] In one embodiment, the molten metal may comprise tin. The reaction cell chamber temperature may be maintained above a temperature at which it is thermodynamically unfavorable for tin to react with water vapor to form tin oxide, wherein water is supplied to the hydrino reaction as part of a hydrino reaction mixture such as a mixture comprising at least two of hydrogen, oxygen, and water vapor. In an exemplary embodiment in which the hydrino reaction mixture comprises water vapor, the reaction cell chamber is maintained above 875K. Adding molecular or atomic hydrogen as part of the hydrino reaction mixture reduces the temperature at which it is thermodynamically unfavorable for tin to react with water vapor to form tin oxide.

[0548] In one embodiment, the SunCell comprises a water injector such as a hydrogen source and an oxygen source and a recombiner such as a plasma cell, a recombiner catalyst such as a noble metal on a support such as alumina, or another recombiner of the present disclosure. The sources of hydrogen and oxygen can be the respective gases supplied by gas lines, mass flow controllers, valves, flow and pressure sensors, computers, and other systems of the present disclosure. Alternatively, water can be supplied as water vapor gas. The water vapor gas can be controllably flowed into at least one of the reaction cell chamber and the molten metal from a water storage tank maintained at the desired pressure for mass flow controller operation by a mass flow controller. The water vapor pressure can be controlled by controlling the temperature of a water vapor source such as a closed water storage tank. In an exemplary embodiment, a water vapor mass flow controller such as at least one of MKS models 1150, 1152m, and 1640 ( https: / / www.mksinst.com / c / vapor-mass-flow- controllers;

[0549] https: / / ccrprocessproducts.com / product / 1640a-mass-flow-controller- mks / ) includes a water vapor mass flow controller that senses the difference between inlet and outlet pressures and uses this data to control the flow of water vapor.

[0550] exist Figure 66CIn the exemplary embodiment shown in Figure 1-D, a SunCell for thermophotovoltaic (TPV) conversion with light recovery comprises an inverted Y geometry, wherein the inverted "V" portion of the inverted Y geometry comprises two injection tanks 5c connected to a reaction cell chamber 5b31, and the straight portion of the inverted Y geometry comprises a blackbody radiator or PV window 5b4. The inverted V portion may also include at least one of a glow discharge cell 900 and a vacuum line 711, the glow discharge cell being connected to the reaction cell chamber 5b31 having a gas inlet for reactant gases such as H2 and O2 gases, the vacuum line being connected to a vacuum pump to evacuate the reaction cell chamber. The glow discharge cell may include a flange at the top to provide accessibility to at least the discharge electrode for replacement. At least one of the glow discharge cell 900 and the vacuum line 711 may be tilted upward to avoid filling with molten metal and may be lined with a lining such as one of the present disclosure to avoid alloying with the molten metal. Glow discharge cell linings may be conductive or comprise partial linings where a portion of the unlined cell wall acts as an electrode.

[0551] The straight portion PV window may comprise a rectangular cavity with an opening to the reaction cell chamber. Alternatively, the PV window may comprise a flat plate covering the reaction cell chamber. The plate may comprise a window in a housing that may be sealed with a gasket such as a Rayotek gasket. In one embodiment, the PV window or PV window cavity is vacuum sealed to the base plate 5b31c or housing by at least one or more of an adhesive, a heat staking, a gasket, a braze, and a compression seal. The sealing may comprise sealing methods and means known in the art ( https: / / rayoteksightwindows.com / services / sealing.html In one exemplary embodiment, the PV window cavity can be mounted in a mirror fitting, such as Rayotek's mirror fitting, which includes a flange that can be welded to a mating flange on the base plate 5b31c. The weld seam can be cut to separate the components. In one exemplary embodiment, the PV window cavity flange can be sealed between two bolted metal flanges with a graphite gasket, such as Graphoil, braided flexible graphite filler with encapsulated E-Glass ( https: / / www.sealsales.com / braidedpacking / flexiblegraphitepacking.html) or GarlockStyle 1333-G graphite filler, which is interposed between each metal flange and the PV window cavity flange. The gasket may include a C-shaped seal. In an exemplary embodiment, the Conflat flange may include at least one C-shaped seal, such as a C-shaped seal for applying pressure to the top of the PV window cavity flange, wherein the carbon gasket acts as a seal between the bottom of the PV window cavity flange and the bottom Conflat flange. In one embodiment, the gasket may include a bladder (such as a flexible metal tube filled with a high boiling point liquid or gas). The gasket may include vermiculite such as Thermiculite washers such as Flexitallic washers or vermiculite spiral wound washers (such as SW600-V835 SunwellSeals or Thermiculite845Flexpro Kammprofile). In one embodiment, the flange bolt includes a spring and an optional bushing between the flange and the nut of the bolt, wherein the spring can extend further from the hotter area at the flange through the bushing.

[0552] In one embodiment, the PV window cavity includes a section between the base plate and the transparent portion of the PV window cavity to allow rapid diffusion of molecular hydrino products from the PV window cavity. The corresponding lower portion of the PV window cavity including the diffusion section of the cavity may include a metal or other material having high permeability to molecular hydrinos, such as a metal such as CrMo steel. The lower cavity may be connected to the base plate by welding, flanges or other joints (such as the joints of the present disclosure). The diffusion portion and the transparent cavity portion may be connected by flanges or other joints, such as the joints of the present disclosure. The lower cavity may be at least partially filled with a lining such as a carbon lining. The thickness of the lining may be selected to at least partially maintain the hydrino reaction plasma in the transparent portion of the PV window cavity. The carbon lining may include CalCarb. The wall temperature of the permeable portion may be maintained at a temperature that is conducive to rapid molecular hydrino diffusion, such as a temperature in the range of about 100°C to 3000°C.

[0553] The window can be metallized and brazed or welded to the housing. The window can be glued to the housing by glue such as a kind of glue of the present disclosure. Alternatively, the window can include a flat plate glued to the flange on the reaction cell chamber top. The glue can include a commercial high-temperature metal-to-metal or window-to-metal sealant, such as high-temperature vacuum epoxy, such as (i) Torr Seal TS10 and 353ND vacuum epoxy (Thor Labs), (ii) FO-EPXY-UHV (Accu-Glass Products, Inc.), (iii) Torr Seal (Kurt J. Lesker), (iv) EP30-2, EP29LPSP and EP21TCHT-1 (Masterbond) and (v) KB 1039CRLP, KB 1040CTE-LO, KB 10473FLAO and KB 1372-LO (KohesiBond). In one embodiment, at least one flat panel PV dense receiver array is arranged flat and parallel to a rectangular PV window surface or flat panel window to receive light emissions from inside a PV window chamber or reaction cell chamber. A gap may separate each dense receiver array from the corresponding PV window surface or panel. Figure 66C and 66D In the embodiment shown, the SunCell may include a PV window chamber. Other geometric configurations such as rectangular, cubic, cylindrical, and conical are within the scope of the present disclosure. At least one wall of the PV window chamber may be flat to facilitate at least one of: light transmission out of the PV window chamber and hydrino reaction plasma light in the PV panel ( Figure 66E ) and light recycling between the hydrino reaction plasma in the PV window chamber. At least one of facilitating light transmission out of the PV window chamber and light recycling can be achieved by minimizing light reflection from at least one transparent window wall. At least one window wall surface can include a coating or texture to further minimize light reflection during photovoltaic to electrical conversion.

[0554] The V portion of the inverted Y geometry can comprise a refractory metal such as Mo, Ta, W, Nb, Ti, Cr, and an internally coated steel, stainless steel, or refractory metal. The coating can include a high-temperature ceramic paint such as VHT fire retardant paint or a similar ceramic paint or a ceramic coating such as mullite. The PV window or cavity can comprise quartz, sapphire, MgF2, aluminum oxynitride, or other PV windows disclosed herein. In one embodiment, the PV window can include a heater to preheat it to prevent the molten metal from solidifying. In one exemplary embodiment, a PV window or cavity such as quartz, sapphire, aluminum oxynitride, MgF2, or a SchottNextrema PV window can be preheated with a heater such as a resistive heater, a hydrogen-oxygen flame heater, or a plasma composite reaction heater. In one embodiment, the quartz PV cavity can be formed by at least one of molding, welding, and slip casting. In one exemplary embodiment, the quartz PV cavity can be formed from a quartz tube having a molded base drawn through a die or a welded plate base.

[0555] In one embodiment, the dual injectors can be aligned so that the respective injected molten metal streams intersect. Considering that the base of the reservoir, the reservoir, and the intersecting metal streams form a triangle with the vertex at the point where the streams intersect, the vertex angle can be increased by increasing the base length to avoid mutual Lorentz deflection of the intersecting streams (e.g., the stream trajectories become more linear and less curved).

[0556] The V portion and the straight portion may be joined by a seal such as a gasket seal 26d ( Figure 66C ). The gasket may comprise carbon and the seal 26d may comprise a bolted flange. Alternatively, the seal between the inverted V portion and the straight portion and the union 26d may comprise glue ( Figure 66D In one embodiment, a high temperature window such as those from Rayotek may be connected ( https: / / rayoteksightwindows.com / products / high-temp-sight- glass-windows.html ) to form a plasma chamber or cavity, wherein the window comprises a PV window for plasma emission to a PV converter with light recycling. The connection can be achieved by welding the edges of the window to form a polygonal cavity, which can be further welded to the reaction cell chamber at the bottom opening of the cavity.

[0557] In an embodiment of a means for electrically isolating the ignition electrodes of a SunCell comprising a dual syringe: (i) at least one tank may include an isolating joint such as a flanged joint comprising an insulating gasket and an isolated bolt such as a ceramic bolt or a bolt comprising an insulating bushing, and (ii) at least one of the reaction cell chamber and at least one tank includes an electrically insulating wall segment (isolator, or electrical circuit breaker) such as a ceramic wall segment such as a ceramic of the present disclosure such as alumina, SiC, BN or quartz, which electrically isolates the two tanks from each other, wherein (a) the tank isolator may include a ceramic tube having a flange on each end that mates with two tank segments or with a tank segment and the reaction cell chamber, such as a flanged electrical isolator or electrical circuit breaker such as the exemplary CF Flanged Vacuum Ceramic Break, https: / / www.lesker.com / newweb / feedthroughs / ceramicbreaks_vacuum.cfm? pgid=cf Also included is at least one of a gasket that mates with a mating flange of the tank and a liner, such as a ceramic liner, such as the ceramic liner of the present disclosure, which liner can at least one of: protect the gasket and the electrical circuit breaker from alloying with molten metal and thermal shock, respectively; (b) the tank isolator can include a ceramic tube having a weldable metal ring, such as a Kovar or Invar ring, at each end for welding together two tank sections or a tank section and a reaction cell chamber, such as the exemplary Weldable Vacuum Ceramic Break, https: / / www.lesker.com / newweb / feedthroughs / ceramicbreaks_vacuum.cfm?pgid=wel; and (c) the tank isolator can include a ceramic tube having a wet seal on each end that mates with two tank sections or a tank section and a reaction cell chamber. In one embodiment, an electrical circuit breaker comprises a ceramic cylinder such as an alumina cylinder that is first plated with a Mo-Mn alloy and then plated with Ni that is brazed to a Ni plated Kovar. The braze joint may have a high melting point such as greater than 600°C. Exemplary braze joints are Cu(72)-Ag(28) alloy, copper, ABA, gold ABA, PdNiAu alloy (AMS4785 melting point = 1135°C) or Paloro or similar braze joints such as the braze joint at the following link: https: / / www.morganbrazealloys.com / en-gb / products / brazing-alloys / precious-brazing- filler-metals / .

[0558] In one embodiment, Figures 66C-66LBoth tanks of the illustrated dual-injector SunCell include an electrical circuit breaker that at least one of: (i) isolates the ignition voltage of one tank from the ignition voltage of the other tank until the molten metal streams injected from each tank intersect and at least partially isolates the EM pump power supply of one tank from the electromagnetic pump power supply of the other tank, and (ii) also at least partially isolates the ignition power supply from the EM pump power supply. In another embodiment, at least two of the ignition power supply, the EM pump power supply of the first tank, and the EM pump power supply of the second tank are capable of operating approximately independently of at least one other power supply. Each power supply can be a power supply known in the art or a power supply modified with a voltage and current fluctuation suppression reactance to offset rapid voltage and current ignition transients, thereby allowing independent power supply operation. Exemplary suppression reactances include at least one capacitor bank connected in parallel with the EM pump power supply or at least one inductor connected in series with the EM pump power supply.

[0559] In one embodiment, the tank containing the circuit breaker can be long enough to move the circuit breaker far enough away from the reaction tank chamber so that it does not overheat. In one embodiment, the circuit breaker can include at least one liner comprising a thermal insulator so that the circuit breaker can be kept below its failure temperature while the molten metal temperature inside the liner can be higher. The circuit breaker can be coated with at least one coating such as CrC, alumina, TiN, CrN, TiAlN, WC, or another of the present disclosure to prevent at least one of oxidation such as oxidation on the outside and alloy formation such as alloy formation on the inside. The metal-ceramic union braze of the circuit breaker can be covered with a potting material such as Resbond 940SS or another of the present disclosure. In an exemplary embodiment, the molten metal comprises silver, and the liner comprises at least one refractory material such as carbon, BN, quartz, alumina, moldable or castable ceramic, ceramic beads such as alumina beads, which may also include a binder such as Resbond, a refractory metal, and other linings of the present disclosure. The liner can fill the tank, except for the channels for the EM pump inlet and outlet. The height of the electrical breaker and liner can be minimized to allow heat conduction through the channels to maintain the molten metal across the breaker and liner. In one embodiment, the electrical breaker can be externally cooled. The EM pump pipe support can include the electrical breaker liner of the present disclosure.

[0560] In embodiments including an electrical isolator to electrically isolate the ignition electrodes of a SunCell including a dual-injector, at least one of the tanks may include an electrical disconnector comprising a ceramic tank wall segment that may further include a ceramic-to-metal union on each end to mate with the tank wall. In one embodiment, the tank molten metal level is a desired level below the top of the ceramic portion of the isolator on the reactor chamber side. In an exemplary embodiment, the tank molten metal level is a desired level below the top of the ceramic-to-metal union of the electrical disconnector on the reactor chamber side. The height of the inlet riser inlet can be adjusted to match the desired level to control the maximum molten metal level at the desired level. The electrical disconnector may include an internal thermally insulating disk having holes for allowing molten metal to flow to at least one of the molten metal tank or a lower portion of the molten metal tank, the inlet riser to the EM pump tubing, and the ignition busbar on the EM pump side of the disk. A syringe EM pump and electrode can pass through the insulating disk to the reaction cell chamber side to inject molten metal to the counter electrode.

[0561] In one embodiment, each tank may include a drain plug to allow gravity-assisted removal of molten metal from the bottom of the tank during service and maintenance. In one embodiment, the inlet riser may include a filter such as a metal screen such as W or Ta screen to protect the EM pump and nozzle from clogging by debris flowing into the inlet riser.

[0562] The length of the storage tank on the EM pump side of the electrical circuit breaker can be increased to increase the storage tank molten metal inventory. The length of the storage tank can be increased on the reactor chamber side of the circuit breaker to move the electrical circuit breaker further away from the plasma to reduce its operating temperature. In another embodiment, the electrical circuit breaker can have a high temperature, such as between 450°C and 1500°C, wherein the braze of the circuit breaker is selected to have a melting point above the operating temperature. An exemplary high temperature electrical circuit breaker includes at least one of Kovar and niobium and a compatible high temperature braze such as Paloro-3V, similar braze such as link: https: / / www.morganbrazealloys.com / en-gb / products / brazing-alloys / precious-brazing-filler-metals / A brazed part at a location, or another of the present disclosure.

[0563] The electrical circuit breaker may include a ceramic (e.g., 97% alumina), a weld adapter flange surrounding the periphery of the ceramic insulator, such as a weld adapter flange containing Cu / Ni (e.g., 70%-30%) or Fe / Ni (e.g., 50%-50%), and a conflat flange (e.g., 304 stainless steel) brazed or welded circumferentially to the weld adapter flange. The electrical circuit breaker may also include a bellows or S-flange (diaphragm) between the CF flange and the weld adapter flange.

[0564] The maximum molten metal inventory of the two tanks 5c is such that the maximum molten level in the circuit breaker side including the initial filling volume and the molten metal volume above the lowest height of the inlet riser of the tank opposite the circuit breaker tank does not exceed the height of the ceramic of the circuit breaker.

[0565] In an exemplary embodiment with a tank electrical circuit breaker, the innermost W lining that is not oxidized in the reaction cell chamber can be used together with an intermediate carbon lining and an outer W lining or coating. The lining can cover at least one of the reaction cell chamber 5b31 wall, the bottom surface of the reaction cell chamber, and the storage tank 5c. The reaction cell chamber bottom lining 5b31b may include pipes or grooves to guide the molten metal away from the corresponding injected molten metal stream when the molten metal flows back from the injector 5k61 to the storage tank 5c. In an exemplary embodiment, each storage tank injector 5k61 is arranged away from the center of the reaction cell chamber in its storage tank, and the grooves of the bottom lining 5b31b guide the molten metal return flow to the side of the storage tank, or as another option, to the side of the storage tank facing the center. In another embodiment, the injector 5k61 extends above the top of the storage tank and the reaction cell chamber bottom lining 5b31b so that the returning molten metal stream does not interfere with the injected stream.

[0566] In one embodiment, the PV window includes a component such as a reflector (such as a dichroic mirror) or a filter to reflect light having wavelengths with energy significantly higher than the band gap toward the PV cell of the PV converter 26a. In one embodiment, the reflected light has an energy within at least one of a range of about 10%-1000% higher, 10%-500% higher, and 10%-100% higher. In another embodiment, at least one of the reaction cell chamber and the PV window may include a component such as a phosphor to downconvert the energy of the light.

[0567] The joint and PV window can be contained in a vacuum-tight housing that includes a window chamber, such as a vacuum chamber that further accommodates a PV converter. The housing can be fastened to the top of the reaction cell chamber by fasteners or joints. The fasteners or joints may include welds. The housing may have penetrations for vacuum lines leading to a vacuum pump and for electrical wiring and cooling lines for the PV converter. By controlling the vacuum pumps of the window chamber and the reaction cell chamber, approximately equal pressures can be maintained on both sides of the window (vent). In one embodiment, an overpressure can be maintained in the window chamber relative to the reaction cell chamber so that the window remains against the top of the reaction cell chamber on the window base or flange. Alternatively, the window and reaction cell chamber vacuum lines can be joined and then connected to a single vacuum pump. In another embodiment, the window seal can be leaky to allow pressure to balance on both sides of the window. The vacuum-tight housing may include vacuum-tight openings such as flange ports, gate valves, or doors. In another embodiment, the window and reaction cell chamber may include a pipe connecting the two chambers, such as a gas line, so that gas pressure can be dynamically balanced between the two connected chambers.

[0568] exist Figures 66F-66L and Figure 2I144 In the illustrated embodiment, the SunCell includes dual molten metal injectors 5k61, each located in a tank 5c, each of which acts as an ignited current-carrying electrode. In one embodiment, at least one of the dual molten metal injectors 5k61 may include at least one of a plurality of the following: an injector 5k61 or a nozzle 5q / a corresponding tank 5c. At least one dual molten metal injector 5k61 in a tank 5c may also include an electrical circuit breaker 913 and an electrical circuit breaker flange 914, which may include an insulating lining. The SunCell may also include a tank flange 915. The dual molten metal injectors 5k61, each in a tank 5c, may also include an EM pump tube assembly 5kk, an EM pump tube 5k6, an EM bus bar 5k2, an EM pump magnet 5k4, and an inlet riser 5qa. The SunCell may also include a vacuum line 711 connected to a vacuum pump, which may include a screen or filter to remove at least one of molten metals such as tin, gallium, or silver and the corresponding oxides. In order to clean the vacuum line screen of adhered materials such as at least one of metal oxides and metals, the vacuum line 711 can include a backwash gas jet such as at least one gas nozzle on the pump side of the vacuum screen to apply a pulsed gas jet such as an argon jet through the screen to blow the adhered material back into the reaction pool chamber 5b31.

[0569] In one embodiment, the electrical circuit breaker 913 comprises a commercially available electrical circuit breaker, such as an electrical circuit breaker manufactured by Kurt Lesker, such as the exemplary CF Flanged Vacuum Ceramic Break, part number CFT08V2376.

[0570] https: / / www.lesker.com / newweb / feedthroughs / ceramicbreaks_vacuum.cfm?pgid=cf , or by Electrical circuit breakers manufactured by MPF Products Inc., such as product No. A0625-2-W, https: / / mpfpi.com / shop / uhv-isolators / 10kv-uhv-breaks / a0625-2-w / .In an alternative embodiment, electrical disconnect 913 comprises two tubes, such as sections of tank tube 5c, joined by an electrically insulating adhesive that forms a layer electrically isolating the two joined tubes. The thickness of the adhesive layer can range from approximately 15 microns to 2 cm. The electrical resistance of the layer can range from approximately 1 kiloohm to 1 gigaohm. The tubes can include flanges joined by the adhesive. The adhesive and corresponding seal between the two tubes can be vacuum-tight. The adhesive can be capable of operating at high temperatures and can withstand thermal cycling. In one embodiment, the electrical disconnect can include a layer of potting compound between two metal tubes, such as stainless steel (SS) tubes, having a sufficient thickness to form a connection sufficient for SunCell operation while minimizing the contact area of ​​the union to maximize electrical resistance. To increase the shear strength of the corresponding vacuum-capable union between the tubes, the union can be at least one of: thicker tubes joined with flat ends, and can include other mating structures such as flanges, concentric tubes (e.g., tube-in-tube), and protrusions or tabs (e.g., tabs and grooves) on at least one side of the disconnect. In one exemplary embodiment, two tubes having the same inner diameter (ID) and outer diameter (OD) are milled at their ends, one on the ID and the other on the OD, so that the ends fit concentrically with a gap sufficient to achieve electrical isolation between the tubes (e.g., greater than 17 microns for an applied 50V ignition voltage) via an adhesive (such as Resbond 940HT for 400 series steel). The adhesive or potting compound can include one that nearly matches the coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) of the tubes. Alternatively, the metal of the tank section comprising the electrical circuit breaker is selected to nearly match the CTE of the adhesive or potting compound. In one exemplary embodiment, 400 series stainless steels such as SS 440 and cold rolled steel (CRS) each have a CTE that approximately matches the CTE of Resbond 940HE. Other exemplary steels and metals include steel, ferritic stainless steel 410, gray cast iron, hard alloy K20, molybdenum, niobium, tantalum, vanadium, and tungsten. The metal may be thin (eg, having a thickness in the range of about 0.1 mm to 10 mm) to provide flexibility to accommodate thermal expansion. In one embodiment, the electrical circuit breaker may include at least one of a thermal expansion joint and a compressible material to accommodate any thermal expansion mismatch between the adhesive and the metal.

[0571] The potting compound layer can include a variety of potting compounds or adhesives, such as those manufactured by Cotronics Corporation or Aremco, or other potting compounds or adhesives disclosed herein. In one embodiment, the potting compound or adhesive can be selected to provide at least one layer that acts as a non-conductive current barrier and at least one layer that optimizes the CTE of the circuit breaker to match the CTE of the tube. In one exemplary embodiment, a combination of Cotronics Resbond 940SS or 954 and 940HE, which have a coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) that nearly matches that of SS, is used because 940SS and 954 are conductive, while 940HE is not. In another embodiment, the ends of the tube are coated with 940SS, which is cured to form an electrically insulating oxide outer coating on the surface, and then the oxide-coated surface is bonded with 940SS or another adhesive or potting compound, such as 940HE. In one embodiment, the electrical circuit breaker can include an electrically insulating tin return shield, liner, or deflector to prevent tin shorting on the electrical circuit breaker. In one exemplary embodiment, the deflector comprises a shelf with an edge attached to the inside of a tube above the circuit breaker, such as a welded-in annular drip edge disposed on the inside of the tube above the circuit breaker. In one embodiment, the tank 5c comprises a section that includes an electrical circuit breaker 913. At least a portion of the electrical disconnect section of the tank can be at least partially filled with ceramic beads, such as zirconium oxide beads or other beads of the present disclosure, for at least one of thermally insulating the electrical circuit breaker and preventing electrical shorts across the electrical circuit breaker, such as commercial electrical circuit breakers or electrical circuit breakers containing ceramic potting compound.

[0572] The SunCell can also include a discharge cell 901, a reaction cell chamber 5b31, a top flange 26e, which can include a solid plate or an internal PV window flange, a PV window chamber 916, an internal PV window 5ab4, a base 26e1 for the internal PV window, and an external PV window 5b4. The internal PV window 5ab4 can be semi-sealed (e.g., sealed to molten metal, but not necessarily sealed to a vacuum), with a vacuum seal provided by the PV window flange 26d, the internal PV window flange 26e, and a vacuum-sealed housing or chamber 916 housing the semi-sealed window 5ab4 connected to a support 26e1 at the top of the reaction cell chamber 5b31. In one exemplary embodiment, the window 5ab4 can include a Rayotek window that includes a gasket seal for its housing that is not vacuum-sealed. Alternatively, the exemplary window 5ab4 can comprise a flat plate or cavity window that is clamped, glued, or otherwise secured to a support on top of the reaction cell chamber 5b31, such as to the internal PV window flange support 26e1, via a gasketed joint or union. An exemplary clamp is a C-shaped clamp between the support 26e1 and the window 5ab4. The internal PV window 5ab4 can be connected to the internal PV window flange support 26e1 at a countersunk fixture. At least one of the electrical disconnect flange 914, the storage tank flange 915, the internal PV window flange 26e, and the PV window flange 26d can provide access to the interior of at least one of the storage tank 5c, the reaction cell chamber 5b31, and the internal PV window 5ab4.

[0573] exist Figures 66J-66L and Figure 2I144 In the embodiment shown, the exterior PV window 5b4 can include a PV window flange 26d sealed with a gasket and fasteners 26d1. In one exemplary embodiment, the PV window comprises a semi-dome of fused silica, quartz, sapphire, or aluminum oxynitride with a precision-milled or lapper-polished flange of the same material as the window, wherein the window can be sealed with a Graphoil, vermiculite, or ceramic fiber gasket, a metal ring at the top of the flange, and a clamp 26d1. The PV window dome 5b4 can also be sealed with a vacuum adhesive. The adhesive may include commercial high temperature metal-to-metal or window-to-metal sealants such as high temperature vacuum epoxies such as (i) Torr Seal TS10 and 353ND vacuum epoxy (Thor Labs), (ii) FO-EPXY-UHV (Accu-Glass Products, Inc.), (iii) TorrSeal (Kurt J. Lesker), (iv) EP30-2, EP29LPSP and EP21TCHT-1 (Masterbond), and (v) KB 1039CRLP, KB 1040CTE-LO, KB10473FLAO and KB 1372-LO (KohesiBond).

[0574] In an embodiment where tin is used as the molten metal, the SunCell includes PV windows 5b4 and 5ab4 ( Figures 66F-66L ) is devitrified by at least one of tin metal and tin oxide. In an embodiment, the PV window includes a component such as a window temperature controller to maintain the PV window temperature above the melting point of at least one of tin (melting point 232°C) and tin oxides such as SnO (melting point 1080°C) and SnO2 (melting point 1630°C). The window temperature controller may include at least one of a heater or a cooler, a temperature sensor, and a controller to maintain a desired PV window temperature such as a temperature within at least one range of 200°C to 2500°C, 232°C to 2000°C, 232°C to 1800°C, and 232°C to 1650°C. The heater or cooler may include a stream of heated or cooled air applied to the window. In the latter case, the PV window may be heated by a hydrino plasma. In another embodiment, the tin oxide of the PV window may be removed by hydrogen reduction. The reducing hydrogen reactant may comprise hydrogen gas flowing into the reaction cell chamber, wherein the reduction is achieved using a hydrogen source, a flow controller, a pressure gauge and flow meter, a pipeline, and a computer to control the hydrogen pressure. At least one of the hydrogen pressure and the PV window temperature may be controlled to provide conditions thermodynamically favorable for the reduction of tin oxide by hydrogen. The hydrogen pressure may be in the range of 1 mTorr to 10 atmospheres. The PV window temperature may be in at least one range of 100°C to 2500°C, 232°C to 2000°C, 232°C to 1800°C, and 232°C to 1650°C. The hydrogen reaction may be performed intermittently at a hydrogen pressure different from that required to optimize the hydrino reaction rate. The PV window may be cleaned by a hydrino reaction plasma. The PV window may be cleaned by injecting molten tin onto the window surface. The injection may be performed by a syringe EM pump or a separate EM pump. The one or more EM pumps for cleaning the window may include a raster injector having a raster mechanism that scans the injection on the window surface. The grating mechanism may include an actuator such as a mechanical actuator, an electromagnetic actuator, a screw jack actuator, a stepper motor actuator, a linear motor actuator, a thermal actuator, an electric actuator, a pneumatic actuator, a hydraulic actuator, a magnetic actuator, a solenoid actuator, a piezoelectric actuator, a shape memory polymer actuator, a photopolymer actuator, or other actuators known in the art to move or rotate the direction of the injected molten metal stream. In another embodiment, the window may include at least one of a coating that resists tin oxide adhesion (such as a carbon coating), a rotating window, a mechanical scraper, and a gas injection port such as the gas injection port of the present disclosure.

[0575] In one exemplary embodiment, a PV window, such as at least one of 5ab4 and 5b4, is cleaned by spraying molten metal onto the interior surface from at least one nozzle having multiple spray openings or orifices, such as one for spraying tin into opposing streams and another for spraying tin onto the PV window, to clean the PV window of debris, such as metal oxides and metals. The molten metal injected onto the window can further provide additional cooling and, in some embodiments, can prevent or reduce overheating of the window or structural deformation of the window associated with overheating (e.g., warping, cracking, loss of transparency). In one embodiment, the window maintains a steady-state temperature due to radiative heat losses at its operating blackbody temperature, which balances the optical power and thermal power absorbed to heat the window.

[0576] In one embodiment, the injected molten metal stream velocities may be so high that the intersection of the streams causes molten metal to splash onto the PV window to at least one of: clean the PV window and cool the PV window.

[0577] In one embodiment, Such as including dual molten metal injectors Includes a syringe alignment mechanism or aligner such as a mechanical actuator, electromagnetic actuator, screw jack actuator, stepper motor actuator, linear motor actuator, thermal actuator, electric actuator, pneumatic actuator, hydraulic actuator, magnetic actuator, solenoid actuator, piezoelectric actuator, shape memory polymer actuator, photopolymer actuator or other actuator known in the art to move or rotate the nozzle 5q, syringe 5k61, tank 5c, breaker tank EM pump assembly 914a ( Figure 66G ) and at least one of the EM pump assembly 5kk. The aligner can cause the corresponding molten metal stream ejected from the aligned nozzle to change to the desired direction to achieve alignment with the relative stream ejected by the opposite syringe, thereby resulting in an intersection of the molten metal streams. The aligner can include sensors such as ignition current or voltage sensors and controllers such as computers to automatically align the aligned syringes to maintain stream intersection. The aligner can include a mechanical linkage such as a gear system to rotate the nozzle 5q to achieve alignment, wherein the nozzle may include an asymmetric opening. The aligner can include at least one mechanical push-pull rod connected to the syringe 5k61 or the nozzle 5q, which mechanically moves the syringe 5k61 or the nozzle 5q. The rod can pass through a pipe to penetrate the tank 5c to reach the drive mechanism, wherein at least one of the pipe and the drive mechanism is airtightly sealed. The drive mechanism can include a threaded rod collar and a member for rotating the rod and at least one of a pneumatic actuator, a hydraulic actuator, and a piezoelectric actuator or other actuators of the present disclosure for pushing or pulling the rod.

[0578] In one embodiment, a nozzle aligner can include at least one sensor, such as a PV cell, such as one of the PV converters 26a, that senses light emitted from a PV window or PV window cavity; a processor, such as a computer, for processing the light intensity recorded by the sensor; and a controller for controlling the movement of at least one actuator of the aligner so that molten metal injected by at least one nozzle is directed to a location on the inside of the PV window or PV window cavity. This directed flow can be responsive to a reduction in transmitted light due to the window being coated with metal or metal oxide. The resulting increase in flow at that location can enhance window coating removal.

[0579] In another embodiment of a SunCell comprising dual molten metal injectors, the EM pump assembly 5kk may be mounted to a sliding table 409c with supports 409k (FIGS. 66B-66L and Figure 2I144 ) to install and align the corresponding tilted EM pump assembly 5kk and tank 5c. The SunCell support 409k may include a turnbuckle that can be adjusted to any height and can be locked with a lock nut. The support 409k can be electrically isolated from the slide 409c by an electrical isolator such as a ceramic or flon gasket 409c1. The gasket can be located at the base of the support 409k. The SunCell may include an electrical circuit breaker 913 ( Figures 66G-66L and Figure 2I144 ), which electrically isolates the breaker EM pump assembly 914a from the reaction cell chamber 5b31, the tank section above the breaker, the opposing tank 5c, and the tank EM pump assembly 915a. At least one of the reaction cell chamber 5b31, the tank section above the breaker, the opposing tank 5c, and the tank EM pump assembly 915a can be at least one of: further supported and rigidly attached to the slide table 409c independently of the support of the breaker EM pump assembly 914a. Exemplary rigid supports on each side of the reaction cell chamber are Figures 66H-66L and Figure 2I144 The reaction cell chamber support 918 is shown. In one embodiment, the support 918 may include a pressure controller such as a deformable bushing or spring 922 at the base 409c end to maintain the desired support pressure as the SunCell assembly contracts and expands. The tank including the electrical disconnect 913 may also include a flexible tank section such as a welded or flanged bellows 917 (e.g., such as https: / / www.mcmaster.com / bellows / expansion-joints-with-butt-weld-ends / https: / / www.mcmaster.com / bellows / expansion-joints-with-butt-weld-ends / or https: / / www.mcmaster.com / bellows / high-temperature-all-metal-expansion-joints-with-flanged-ends / ) or braided hose (e.g. https: / / www.mcmaster.com / bellows / extreme-temperature-air-and-steam- hose-with-male-threaded-fittings / )The flexible section may comprise a material such as tantalum or be coated with a coating such as fire retardant paint, chromium, chromium carbide, aluminum oxide, tantalum, TiN, CrN, TiAlN, or another coating disclosed herein that protects the flexible section, such as the bellows, from alloying with the molten metal. The flexible section may include a lining, such as a thermal insulator, such as one comprising BN, Macor, quartz, aluminum oxide, zirconium oxide, or another disclosed herein, to protect the flexible section from overheating. The lining may be segmented, sectioned, or loosely fitted to allow for flexibility. The flexible section 917 may be connected above or below the electrical circuit breaker 913. The aligner may include at least one tilting system to selectively tilt the cylindrical axis of the bellows by compressing one side of the flexible section and extending the opposite side. The tilting system may include a member for extending or contracting the length of the support member 409k of the breaker EM pump assembly 914a to cause the corresponding syringe EM pump tubing 5k61 and nozzle 5q to change its direction. In one embodiment, the tilt system includes a plurality of adjustable length supports 409k to allow alignment in multiple azimuth and vertical directions. The tilt system of the aligner may include an actuator such as a mechanical actuator, a screw jack actuator, a stepper motor actuator, a linear motor actuator, a thermal actuator, an electric actuator, a pneumatic actuator, a hydraulic actuator, a magnetic actuator, a solenoid actuator, a piezoelectric actuator, a shape memory polymer actuator, a photopolymer actuator, or other actuators known in the art to adjust the length of the supports 409k. In one exemplary embodiment, the aligner comprises (i) a bellows such as a bellows welded at one flat end to the breaker 913 or breaker flange 914 and at the other flat end to the tank 5c, (ii) four turnbuckle supports 409k electrically isolated from the slide table 409c by ceramic spacers at their bases, and (iii) a mechanical means for rotating each turnbuckle to cause nozzle position adjustment by adjusting the length of the turnbuckle, wherein the reaction cell chamber 5b31 and the non-electrical breaker tank 5c are rigidly supported to allow independent movement of the breaker EM pump assembly 914a. An exemplary rigid support is Figures 66H-66L and Figure 2I144 The reaction cell chamber support 918 is shown. The mechanical means for rotating each turnbuckle can include a fixed gear on each turnbuckle, each fixed gear having a mating gear and a motor such as a servo motor to rotate the mating gear to cause the length of the turnbuckle to change. The rotation can be controlled by a computer that receives ignition current and voltage data from corresponding sensors. Alternatively, the aligner includes a tilting system that includes at least one actuator such as the actuator of the present disclosure to change the length of one or more supports 409k to cause alignment.

[0580] In another embodiment, the aligner includes a flexible section such as a bellows 917 in the reservoir 5c between the reaction cell chamber 5b31 and the reservoir EM pump assembly 915a and a tilting system for selectively tilting the cylindrical axis of the bellows by compressing one side of the bellows and stretching the opposite side, wherein at least the reaction cell chamber 5b31, the reservoir section 5c above the bellows, the opposing reservoir 5c, and the breaker EM pump assembly 914a can be at least one of: further supported and rigidly attached to the slide table 409c to permit independent movement of the reservoir EM pump assembly 915a below the bellows. An exemplary rigid support is Figures 66H-66L and Figure 2I144 The reaction cell chamber support 918 is shown. The tilting system can include at least one support 409k that can be adjusted in length to tilt the bellows to cause alignment. An exemplary tilting system is an actuator such as the actuator of the present disclosure to cause length adjustment to achieve alignment.

[0581] In an alternative embodiment, the aligner includes a flexible section such as bellows 917 and a contraction-tilt system where the tilting system tilts the bellows by contraction of one side of the bellows rather than compression and extension of opposite sides of the bellows. Figures 66H-66L and Figure 2I144 The exemplary contraction and tilting system shown includes a flexible section such as a bellows 917 and a contraction or clamping device that can span the bellows along the cylindrical axis of the bellows 917 and be secured to the bellows at opposite ends. The exemplary contraction and tilting system includes a frame 920 located at the circuit breaker end of the bellows and a movable frame 920a located at the opposite end, and a plurality of contraction elements such as screws or bolts 921 spanning the frame, wherein contraction and shortening of the bolts 921 causes contraction or shortening of the bellows on one side of the shortened screw and lengthening on the opposite side, while corresponding bolts 921 lengthen. In one embodiment, at least one movable frame 920a may include a member for tilting the bolts 920 when adjusting their length between the frames 920a. The tilting member may include a slot for the bolts 920. In one embodiment, the turnbuckle support 409k ( Figure 66I) is replaced with a rigid support that can be fixed to at least the base of the reaction cell chamber, such as a welded metal leg support such as a three-leg support or a four-leg support. The bellows contraction element can include a threaded bolt fixed at each top corner hole of the bellows bracket 921 and a bushing, a gasket and a nut on the threaded bolt portion at each corresponding lower bracket corner hole to adjust the injection direction of the EM pump molten metal. In another embodiment, the contraction elements can each include a clamp such as a C-clamp that can be fastened across the bellows, wherein the fastener can include a weldment. In order to increase the convenience of contraction by the element, the bellows can include a lever source, such as a metal extension fastened perpendicular to the bellows wall, such as a welded angle steel or channel steel lever, and the contraction element such as a C-clamp is attached to the lever.

[0582] The constriction element may comprise an actuator such as the actuator of the present disclosure.The actuator may be attached to the exterior of the bellows, wherein the interior may serve as a section of the corresponding tank 5c.

[0583] In one embodiment, the aligner comprises a flexible section of the syringe EM pump tubing 5k61, such as a bellows, and a system for tilting the syringe EM pump tubing 5k61. The tilting system may include a linkage, such as a mechanical linkage, and a system for moving the linkage, such as a mechanical actuator, a screw jack actuator, a stepper motor actuator, a linear motor actuator, a thermal actuator, an electric actuator, a pneumatic actuator, a hydraulic actuator, a magnetic actuator, a solenoid actuator, a piezoelectric actuator, a shape memory polymer actuator, a photopolymer actuator, or other actuators known in the art.

[0584] In one embodiment, at least one of the tank, the circuit breaker, and the bellows may comprise a magnetic material, such as a magnetic material with a high Curie temperature, such as steel (Curie temperature is 770°C). The magnetic material, such as steel, may act as a magnetic circuit to capture the ignition current flux and the flux caused by the tank eddy currents or image currents, wherein the flux capture is used to prevent magnetic pinch effect instabilities in the molten metal stream. In one embodiment, at least one of the tank, the circuit breaker, and the bellows may include a magnetic material coating, collar, or cover, such as a cover comprising magnetic steel. In another embodiment, at least one of the tank, the circuit breaker, and the bellows may include an electrical insulator or a material with low or no electrical conductivity, which may prevent the formation of eddy currents or image currents and the corresponding magnetic flux that may interfere with the injection of the molten metal by the EM pump.

[0585] exist Figure 66LIn the embodiment shown, the nozzle 5q includes an opening that is approximately centered at the end of the injector section 5k61 of the EM pump tubing so that the corresponding molten metal stream is ejected parallel to the ejector section 5k61 of the EM pump tubing. In one embodiment, each injector tubing may include multiple (e.g., two, three, four) nozzles 5q, and / or each reservoir 5c may be in fluid communication with multiple injector tubing 5k61. The height of the injector section 5k61 of the EM pump tubing in the reservoir 5c may be adjusted so that the nozzle is within the reservoir to protect it from damage caused by exposure to the stronger plasma in the reaction cell chamber 5b31. In one embodiment, the nozzle may be immersed in the molten metal pool in the reservoir. The reservoir of the dual-injector SunCell and the corresponding injector sections 5k61 of the EM pump tubing of the two such injectors and nozzles may be angled relative to each other so that the ejected molten metal streams follow trajectories 941 that intersect in the reaction cell chamber 5b31. Storage tank 5c can form an inverted V-shape connected to reaction cell chamber 5b31 and PV windows 5ab4 and 5b4. The angle between the storage tanks forming the legs of the inverted V can be in the range of about 1 ° to 179 °. The area where storage tank 5c is connected to reaction cell chamber 5b31 can include a radiator to prevent overheating of the area. The radiator can be a wall thickening portion of at least one of the storage tank and the reaction cell chamber bottom surface. The radiator can include a metal collar around the outer top portion of the storage tank. Exemplary radiators include stainless steel or copper.

[0586] In one embodiment of further preventing overheating of the upper section of the storage tank and the base of the reaction cell chamber (to which the storage tank is attached here), the reaction cell chamber 5b31 can serve as a receiver for the insert. The insert can include the reaction cell chamber bottom lining 5b31b and the section where the storage tank 5c is connected to the reaction cell chamber 5b31. The insert can include a refractory material such as at least one refractory material comprising a refractory metal such as ceramic, carbon, quartz, tungsten, and another refractory material disclosed herein or known in the art. The insert can include a composite of materials. The insert can include multiple components that can be fastened together. The fastener can include glue, brazing parts, welding parts, bolts, screws, clamps, or another fastener disclosed herein or known in the art. In the case of glued carbon parts, exemplary glue includes Aremco Products Graphic Bond 551RN. The storage tank can include a metal tube with any desired cross-sectional geometry (such as circular, square, or rectangular) that is fastened to the base of the reaction cell chamber. The corresponding fasteners may comprise welds.The metal may comprise stainless steel or another of the present disclosure.

[0587] In an alternative embodiment, the tanks are fastened or fused to each other (e.g., Figure 66M and 66NAs shown), fasteners (such as welds) may be located above the electrical disconnect 913 of each tank to maintain electrical isolation of the molten metal injector electrodes. Figure 66M and Figure 66N In the embodiment shown, the fused reservoir is only partially connected directly to the base of the metal reaction cell chamber, with the base removed in the central region where the reservoirs are connected to each other. The connection from the base to the reservoir joint section may include bridging metal sections such as flat trapezoidal sections and triangular sections that are joined together and joined to the reservoir in the central region, such as Figures 66N-66M As shown. The joint may include a weld. In one embodiment, a thick insert liner fills the base cavity, which is formed by corresponding connectors with the joined storage tank. The insert liner may include at least one of a base liner 5b31b and a storage tank liner. In one exemplary embodiment, the insert comprises a thick carbon or carbon-like block liner, such as a Calcarb liner, which is inserted into the reaction cell chamber at the base to form the reaction cell chamber base liner 5b31b. The block liner may include two tubes machined into the block, which have the diameter of the storage tank and are angled to the vertical to align with the storage tank tubes having approximately the same cross-sectional dimensions. The angle may be in the range of approximately 5° to 85° from the vertical. The block may have a thickness in the range of approximately 1 mm to 100 mm and conform to at least one of the base of the reaction cell chamber, the base cavity, and the storage tank. In another embodiment, the machined tubes may have a minimum diameter to support the operation of the storage tank, thereby reducing the plasma volume in the storage tank to reduce its heat load. The liner pipe diameter may range from 1% to 100% of the tank diameter.

[0588] In one embodiment, such as upper tank 5cb, electrical circuit breaker 913 and bellows 917 ( Figures 66F-66N ) can be connected via flange 914, which can be bolted with washers or welded. Alternatively, these components can be directly welded together. In one exemplary embodiment, the component union can include a reducer, such as the reducer that welds the electrical circuit breaker 913 to the upper storage tank 5cb.

[0589] The circuit breaker may be coated internally to protect it from alloying with molten metal. The coating may comprise an electrical insulator. Exemplary coatings include VHT paint, mullite, alumina, and other coatings disclosed herein. The circuit breaker may also include a lining, such as an electrically insulating lining, such as BN, quartz, or another lining disclosed herein.

[0590] In one embodiment, the nozzle 5q is oriented in the direction of the syringe EM pump tubing, which also forms a reaction cell chamber 5b31 of extended height to permit the molten metal streams to intersect within the reaction cell chamber 5b31, which may also include at least a portion of any cavity formed by the PV window 5b4. In one embodiment, at least one of the reaction cell chamber and the PV window may have a geometry comprising a vertical portion of an inverted Y. The section may have any desired geometric horizontal cross-section such as a circle or a square. The reaction cell chamber may include a lining 5b31a such as a lining comprising at least one of carbon and W. In one embodiment, at least a portion of one or more side walls of the reaction cell chamber 5b31 may include a PV window. In Figures 66C-66D and Figure 66L In the exemplary embodiment shown, the PV window may comprise a transparent rectangular or cubic chamber, such as one comprising quartz or sapphire, connected to the reaction cell chamber 5b31 by a union, such as one comprising a ground quartz or sapphire flange that mates with a matching metal flange. In another exemplary embodiment, the corresponding PV chamber formed by the PV window may comprise Figure 66L Reaction cell chamber 5b31 shown, wherein the union is in base, and storage tank is connected to reaction cell chamber at this base. Union can be sealed with gasket such as graphite gasket and clamp or by glue or adhesive. In an alternative embodiment, rectangular or cubic chamber can comprise the frame with quartz or sapphire window panel, and this quartz or sapphire window panel is sealed with gasket or glued or adhered to this frame such as metal frame. In any embodiment, glue or adhesive can comprise one of the present disclosure. Adhesive can comprise composite such as multiple layers to allow to be bonded to frame and bonded to window by the corresponding layer of different adhesives. In one embodiment, base or frame can comprise anchor such as welding or brazing to the metal screen of this base or frame, wherein adhesive is applied to this anchor and applied to window such as quartz or sapphire window.

[0591] In one embodiment, the anchor comprises a thin metal ring comprising a cylinder with a collar or flange at each end of the cylinder. The ring can be welded to a base or frame in a vacuum-tight manner, while the opposing collar of the ring can be glued to the PV window. The ring can include at least one expansion member, such as at least one circumferential pleat in the cylinder or ring. The glue joint can include multiple layers, such as a layer on the base or frame side and a layer on the window side of the corresponding glue joint. In one embodiment, the thermal expansion coefficients of the flange, glue, and window are roughly matched for the operating temperature range. In an exemplary embodiment, a sapphire window is glued to a selected stainless steel (SS) flange with a matching similar expansion coefficient. In one embodiment, the SS can include Kovar or Invar. The glue or adhesive can be one of the disclosed herein. The glue joint can be replaced with a suitable braze, such as one capable of high-temperature operation, such as the braze disclosed herein. The operating temperature can be in the range of approximately 300°C to 2000°C.

[0592] In one embodiment, the EM pump pressure may be increased to cause molten metal to be injected on the surface of at least one of the top 5ab4 and 5b4 of the PV window chamber and the side windows to clean the window material such as metal oxides such as tin oxide or gallium oxide.

[0593] In one embodiment, a flange such as Figures 66H-66L and Figure 2I144 At least one of the illustrated flanges 914 and 915 and other flanges such as 26d, 26e, and 902 can be replaced with flat metal plates (without bolt holes) such as rings around the perimeter of each joined component. These plates can be welded together at the outer edges to form a seam. This seam can be cut or ground away to separate the two plates.

[0594] In one embodiment, the syringe EM pump tubing 5k61, such as syringe EM pump tubing that is at least one of the following: refractory and resistant to alloying with molten metals, such as W or Ta, can include a tubing fastener to secure the tubing to a collar on the EM pump base plate 5kk1. The fastener can include a weld. The fastener can include a press-fit joint. Alternatively, the fastener can include an adhesive or potting compound such as an adhesive or potting compound of the present disclosure, such as a ceramic such as Cotronics Resbond 940SS, Cotronics Resbond 940HT, or Sauereisen Electrotemp Cement, which can have a thermal expansion coefficient similar to that of stainless steel. Exemplary high-temperature glues or adhesives disclosed herein are Cotronics Resbond 907GF, 940HT, 940LE, 940HE, 940SS, 903HP, 908, or 904 zirconium oxide adhesives, zirconium oxide coatings (such as Aremco Ultra Temp 516 containing ZrO2-ZrSiO4), and Duraband (such as RK454). In another embodiment, the fastener comprises an EM pump tube and a collar annulus such as a washer on each, wherein the collar can be welded on the edge to secure the tube. Alternatively, the EM pump tube can include a collar to secure the tube to a collar welded to a base plate using a cover such as a carbon plate that pushes the collar against the base plate. The plate can be glued to the base plate or held in place by at least one fastener. Components such as the collar, collar, and fastener can be coated with a tin alloy resistant coating such as the coatings disclosed herein, such as CrC, alumina, or Ta.

[0595] At least one of the EM pump tubing 5k6, the storage tank 5c, and the reaction cell chamber 5b31 may be coated with a coating that protects the underlying metal from alloying with the molten metal. Exemplary coatings include oxides, carbides, diborides, nitrides, ceramic coatings such as fire retardant paint, and another coating disclosed herein. At least one of the EM pump tubing 5k6, the storage tank 5c, and the reaction cell chamber 5b31, such as at least one of the walls and base, may be lined with a lining. Exemplary linings are tungsten-lined carbon or ceramics such as aluminum oxide, such as 96+% aluminum oxide or FG995 aluminum oxide, circumferentially. The carbon may be coated with an electrical insulator such as fire retardant paint, ZrO2, or Resbond 907GF. The storage tank 5c and the reaction cell chamber 5b31 may have a polygonal cross-section, such as a square or rectangular cross-section. Linings, such as those comprising at least one of carbon and tungsten, may include plates of lining material that may be tilted together at the intersection of the plates.

[0596] In embodiments of the present disclosure, SunCell components such as the reactor chamber, inlet riser, storage tank, and EM pump tubing may be coated with ZYP coatings such as yttrium oxide, hafnium titanate, zirconium oxide, YAG, 3Y2O3-5Al2O3, and aluminum oxide. At least one ZYP coating may replace fire retardant paint.

[0597] At least one of the reaction cell chamber 5b31 and the PV window chamber 916 may further include at least one structural support such as at least one string or turnbuckle 409k that can be attached to the table 409c to support the weight of at least one of the reaction cell chamber 5b31 and the PV window chamber 916. In an alternative embodiment, the SunCell can be supported by a bracket attached to the base plate 5b31c, wherein the bracket is connected to the support structure or frame. The tank can be suspended or supported to the tank plate 5kk1 by flexible support rods. To hold the magnets 5k4 in place, the EM pump assembly 5kk can include a bracket between the EM pump magnets 5k4 or a magnet bracket from the tank base plate 5kk1.

[0598] In one embodiment, the PV window includes at least one blower or compressor and at least one nozzle to cool the PV by a high-speed air flow over the window surface. The gas, such as helium or hydrogen, can be selected so that it is inert, transparent to the emitted radiation, and has a high heat transfer capability.

[0599] In one embodiment, a PV window can be placed in the center of a sphere, with a light-recycling PV covering the interior of the sphere. Alternatively, a PV window can be placed in the center of a ring that includes a flat mirror at the bottom of a hemisphere that includes a light-recycling PV covering the interior of the hemisphere. The mirror can include polished metal, ceramic such as Accuflect (Accuratus), or other reflectors known in the art that can reflect substantially all wavelengths emitted by the SunCell, such as light in the wavelength range of about 200 nm to 5000 nm.

[0600] In implementations such as Figure 66L In the illustrated embodiment, the reaction cell chamber walls can operate at high temperatures to act as blackbody radiators for the PV cells of PV converter 26a. The PV cells of PV converter 26a can each include an infrared backing or underlying mirror to perform light recycling to the blackbody radiator walls. The reaction cell chamber walls can comprise a refractory material, such as niobium, capable of operating at high temperatures, such as in the range of approximately 1000°C to 3500°C. The walls can be coated with a coating of the present disclosure, such as alumina or CrC, to inhibit at least one of oxidation and alloying with the molten metal.

[0601] In one embodiment, a molten metal such as gallium or tin flows through a heat exchanger such as a shell and tube heat exchanger including a thermophotovoltaic converter. The molten metal such as gallium or tin can be pumped through the tubes, which radiate to a TPV cell mounted inside the shell.

[0602] In an embodiment, the intense blackbody radiation emitted by the hydrino plasma through the PV window can be directly used as at least one of a radiative heater, a light source, and a directed energy weapon. Directed energy such as intense light emission can destroy or melt incident projectiles such as missiles and bullets.

[0603] In one embodiment, the molten metal may comprise any known metal or alloy such as tin, gallium, gallium indium tin alloy, silver, copper, Ag-Cu alloys (such as 71.9% Ag / 28.1% Sn), and Ag-Sn alloys (such as 50% Ag / 50% Sn melts). The SunCell may include a PV window to allow at least one of plasma and blackbody light to be emitted from the reaction cell chamber to the PV converter. In one embodiment, the reaction cell chamber contains a gas to make the blackbody temperature more uniform. The gas may include a noble gas such as argon. The gas pressure may be high to better distribute the temperature.

[0604] The molten metal may comprise a metal, such as tin, that resists wetting of the PV window, thereby preventing devitrification of the window. The PV window may comprise a transparent material that is at least one of resistant to high temperatures and resistant to wetting with tin. The window may comprise at least one of quartz, zerodur (lithium aluminosilicate glass-ceramic), ULE (a titanium dioxide-silicon dioxide binary glass with zero coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE)), sapphire, aluminum oxynitride, MgF2, glass, Pyrex, and other such windows known in the art. The window may be capable of operating at high temperatures, such as in the range of approximately 200°C to 1800°C, and may function as a blackbody radiator in addition to transmitting plasma emission from within the reaction cell chamber. Suitable exemplary high-temperature windows are the high-pressure, high-temperature sight glass windows (HTHP) from Rayotek (https: / / rayoteksightwindows.com / products / high-temp-sight-glass-windows.html).

[0605] In one embodiment, the PV window is at least one of cleaned and cooled using at least one of a gas blanket, a gas jet, a high pressure jet, or an air knife from a source such as a gas nozzle or syringe, a gas source, and a flow and pressure controller such as a pressure sensor, a valve, and a computer that can be operated during plasma generation. The gas can include at least one of a noble gas such as argon and steam. In one embodiment, the window cleaner includes a water jet that can be pulsed, wherein excess water can be pumped out as steam. In one embodiment, the gas jet can include steam. The window can include a local vacuum port connected to a vacuum pump to remove the steam before it flows into the reaction cell chamber. The window can further include a baffle such as a gate valve to close the window from the reaction cell chamber to allow steam to be selectively pumped out by the local vacuum port and the vacuum pump. In one embodiment, the window can include a molten metal pump such as an electromagnetic pump to inject molten metal such as gallium, tin, silver, copper, or an alloy thereof onto the inner surface of the window to clean it.

[0606] In one embodiment, the molten metal comprises tin. In one embodiment, the PV window comprises a conductive, transparent coating such as indium tin oxide. A bias can be applied to the window by a voltage source to repel adherent particles such as tin and SnO particles. In one embodiment, the window is plasma cleaned by a source of plasma such as a glow discharge source. In one embodiment, at least one of the window or the housing for the window can further comprise electrodes for the glow discharge. In one embodiment, the PV window is adjacent to a glow discharge cell 900 ( FIG. 16.19A ) that supplies HOH and atomic H to the reaction cell chamber 5b31. The discharge cell can be at least one of the following: positioned or angled such that atomic hydrogen formed in the discharge cell from the supplied molecular hydrogen flows over the surface of the PV window. The atomic hydrogen can react with the tin or tin oxide to form volatile SnH 4 , thereby cleaning the PV window. In one embodiment, the outlet of the discharge cell can include a baffle or flow guide to cause the flow of atomic hydrogen from the discharge cell outlet to be incident on the PV window. The baffles or diverters may comprise a material having a low hydrogen recombination coefficient or low recombination capacity such as glass, quartz, or a ceramic such as alumina or BN.

[0607] In one embodiment, the power generation system (referred to as SunCell) includes at least one plasma cell, the plasma cell including (i) a discharge plasma generation cell 900 that generates a water / hydrogen mixture to be directed toward a molten metal pool through the discharge plasma generation cell, and (ii) a discharge plasma ignition cell that generates a discharge plasma in a reaction cell chamber 5b31, wherein at least one of the plasma cells causes ignition of a hydrino plasma in the reaction cell chamber 5b31, wherein the hydrino plasma comprises a plasma powered and maintained at least in part by a hydrino reaction. In these embodiments, the discharge plasma generation cell, such as a glow discharge cell, induces formation of a first plasma from a gas, such as a gas comprising a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen; wherein the effluent of the discharge plasma generation cell is directed to any portion of a molten metal circuit, such as molten metal, an anode, a cathode, an electrode immersed in a molten metal storage tank, either of two molten metal storage tanks, or either of two injector molten metal electrodes. In these embodiments, a discharge plasma ignition cell, such as a glow discharge cell, induces a discharge, such as a gas discharge, in the reaction cell chamber to induce ignition of the hydrino reaction in the reaction cell chamber. The discharge plasma ignition electrode may include an ignition electrode. The electrodes of the discharge cell may include at least one of the following: an anode, a cathode, an electrode immersed in a molten metal storage tank, either of two molten metal storage tanks, either of two injector molten metal electrodes, a storage tank, a reaction cell chamber, and a separate discharge plasma ignition electrode that penetrates the reaction cell chamber via an electrically isolating connector, such as a feedthrough. The discharge plasma ignition electrode may be a metal resistant to alloying with the molten metal, such as Ta, W, or a coated metal, such as a carbide or nitride coated stainless steel electrode.

[0608] In one embodiment, a light-to-electricity converter comprises a photovoltaic converter of the present disclosure, comprising a photovoltaic (PV) cell responsive to a significant wavelength region of light emitted from the cell, such as a wavelength region corresponding to at least 10% of the optical power output. In one embodiment, the PV cell is a concentrating cell capable of receiving high-intensity light, greater than sunlight, such as within an intensity range of at least one of approximately 1.5 suns to 75,000 suns, 10 suns to 10,000 suns, and 100 suns to 2,000 suns. The concentrating PV cell may comprise c-Si operable within a range of approximately 1 to 1,000 suns. The silicon PV cell may operate at a temperature that at least one of improves the bandgap to better match a blackbody spectrum and improves heat dissipation, thereby reducing the complexity of the cooling system. In one exemplary embodiment, a concentrating silicon PV cell is operated at approximately 130°C at 100 to 500 suns to provide a bandgap of approximately 0.84V, matching the spectrum of a 3,000°C blackbody radiator. The PV cell may include a single junction or multiple junctions, such as a triple junction. A concentrating silicon PV cell may include a single junction Si or a single junction III / V semiconductor or multiple layers, such as multiple layers of III / V semiconductors, such as at least one of the following groups: InGaP / InGaAs / Ge; InAlGaP / AlGaAs / GaInNAsSb / Ge; GaInP / GaAsP / SiGe; GaInP / GaAsP / Si; GaInP / GaAsP / Ge; GaInP / GaAsP / Si / SiGe; GaInP / GaAs / InGaAs; GaInP / GaAs / GaInNAs; GaInP / GaAs / InGaAs / InGaAs; GaInP / Ga(In)As / InGaAs; GaInP-GaAs-wafer-InGaAs; GaInP-Ga(In)As-Ge; and GaInP-GaInAs-Ge. Multiple junctions, such as triple or double junctions, may be connected in series. In another embodiment, the junctions may be connected in parallel. The junctions may be mechanically stacked. The junctions may be wafer bonded. In one embodiment, the tunnel diodes between the junctions may be replaced by wafer bonds. The wafer bonds may be electrically isolated and transparent to the wavelength region converted by subsequent or deeper junctions. Each junction may be connected to an independent electrical connector or bus bar. The independent bus bars may be connected in series or in parallel. The electrical contacts for each electrically independent junction may include grid lines. Since the current is distributed over multiple parallel circuits or interconnects for independent junctions or groups of junctions, the shadow area of ​​the line may be minimized. The current may be removed laterally. The wafer bonding layer may include a transparent conductive layer.Exemplary transparent conductors are transparent conductive oxides (TCOs) such as indium tin oxide (ITO), fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO), and doped zinc oxide, as well as conductive polymers, graphene, and carbon nanotubes, among other transparent semiconductors known to those skilled in the art. Benzocyclobutene (BCB) can constitute an intermediate bonding layer. Bonding can be between a transparent material, such as glass, such as borosilicate glass, and the PV semiconductor material. An exemplary two-junction cell is a two-junction cell comprising a top layer of a GaInP wafer bonded to a bottom layer of GaAs (GaInP / / GaAs). An exemplary four-junction cell comprises GaInP / GaAs / GaInAsP / GaInAs on an InP substrate, where each junction can be individually separated by a tunnel diode ( / ) or an isolating transparent wafer bonding layer ( / / ), such as a cell consisting of GaInP / / GaAsP / / GaInAsP / / GaNAs on InP. A PV cell can comprise InGaP / / GaAs / / InGaAsNSb / / conductive layer / / conductive layer / / GaSb / / InGaAsSb. The substrate can be GaAs or Ge. The PV cell can contain Si-Ge-Sn and alloys. All combinations of diodes and wafer bonds are within the scope of the present disclosure. An exemplary four-junction cell with a conversion efficiency of 44.7% at 297 times the concentration of the AM1.5d spectrum is manufactured by SOITEC of France. The PV cell can include a single junction. An exemplary single-junction PV cell can include a single crystal silicon cell such as one of the single crystal silicon cells given by Sater et al. (BL Sater, ND Sater, "High voltage silicon VMJ solar cells for up to 1000 suns intensities", Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, 2002. Proceedings of the 29th IEEE Conference, May 19-24, 2002, pp. 1019-1022), which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. Alternatively, the single-junction cell may comprise GaAs or GaAs doped with other elements such as Group III and Group V. In one exemplary embodiment, the PV cell comprises a triple-junction concentrating silicon PV cell or a GaAs PV cell operating at approximately 1000 suns. In another exemplary embodiment, the PV cell comprises c-Si operating at 250 suns. In one exemplary embodiment, the PV may comprise GaAs selectively responsive to wavelengths less than 900 nm and InGaAs on at least one of InP, GaAs, and Ge selectively responsive to wavelengths in the region between 900 nm and 1800 nm.Two types of PV cells, comprising GaAs and InGaAs on InP, can be combined to improve efficiency. Two such single-junction cells can be used to create the effect of a double-junction cell. This combination can be implemented using at least one of a dichroic mirror, a dichroic filter, and a cell architecture, either alone or in combination with a mirror, to achieve multiple bounces or reflections of light as described in this disclosure. In one embodiment, each PV cell includes a polychromatic layer that separates and sorts the incident light, redirecting it to strike specific layers in the multi-junction cell. In one exemplary embodiment, the cell includes a layer of indium gallium phosphide for visible light and a layer of gallium arsenide for infrared light, with the corresponding light being guided. The PV cell can comprise GaAs. 1-x- y N x Bi y alloy.

[0609] PV cells may comprise silicon. Silicon PV cells may include concentrating cells that can operate within an intensity range of approximately 5 to 2000 suns. Silicon PV cells may comprise crystalline silicon, and at least one surface may further comprise amorphous silicon, which may have a different bandgap than the crystalline Si layer. Amorphous silicon may have a wider bandgap than crystalline silicon. The amorphous silicon layer may perform at least one of the following functions: making the cell electrically transparent and preventing electron-hole pair recombination at the surface. The silicon cell may comprise a multi-junction cell. These layers may comprise independent cells. At least one cell, such as a top cell, such as a cell comprising at least one of Ga, As, InP, Al, and In, may be ion-sectioned and mechanically stacked on a Si cell, such as a Si bottom cell. At least one of the multi-junction cell and the layers of the series-connected cells may include a bypass diode to minimize current and power losses due to current mismatch between the cell layers. The cell surface may be textured to facilitate light penetration into the cell. The cell may include an anti-reflective coating to enhance light penetration into the cell. The anti-reflective coating may further reflect wavelengths below the bandgap energy. The coating may include multiple layers such as about two to 20 layers. Increasing the number of layers may enhance selectivity to pass a desired wavelength range such as light above the band gap energy and reflect another range such as wavelengths below the band gap energy. Light reflected from the pool surface may be bounced to at least one other pool where it may be absorbed. The PV converter may include an enclosing structure such as a geodesic dome to provide multiple bounces of reflected light to increase the PV absorption and conversion cross section. The geodesic dome may include multiple receiver units 200 ( Figure 2I133) such as a triangular unit covered with a PV cell 15. The dome can act as an integrating sphere. Unconverted light can be recycled. Light recycling can occur by reflection between the member receiver cells, such as the member receiver cells of the geodesic dome. The surface can include a filter that can reflect wavelengths below the band gap energy of the cell. The cell can include a bottom mirror such as a silver or gold bottom layer to reflect unabsorbed light back through the cell. Further unabsorbed light and light reflected by the cell surface filter can be absorbed by a blackbody radiator and re-emitted into the PV cell, where the blackbody radiator includes at least one of the components of the SunCell, such as the reaction cell chamber and at least one wall of the storage tank. In one embodiment, the PV substrate can include a material that is transparent to light transmitted from the bottom cell to the reflector on the back side of the substrate. Exemplary triple junction cells with transparent substrates are InGaAsP (1.3 eV), InGaAsP (0.96 eV), InGaAs (0.73 eV), InP substrate and copper or gold IR reflector. In one embodiment, the PV cell can include a concentrating silicon cell. Multi-junction III-V cells may be chosen for higher voltages, or Si cells may be chosen for lower cost.Bus bar shading may be reduced by using transparent conductors such as transparent conductive oxides (TCOs).

[0610] The PV cell may comprise a perovskite cell. Exemplary perovskite cells include, from top to bottom, Au, Ni, Al, Ti, GaN, CH3NH3SnI3, single layer h-BN, CH3NH3PbI 3-x Br x , HTM / GA, bottom contact layer (Au) layers.

[0611] The cell may comprise a multi-pn junction cell such as a cell comprising an AlN top layer and a GaN bottom layer to convert EUV and UV, respectively. In one embodiment, the photovoltaic cell may comprise a GaN p-layer cell having heavy p-doping near the surface to avoid excessive degradation of short wavelength light such as UV and EUV. The n-type bottom layer may comprise AlGaN or AlN. In one embodiment, the PV cell comprises GaN and AlN heavily p-doped in the top layer of the pn junction. x Ga 1-x N, wherein the p-doped layer comprises a two-dimensional hole gas. In one embodiment, the PV cell may comprise at least one of GaN, AlGaN, and AlN with a semiconductor junction. In one embodiment, the PV cell may comprise n-type AlGaN or AlN with a metal junction. In one embodiment, the PV cell responds to high-energy light above the bandgap of the PV material having a plurality of electron-hole pairs. The light intensity may be sufficient to saturate the recombination mechanism to improve efficiency.

[0612] The converter may include at least one of: (i) GaN, (ii) AlGaN or AlN pn junctions, and (iii) shallow ultrathin pn heterojunction photovoltaic cells, each of which includes a p-type two-dimensional hole gas in GaN on an n-type AlGaN or AlN base region. Each cell may include a lead to a metal thin film layer such as an Al thin film layer, an n-type layer, a depletion layer, a p-type layer, and a lead to a metal thin film such as an Al thin film layer, wherein a passivation layer is absent due to short-wavelength light and vacuum operation. In embodiments of the photovoltaic cell including an AlGaN or AlN n-type layer, a metal with an appropriate work function may replace the p-layer to form a Schottky rectifying barrier, thereby forming a Schottky barrier metal / semiconductor photovoltaic cell.

[0613] In anoth...

Claims

1. A power generation system, comprising: a) at least one container including a bottom plate capable of maintaining a pressure below atmospheric pressure, comprising a reaction chamber; b) two electrodes each in fluid communication with molten metal contained in a corresponding tank, wherein the molten metal is configured to flow between the electrodes to complete an electrical circuit; c) a power source connected to the two electrodes comprising a cathode and an anode for applying an ignition current between the two electrodes when the circuit is closed; d) optionally, a plasma generating pool (such as a glow discharge cell) for initiating formation of a first plasma from a gas; wherein an outflow of the plasma generating pool is directed to the circuit (such as the molten metal, the anode, the cathode, each of which is supplied with molten metal through its molten metal storage tank); wherein when an electric current is applied to the circuit, effluent from the plasma generating cell reacts to produce a second plasma and reaction products, wherein energy from the second plasma produces radiation; e) a transparent window cavity for transmitting radiation generated by the second plasma, wherein the transparent window cavity is in contact with the bottom plate of the container; f) a wet seal between the transparent window cavity and the bottom plate, comprising a wet seal molten metal, and g) A power adapter configured to receive radiation transmitted through the transparent window cavity and convert and / or transfer energy from the second plasma into mechanical energy, thermal energy and / or electrical energy.

2. The power generation system of claim 1 , wherein the molten metal is supplied to the electrodes to close the circuit by two molten metal injector systems, each of the molten metal injector systems forming a stream of molten metal in contact with one of the electrodes, wherein the streams of molten metal intersect to close the circuit, and each molten metal injector system comprises: a) at least one storage tank containing some of said molten metal; a molten metal pump system (such as one or more electromagnetic pumps) configured to deliver the molten metal in the storage tank and pass through the injector tube to provide a molten metal stream, and the storage tank is used to receive the molten metal stream returned after injection; b) an inlet riser for controlling the molten metal level in the storage tank; c) an electrical disconnect in a wall of the tank to electrically isolate each of the corresponding electrodes from the electrode of opposite polarity, and d) An alignment mechanism for changing the orientation of the electrode injector so that the two streams corresponding to the two electrodes intersect to complete the circuit.

3. The power generation system of claim 2, wherein each of the injector tubes is covered by an electrically insulating sleeve capable of resisting wetting by the molten metal.

4. The power generation system of claim 3, wherein the sleeve comprises at least one of quartz, boron nitride, carbon, and multiple carbon segments separated by electrically insulating segments of boron nitride or quartz, and comprises at least two portions, an upper portion and a lower portion.

5. The power generation system of any one of claims 2-4, wherein the electromagnetic pump comprises an EM bus bar assembly internally coated with a coating (such as TiN) that is resistant to at least one of oxidation and alloying.

6. A power generation system according to any one of claims 2-5, wherein the electromagnetic pump comprises a tungsten EM bus bar assembly and a tungsten pump tube, wherein the tungsten EM bus bar assembly and the tungsten pump tube are laser welded at the joints with Kovar shims and further coated with tungsten disilicide or a precious metal on the outside.

7. A power generation system according to any one of claims 2-6, wherein each tank further comprises an inner tank and an outer tank separated by a gap, wherein the outer tank is connected to the container and accommodates the inner tank under vacuum, and the inner tank is open to the interior of the container and the window cavity and receives a return flow of the molten metal.

8. The power generation system of claim 7, wherein the internal storage tank further comprises a funnel (such as a quartz funnel) at its opening to the container so that the returning molten metal does not flow into the gap.

9. The power generation system of any one of claims 1-8, wherein the container comprises a spherical, hemispherical or parabolic dome section to which the tanks are connected, and further comprises a drip edge at the connection to each external tank.

10. The power generation system of claim 8 or 9, wherein the funnel further comprises a graphite or BN gasket between the drip edge and the funnel to seal the top of the funnel to the bottom of the drip edge.

11. A power generation system according to any one of claims 1-10, wherein the base plate and container further include a reflective lining on all surfaces, the reflective lining incident on the plasma radiation and reflecting the incident light through the window cavity to the power adapter, wherein the lining also includes a penetration for the syringe, the penetration further covered by the reflective penetration lining.

12. The power generation system of claim 11 wherein the reflectors comprise quartz plates conforming to the surface they are lined with, the backsides of which are coated with a reflective coating.

13. The power generation system of claim 12, wherein the reflective coating comprises at least one from the group consisting of Aremco Quartz Coating 850, CP4040-S2-HT and LC4040-SG, Aremco Pyro-Duct TM 597-A (adhesive) Pyro-Duct TM 597-C (coating) (silver-filled, electrically and thermally conductive, one-component system up to 1700°F (927°C)), Aremco 634-BN-SiC, reflective quartz material OM 100, metallic silver, aluminum, precious metals gold, rhodium, iridium, ruthenium, palladium and platinum, The reflective coating is coated with a protective coating layer (such as BN) to avoid alloying with the molten metal.

14. The power generation system according to any one of claims 1 to 13, wherein the system further comprises an electromagnetic pump bottom plate, wherein the surface in contact with the molten metal is coated with a coating (such as boron nitride) that prevents alloying with the molten metal.

15. The power generation system of any one of claims 1-14, wherein the container is connected to the window cavity and the wet seal further comprises: a) a window flange at the base of the window cavity; b) a base plate flange on the base plate; c) a top flange at the top of the window cavity flange having a mechanical connection with the floor flange to provide pressure on the window flange against the floor flange; d) a gasket (such as carbon) on at least one window cavity flange surface that contacts the top flange and the bottom plate flange; e) at least one of an inner circumferential housing or retaining wall inside the window cavity and an outer circumferential housing or retaining wall outside the window cavity flange, and f) A wet seal molten metal retained by the housing and retaining walls and the gasket to maintain a lower pressure inside the window cavity relative to the outside to maintain a pressure differential.

16. The power generation system of any one of claims 1-15, wherein the wet seal comprises a flange seal with a graphite gasket for the transparent window cavity, the transparent window cavity comprising top and bottom sealing flanges bolted together with top and bottom graphite gaskets between each flange surface of the window cavity, and The corresponding sealing flange also includes an angle ring or channel ring around the periphery of the flange seal with graphite gasket, the angle ring or channel ring being welded to at least one of the base plate and the bottom flange of the seal to form a cavity around the flange seal with graphite gasket, wherein the cavity is filled with wet sealing molten metal to form the wet seal.

17. The power generation system of claim 16, wherein the wet sealing gasket (such as a graphite or carbon gasket) is compressed by atmospheric pressure due to the pressure differential so that at least one of the following is achieved: the flange mechanical tension is reduced and the force to maintain the gasket compression is provided only by atmospheric pressure.

18. The power generation system of any one of claims 1-17, wherein the wet seal includes a barrier gasket that achieves at least one of: supporting the weight of the window cavity and preventing molten metal from flowing due to a downward force corresponding to a pressure differential between the atmosphere and the gas pressure within the window cavity.

19. The power generation system of any one of claims 1-18, wherein the wet seal comprises at least one of: a) a base of the window cavity having a precision flat surface that mates with a matching precision flat surface of the bottom plate; b) a window flange at the base of the window cavity having a precision flat surface that mates with a matching precision flat surface of the base plate; c) a gasket (such as carbon) between the base of the window cavity and the bottom plate flange; d) a gasket (such as carbon) between at least a portion of the surface of the window cavity flange in contact with the base plate; e) an outer circumferential housing or retaining wall outside the window cavity or window cavity flange; f) an inner circumferential housing or retaining wall within the window cavity; g) a wet seal molten metal retained by the housing and retaining wall and the gasket to maintain a lower pressure inside the window cavity relative to the outside to maintain a pressure differential, and h) A wet seal molten metal maintained by the precision fit contact between the housing and retaining wall and the window cavity or the window cavity flange and the base plate to maintain a lower pressure inside the window cavity relative to the outside to maintain a pressure differential.

20. The power generation system of any one of claims 1-19, wherein the wet seal molten metal solidifies along at least one of: an outer perimeter of the outer casing or retaining wall and below a base of the PV window cavity or flange thereof.

21. The power generation system of claim 15, wherein at least one of the following: a) the height of the outer circumferential shell or the retaining wall; b) the width of the window cavity flange not covered by the gasket; c) the width of the window cavity flange that precisely matches the base plate, and d) The height of the window cavity flange is sufficient to allow the wet seal to be formed (eg in the range of 1 mm to 100 mm).

22. The power generation system of any one of claims 1-21, wherein the wet seal comprises precision and matching flatness of the window cavity flange and floor, and wherein at least one of the following exists: f) the gap between the window cavity flange and the bottom plate is smaller than the height through which the wet seal molten metal can penetrate; g) the gap between the window cavity flange and the bottom plate with or without the wet seal gasket is less than the height of the wet seal molten metal outflow; h) any gap between the flange and the base plate is less than 1 mm (e.g. less than 100 microns, = less than 10 microns); i) The height of the circumferential portion of the gap between the precision-fit window cavity flange and the bottom plate prevents 1) the wet seal molten metal infiltration, wherein the gap height maintains a barrier to inward wet seal molten metal flow to maintain a positive pressure differential between the interior and exterior of the window cavity, and / or 2) the wet seal molten metal flows outwardly to retain the wet seal molten metal in the area of ​​the gap, and j) Due to the thickness of the gasket, the height of at least a circumferential portion of the gap between the window cavity flange and the base plate prevents outward wet seal molten metal flow and retains the wet seal molten metal in the area of ​​the gap.

23. The power generation system of any one of claims 1-22, wherein the wet seal molten metal comprises tin or gallium.

24. The power generation system of any one of claims 1-23, wherein the wet seal molten metal is impregnated in a solid matrix.

25. The power generation system of any one of claims 1-24, wherein the wet seal and window cavity further comprise a gasket interface comprising a surface that allows relative torque between the gasket and the window cavity without causing destructive damage to the gasket.

26. The power generation system of claim 25, wherein the gasket interface comprises a base of the window cavity, or the flange comprises edges, each edge having a radius of curvature or a chamfer to form a smooth edge.

27. The power generation system of any one of claims 1-26, wherein the wet seal comprises at least one of an inner and outer housing and a retaining ring, wherein there is at least one of: a) the inner shell or inner retaining ring comprises a refractory metal from the group of W, Ta, Mo or Nb, or a ceramic such as quartz or alumina, b) at least one of the inner and outer casings and the walls of the retaining ring is coated with BN, and c) At least one housing and a retaining ring are at least partially embedded in the base plate.

28. A power generation system according to any one of claims 7-27, wherein the inner tank and the outer tank further include a thermal conductor and an electrical insulator for conducting heat, the thermal conductor and the electrical insulator being located in a gap between the inner tank and the outer tank and allowing heat conduction while maintaining electrical isolation of the two electrodes.

29. The power generation system of claim 28, wherein the thermal conductor and electrical insulator comprises a copper cylinder for providing thermal conductivity and a boron nitride cylinder for providing electrical isolation and thermal conduction; wherein the cylinders are concentric and fill a gap between the inner tank and the outer tank, include an expansion slot, and have a height less than or equal to that of the inner tank.

30. The power generation system of any one of claims 7-29, wherein the system further comprises a heater to heat an outer wall of the outer tank, whereby the heat conductor conducts heat from the heater to the inner tank to melt the molten metal.

31. The power generation system of claim 30, wherein the heater comprises at least one hydrogen torch.

32. The power generation system of any one of claims 1-31, wherein the gas in the plasma generation cell comprises a mixture of hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2).

33. The power generation system according to claim 32, wherein the relative molar ratio of oxygen to hydrogen is 0.01%-50% (such as 0.1%-20%, 0.1-15%, etc.).

34. The power generation system of any one of claims 1-33, wherein the molten metal used to close the circuit is tin.

35. The power generation system of claim 34, wherein tin does not wet the PV window.

36. The power generation system of any one of claims 1-35, wherein the effluent of the plasma generation cell does not oxidize tin.

37. The power generation system of any one of claims 1-36, wherein the transparent window cavity comprises at least one of quartz, sapphire, aluminum oxynitride, and MgF2.

38. The power generation system of any one of claims 1-37, wherein the power adapter is a thermal photovoltaic adapter.

39. The power generation system of any one of claims 1-38, wherein the power adapter comprises a photovoltaic cell, and photons generated from the second plasma having energy less than a band gap of the photovoltaic cell are reflected back to the reaction chamber, absorbed by the second plasma, and at least a portion of the absorbed energy is emitted as radiation above the band gap, wherein the radiation above the band gap is incident on the photovoltaic cell.

40. The power generation system of any one of claims 1-39, wherein the container may have a wet bottom and / or wet walls, and the bottom or wall of the container has a layer of molten metal deposited thereon to reflect the second plasma light through the window cavity to the power adapter.

41. The power generation system of claim 40, wherein the floor or wall has a membrane disposed thereover to provide the desired thin film coverage of molten metal.

42. A power generation system as claimed in claim 40 or 41, wherein the floor or wall has a bead-liner and a bead retaining support disposed thereon, the bead retaining support comprising a tray for supporting beads of the bead-liner.

43. The power generation system of claim 42, wherein the tray has a plurality of depths of varying heights (eg, with bead diameters independently selected to match the depths).

44. The power generation system of any one of claims 1-43, wherein the container further comprises a window cavity that transmits light from the second plasma and / or the black body radiation in the container to the power adapter; the window cavity comprises a window cavity flange; and the window flange is attached to the base plate by a base plate flange that is attached to the container (or a portion thereof); Wherein a seal between the window cavity flange and the base plate flange is formed in part by a wet seal formed by at least one of molten metal dispersed between the window cavity flange and the base plate flange and along an outer edge of the window cavity flange.

45. The power generation system of any one of claims 1-44, wherein the window cavity flange includes a window cavity wall at its base.

46. ​​A power generation system according to any one of claims 1-45, wherein the mating base plate or base plate flange and window cavity flange form a shell along the periphery of the window cavity flange, wherein the periphery can be filled with the molten metal and the molten metal solidifies along the outer periphery of the shell.

47. A power generation system comprising a magnetohydrodynamic wet seal for maintaining a vacuum on one side of a photovoltaic (PV) window, the PV window comprising a cavity transparent to optical power; wherein the wet seal joins the PV window chamber and a bottom plate (such as a bottom plate of the container, the bottom plate having a penetration for the top of one or more storage tanks) and comprises a channel for containing molten metal, the PV window chamber being inserted into the channel; wherein the molten metal is electrically connected to a power supply to generate an electric current in the molten metal in the passageway, thereby inducing magnetic confinement of the molten metal in the housing to maintain the seal; Wherein light is generated on one side of the PV window, transmitted through the window, and collected in at least one photovoltaic cell to generate electricity.

48. The power generation system of claim 47, wherein the molten metal is exposed to a magnetic field such that Lorentz forces of the current and magnetic field on the molten metal in the channel maintain the wet seal against external forces on the molten metal.

49. A wet seal for maintaining a vacuum on one side of a photovoltaic (PV) window, the PV window comprising a cavity transparent to optical power; wherein the wet seal joins a PV window chamber and a base plate (such as a base plate of the container, the base plate having a penetration for the top of one or more storage tanks) and comprises a channel for containing molten metal, the PV window chamber being inserted into the channel; The molten metal rotates so that centrifugal force pushes the molten metal radially to maintain the seal against external forces.

50. The power generation system of any one of claims 1-48, wherein the wet seal is formed from a plurality of metal layers, wherein a liquid metal layer is disposed between two solid metal layers.

51. A wet seal (such as a magnetohydrodynamic wet seal) for maintaining a vacuum on one side of a photovoltaic (PV) window, the photovoltaic window comprising a cavity transparent to optical power; wherein the seal comprises an electrically insulating passage sized for insertion of the photovoltaic window chamber therein and extending around the PV window chamber when the PV window chamber is inserted into the passage; wherein the channel is filled with molten metal; wherein the electrically insulated channel has at least one positive lead electrode and at least one negative lead electrode at different points of the channel; At least one electric current is applied through the molten metal in the channel, and the molten metal is exposed to at least one magnetic field applied by at least one magnet to generate at least one Lorentz force along a section of the channel, wherein the electrodes and magnets are constructed and oriented so that the Lorentz forces of the corresponding electric current and magnetic field are in a vector direction opposite to the atmospheric pressure on the molten metal in the channel to create a vacuum seal, and the Lorentz forces of the electric current and magnetic field are sufficient to maintain a pressure differential (such as a vacuum seal).

52. A wet seal (such as a magnetohydrodynamic wet seal) according to claim 51, wherein the seal comprises two or more electrically insulated channels; wherein each channel has at least one positive lead electrode and a negative lead electrode; wherein when the PV window cavity including at least one edge is inserted into at least one channel, each channel is independently filled with molten metal such that the two or more channels together extend around the PV window, and The one or more currents in each channel are independently biased and together interact with independent Lorentz fields to maintain a pressure differential (eg, a vacuum seal).

53. A method of maintaining a pressure differential (e.g., a vacuum) between two sides of a first solid material, comprising: a) combining the first solid material and the second solid material with a molten metal disposed therebetween; wherein said molten metal has a magnetic field applied thereto when mated; b) applying an electric current through the molten metal; c) reducing the pressure on the molten metal; The force generated by the current and the magnetic field opposes the force generated by the pressure reduction to maintain the pressure differential.

54. A method of maintaining a pressure differential (e.g., a vacuum) across a molten metal seal between a first solid material and a second solid material, comprising: For each 1 / 2 perimeter with opposite current, the magnetic field has opposite polarity so that the Lorentz force is in the same direction relative to the channel (e.g., 1 / 2 of the channel can be magnetized with a magnetic field in the +z direction, while 1 / 2 of the channel can be magnetized with a magnetic field in the -z direction).

55. A method of maintaining a pressure differential (e.g., a vacuum) between two sides of a molten metal seal between atmosphere and a closed cavity, comprising: a channel loop comprising molten metal for carrying an electric current; a plurality of current leads for supplying a plurality of current segments between at least one pair of the plurality of leads clockwise or counterclockwise along the perimeter of the channel loop, and further comprising: a plurality of magnetic field sources perpendicular to the direction of each of the plurality of current segments, each magnetic field having a polarity such that the corresponding Lorentz forces of the current segments and the magnetic fields are in a direction opposite to the force generated by the pressure reduction relative to the channel to maintain the pressure differential.

56. A wet seal (such as a magnetohydrodynamic wet seal) according to any one of claims 47 and 49-52, wherein the PV window forms a PV window cavity having a flange at its base, and the PV window flange is seated on a window cavity floor; wherein the magnetohydrodynamic wet seal between the PV window cavity flange and the window cavity floor further comprises: a) a molten metal (such as tin or gallium) reservoir around the PV window cavity flange, which supplies molten metal (such as tin or gallium) to the gap between the bottom of the PV window flange and a portion of the base plate; b) a continuous divider in the gap between the outer wall of the molten metal (such as tin or gallium) storage tank wall and the vertical edge of the PV window flange and in the gap between the bottom of the PV window flange and the base plate; c) a magnetic field source such as a permanent magnet, wherein the magnetic field generated from the magnetic field source is perpendicular to the gap between the PV window flange and the base plate; d) a current supplier and electrodes on opposite sides of the continuous separator connected to the molten metal (such as gallium) to supply current to the corresponding tin or gallium wet seal circuits, wherein the current generates radial MHD forces in the gap between the PV window flange and the base plate in the presence of the crossed magnetic fields, and e) an MHD-atmospheric pressure balance processor operably connected to sensors at the wet seal location such as at least one optical sensor and one conductivity sensor, an MHD current sensor and controller, an evacuation rate sensor such as a pressure gauge and controller, a vacuum valve such as a needle valve and its controller, and a vacuum pump and its controller, wherein the MHD-atmospheric pressure balance processor can receive sensor inputs and repeatedly adjust the MHD current and vacuum rate to achieve and maintain a stable wet seal when the PV window cavity is evacuated.

57. A wet seal (such as a magnetohydrodynamic wet seal) according to claim 56, wherein the MHD-atmospheric pressure balance processor sets the current supply controller to provide a current corresponding to an increase in the MHD force relative to the maximum atmospheric pressure, whereby when the PV window cavity is in a vacuum, the external atmospheric pressure causes more molten metal (such as tin or gallium) to flow into the gap between the PV window flange and the base plate to cause an increase in the width of the wet seal and an increase in the MHD current flow, while the reverse MHD force also increases until a steady-state wet seal is established.

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