Efficient photon furnace for metal production

Abstract

The present invention relates to a photonic furnace and a method of using the photonic furnace to produce a metal product from a precursor material, such as an oxide of a metal, the photonic furnace comprising one or more light sources generating a light beam having a wavelength shorter than 600 nm; a reaction chamber having a precursor material inlet; a product outlet, and wherein the one or more light sources are capable of providing sufficient power density at the beam impingement region of the light beam to raise the temperature of the beam impingement region, thereby reducing the precursor material to metal.

Description

[0001] Cross - Reference to Related Applications

[0002] This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 63 / 374,330, filed on September 1, 2022, and U.S. Provisional Application No. 63 / 487,811, filed on March 1, 2023, each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. Background Art

[0003] Steel production and metal smelting not only consume a large amount of energy to convert raw materials into usable metal products but also contribute significantly to the annual emissions of greenhouse gases, including CO2, into the atmosphere. Therefore, there is a need for more efficient furnaces and methods for producing metals from raw materials to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and provide a more cost-effective way to produce metal products. Summary of the Invention

[0004] In one aspect, a photon furnace for producing metal products from precursor materials is described herein. In some embodiments, the photon furnace includes one or more light sources that generate a light beam. In some embodiments, the emitted wavelength of the light beam is shorter than about 600 nm. In some embodiments, the wavelength is from about 425 nm to about 475 nm. In some embodiments, the photon furnace includes a reaction chamber. In some embodiments, the photon furnace includes a precursor material inlet that provides access to the reaction chamber. In some embodiments, the photon furnace includes a product outlet.

[0005] In some embodiments, the light beam of the one or more light sources is capable of providing a sufficient power density at the beam impact region of the light beam to raise the temperature of the beam impact region to at least the reaction temperature in less than about 5 seconds (e.g., about 5 s, 4 s, 3 s, 2 s, 1 s, 0.5 s, or 0.1 s). In some embodiments, the beam impact region is located in the reaction chamber or in a preheating chamber that is connected between the material inlet and the reaction chamber.

[0006] In some embodiments, the interaction of the precursor material with the beam impact region facilitates the conversion of the precursor material into a metal product. In some embodiments, heating the precursor material by interaction with the beam impact region can convert the precursor material into a metal product. In some embodiments, the metal product can be removed from the photon furnace through the product outlet. In some embodiments, the reaction temperature is the melting temperature of at least one component of the precursor material. In some embodiments, the reaction temperature is the temperature required for a reducing agent in the reaction chamber to reduce a metal oxide in the reaction chamber.

[0007] In some embodiments, the reducing agent is selected from hydrogen, ammonia, carbon, carbon monoxide, and combinations of two or more thereof.

[0008] In some embodiments, the reducing agent and the metal oxide are heated separately.

[0009] In some embodiments, the reaction chamber comprises steel lined with a refractory ceramic coating selected from magnesium oxide, aluminum oxide, zirconium oxide, silicon carbide, graphite, silicon oxide, and combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the furnace is configured to remove impurities from the precursor material during the production of the metal product. In some embodiments, during the production of the metal product, the precursor material is combined with at least one alloying element. In some embodiments, the metal product is steel, a non-steel alloy containing iron, or metallic iron, and the precursor material is iron ore. In some embodiments, the reaction temperature is at least about 1600 °C (e.g., at least 1600 °C, 1700 °C, 1800 °C, 1900 °C, 2000 °C, or 2200 °C). In some embodiments, the amount of energy consumed by the furnace during the production of the metal product is about 2 - 12 GJ / ton of metal product (e.g., about 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, or 12 GJ / ton of steel).

[0010] In some embodiments, the amount of electricity consumed by the furnace during the production of the metal product is about 1 - 6 MWh / ton of metal product. In some embodiments, the operation of the photon furnace for producing steel consumes about 30% - 70% (e.g., 30%, 35%, 40%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, or 70%) less energy than the operation of a blast furnace and a basic oxygen furnace for producing an equal amount of steel. In some embodiments, the total carbon dioxide emissions caused by the production of the metal product by the furnace are at least 40% less (e.g., about 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, or 99%) than those of the equal metal product produced by a blast furnace.

[0011] In some embodiments, the furnace is capable of producing at least about 178 (e.g., about 200, 500, 1000, 10,000, or 15,000) tons of steel per day. In some embodiments, the furnace is designed to operate in a flow-through manner. In some embodiments, the furnace is capable of continuously producing the metal product. In some embodiments, one or more light sources comprise lasers or electroluminescent light emitting diodes. In some embodiments, the laser comprises a laser diode. In some embodiments, one or more light sources operate at a continuous duty cycle.

[0012] In some embodiments, one or more light sources operate at a pulsed duty cycle. In some embodiments, the beam of one or more light sources comprises multiple wavelengths. In some embodiments, the maximum intensity of the beam of each of one or more light sources is at a single wavelength. In some embodiments, the photon furnace comprises at least two light sources that generate beams, wherein the emission wavelength of each beam is shorter than about 600 nm.

[0013] In some embodiments, the beam impact regions of the beams of at least two light sources are substantially the same point. In some embodiments, the beam impact regions of the beams of at least two light sources spatially overlap by at least 20% (such as at least 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80% or 90%). In some embodiments, the beam impact regions of the beams of at least two light sources spatially overlap by no more than about 15% (such as no more than 10%, 5% or 1%).

[0014] In some embodiments, the photon furnace further includes a lens, wherein the lens is configured to focus or shape the contour of the beam impact region of one or more light sources. In some embodiments, the furnace provides a substantially uniform power density at the beam impact region of one or more light sources. In some embodiments, the furnace provides a total power output to reactor volume ratio of about 5 kW / m 3 to about 1600 kW / m 3 of the total power output to reactor volume ratio.

[0015] In some embodiments, the throughput to reactor volume ratio is at least about 10 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second (such as about 10 g / sm 3 , 12 g / sm 3 , 14 g / sm 3 , 16 g / sm 3 , 18 g / sm 3 , 20 g / sm 3 or 100 g / sm 3 ). In some embodiments, the ratio of the total power output of one or more light sources to the volume of the reactor is at least 5 kW / m 3 (such as at least 5, 10, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100, 120 or 160 kW / m 3 ). In some embodiments, the total power delivered to the beam impact region is at least 100 W / cm 2 . In some embodiments, the total power delivered to the beam impact region is at least 60 kW / cm 2 . In some embodiments, the ratio of the total power output of one or more light sources to the volume of the reactor is at least 600 kW / m 3 (such as at least 600, 800, 1000, 1200 or 1600 kW / m 3 ).

[0016] In another aspect, methods for producing metal products from precursor materials are described herein. In some embodiments, the method includes providing a photon furnace as described herein. In some embodiments, the method includes introducing one or more precursor materials into the precursor material inlet of the photon furnace. In some embodiments, the method includes using the interaction of a beam of light from one or more light sources of the photon furnace with at least one of the one or more precursor materials to rapidly heat the at least one of the one or more precursor materials to a reaction temperature. In some embodiments, the method includes reacting the one or more precursor materials to produce a metal product. In some embodiments, the method includes removing the metal product from the product outlet of the photon furnace.

[0017] In some embodiments, the one or more precursor materials include one or more metal oxides. In some embodiments, the one or more precursor materials include a reducing agent. In some embodiments, the reducing agent is hydrogen or comprises carbon, hydrogen, carbon monoxide, ammonia, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the method further includes preheating at least one of the one or more precursor materials in the preheating chamber of the photon furnace.

[0018] In some embodiments, the method further includes removing impurities from at least one of the one or more precursor materials before introducing the at least one of the one or more precursor materials into the material inlet. In some embodiments, the method further includes removing impurities from at least one of the one or more precursor materials after introducing the at least one of the one or more precursor materials into the material inlet and before the reaction. In some embodiments, the method further includes removing impurities from at least one of the one or more precursor materials during or after the reaction after introducing the at least one of the one or more precursor materials into the material inlet.

[0019] In some embodiments, the one or more precursor materials include one or more alloying elements. In some embodiments, the one or more precursor materials include iron oxide particles. In some embodiments, the one or more precursor materials include particles having an average diameter in the range of 10 μm to 10 cm.

[0020] Additional aspects and advantages of the present disclosure will become readily apparent to those skilled in the art from the following detailed description, which illustrates and describes only illustrative embodiments of the present disclosure. As will be recognized, the present disclosure is capable of other and different embodiments and its several details are capable of modification in various obvious respects, all without departing from the disclosure. Accordingly, the drawings and description are to be regarded as illustrative in nature and not restrictive.

[0021] Incorporation by Reference

[0022] All publications, patents, and patent applications mentioned in this specification are incorporated herein by reference to the extent that each individual publication, patent, or patent application is specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference. If the publications and patents or patent applications incorporated by reference conflict with the disclosure contained in the specification, the specification is intended to supersede and / or take precedence over any such conflicting material. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0023] The novel features of the invention are particularly set forth in the appended claims. A better understanding of the features and advantages of the invention will be obtained by reference to the following detailed description of illustrative embodiments that utilize the principles of the invention and the accompanying drawings (also referred to herein as "figures"), in which:

[0024] Figure 1 The absorption spectra of example metal precursor materials (iron oxide hematite (Fe2O3) and magnetite (Fe3O4)) are shown, which are superimposed on the blackbody spectral intensity of a blackbody light source at two different temperatures. As shown, a 445 nm light source (e.g., a blue laser) is effectively absorbed by iron oxide.

[0025] Figure 2 An example metal precursor (iron oxide) in particulate form is shown.

[0026] Figure 3 An example array-based light source is shown that is suitable for the photon furnace and methods described herein.

[0027] Figure 4 An example workflow of a flow-through photon furnace as described herein is shown.

[0028] Figure 5 A cross-sectional view of an example embodiment of a photon furnace as described herein is shown.

[0029] Figure 6 The relationship between the maximum measured surface temperature of an iron ore sample and time measured with a two-color pyrometer is shown while varying the laser power density of a photon furnace as described herein between 50 and 250 W / cm 2 2.

[0030] Figure 7 A prototype photon furnace is shown that uses a 125-watt laser diode array as a light source for laser processing of iron ore as described herein.

[0031] Figure 8 A shows images of iron ore before and after laser heating using a Figure 7 prototype furnace.

[0032] Figure 8 B shows the X-ray diffraction patterns of unheated ore (hematite) and ore (mainly wustite containing magnetite) processed in a laser furnace under rough vacuum at a pressure of about 0.26 Torr. Figure 7 Detailed Description

[0033] Although various embodiments of the present invention have been shown and described herein, it will be apparent to those skilled in the art that such embodiments are provided by way of example only. Many variations, changes, and substitutions will occur to those skilled in the art without departing from the present invention. It should be understood that various alternatives to the embodiments of the present invention described herein may be employed.

[0034] Whenever the terms "at least", "greater than", or "greater than or equal to" are placed before the first value in two or more numerical sequences, the terms "at least", "greater than", or "greater than or equal to" apply to each value in the numerical sequence. For example, greater than or equal to 1, 2, or 3 is equivalent to greater than or equal to 1, greater than or equal to 2, or greater than or equal to 3.

[0035] Whenever the terms "not exceeding", "less than", or "less than or equal to" are placed before the first value in two or more numerical series, the terms "not exceeding", "less than", or "less than or equal to" apply to each value in the numerical series. For example, less than or equal to 3, 2, or 1 is equivalent to less than or equal to 3, less than or equal to 2, or less than or equal to 1.

[0036] Certain inventive embodiments herein contemplate numerical ranges. When a range is present, the range includes the range endpoints. Additionally, each sub-range and the values within that range exist as if explicitly written out. The term "about" or "approximate" can mean within an acceptable error range of a particular value, which will depend in part on how the value is measured or determined, e.g., the limitations of the measurement system. For example, in accordance with the practice in the art, "about" can mean within 1 or more standard deviations. Alternatively, "about" can mean a range up to 20%, up to 10%, up to 5%, or up to 1% of a given value. Where a particular value is described in the present application and claims, unless otherwise stated, it can be assumed that the term "about" means within an acceptable error range of the particular value.

[0037] As used herein, "ton" is a unit of mass and generally refers to a metric ton or 1000 kg.

[0038] As used herein, "flux" generally refers to a material added to a reaction to assist in removing impurities from a metal precursor or a mixture containing molten metal. Examples of flux include limestone, calcium oxide, calcium hydroxide, calcium carbonate, calcium fluoride, magnesium oxide, magnesium carbonate, calcium magnesium carbonate, calcium fluoride, silicon oxide, sodium borate, manganese oxide, lithium chloride, sodium chloride, potassium chloride, magnesium chloride, ammonium chloride, zinc chloride, sodium hexafluoroaluminate, barium chloride, and combinations thereof.

[0039] As used herein, "base metal" generally refers to the metal that constitutes the bulk of the material in an alloy.

[0040] As used herein, "alloy" generally refers to a material that contains a metal and additional elements (which can also be metals as long as they are different metals from the base metal). Metal alloys can contain impurities, which include but are not limited to a metal or additional metals, and the same metal with more than one oxidation state. Examples of metal alloys include stainless steels such as 316 or 316L, austenitic steels such as 304 or 304L, ferritic steels such as 430 or 434, martensitic steels such as 44, high-carbon steels such as 1080, low-carbon / soft steels such as A36, medium-carbon / high-strength steels such as 4140, 4340, alloy steels such as 6150, 8620, titanium alloys such as Ti-6Al-4V, and nickel alloys such as 625, 718.

[0041] As used herein, "steel" generally refers to an alloy that contains the base metal iron.

[0042] As used herein, "impurity" generally refers to any element or compound that is not the desired metal or metal alloy.

[0043] As used herein, "metal precursor" generally refers to a composition or compound that can be used to produce a metal product. Examples include metal ores, metal oxides, reducing agents, and / or alloying agents.

[0044] As used herein, "metal product" generally refers to a composition or material that contains elements bonded together by metallic bonding. For example, a metal product can be produced by the thermal or chemical conversion of a precursor material, which directly or in a stepwise process converts the raw ore, where the level of metallic bonding in the material is increased by the thermal or chemical conversion.

[0045] This document describes a photon furnace that can effectively produce metal products from one or more precursor materials. The photon furnace described herein can use one or more light sources to provide heat to one or more precursor materials. Heating the precursor materials can assist or initiate a metal production reaction, which results in the conversion of one or more precursor materials into a metal product.

[0046] The metallic product may include structural materials, powders, ingots or other solid objects made of metals such as beryllium, lithium, sodium, magnesium, aluminum, silicon, potassium, calcium, scandium, titanium, vanadium, chromium, manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, copper, zinc, gallium, germanium, arsenic, rubidium, strontium, yttrium, zirconium, niobium, molybdenum, technetium, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, silver, cadmium, indium, tin, antimony, cesium, barium, hafnium, tantalum, tungsten, rhenium, osmium, iridium, platinum, gold, mercury, thallium, lead, bismuth, polonium and / or their alloys.

[0047] One or more precursor materials may include metal oxides, metal salts, metal-containing rocks and / or other types of metal ores. One or more precursor materials may include reducing agents, fluxes and / or alloying elements.

[0048] Metal oxides may include iron(II) oxide - wüstite (FeO) or magnetite (Fe3O4), iron(III) oxide - α-phase hematite (Fe2O3), β-phase (Fe2O3), γ-phase maghemite (Fe2O3), ε-phase (Fe2O3), beryllium oxide, sodium oxide, magnesium oxide, aluminum oxide, silicon oxide, potassium oxide, calcium oxide, scandium oxide, titanium oxide, vanadium oxide, chromium oxide, manganese oxide, cobalt oxide, nickel oxide, copper oxide, zinc oxide, gallium oxide, germanium oxide, arsenic oxide, rubidium oxide, strontium oxide, yttrium oxide, zirconium oxide, niobium oxide, molybdenum oxide, technetium oxide, ruthenium oxide, rhodium oxide, palladium oxide, silver oxide, cadmium oxide, indium oxide, tin oxide, antimony oxide, cesium oxide, barium oxide, hafnium oxide, tantalum oxide, tungsten oxide, rhenium oxide, osmium oxide, iridium oxide, platinum oxide, gold oxide, mercury oxide, thallium oxide, lead oxide, bismuth oxide and / or polonium oxide.

[0049] Reducing agents may include hydrogen, carbon (e.g., in the form of hydrocarbons or carbon monoxide) and / or electrons (e.g., the electric current utilized in electrochemical reduction).

[0050] Alloying elements may include aluminum, bismuth, boron, carbon, chromium, cobalt, copper, lead, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, niobium, phosphorus, silicon, sulfur, tantalum, titanium, tungsten, vanadium, zinc, zirconium and / or their combinations.

[0051] Suitable light sources may include lasers or light-emitting diodes. Incandescent blackbody light sources may also be used, provided that they deliver an appropriate power density at the desired wavelength for a particular metal production reaction.

[0052] The photon furnace described herein may provide improved heat transfer efficiency because the wavelength of the light source can be adjusted to the maximum absorption wavelength of one or more metal precursor materials. For example, as Figure 1 depicted, when converting an iron oxide precursor to metallic iron or a steel alloy, a 445 nm light source will effectively heat the iron oxide because this wavelength is close to the maximum absorbance.

[0053] When one or more light sources include lasers, depending on the wavelength and power density required for the desired reaction, the lasers can include CO2 lasers (9,200 - 11,400 nm), Xe-He lasers (2000 - 4000 nm), He-Ne lasers (~533 - 633 nm, 1152 - 3391 nm), Er:YAG lasers (2900 - 2940 nm), dye lasers (~380 - 1000 nm), InGaAs lasers (904 - 1065 nm), AlGaIn / AsSb lasers (1870 - 2200 nm), Ti:sapphire lasers (650 - 1130 nm), ruby lasers (694 nm), Cr fluoride lasers (780 - 850 nm), alexandrite lasers (700 - 800 nm), GaAlAs lasers (750 - 850 nm), InGaAlP lasers (630 - 685 nm), GaN lasers (515 - 520 nm), copper vapor lasers (510.5 nm), Ar lasers (488 - 515 nm), InGaN lasers (370 - 493 nm), Nd:YAG lasers (946 - 1319 nm), Nd:glass lasers (1,054 to 1,062 nm), nitrogen lasers (337 nm), fiber lasers (500 - 2100 nm) and / or combinations thereof.

[0054] Various lasers can be used to align with wavelengths in the absorption band of the metal precursor. In some embodiments, the wavelength range can be from about 180 nm to about 10,600 nm. In some embodiments, the wavelength range can be from about 300 nm to about 10,000 nm. In some embodiments, the wavelength range can be from about 400 nm to about 9,000 nm. In even other embodiments, the laser wavelength range can be from about 500 nm to about 8,000 nm. In even other embodiments, the laser wavelength range can be from about 600 to about 7,000 nm. In even other embodiments, the laser wavelength range can be from about 700 nm to about 6000 nm. In even other embodiments, the laser wavelength range can be from about 800 nm to about 5000 nm. In even other embodiments, the laser wavelength range can be from about 900 nm to about 4000 nm. In even other embodiments, the wavelength range can be from about 1000 nm to about 3000 nm. In even other embodiments, the wavelength range can be from about 425 nm to about 475 nm. In even other embodiments, the wavelength range can be from about 300 nm to about 700 nm.

[0055] The metal product precursor can be introduced in solid, fluid, gas, or powder form. For example, iron oxide can be in powder form (such asFigure 2 shown) or introduced in the form of the raw ore. The metal product precursor can be introduced by gravity, vacuum, pump, or entrained in a stream of a carrier fluid. The carrier fluid can be a liquid, gas, or flowable powder. The carrier fluid can include nitrogen, argon, oxygen, water, compressed air, dry air, methane, ethane, propane, ammonia, carbon monoxide, and / or combinations thereof. In addition to serving as a carrier or purge fluid, these fluids can also be used to control the concentration of the metal precursor in the reaction chamber and / or to regulate the reaction kinetics and thermodynamics. In some embodiments, these fluids can be housed in an inert gas chamber for eventual mixing with the metal product precursor. In other embodiments, these fluids can be used to transfer materials between one or more chambers of the photon furnace.

[0056] Figure 3 Examples of suitable light sources for use in a photon furnace are depicted in FIG. The main array 301 can include a plurality of smaller secondary arrays 302. Each of the secondary arrays can include a plurality of individual light sources, such as a plurality of lasers or light-emitting diodes. For example, a blue 1MW laser diode array can be used to focus power onto a beam impact region, where it causes heating of a material that absorbs light from the beam or beams.

[0057] Figure 4 Examples of workflows for producing steel or iron from iron oxide using a continuous flow photon furnace employing an array-based light source (such as the light source detailed in FIG. Figure 3 are depicted in FIG. The iron oxide falls through the path of the light source, heating it as it falls. Hydrogen is provided as a reducing agent. The reaction of the heated iron oxide with the reducing agent produces metallic iron. In addition to reducing CO2 emissions, due to more efficient heating resulting in lower energy costs, additional carbon savings are achieved in the furnace and method used by using hydrogen, as the reduction byproduct is H2O rather than CO2 (which would be produced using a carbon-based reducing agent). A flux is added, and impurities are removed in the form of slag. Alloying elements can be further added to produce the desired steel alloy, which can be utilized directly or further processed.

[0058] Figure 5 An example geometry of a photon furnace including a plurality of light sources is depicted in FIG. The photon furnace can include an optional preheating chamber 501, a reaction chamber 503, one or more light sources 505, one or more beam impact regions 507 of the one or more light sources, which can vary based on the presence and location of the precursor material. The photon furnace can also include a precursor material inlet 509, an optional shutter, divider, or valve 511 for isolating the optional preheating chamber 501 from the reaction chamber 503. The photon furnace can also include a product outlet 513.

[0059] In some embodiments, the photon furnace may include a plurality of additional inlets and / or outlets positioned to allow introduction of a reducing agent or additional metal precursors (such as fluxes or alloying agents), and / or to allow removal of slag and other by-products from the reactor at any desired stage.

[0060] One or more light sources of the photon furnace may be placed in various layouts. Using a system of optical devices including mirrors, lenses, and optical fibers, the light source can be focused to a point, defocused, or split into many beams. In some embodiments, there may be an array of light sources arranged in a flat or curved panel.

[0061] The photon furnace may include one or more light sources whose wavelengths are tuned to the absorption bands of one or more metal precursor inputs. The photon furnace may exist in a variety of configurations. In some embodiments, the photon furnace may include a single light source (such as a single collimated beam laser). In another embodiment, the photon furnace may include multiple light sources (such as an array of collimated beam lasers or light-emitting diodes). In another embodiment, the light source may include an array of laser diodes.

[0062] In some embodiments, the photon furnace may be arranged such that falling particles of a metal precursor (such as a metal oxide) pass through the beam of at least one light source. The particles may absorb the energy of the beam, heating the particles to a target temperature as they fall. For example, the metal oxide may fall through a drop tube and together with a reducing agent into the beam path of one or more light sources to form an intermediate metal product. The reducing agent may be preheated to the reaction temperature by the light source or other heat source. The intermediate metal product will have a higher metal percentage than the metal oxide, having a metallization between about 50% and about 99% (i.e., between about 50% and about 99% metal), with the balance including metal oxide and impurities inherent in the metal oxide.

[0063] In some embodiments, a rotary kiln may periodically expose a metal precursor in lumpy or particulate form (such as a metal oxide) to the beam of at least one light source to reach a target temperature. In some embodiments, a fixed or moving bed of the metal precursor may be exposed to the light beam to reach a target temperature.

[0064] The reducing agent and the metal oxide may be heated separately before being combined to produce the intermediate metal product, or may be heated simultaneously. In some embodiments, the reducing agent and the metal oxide are heated to the same temperature. In another embodiment, the reducing agent and the metal oxide are heated to different temperatures. In some embodiments, the reducing agent is heated to the target temperature before contacting the metal oxide in the photon furnace. In some embodiments, the metal oxide is heated to the target temperature in the laser furnace and then contacted with the reducing agent.

[0065] In some cases, the photon furnace described herein may include one or more vacuum manifolds that may be fluidly or otherwise operably coupled to one or more vacuum pumps that operate to reduce the pressure within the photon furnace, reaction chamber, preheating chamber, and / or any combination thereof.

[0066] In some embodiments, the one or more vacuum pumps may include a rotary vane vacuum pump, a turbomolecular vacuum pump, an injection vacuum pump, a liquid ring vacuum pump, a scroll vacuum pump, a diaphragm vacuum pump, a claw vacuum pump, a screw vacuum pump, a roots vacuum pump, and / or a turbomolecular vacuum pump. The vacuum pump may be configured to reduce the pressure within the photon furnace, reaction chamber, preheating chamber, and / or any combination thereof to a pressure of less than about 500 Torr, less than about 100 Torr, less than about 1 Torr, or less than about 1 millitorr.

[0067] The reduction of the pressure within the photon furnace, reaction chamber, and preheating chamber may contribute to the heating of the metal precursor by interaction with the beam of one or more light sources. The reduction of the pressure within the photon furnace, reaction chamber, and preheating chamber may reduce or even eliminate the need for an external reducing agent used to convert the metal precursor to the metal product. For example, applying a vacuum to the reaction chamber of the photon furnace may help remove O2 and / or other molecular gases from the heated metal precursor (e.g., such as iron oxide) and vent them to an exhaust device coupled to one or more vacuum manifolds, leaving a reduced metal product in the furnace.

[0068] The reduction of the pressure within the photon furnace, reaction chamber, and preheating chamber may further reduce the total energy consumption of the furnace, reduce the waste produced by the furnace, reduce the cost of operating the furnace, and / or reduce the complexity of operating the furnace to produce the metal product from the metal precursor (e.g., by eliminating the need to introduce or use an external reducing agent).

[0069] In some embodiments, the reaction chamber and / or preheating chamber of the photon furnace may have a rectangular, square, hexagonal, octagonal, triangular, or other polygonal cross-sectional shape. In some embodiments, the reaction chamber and / or preheating chamber of the photon furnace may be an irregular shape suitable for the input and output of a material stream. In some embodiments, the body of either chamber may be made of steel or another suitable structural material lined with a refractory ceramic coating on its inner surface.

[0070] The refractory ceramic coating can be a variety of materials. In some embodiments, the refractory ceramic coating can be alumina. In some embodiments, the refractory ceramic coating can be zirconia. In some embodiments, the refractory ceramic coating can be silicon carbide. In some embodiments, the refractory ceramic coating can be graphite. In some embodiments, the refractory ceramic coating can be magnesia. In some embodiments, the refractory ceramic coating can be silica. In some embodiments, the refractory ceramic coating can be a combination of alumina, zirconia, silicon carbide, graphite, magnesia, and silica. In some embodiments, the body of any chamber can be made entirely of ceramic refractory material. In some embodiments, any chamber can have a non-polygonal cross-sectional shape (e.g., including curved surfaces, etc.) that is designed to help focus the energy density of the light beam from one or more light sources onto the beam impact area.

[0071] Impurities can be removed from the intermediate metal product, metal, or metal alloy at any step. A flux can be used to react with the impurities to remove them from the intermediate metal product, metal, or metal alloy and / or to facilitate their removal. In some embodiments, the impurities are not removed from the intermediate metal product. In some embodiments, the impurities are not removed from the metal. In one embodiment, the impurities are not removed from the metal alloy.

[0072] The photon furnace can include a preheating system that heats the metal precursors before they enter the reaction chamber. The preheating system can be before or within the preheating chamber of the photon furnace. The preheating system can consist of multiple components (e.g., induction heaters, resistance heaters, electron beams, arcs, microwaves, heat pumps, heat exchangers, plasma heaters, and / or combinations thereof).

[0073] The photon furnace can be configured as a falling particle design, shaft furnace, stationary kiln, rotary kiln, and / or fluidized bed design. The photon furnace can be configured to operate in a continuous flow-through manner or in a batch manner.

[0074] In some embodiments, a flux is added to the molten metal or molten metal precursor to facilitate the removal of impurities.

[0075] In some embodiments, a series of optical devices can be used to focus one or more light sources.

[0076] The absorption spectrum of the metal oxide can be used to determine the optimal light source wavelength for heating. The light beams from more than one light source can be combined to provide a high power density and rapid and efficient heating of the metal oxide. The metal oxide can be reduced by interacting the light source with the metal oxide to reach the reaction temperature and / or heating the reducing agent to the reaction temperature. The metal oxide and the reducing agent can be heated to the same or different reaction temperatures. The reducing agent can be combined with the metal oxide to produce an intermediate metal product by reduction of the metal oxide. Impurities can be removed from the intermediate metal product and / or alloying elements can be added to produce a metal product. The molten metal or alloy can be atomized to produce metal powder, or can be cast, rolled, extruded, or otherwise formed into a solid metal object or building material.

[0077] In some embodiments, the metal oxide powder can have a round or spherical shape. In some embodiments, the metal oxide powder can have a size in the range of 10 microns to 20 mm in diameter. In some embodiments, the metal powder can have a size in the range of 10 to 6300 microns in diameter. In some embodiments, the metal powder can have a size in the range of 20 to 75 microns in diameter. In some embodiments, the metal powder can have a size in the range of 45 to 150 microns in diameter.

[0078] In some embodiments, the reaction temperature is reached in about 0.1 second to about 10 seconds. In some embodiments, the reaction temperature is reached in about 0.1 second to about 0.5 second, about 0.1 second to about 1 second, about 0.1 second to about 2 seconds, about 0.1 second to about 3 seconds, about 0.1 second to about 4 seconds, about 0.1 second to about 5 seconds, about 0.1 second to about 10 seconds, about 0.5 second to about 1 second, about 0.5 second to about 2 seconds, about 0.5 second to about 3 seconds, about 0.5 second to about 4 seconds, about 0.5 second to about 5 seconds, about 0.5 second to about 10 seconds, about 1 second to about 2 seconds, about 1 second to about 3 seconds, about 1 second to about 4 seconds, about 1 second to about 5 seconds, about 1 second to about 10 seconds, about 2 seconds to about 3 seconds, about 2 seconds to about 4 seconds, about 2 seconds to about 5 seconds, about 2 seconds to about 10 seconds, about 3 seconds to about 4 seconds, about 3 seconds to about 5 seconds, about 3 seconds to about 10 seconds, about 4 seconds to about 5 seconds, about 4 seconds to about 10 seconds, or about 5 seconds to about 10 seconds. In some embodiments, the reaction temperature is reached in about 0.1 second, about 0.5 second, about 1 second, about 2 seconds, about 3 seconds, about 4 seconds, about 5 seconds, or about 10 seconds. In some embodiments, the reaction temperature is reached in at least about 0.1 second, about 0.5 second, about 1 second, about 2 seconds, about 3 seconds, about 4 seconds, or about 5 seconds. In some embodiments, the reaction temperature is reached in at most about 0.5 second, about 1 second, about 2 seconds, about 3 seconds, about 4 seconds, about 5 seconds, or about 10 seconds.

[0079] In some embodiments, the reaction temperature is reached within about 10 seconds to about 1,000 seconds. In some embodiments, the reaction temperature is reached within about 10 seconds to about 20 seconds, about 10 seconds to about 50 seconds, about 10 seconds to about 100 seconds, about 10 seconds to about 200 seconds, about 10 seconds to about 500 seconds, about 10 seconds to about 1,000 seconds, about 20 seconds to about 50 seconds, about 20 seconds to about 100 seconds, about 20 seconds to about 200 seconds, about 20 seconds to about 500 seconds, about 20 seconds to about 1,000 seconds, about 50 seconds to about 100 seconds, about 50 seconds to about 200 seconds, about 50 seconds to about 500 seconds, about 50 seconds to about 1,000 seconds, about 100 seconds to about 200 seconds, about 100 seconds to about 500 seconds, about 100 seconds to about 1,000 seconds, about 200 seconds to about 500 seconds, about 200 seconds to about 1,000 seconds, or about 500 seconds to about 1,000 seconds. In some embodiments, the reaction temperature is reached within about 10 seconds, about 20 seconds, about 50 seconds, about 100 seconds, about 200 seconds, about 500 seconds, or about 1,000 seconds. In some embodiments, the reaction temperature is reached within at least about 10 seconds, about 20 seconds, about 50 seconds, about 100 seconds, about 200 seconds, or about 500 seconds. In some embodiments, the reaction temperature is reached within at most about 20 seconds, about 50 seconds, about 100 seconds, about 200 seconds, about 500 seconds, or about 1,000 seconds.

[0080] In some embodiments, the reaction temperature is from about 500 °C to about 3,500 °C. In some embodiments, the reaction temperature is from about 500 °C to about 1,000 °C, from about 500 °C to about 1,500 °C, from about 500 °C to about 1,600 °C, from about 500 °C to about 1,700 °C, from about 500 °C to about 1,800 °C, from about 500 °C to about 2,000 °C, from about 500 °C to about 2,200 °C, from about 500 °C to about 2,500 °C, from about 500 °C to about 3,000 °C, from about 500 °C to about 3,500 °C, from about 1,000 °C to about 1,500 °C, from about 1,000 °C to about 1,600 °C, from about 1,000 °C to about 1,700 °C, from about 1,000 °C to about 1,800 °C, from about 1,000 °C to about 2,000 °C, from about 1,000 °C to about 2,200 °C, from about 1,000 °C to about 2,500 °C, from about 1,000 °C to about 3,000 °C, from about 1,000 °C to about 3,500 °C, from about 1,500 °C to about 1,600 °C, from about 1,500 °C to about 1,700 °C, from about 1,500 °C to about 1,800 °C, from about 1,500 °C to about 2,000 °C, from about 1,500 °C to about 2,200 °C, from about 1,500 °C to about 2,500 °C, from about 1,500 °C to about 3,000 °C, from about 1,500 °C to about 3,500 °C, from about 1,600 °C to about 1,700 °C, from about 1,600 °C to about 1,800 °C, from about 1,600 °C to about 2,000 °C, from about 1,600 °C to about 2,200 °C, from about 1,600 °C to about 2,500 °C, from about 1,600 °C to about 3,000 °C, from about 1,600 °C to about 3,500 °C, from about 1,700 °C to about 1,800 °C, from about 1,700 °C to about 2,000 °C, from about 1,700 °C to about 2,200 °C, from about 1,700 °C to about 2,500 °C, from about 1,700 °C to about 3,000 °C, from about 1,700 °C to about 3,500 °C, from about 1,800 °C to about 2,000 °C, from about 1,800 °C to about 2,200 °C, from about 1,800 °C to about 2,500 °C, from about 1,800 °C to about 3,000 °C, from about 1,800 °C to about 3,500 °C, from about 2,000 °C to about 2,200 °C, from about 2,000 °C to about 2,500 °C, from about 2,000 °C to about 3,000 °C, from about 2,000 °C to about 3,500 °C, from about 2,200 °C to about 2,500 °C, from about 2,200 °C to about 3,000 °C, from about 2,200 °C to about 3,500 °C, from about 2,500 °C to about 3,000 °C, from about 2,500 °C to about 3,500 °C or from about 3,000 °C to about 3,500 °C.In some embodiments, the reaction temperature is about 500 °C, about 1,000 °C, about 1,500 °C, about 1,600 °C, about 1,700 °C, about 1,800 °C, about 2,000 °C, about 2,200 °C, about 2,500 °C, about 3,000 °C, or about 3,500 °C. In some embodiments, the reaction temperature is at least about 500 °C, about 1,000 °C, about 1,500 °C, about 1,600 °C, about 1,700 °C, about 1,800 °C, about 2,000 °C, about 2,200 °C, about 2,500 °C, or about 3,000 °C. In some embodiments, the reaction temperature is at most about 1,000 °C, about 1,500 °C, about 1,600 °C, about 1,700 °C, about 1,800 °C, about 2,000 °C, about 2,200 °C, about 2,500 °C, about 3,000 °C, or about 3,500 °C.

[0081] In some embodiments, the amount of energy consumed by the furnace during the production of the metal product is from about 5 GJ / ton of metal product to about 16 GJ / ton of metal product. In some embodiments, the amount of energy consumed by the furnace during the production of the metal product is from about 5 GJ / ton of metal product to about 6 GJ / ton of metal product, from about 5 GJ / ton of metal product to about 8 GJ / ton of metal product, from about 5 GJ / ton of metal product to about 10 GJ / ton of metal product, from about 5 GJ / ton of metal product to about 12 GJ / ton of metal product, from about 5 GJ / ton of metal product to about 14 GJ / ton of metal product, from about 5 GJ / ton of metal product to about 16 GJ / ton of metal product, from about 6 GJ / ton of metal product to about 8 GJ / ton of metal product, from about 6 GJ / ton of metal product to about 10 GJ / ton of metal product, from about 6 GJ / ton of metal product to about 12 GJ / ton of metal product, from about 6 GJ / ton of metal product to about 14 GJ / ton of metal product, from about 6 GJ / ton of metal product to about 16 GJ / ton of metal product, from about 8 GJ / ton of metal product to about 10 GJ / ton of metal product, from about 8 GJ / ton of metal product to about 12 GJ / ton of metal product, from about 8 GJ / ton of metal product to about 14 GJ / ton of metal product, from about 8 GJ / ton of metal product to about 16 GJ / ton of metal product, from about 10 GJ / ton of metal product to about 12 GJ / ton of metal product, from about 10 GJ / ton of metal product to about 14 GJ / ton of metal product, from about 10 GJ / ton of metal product to about 16 GJ / ton of metal product, from about 12 GJ / ton of metal product to about 14 GJ / ton of metal product, from about 12 GJ / ton of metal product to about 16 GJ / ton of metal product, or from about 14 GJ / ton of metal product to about 16 GJ / ton of metal product. In some embodiments, the amount of energy consumed by the furnace during the production of the metal product is about 5 GJ / ton of metal product, about 6 GJ / ton of metal product, about 8 GJ / ton of metal product, about 10 GJ / ton of metal product, about 12 GJ / ton of metal product, about 14 GJ / ton of metal product, or about 16 GJ / ton of metal product. In some embodiments, the amount of energy consumed by the furnace during the production of the metal product is at least about 5 GJ / ton of metal product, about 6 GJ / ton of metal product, about 8 GJ / ton of metal product, about 10 GJ / ton of metal product, about 12 GJ / ton of metal product, or about 14 GJ / ton of metal product. In some embodiments, the amount of energy consumed by the furnace during the production of the metal product is at most about 6 GJ / ton of metal product, about 8 GJ / ton of metal product, about 10 GJ / ton of metal product, about 12 GJ / ton of metal product, about 14 GJ / ton of metal product, or about 16 GJ / ton of metal product.

[0082] In some embodiments, the amount of energy consumed by the furnace during the production of the metal product is from about 16 GJ / ton of metal product to about 24 GJ / ton of metal product. In some embodiments, the amount of energy consumed by the furnace during the production of the metal product is from about 16 GJ / ton of metal product to about 18 GJ / ton of metal product. In some embodiments, the amount of energy consumed by the furnace during the production of the metal product is from about 18 GJ / ton of metal product to about 20 GJ / ton of metal product. In some embodiments, the amount of energy consumed by the furnace during the production of the metal product is from about 18 GJ / ton of metal product to about 22 GJ / ton of metal product. In some embodiments, the amount of energy consumed by the furnace during the production of the metal product is from about 22 GJ / ton of metal product to about 24 GJ / ton of metal product.

[0083] In some embodiments, the total carbon dioxide emissions caused by producing a metal product by the furnace are about 40% less to about 99% less than the equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace. In some embodiments, the total carbon dioxide emissions caused by producing a metal product by the furnace are about 40% less to about 50% less than the equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 40% less to about 60% less than the equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 40% less to about 70% less than the equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 40% less to about 80% less than the equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 40% less to about 90% less than the equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 40% less to about 95% less than the equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 40% less to about 99% less than the equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 50% less to about 60% less than the equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 50% less to about 70% less than the equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 50% less to about 80% less than the equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 50% less to about 90% less than the equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 50% less to about 95% less than the equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 50% less to about 99% less than the equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 60% less to about 70% less than the equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 60% less to about 80% less than the equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 60% less to about 90% less than the equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 60% less to about 95% less than the equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 60% less to about 99% less than the equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 70% less to about 80% less than the equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 70% less to about 90% less than the equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 70% less to about 95% less than the equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 70% less to about 99% less than the equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 80% less to about 90% less than the equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace,About 80% less to about 95% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 80% less to about 99% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 90% less to about 95% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, about 90% less to about 99% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace, or about 95% less to about 99% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace. In some embodiments, the total carbon dioxide emissions caused by producing a metal product by the furnace are about 40% less, about 50% less, about 60% less, about 70% less, about 80% less, about 90% less, about 95% less, or about 99% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace. In some embodiments, the total carbon dioxide emissions caused by producing a metal product by the furnace are at least about 40% less, about 50% less, about 60% less, about 70% less, about 80% less, about 90% less, or about 95% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace. In some embodiments, the total carbon dioxide emissions caused by producing a metal product by the furnace are at most about 50% less, about 60% less, about 70% less, about 80% less, about 90% less, about 95% less, or about 99% less than an equivalent metal product produced by a blast furnace.,

[0084] In some embodiments, the amount of electricity consumed by the furnace during the production of the metal product is from about 1 MWhr / ton of metal product produced to about 6 MWhr / ton of metal product produced. In some embodiments, the amount of electricity consumed by the furnace during the production of the metal product is from about 1 MWhr / ton of metal product produced to about 1.5 MWhr / ton of metal product produced, from about 1 MWhr / ton of metal product produced to about 2 MWhr / ton of metal product produced, from about 1 MWhr / ton of metal product produced to about 2.5 MWhr / ton of metal product produced, from about 1 MWhr / ton of metal product produced to about 3 MWhr / ton of metal product produced, from about 1 MWhr / ton of metal product produced to about 3.5 MWhr / ton of metal product produced, from about 1 MWhr / ton of metal product produced to about 4 MWhr / ton of metal product produced, from about 1 MWhr / ton of metal product produced to about 4.5 MWhr / ton of metal product produced, from about 1 MWhr / ton of metal product produced to about 5 MWhr / ton of metal product produced, from about 1 MWhr / ton of metal product produced to about 5.5 MWhr / ton of metal product produced, from about 1 MWhr / ton of metal product produced to about 6 MWhr / ton of metal product produced, from about 1.5 MWhr / ton of metal product produced to about 2 MWhr / ton of metal product produced, from about 1.5 MWhr / ton of metal product produced to about 2.5 MWhr / ton of metal product produced, from about 1.5 MWhr / ton of metal product produced to about 3 MWhr / ton of metal product produced, from about 1.5 MWhr / ton of metal product produced to about 3.5 MWhr / ton of metal product produced, from about 1.5 MWhr / ton of metal product produced to about 4 MWhr / ton of metal product produced, from about 1.5 MWhr / ton of metal product produced to about 4.5 MWhr / ton of metal product produced, from about 1.5 MWhr / ton of metal product produced to about 5 MWhr / ton of metal product produced, from about 1.5 MWhr / ton of metal product produced to about 5.5 MWhr / ton of metal product produced, from about 1.5 MWhr / ton of metal product produced to about 6 MWhr / ton of metal product produced, from about 2 MWhr / ton of metal product produced to about 2.5 MWhr / ton of metal product produced, from about 2 MWhr / ton of metal product produced to about 3 MWhr / ton of metal product produced, from about 2 MWhr / ton of metal product produced to about 3.5 MWhr / ton of metal product produced, from about 2 MWhr / ton of metal product produced to about 4 MWhr / ton of metal product produced, from about 2 MWhr / ton of metal product produced to about 4.5 MWhr / ton of metal product produced, from about 2 MWhr / ton of metal product produced to about 5 MWhr / ton of metal product produced, from about 2 MWhr / ton of metal product produced to about 5.5 MWhr / ton of metal product produced, from about 2 MWhr / ton of metal product produced to about 6 MWhr / ton of metal product produced,From the metal product produced at approximately 2.5 MWhr / ton to the metal product produced at approximately 3 MWhr / ton, from the metal product produced at approximately 2.5 MWhr / ton to the metal product produced at approximately 3.5 MWhr / ton, from the metal product produced at approximately 2.5 MWhr / ton to the metal product produced at approximately 4 MWhr / ton, from the metal product produced at approximately 2.5 MWhr / ton to the metal product produced at approximately 4.5 MWhr / ton, from the metal product produced at approximately 2.5 MWhr / ton to the metal product produced at approximately 5 MWhr / ton, from the metal product produced at approximately 2.5 MWhr / ton to the metal product produced at approximately 5.5 MWhr / ton, from the metal product produced at approximately 2.5 MWhr / ton to the metal product produced at approximately 6 MWhr / ton, from the metal product produced at approximately 3 MWhr / ton to the metal product produced at approximately 3.5 MWhr / ton, from the metal product produced at approximately 3 MWhr / ton to the metal product produced at approximately 4 MWhr / ton, from the metal product produced at approximately 3 MWhr / ton to the metal product produced at approximately 4.5 MWhr / ton, from the metal product produced at approximately 3 MWhr / ton to the metal product produced at approximately 5 MWhr / ton, from the metal product produced at approximately 3 MWhr / ton to the metal product produced at approximately 5.5 MWhr / ton, from the metal product produced at approximately 3 MWhr / ton to the metal product produced at approximately 6 MWhr / ton, from the metal product produced at approximately 3.5 MWhr / ton to the metal product produced at approximately 4 MWhr / ton, from the metal product produced at approximately 3.5 MWhr / ton to the metal product produced at approximately 4.5 MWhr / ton, from the metal product produced at approximately 3.5 MWhr / ton to the metal product produced at approximately 5 MWhr / ton, from the metal product produced at approximately 3.5 MWhr / ton to the metal product produced at approximately 5.5 MWhr / ton, from the metal product produced at approximately 3.5 MWhr / ton to the metal product produced at approximately 6 MWhr / ton, from the metal product produced at approximately 4 MWhr / ton to the metal product produced at approximately 4.5 MWhr / ton, from the metal product produced at approximately 4 MWhr / ton to the metal product produced at approximately 5 MWhr / ton, from the metal product produced at approximately 4 MWhr / ton to the metal product produced at approximately 5.5 MWhr / ton, from the metal product produced at approximately 4 MWhr / ton to the metal product produced at approximately 6 MWhr / ton, from the metal product produced at approximately 4.5 MWhr / ton to the metal product produced at approximately 5 MWhr / ton, from the metal product produced at approximately 4.5 MWhr / ton to the metal product produced at approximately 5.5 MWhr / ton, from the metal product produced at approximately 4.5 MWhr / ton to the metal product produced at approximately 6 MWhr / ton, from the metal product produced at approximately 5 MWhr / ton to the metal product produced at approximately 5.5 MWhr / ton, from the metal product produced at approximately 5 MWhr / ton to the metal product produced at approximately 6 MWhr / ton, or from the metal product produced at approximately 5.5 MWhr / ton to the metal product produced at approximately 6 MWhr / ton. In some embodiments, the amount of electricity consumed by the furnace during the production of the metal product is approximately 1 MWhr / ton of the metal product produced,Metal products produced at approximately 1.5 MWh / ton, metal products produced at approximately 2 MWh / ton, metal products produced at approximately 2.5 MWh / ton, metal products produced at approximately 3 MWh / ton, metal products produced at approximately 3.5 MWh / ton, metal products produced at approximately 4 MWh / ton, metal products produced at approximately 4.5 MWh / ton, metal products produced at approximately 5 MWh / ton, metal products produced at approximately 5.5 MWh / ton, or metal products produced at approximately 6 MWh / ton. In some embodiments, the amount of electricity consumed by the furnace during the production of the metal product is at least approximately 1 MWh / ton of the metal product produced, approximately 1.5 MWh / ton of the metal product produced, approximately 2 MWh / ton of the metal product produced, approximately 2.5 MWh / ton of the metal product produced, approximately 3 MWh / ton of the metal product produced, approximately 3.5 MWh / ton of the metal product produced, approximately 4 MWh / ton of the metal product produced, approximately 4.5 MWh / ton of the metal product produced, approximately 5 MWh / ton of the metal product produced, or approximately 5.5 MWh / ton of the metal product produced. In some embodiments, the amount of electricity consumed by the furnace during the production of the metal product is at most approximately 1.5 MWh / ton of the metal product produced, approximately 2 MWh / ton of the metal product produced, approximately 2.5 MWh / ton of the metal product produced, approximately 3 MWh / ton of the metal product produced, approximately 3.5 MWh / ton of the metal product produced, approximately 4 MWh / ton of the metal product produced, approximately 4.5 MWh / ton of the metal product produced, approximately 5 MWh / ton of the metal product produced, approximately 5.5 MWh / ton of the metal product produced, or approximately 6 MWh / ton of the metal product produced. In some embodiments, the operation of the photon furnace for producing steel consumes approximately 50% less energy to approximately 70% less energy than the operation of the blast furnace for producing the same amount of steel. In some embodiments, the operation of the photon furnace for producing steel consumes approximately 50% less energy to approximately 55% less energy than the operation of the blast furnace for producing the same amount of steel, approximately 50% less energy to approximately 60% less energy than the operation of the blast furnace for producing the same amount of steel, approximately 50% less energy to approximately 65% less energy than the operation of the blast furnace for producing the same amount of steel, approximately 50% less energy to approximately 70% less energy than the operation of the blast furnace for producing the same amount of steel, approximately 55% less energy to approximately 60% less energy than the operation of the blast furnace for producing the same amount of steel, approximately 55% less energy to approximately 65% less energy than the operation of the blast furnace for producing the same amount of steel,About 55% less energy consumption to about 70% less energy consumption compared to the operation of a blast furnace for producing the same amount of steel, about 60% less energy consumption to about 65% less energy consumption compared to the operation of a blast furnace for producing the same amount of steel, about 60% less energy consumption to about 70% less energy consumption compared to the operation of a blast furnace for producing the same amount of steel, or about 65% less energy consumption to about 70% less energy consumption compared to the operation of a blast furnace for producing the same amount of steel. In some embodiments, the operation of the photon furnace for producing steel consumes about 50% less energy, about 55% less energy, about 60% less energy, about 65% less energy, or about 70% less energy compared to the operation of a blast furnace for producing the same amount of steel. In some embodiments, the operation of the photon furnace for producing steel consumes at least about 50% less energy, about 55% less energy, about 60% less energy, or about 65% less energy compared to the operation of a blast furnace for producing the same amount of steel. In some embodiments, the operation of the photon furnace for producing steel consumes at most about 55% less energy, about 60% less energy, about 65% less energy, or about 70% less energy compared to the operation of a blast furnace for producing the same amount of steel.

[0085] In some embodiments, the operation of the photon furnace for producing steel consumes about 20% less energy to about 65% less energy than the operation of the blast furnace for producing the same amount of steel. In some embodiments, the operation of the photon furnace for producing steel consumes about 20% less energy to about 25% less energy than the operation of the blast furnace for producing the same amount of steel, about 20% less energy to about 30% less energy than the operation of the blast furnace for producing the same amount of steel, about 20% less energy to about 35% less energy than the operation of the blast furnace for producing the same amount of steel, about 20% less energy to about 40% less energy than the operation of the blast furnace for producing the same amount of steel, about 20% less energy to about 45% less energy than the operation of the blast furnace for producing the same amount of steel, about 20% less energy to about 50% less energy than the operation of the blast furnace for producing the same amount of steel, about 20% less energy to about 55% less energy than the operation of the blast furnace for producing the same amount of steel, about 20% less energy to about 60% less energy than the operation of the blast furnace for producing the same amount of steel, about 20% less energy to about 65% less energy than the operation of the blast furnace for producing the same amount of steel, about 25% less energy to about 30% less energy than the operation of the blast furnace for producing the same amount of steel, about 25% less energy to about 35% less energy than the operation of the blast furnace for producing the same amount of steel, about 25% less energy to about 40% less energy than the operation of the blast furnace for producing the same amount of steel, about 25% less energy to about 45% less energy than the operation of the blast furnace for producing the same amount of steel, about 25% less energy to about 50% less energy than the operation of the blast furnace for producing the same amount of steel, about 25% less energy to about 55% less energy than the operation of the blast furnace for producing the same amount of steel, about 25% less energy to about 60% less energy than the operation of the blast furnace for producing the same amount of steel, about 25% less energy to about 65% less energy than the operation of the blast furnace for producing the same amount of steel, about 30% less energy to about 35% less energy than the operation of the blast furnace for producing the same amount of steel,About 30% less energy consumption to about 40% less energy consumption compared to the operation of a blast furnace for producing the same amount of steel, about 30% less energy consumption to about 45% less energy consumption compared to the operation of a blast furnace for producing the same amount of steel, about 30% less energy consumption to about 50% less energy consumption compared to the operation of a blast furnace for producing the same amount of steel, about 30% less energy consumption to about 55% less energy consumption compared to the operation of a blast furnace for producing the same amount of steel, about 30% less energy consumption to about 60% less energy consumption compared to the operation of a blast furnace for producing the same amount of steel, about 30% less energy consumption to about 65% less energy consumption compared to the operation of a blast furnace for producing the same amount of steel, about 35% less energy consumption to about 40% less energy consumption compared to the operation of a blast furnace for producing the same amount of steel, about 35% less energy consumption to about 45% less energy consumption compared to the operation of a blast furnace for producing the same amount of steel, about 35% less energy consumption to about 50% less energy consumption compared to the operation of a blast furnace for producing the same amount of steel, about 35% less energy consumption to about 55% less energy consumption compared to the operation of a blast furnace for producing the same amount of steel, about 35% less energy consumption to about 60% less energy consumption compared to the operation of a blast furnace for producing the same amount of steel, about 35% less energy consumption to about 65% less energy consumption compared to the operation of a blast furnace for producing the same amount of steel, about 40% less energy consumption to about 45% less energy consumption compared to the operation of a blast furnace for producing the same amount of steel, about 40% less energy consumption to about 50% less energy consumption compared to the operation of a blast furnace for producing the same amount of steel, about 40% less energy consumption to about 55% less energy consumption compared to the operation of a blast furnace for producing the same amount of steel, about 40% less energy consumption to about 60% less energy consumption compared to the operation of a blast furnace for producing the same amount of steel, about 40% less energy consumption to about 65% less energy consumption compared to the operation of a blast furnace for producing the same amount of steel, about 45% less energy consumption to about 50% less energy consumption compared to the operation of a blast furnace for producing the same amount of steel, about 45% less energy consumption to about 55% less energy consumption compared to the operation of a blast furnace for producing the same amount of steel, about 45% less energy consumption to about 60% less energy consumption compared to the operation of a blast furnace for producing the same amount of steel,from about 45% less energy consumption to about 65% less energy consumption compared to the operation of a blast furnace for producing an equal amount of steel, from about 50% less energy consumption to about 55% less energy consumption compared to the operation of a blast furnace for producing an equal amount of steel, from about 50% less energy consumption to about 60% less energy consumption compared to the operation of a blast furnace for producing an equal amount of steel, from about 50% less energy consumption to about 65% less energy consumption compared to the operation of a blast furnace for producing an equal amount of steel, from about 55% less energy consumption to about 60% less energy consumption compared to the operation of a blast furnace for producing an equal amount of steel, from about 55% less energy consumption to about 65% less energy consumption compared to the operation of a blast furnace for producing an equal amount of steel, or from about 60% less energy consumption to about 65% less energy consumption compared to the operation of a blast furnace for producing an equal amount of steel. In some embodiments, the operation of the photon furnace for producing steel consumes about 20% less energy, about 25% less energy, about 30% less energy, about 35% less energy, about 40% less energy, about 45% less energy, about 50% less energy, about 55% less energy, about 60% less energy, or about 65% less energy compared to the operation of a blast furnace for producing an equal amount of steel. In some embodiments, the operation of the photon furnace for producing steel consumes at least about 20% less energy, about 25% less energy, about 30% less energy, about 35% less energy, about 40% less energy, about 45% less energy, about 50% less energy, about 55% less energy, or about 60% less energy compared to the operation of a blast furnace for producing an equal amount of steel. In some embodiments, the operation of the photon furnace for producing steel consumes at most about 25% less energy, about 30% less energy, about 35% less energy, about 40% less energy,Consume approximately 45% less energy, approximately 50% less energy, approximately 55% less energy, approximately 60% less energy, or approximately 65% less energy than the operation of a blast furnace for producing an equal amount of steel.

[0086] In some embodiments, the furnace is capable of producing from about 100 tons of metal product per day to about 15,000 tons of metal product per day. In some embodiments, the furnace is capable of producing from about 100 tons of metal product per day to about 200 tons of metal product per day, from about 100 tons of metal product per day to about 500 tons of metal product per day, from about 100 tons of metal product per day to about 1,000 tons of metal product per day, from about 100 tons of metal product per day to about 10,000 tons of metal product per day, from about 100 tons of metal product per day to about 15,000 tons of metal product per day, from about 200 tons of metal product per day to about 500 tons of metal product per day, from about 200 tons of metal product per day to about 1,000 tons of metal product per day, from about 200 tons of metal product per day to about 10,000 tons of metal product per day, from about 200 tons of metal product per day to about 15,000 tons of metal product per day, from about 500 tons of metal product per day to about 1,000 tons of metal product per day, from about 500 tons of metal product per day to about 10,000 tons of metal product per day, from about 500 tons of metal product per day to about 15,000 tons of metal product per day, from about 1,000 tons of metal product per day to about 10,000 tons of metal product per day, from about 1,000 tons of metal product per day to about 15,000 tons of metal product per day, or from about 10,000 tons of metal product per day to about 15,000 tons of metal product per day. In some embodiments, the furnace is capable of producing about 100 tons of metal product per day, about 200 tons of metal product per day, about 500 tons of metal product per day, about 1,000 tons of metal product per day, about 10,000 tons of metal product per day, or about 15,000 tons of metal product per day. In some embodiments, the furnace is capable of producing at least about 100 tons of metal product per day, about 200 tons of metal product per day, about 500 tons of metal product per day, about 1,000 tons of metal product per day, or about 10,000 tons of metal product per day. In some embodiments, the furnace is capable of producing at most about 200 tons of metal product per day, about 500 tons of metal product per day, about 1,000 tons of metal product per day, about 10,000 tons of metal product per day, or about 15,000 tons of metal product per day.

[0087] In some embodiments, the beam impact regions of the beams of at least two light sources spatially overlap by about 20% to about 90%. In some embodiments, the beam impact regions of the beams of at least two light sources spatially overlap by about 20% to about 30%, about 20% to about 40%, about 20% to about 50%, about 20% to about 60%, about 20% to about 70%, about 20% to about 80%, about 20% to about 90%, about 30% to about 40%, about 30% to about 50%, about 30% to about 60%, about 30% to about 70%, about 30% to about 80%, about 30% to about 90%, about 40% to about 50%, about 40% to about 60%, about 40% to about 70%, about 40% to about 80%, about 40% to about 90%, about 50% to about 60%, about 50% to about 70%, about 50% to about 80%, about 50% to about 90%, about 60% to about 70%, about 60% to about 80%, about 60% to about 90%, about 70% to about 80%, about 70% to about 90%, or about 80% to about 90%. In some embodiments, the beam impact regions of the beams of at least two light sources spatially overlap by about 20%, about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about 60%, about 70%, about 80%, or about 90%. In some embodiments, the beam impact regions of the beams of at least two light sources spatially overlap by at least about 20%, about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about 60%, about 70%, or about 80%. In some embodiments, the beam impact regions of the beams of at least two light sources spatially overlap by at most about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about 60%, about 70%, about 80%, or about 90%.

[0088] In some embodiments, the beam impact regions of the beams of at least two light sources spatially overlap by about 1% to about 15%. In some embodiments, the beam impact regions of the beams of at least two light sources spatially overlap by about 1% to about 5%, about 1% to about 10%, about 1% to about 15%, about 5% to about 10%, about 5% to about 15%, or about 10% to about 15%. In some embodiments, the beam impact regions of the beams of at least two light sources spatially overlap by about 1%, about 5%, about 10%, or about 15%. In some embodiments, the beam impact regions of the beams of at least two light sources spatially overlap by at least about 1%, about 5%, or about 10%. In some embodiments, the beam impact regions of the beams of at least two light sources spatially overlap by at most about 5%, about 10%, or about 15%.

[0089] In some embodiments, the throughput to reactor volume ratio is from about 10 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second to about 100 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second. In some embodiments, the throughput to reactor volume ratio is from about 10 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second to about 20 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, from about 10 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second to about 30 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, from about 10 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second to about 40 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, from about 10 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second to about 50 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, from about 10 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second to about 60 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, from about 10 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second to about 70 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, from about 10 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second to about 80 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, from about 10 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second to about 90 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, from about 10 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second to about 95 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, from about 10 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second to about 100 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, from about 20 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second to about 30 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, from about 20 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second to about 40 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, from about 20 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second to about 50 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, from about 20 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second to about 60 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, from about 20 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second to about 70 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, from about 20 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second to about 80 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, from about 20 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second to about 90 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, from about 20 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second to about 95 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, from about 20 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second to about 100 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, from about 30 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second to about 40 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, from about 30 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second to about 50 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, from about 30 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second to about 60 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second,From about 30 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second to about 70 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, from about 30 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second to about 80 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, from about 30 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second to about 90 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, from about 30 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second to about 95 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, from about 30 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second to about 100 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, from about 40 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second to about 50 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, from about 40 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second to about 60 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, from about 40 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second to about 70 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, from about 40 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second to about 80 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, from about 40 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second to about 90 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, from about 40 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second to about 95 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, from about 40 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second to about 100 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, from about 50 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second to about 60 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, from about 50 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second to about 70 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, from about 50 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second to about 80 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, from about 50 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second to about 90 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, from about 50 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second to about 95 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, from about 50 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second to about 100 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, from about 60 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second to about 70 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, from about 60 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second to about 80 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, from about 60 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second to about 90 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, from about 60 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second to about 95 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, from about 60 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second to about 100 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, from about 70 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second to about 80 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second,From about 70 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second to about 90 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, from about 70 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second to about 95 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, from about 70 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second to about 100 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, from about 80 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second to about 90 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, from about 80 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second to about 95 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, from about 80 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second to about 100 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, from about 90 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second to about 95 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, from about 90 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second to about 100 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, or from about 95 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second to about 100 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second. In some embodiments, the throughput-to-reactor volume ratio is about 10 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, about 20 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, about 30 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, about 40 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, about 50 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, about 60 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, about 70 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, about 80 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, about 90 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, about 95 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, or about 100 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second. In some embodiments, the throughput-to-reactor volume ratio is at least about 10 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, about 20 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, about 30 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, about 40 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, about 50 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, about 60 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, about 70 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, about 80 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, about 90 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, or about 95 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second. In some embodiments, the throughput-to-reactor volume ratio is at most about 20 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, about 30 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, about 40 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, about 50 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, about 60 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, about 70 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, about 80 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second,About 90 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, about 95 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second, or about 100 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second.

[0090] In some embodiments, the ratio of the total power output of one or more light sources to the volume of the reactor is from about 5 kW / m 3 to about 60 kW / m 3 In some embodiments, the ratio of the total power output of one or more light sources to the volume of the reactor is from about 5 kW / m 3 to about 10 kW / m 3 、from about 5 kW / m 3 to about 15 kW / m 3 、from about 5 kW / m 3 to about 20 kW / m 3 、from about 5 kW / m 3 to about 25 kW / m 3 、from about 5 kW / m 3 to about 30 kW / m 3 、from about 5 kW / m 3 to about 35 kW / m 3 、from about 5 kW / m 3 to about 40 kW / m 3 、from about 5 kW / m 3 to about 45 kW / m 3 、from about 5 kW / m 3 to about 50 kW / m 3 、from about 5 kW / m 3 to about 55 kW / m 3 、from about 5 kW / m 3 to about 60 kW / m 3 、from about 10 kW / m 3 to about 15 kW / m 3 、from about 10 kW / m 3 to about 20 kW / m 3 、from about 10 kW / m 3 to about 25 kW / m 3 、from about 10 kW / m 3 to about 30 kW / m 3 、from about 10 kW / m 3 to about 35 kW / m 3 、from about 10 kW / m 3 to about 40 kW / m 3 、from about 10 kW / m 3 to about 45 kW / m 3 、from about 10 kW / m 3 to about 50 kW / m 3 、from about 10 kW / m 3to about 55 kW / m 3 、about 10 kW / m 3 to about 60 kW / m 3 、about 15 kW / m 3 to about 20 kW / m 3 、about 15 kW / m 3 to about 25 kW / m 3 、about 15 kW / m 3 to about 30 kW / m 3 、about 15 kW / m 3 to about 35 kW / m 3 、about 15 kW / m 3 to about 40 kW / m 3 、about 15 kW / m 3 to about 45 kW / m 3 、about 15 kW / m 3 to about 50 kW / m 3 、about 15 kW / m 3 to about 55 kW / m 3 、about 15 kW / m 3 to about 60 kW / m 3 、about 20 kW / m 3 to about 25 kW / m 3 、about 20 kW / m 3 to about 30 kW / m 3 、about 20 kW / m 3 to about 35 kW / m 3 、about 20 kW / m 3 to about 40 kW / m 3 、about 20 kW / m 3 to about 45 kW / m 3 、about 20 kW / m 3 to about 50 kW / m 3 、about 20 kW / m 3 to about 55 kW / m 3 、about 20 kW / m 3 to about 60 kW / m 3 、about 25 kW / m 3 to about 30 kW / m 3 、about 25 kW / m 3 to about 35 kW / m 3 、about 25 kW / m 3 to about 40 kW / m 3 、about 25 kW / m 3 to about 45 kW / m 3 、about 25 kW / m 3 to about 50 kW / m 3 、about 25 kW / m3 to about 55 kW / m 3 、about 25 kW / m 3 to about 60 kW / m 3 、about 30 kW / m 3 to about 35 kW / m 3 、about 30 kW / m 3 to about 40 kW / m 3 、about 30 kW / m 3 to about 45 kW / m 3 、about 30 kW / m 3 to about 50 kW / m 3 、about 30 kW / m 3 to about 55 kW / m 3 、about 30 kW / m 3 to about 60 kW / m 3 、about 35 kW / m 3 to about 40 kW / m 3 、about 35 kW / m 3 to about 45 kW / m 3 、about 35 kW / m 3 to about 50 kW / m 3 、about 35 kW / m 3 to about 55 kW / m 3 、about 35 kW / m 3 to about 60 kW / m 3 、about 40 kW / m 3 to about 45 kW / m 3 、about 40 kW / m 3 to about 50 kW / m 3 、about 40 kW / m 3 to about 55 kW / m 3 、about 40 kW / m 3 to about 60 kW / m 3 、about 45 kW / m 3 to about 50 kW / m 3 、about 45 kW / m 3 to about 55 kW / m 3 、about 45 kW / m 3 to about 60 kW / m 3 、about 50 kW / m 3 to about 55 kW / m 3 、about 50 kW / m 3 to about 60 kW / m 3 or about 55 kW / m 3 to about 60 kW / m 3 。In some embodiments, the ratio of the total power output of one or more light sources to the volume of the reactor is about 5 kW / m3 、 about 10 kW / m 3 、 about 15 kW / m 3 、 about 20 kW / m 3 、 about 25 kW / m 3 、 about 30 kW / m 3 、 about 35 kW / m 3 、 about 40 kW / m 3 、 about 45 kW / m 3 、 about 50 kW / m 3 、 about 55 kW / m 3 or about 60 kW / m 3 。 In some embodiments, the ratio of the total power output of one or more light sources to the volume of the reactor is at least about 5 kW / m 3 、 about 10 kW / m 3 、 about 15 kW / m 3 、 about 20 kW / m 3 、 about 25 kW / m 3 、 about 30 kW / m 3 、 about 35 kW / m 3 、 about 40 kW / m 3 、 about 45 kW / m 3 、 about 50 kW / m 3 or about 55 kW / m 3 。 In some embodiments, the ratio of the total power output of one or more light sources to the volume of the reactor is at most about 10 kW / m 3 、 about 15 kW / m 3 、 about 20 kW / m 3 、 about 25 kW / m 3 、 about 30 kW / m 3 、 about 35 kW / m 3 、 about 40 kW / m 3 、 about 45 kW / m 3 、 about 50 kW / m 3 、 about 55 kW / m 3 or about 60 kW / m 3 。

[0091] In some embodiments, the ratio of the total power output of one or more light sources to the volume of the reactor is about 60 kW / m 3 to about 160 kW / m 3 。 In some embodiments, the ratio of the total power output of one or more light sources to the volume of the reactor is about 60 kW / m 3 to about 80 kW / m 3 、 about 60 kW / m 3 to about 100 kW / m 3 、 about 60 kW / m3 to about 120 kW / m 3 、about 60 kW / m 3 to about 140 kW / m 3 、about 60 kW / m 3 to about 160 kW / m 3 、about 80 kW / m 3 to about 100 kW / m 3 、about 80 kW / m 3 to about 120 kW / m 3 、about 80 kW / m 3 to about 140 kW / m 3 、about 80 kW / m 3 to about 160 kW / m 3 、about 100 kW / m 3 to about 120 kW / m 3 、about 100 kW / m 3 to about 140 kW / m 3 、about 100 kW / m 3 to about 160 kW / m 3 、about 120 kW / m 3 to about 140 kW / m 3 、about 120 kW / m 3 to about 160 kW / m 3 or about 140 kW / m 3 to about 160 kW / m 3 。In some embodiments, the ratio of the total power output of one or more light sources to the volume of the reactor is about 60 kW / m 3 、about 80 kW / 3 、about 100 kW / m 3 、about 120 kW / m 3 、about 140 kW / m 3 or about 160 kW / m 3 。In some embodiments, the ratio of the total power output of one or more light sources to the volume of the reactor is at least about 60 kW / m 3 、about 80 kW / m 3 、about 100 kW / m 3 、about 120 kW / m 3 or about 140 kW / m 3 。In some embodiments, the ratio of the total power output of one or more light sources to the volume of the reactor is at most about 80 kW / m 3 、about 100 kW / m 3 、about 120 kW / m 3 、about 140 kW / m 3 or about 160 kW / m 3。

[0092] In some embodiments, the optical power density delivered to the impact area is about 50 W / cm 2 to about 600 W / cm 2 。In some embodiments, the total optical power delivered to each beam impact area is about 50 W / cm 2 to about 100 W / cm 2 、about 50 W / cm 2 to about 200 W / cm 2 、about 50 W / cm 2 to about 300 W / cm 2 、about 50 W / cm 2 to about 600 W / cm 2 、about 100 W / cm 2 to about 200 W / cm 2 、about 100 W / cm 2 to about 300 W / cm 2 、about 100 W / cm 2 to about 600 W / cm 2 、about 200 W / cm 2 to about 300 W / cm 2 、about 200 W / cm 2 to about 600 W / cm 2 or about 300 W / cm 2 to about 600 W / cm 2 。In some embodiments, the total power delivered to each beam impact area is about 50 W / cm 2 、about 100 W / cm 2 、about 200 W / cm 2 、about 300 W / cm 2 or about 600 W / cm 2 。In some embodiments, the total power delivered to each beam impact area is at least about 50 W / cm 2 、about 100 W / cm 2 、about 200 W / cm 2 or about 300 W / cm 2 。In some embodiments, the total power delivered to each beam impact area is at most about 100 W / cm 2 、about 200 W / cm 2 、about 300 W / cm 2 or about 600 W / cm 2 。

[0093] In some embodiments, the optical power density delivered to the beam impact area is about 60 W / cm 2 to about 120 W / cm2 In some embodiments, the total power delivered to each beam impact area is about 60 W / cm 2 to about 80 W / cm 2 、about 60 W / cm 2 to about 120 W / cm 2 or about 80 W / cm 2 to about 120 W / cm 2 In some embodiments, the total power delivered to each beam impact area is about 60 W / cm 2 、about 80 W / cm 2 or about 120 W / cm 2 In some embodiments, the total power delivered to each beam impact area is at least about 60 W / cm 2 or about 80 W / cm 2 In some embodiments, the total power delivered to each beam impact area is at most about 80 W / cm 2 or about 120 W / cm 2 。

[0094] In some embodiments, the optical power density delivered to the beam impact area is about 0.5 kW / cm 2 to about 20 kW / cm 2 In some embodiments, the total power delivered to each beam impact area is about 0.5 kW / cm 2 to about 1 kW / cm 2 、about 1 kW / cm 2 to about 5 kW / cm 2 、about 5 kW / cm 2 to about 10 kW / cm 2 or about 10 kW / cm 2 to about 20 kW / cm 2 In some embodiments, the total power delivered to each beam impact area is about 1 kW / cm 2 、about 0.5 kW / cm 2 or about 20 kW / cm 2 In some embodiments, the total power delivered to each beam impact area is at least about 0.5 kW / cm 2 or about 10 kW / cm 2 In some embodiments, the total power delivered to each beam impact area is at most about 10 kW / cm 2 or about 20 kW / cm 2 。

[0095] In some embodiments, the ratio of the total power output of one or more light sources to the volume of the reactor is about 600 kW / m 3to about 1,600 kW / m 3 In some embodiments, the ratio of the total power output of one or more light sources to the volume of the reactor is from about 600 kW / m 3 to about 800 kW / m 3 、about 600 kW / m 3 to about 1,000 kW / m 3 、about 600 kW / m 3 to about 1,200 kW / m 3 、about 600 kW / m 3 to about 1,600 kW / m 3 、about 800 kW / m 3 to about 1,000 kW / m 3 、about 800 kW / m 3 to about 1,200 kW / m 3 、about 800 kW / m 3 to about 1,600 kW / m 3 、about 1,000 kW / m 3 to about 1,200 kW / m 3 、about 1,000 kW / m 3 to about 1,600 kW / m 3 or about 1,200 kW / m 3 to about 1,600 kW / m 3 In some embodiments, the ratio of the total power output of one or more light sources to the volume of the reactor is about 600 kW / m 3 、about 800 kW / m 3 、about 1,000 kW / m 3 、about 1,200 kW / m 3 or about 1,600 kW / m 3 In some embodiments, the ratio of the total power output of one or more light sources to the volume of the reactor is at least about 600 kW / m 3 、about 800 kW / m 3 、about 1,000 kW / m 3 or about 1,200 kW / m 3 In some embodiments, the ratio of the total power output of one or more light sources to the volume of the reactor is at most about 800 kW / m 3 、about 1,000 kW / m 3 、about 1,200 kW / m 3 or about 1,600 kW / m 3 。

[0096] Examples

[0097] Example 1: Efficient production of carbon steel or metallic iron from iron oxide using the photon furnace described herein

[0098] The reducing agent of hydrogen, carbon or carbon monoxide is heated to a temperature in the range of at least 1500 °C by a preheating system of a flow-through photon furnace as described herein. Through interaction with a 445 nm light source, iron oxide is heated to a temperature of at least 1600 °C within 5 seconds. The iron oxide metal precursor is fed into the reaction chamber in the form of particles having a particle size in the range of about 1 micron to about 6.3 mm. After iron production, alloying elements are added to the iron to produce steel. Steel alloys are produced, including but not limited to stainless steels such as 316 or 316L, austenitic steels such as 304 or 304L, ferritic steels such as 430 or 434, martensitic steels such as 440, high carbon steels such as 1080, low carbon / soft steels such as A36, medium carbon / high strength steels such as 4140, 4340, and alloy steels such as 6150, 8620.

[0099] Example 2: Efficient production of carbon steel or metallic iron from iron oxide using the photon furnace equipped with a vacuum manifold described herein

[0100] A prototype photon furnace was constructed as described herein, which incorporated a laser diode array light source and a vacuum manifold configured to reduce the pressure in the reaction chamber of the prototype furnace to less than 1 torr. The prototype laser furnace was used to reduce iron ore to metallic iron using thermal decomposition at a temperature above 2084 °C at the interaction point of the light beam and the iron ore by decomposing iron oxide into molten iron metal and oxygen, thereby eliminating carbon dioxide emissions from the reduction process of ironmaking. The heating of the iron ore was carried out at a heating rate greater than 1500 °C / s, and by carefully selecting the light source emission wavelength as Figure 1 shown, combined with the focusing of the high power density of the light source towards the Figure 6 beam impact point as illustrated, the heating of the iron ore was promoted. The prototype furnace for Example 2 is illustrated in Figure 7 .

[0101] The rapid heating rate of the laser allows for 1) intermittent power for powering the laser furnace, and 2) high iron ore throughput in a small reactor volume that can be evacuated by existing industrial vacuum devices. Using the photon furnace described herein, coal gangue materials can be separated from the molten iron metal as slag, thereby allowing low-grade hematite and taconite ore fines to be used as metal precursors for iron production. As Figure 8 A and Figure 8 B shown, the reduction of such metal precursors was demonstrated using the prototype furnace.

[0102] While the preferred embodiments of the present invention have been shown and described herein, it will be apparent to those skilled in the art that such embodiments are provided by way of example only. The present invention is not intended to be limited by the specific embodiments provided in the specification. Although the present invention has been described with reference to the foregoing specification, the description and illustration of the embodiments herein are not to be construed in a limiting sense. Many variations, changes, and substitutions will now occur to those skilled in the art without departing from the present invention. In addition, it should be understood that all aspects of the present invention are not limited to the specific descriptions, configurations, or relative proportions set forth herein, which depend on various conditions and variables. It should be understood that various alternatives to the embodiments of the present invention described herein may be employed in practicing the present invention. Accordingly, it is contemplated that the present invention should also cover any such alternatives, modifications, variations, or equivalents. The appended claims are intended to define the scope of the present invention and are intended to cover methods and structures within the scope of these claims and their equivalents.

[0103] Example Embodiment:

[0104] 1. A photon furnace for producing a metal product from a precursor material, the photon furnace comprising:

[0105] One or more light sources that generate a light beam, wherein the emission wavelength of the light beam is shorter than about 600 nm;

[0106] A reaction chamber;

[0107] A precursor material inlet that provides a passage into the reaction chamber;

[0108] A product outlet;

[0109] Wherein the light beam of the one or more light sources can provide a sufficient power density at the beam impact area of the light beam to raise the temperature of the beam impact area to at least the reaction temperature within less than about 5 seconds (e.g., about 5 s, 4 s, 3 s, 2 s, 1 s, 0.5 s, or 0.1 s);

[0110] Wherein the beam impact area is located in the reaction chamber or in a preheating chamber, and the preheating chamber is connected between the material inlet and the reaction chamber;

[0111] Wherein heating the precursor material by interaction with the beam impact area can convert the precursor material into the metal product; and

[0112] Wherein the metal product can be removed from the photon furnace through the product outlet.

[0113] 2. The photon furnace according to embodiment 1, wherein the reaction temperature is the melting temperature of at least one component of the precursor material.

[0114] 3. The photon furnace according to Embodiment 1, wherein the reaction temperature is the temperature required for the reducing agent in the reaction chamber to reduce the metal oxide in the reaction chamber.

[0115] 4. The photon furnace according to Embodiment 3, wherein the reducing agent is selected from hydrogen, ammonia, carbon, carbon monoxide, and combinations of two or more thereof.

[0116] 5. The photon furnace according to any one of Embodiments 3-4, wherein the reducing agent and the metal oxide are heated separately.

[0117] 6. The photon furnace according to any one of Embodiments 1-5, wherein the wavelength is from about 425 nm to about 475 nm.

[0118] 7. The photon furnace according to any one of the foregoing embodiments, wherein the reaction chamber comprises steel lined with a refractory ceramic coating selected from alumina, zirconia, silicon carbide, graphite, magnesia, silica, and combinations thereof.

[0119] 8. The photon furnace according to any one of the foregoing embodiments, wherein the furnace is configured to remove impurities from the precursor material during production of the metal product.

[0120] 9. The photon furnace according to any one of the foregoing embodiments, wherein during production of the metal product, the precursor material is combined with at least one alloying element.

[0121] 10. The photon furnace according to any one of the foregoing embodiments, wherein the metal product is steel, a non-steel alloy containing iron, or metallic iron, and the precursor material is iron ore.

[0122] 11. The photon furnace according to Embodiment 10, wherein the reaction temperature is at least about 1600 °C (such as at least 1600 °C, 1700 °C, 1800 °C, 1900 °C, 2000 °C, or 2200 °C).

[0123] 12. The photon furnace according to any one of Embodiments 10-11, wherein the amount of energy consumed by the furnace during production of the metal product is from about 2-12 GJ / ton of metal product (such as about 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, or 12 GJ / ton of steel).

[0124] 13. The photon furnace according to any one of Embodiments 10-12, wherein during production of the metal product, the amount of electricity consumed by the furnace is from about 1-6 MWhr / ton of metal product.

[0125] 14. The photon furnace according to any one of the foregoing embodiments, wherein the operation of the photon furnace for producing steel consumes about 30% - 70% (such as 30%, 35%, 40%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65% or 70%) less energy than the operations of blast furnaces and basic oxygen furnaces for producing the same amount of steel.

[0126] 15. The photon furnace according to any one of the foregoing embodiments, wherein the total carbon dioxide emissions caused by the production of the metal product by the furnace are at least 40% less (such as about 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95% or 99%) than those of the same metal product produced by blast furnaces.

[0127] 16. The photon furnace according to any one of the foregoing embodiments, wherein the furnace is capable of producing at least about 178 (such as about 200, 500, 1000, 10,000 or 15,000) tons of steel per day.

[0128] 17. The photon furnace according to any one of the foregoing embodiments, wherein the furnace is designed to operate in a flow-through manner.

[0129] 18. The photon furnace according to embodiment 17, wherein the furnace is capable of continuously producing the metal product.

[0130] 19. The photon furnace according to any one of the foregoing embodiments, wherein the one or more light sources include lasers or electroluminescent light-emitting diodes.

[0131] 20. The photon furnace according to embodiment 19, wherein the laser includes a laser diode.

[0132] 21. The photon furnace according to any one of the foregoing embodiments, wherein the one or more light sources operate at a continuous duty cycle.

[0133] 22. The photon furnace according to any one of the foregoing embodiments, wherein the one or more light sources operate at a pulsed duty cycle.

[0134] 23. The photon furnace according to any one of the foregoing embodiments, wherein the light beam of the one or more light sources includes multiple wavelengths.

[0135] 24. The photon furnace according to any one of the foregoing embodiments, wherein the maximum intensity of the light beam of each of the one or more light sources is at a single wavelength.

[0136] 25. The photon furnace according to any one of the foregoing embodiments, comprising at least two light sources that generate light beams, wherein the emission wavelength of each light beam is shorter than about 600 nm.

[0137] 26. The photon furnace according to embodiment 25, wherein the beam impact regions of the beams of the at least two light sources are substantially the same point.

[0138] 27. The photon furnace according to embodiment 25, wherein the beam impact regions of the beams of the at least two light sources overlap spatially by at least 20% (such as at least 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80% or 90%).

[0139] 28. The photon furnace according to embodiment 25, wherein the beam impact regions of the beams of the at least two light sources overlap spatially by no more than about 15% (such as no more than 10%, 5% or 1%).

[0140] 29. The photon furnace according to any of the preceding embodiments, further comprising a lens, wherein the lens is configured to focus or shape the contour of the beam impact region of the one or more light sources.

[0141] 30. The photon furnace according to any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the furnace provides a substantially uniform power density at the beam impact region of the one or more light sources.

[0142] 31. The photon furnace according to any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the throughput to reactor volume ratio is at least about 10 g of metal product per cubic meter of reactor volume per second (such as about 10 g / sm 3 、12 g / sm 3 、14 g / sm 3 、16 g / sm 3 、18 g / sm 3 、20 g / sm 3 or 100 g / sm 3 ).

[0143] 32. The photon furnace according to any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the ratio of the total power output of the one or more light sources to the volume of the reactor is at least 5 kW / m 3 (such as at least 5, 10, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100, 120 or 160 kW / m 3 ).

[0144] 33. The photon furnace according to any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the total power delivered to the beam impact region is at least 100 W / cm 2 .

[0145] 34. The photon furnace according to any of the preceding embodiments, wherein the total power delivered to the beam impact region is at least 60 kW / cm 2 .

[0146] 35. A photon furnace according to any one of the foregoing embodiments, wherein the ratio of the total power output of the one or more light sources to the volume of the reactor is at least 600 kW / m 3 (e.g., at least 600, 800, 1000, 1200, or 1600 kW / m 3 ).

[0147] 36. A photon furnace according to any one of the foregoing embodiments, wherein the photon furnace includes a vacuum manifold operably coupled to a vacuum pump and configured to reduce the pressure in the reaction chamber of the photon furnace to less than about 1 torr.

[0148] 37. A method for producing a metal product from a precursor material, the method comprising:

[0149] providing a photon furnace according to any one of embodiments 1-36;

[0150] introducing one or more precursor materials into the precursor material inlet;

[0151] using the interaction of the light beam of the one or more light sources with at least one of the one or more precursor materials to rapidly heat the at least one of the one or more precursor materials to the reaction temperature;

[0152] reacting the one or more precursor materials to produce the metal product; and removing the metal product from the product outlet of the photon furnace.

[0153] 38. The method according to embodiment 37, wherein the one or more precursor materials include one or more metal oxides.

[0154] 39. The method according to any one of embodiments 36-38, wherein the one or more precursor materials include a reducing agent.

[0155] 40. The method according to embodiment 39, wherein the reducing agent is hydrogen or comprises carbon, hydrogen, carbon monoxide, ammonia, or a combination thereof.

[0156] 41. The method according to any one of embodiments 37-40, further comprising preheating at least one of the one or more precursor materials in the preheating chamber of the photon furnace.

[0157] 42. The method according to any one of embodiments 37-41, further comprising removing impurities from at least one of the one or more precursor materials before introducing the at least one of the one or more precursor materials into the material inlet.

[0158] 43. The method according to any one of embodiments 37 - 42 further comprises removing impurities from at least one of the one or more precursor materials after introducing at least one of the one or more precursor materials into the material inlet and before the reaction.

[0159] 44. The method according to any one of embodiments 37 - 43 further comprises removing impurities from at least one of the one or more precursor materials after introducing at least one of the one or more precursor materials into the material inlet during or after the reaction.

[0160] 45. The method according to any one of embodiments 37 - 44, wherein the one or more precursor materials comprise one or more alloying elements.

[0161] 46. The method according to any one of embodiments 37 - 45, wherein the one or more precursor materials comprise iron oxide particles.

[0162] 47. The method according to any one of embodiments 37 - 46, wherein the one or more precursor materials comprise particles having an average diameter in the range of 10 μm to 10 cm.

[0163] 48. The method according to any one of embodiments 37 - 47, wherein the method comprises reducing the pressure of the reaction chamber to less than 500 Torr (e.g., less than 100 Torr, less than 1 Torr, or less than 500 mTorr) immediately before, during, and / or after the interaction of the beam of the one or more light sources with the metal precursor (e.g., within 1 s, 500 ms, 100 ms, or less).

Claims

1. A photon furnace for producing a metal product from a precursor material, the photon furnace comprising: One or more light sources that generate a light beam, wherein the emission wavelength of the light beam is shorter than about 600 nm; Reaction chamber; Precursor material inlet that provides access to the reaction chamber; Product outlet; Wherein the light beam of the one or more light sources can provide a sufficient power density at the beam impact area of the light beam to raise the temperature of the beam impact area to at least the reaction temperature in less than about 5 seconds; Wherein the beam impact area is located in the reaction chamber or in a preheating chamber that is connected between the material inlet and the reaction chamber; Wherein the interaction of the precursor material with the beam impact area contributes to the conversion of the precursor material to the metal product; Wherein the amount of energy consumed by the furnace during the production of the metal product is less than 12 GJ / ton of metal product; and Wherein the metal product can be removed from the photon furnace through the product outlet.

2. A photon furnace for producing a metal product from a precursor material, the photon furnace comprising: Reaction chamber; Precursor material inlet that provides access to the reaction chamber; Product outlet that is adapted to facilitate the removal of the metal product from the photon furnace; Preheating chamber that is connected between the precursor material inlet and the reaction chamber; One or more light sources, the one or more light sources including a diode array, the light sources generating a light beam having an emission wavelength shorter than about 600 nm, the light beam of the one or more light sources being focused onto a beam impact area disposed within the reaction chamber or the preheating chamber such that the focused beam of the one or more light sources provides a sufficient power density to raise the temperature of the beam impact area to at least the reaction temperature of the precursor material in less than about 5 seconds, the beam impact area being configured to contribute to the conversion of the precursor material to the metal product.

3. The photon furnace according to claim 1 or 2, wherein the reaction temperature is the melting temperature of at least one component of the precursor material, or wherein the reaction temperature is the temperature required for a reducing agent in the reaction chamber to reduce a metal oxide in the reaction chamber.

4. The photon furnace according to claim 3, wherein the reducing agent is selected from hydrogen, ammonia, carbon, carbon monoxide, and combinations of two or more thereof.

5. The photon furnace according to claim 4, wherein the reducing agent and the metal oxide are heated separately.

6. The photon furnace according to claim 1 or 2, wherein the wavelength is from about 400 nm to about 475 nm.

7. The photon furnace according to claim 1 or 2, wherein the reaction chamber comprises steel lined with a refractory ceramic coating selected from alumina, zirconia, silicon carbide, graphite, silica, and combinations thereof.

8. The photon furnace according to claim 1 or 2, wherein the furnace is configured to remove impurities from the precursor material during production of the metal product.

9. The photon furnace according to claim 1 or 2, wherein during production of the metal product, the precursor material is combined with at least one alloying element.

10. The photon furnace according to claim 3, wherein the metal product is steel, a non-steel alloy containing iron, or metallic iron, and the precursor material is iron ore.

11. The photon furnace according to claim 10, wherein the reaction temperature is at least about 1600 °C.

12. The photon furnace according to claim 11, wherein the amount of energy consumed by the furnace during production of the metal product is about 5 - 24 GJ per ton of metal product.

13. The photon furnace according to claim 11, wherein the amount of electric power consumed by the furnace during production of the metal product is about 1 - 6 MWh per ton of metal product.

14. The photon furnace according to claim 11, wherein the operation of the photon furnace for producing steel consumes at least 30% less energy than the operation of a blast furnace and / or a basic oxygen furnace for producing an equal amount of steel.

15. The photon furnace according to claim 11, wherein the total carbon dioxide emissions caused by production of the metal product by the furnace are at least 40% less than those of an equal metal product produced by a blast furnace.

16. The photon furnace according to claim 1 or 2, wherein the furnace is designed to operate in a flow-through manner and is capable of continuously producing a metal product.

17. The photon furnace according to claim 1 or 2, wherein the one or more light sources include lasers or electroluminescent light emitting diodes.

18. The photon furnace according to claim 17, wherein the lasers include laser diodes.

19. The photon furnace according to claim 1 or 2, comprising at least two light sources that generate light beams, wherein the emission wavelength of each light beam is shorter than about 600 nm, and the beam impact regions of the light beams of the at least two light sources overlap spatially by at least 20%.

20. The photon furnace according to claim 19, further comprising a lens, wherein the lens is configured to focus or shape the contour of the beam impact region of the one or more light sources.

21. The photon furnace according to claim 1 or 2, wherein the furnace provides a substantially uniform power density at the beam impact region of the one or more light sources, and the furnace provides a total power output to reactor volume ratio of about 5 kW / m 3 to about 1600 kW / m. 3 22. The photon furnace according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein the furnace includes a vacuum manifold that is operatively coupled to one or more vacuum pumps and is configured to reduce the pressure in the photon furnace, the reaction chamber, and / or the preheating chamber to a pressure less than 500 Torr (e.g., less than 100 Torr, less than 1 Torr, or less than 500 mTorr).

23. The photon furnace according to claim 22, wherein the need for an external reducing agent is reduced and / or eliminated by reducing the pressure within the furnace, the reaction chamber, the preheating chamber, and / or combinations thereof.

Images