Energy converter and method for operation thereof

Abstract

An energy converter for converting photons into electrical energy is implemented as an integrated circuit in which the photons propagate in a coherent manner, and includes a configuration of waveguide

Description

Technical field The present disclosure relates to energy converters that are configured to convert energy from a first form into energy of a second form, for example from photon energy into electrical energy. Moreover, the present disclosure relates to methods for using aforesaid energy converters for converting energy from a first form into energy of a second form. Background Energy converters are known, for example electrical generators for converting mechanical rotational energy into electrical energy, wind turbines for converting energy of air flows into electrical energy, and photovoltaic panels for converting photons of sunlight into electrical energy. A problem with photovoltaic panels is that they are inefficient in converting photons in sunlight into electrical power. Summary The present disclosure seeks to provide an energy converter for converting photons into electrical energy with improved efficiency relative to known converters. According to a first aspect, there is provided an energy converter as defined in appended claim 1. Optionally embodiments of the energy converter are defined in the appended sub-claims to claim 1. According to a second aspect, there is provided a method for operating the energy converter of the first aspect, wherein the method is defined in appended claim 5. Optionally embodiments of the method are defined in the appended sub-claims to claim 5. Description of diagrams Embodiments of the present disclosure will be described with reference to the appended drawings wherein: FIG. 1 is a schematic plan-view illustration of an energy converter of the present disclosure; FIG. 2 is an illustration of forces occurring between matter and anti-matter that break symmetry of Newton's Third Law of Motion, as reported in the Pei et al. citation; the forces are used in the energy converter of FIG. 1; and FIG. 3 is an illustration of steps of a method for operating the energy converter of FIG. 1 Description of embodiments An energy converter of the present disclosure is beneficially implemented as an integrated circuit onto a substrate. The integrated circuit includes a combination of optical elements and electrical elements that are formed lithographically onto the substrate. The integrated circuit and the substrate are conveniently implemented as one or more optical waveguides and one or more conductive electrodes formed onto an optically active material, for example Lithium Niobate. Optionally, the integrated circuit and the substrate are implemented as a Lithium-Niobate-on-Insulator (LNOI) device. The aforesaid integrated circuit is conveniently implemented in spatial or function regions, as depicted in FIG. 1; there are included regions A to region D. In the region A, there is provided an optical waveguide arrangement for receiving photons and bifurcating them into regions of enhanced probability of electrons and enhanced probability of positrons, whilst maintaining coherence of the photons. In the region B, a bias electrode arrangement is provided including at least one electrode, for example two electrodes whose axes are substantially orthogonal to elongate axes of waveguides along which the bifurcated photons propagate when the energy converter is in operation. The bias electrode arrangement is configured to manipulate the bifurcated electrons and positrons into a configuration where the positrons and electrons mutual accelerate as depicted in FIG. 2. In the region C, the electrons and their associated positrons mutually accelerate, thereby gaining energy. In the region D, a harvesting electrode arrangement is used to extract energy from the accelerated electrons and positrons received from the region C; the harvesting electrode arrangement includes at least one electrode, for example two electrodes whose elongate axes are substantially parallel to elongate axes of waveguides along which the bifurcated photons propagate when the energy converter is in operation. An output voltage signal is developed at the harvesting electrode arrangement. Optionally, the region A includes a beam splitter and a phase adjuster for adjusting parameters of the aforesaid bifurcation of photons to tune operation of the energy converter. Optionally, the optical waveguide arrangement is configured to support propagation of photons by way of Floquet-Bloch modes. Optionally, the waveguide arrangement includes a configuration of a plurality of elongate waveguides whose spatial separation is less than a coherence field of the photons propagating within the energy converter when in operation. Optionally, the energy converter is configured to receive photons from a laser arrangement, for example a laser arrangement configured to output photons within a wavelength range of 2000 nm to 500 nm. Optionally, the laser arrangement is configured to function in a pulsed manner. Optionally, the laser arrangement is implemented as at least one solid state laser. Optionally, the laser arrangement and the energy converter are configured to be spatially collocated into a photonics integrated circuit module. Design details and a manner of operation of the energy converter are described in the APPENDIX appended below. The energy converter may be configured to provide less than unity energy gain; alternatively, the energy converter may be configured to provide greater than unity energy gain by breaking symmetry, as described in the Pei et al. citation, likewise in the Wimmer and Regensburger citation "Optical diametric drive acceleration", likewise in the Meis et al. citation "Quantum Vacuum Gravitational Matter-Antimatter Antigravity" and many other contemporary peer-reviewed research papers. A method for using the energy converter to convert photons to electrical energy is illustrated in FIG. 3, wherein the method includes steps of: (i) STEP 1: receiving photons at the energy converter (for example via a waveguide edge coupler or via a planar grating coupler formed into the energy converter) and bifurcating them spatially in the region A into higher electron probability regions and higher positron probability regions; (ii) STEP 2: configuring the electrons and positrons of the higher electron probability regions and high positron probability regions for mutual acceleration in the region B; (iii) STEP 3: configuring the electrons and positrons of region B to accelerate 5 through an acceleration region, namely the region C; and (iv) STEP 4: harvesting in region D the accelerated electrons and positrons received from region C to generate electrical output power. The method is described in greater detail in the APPENDIX below. Optionally, 10 STEPS 1 to 4 may be configured to provide less than unity gain in the energy converter; alternatively, optionally, STEPS 1 to 4 may be configured to provide greater than unity gain in the energy converter. APPENDIX Energy Generation from Photonic Lattices: The Dirac Drives Supercharger Dr. Timothy Norris O / JWC PWS LIMI TED, 2$ King Dr. Janelle Resell (Editor) d / A Abstract This paper presents an. approximate-calculation of Ae energy output from the Dirac Drives Supercharger, a novel device designed to harness repulsive gravitational energy in an optical lattice aiid convert it into electrical power. The Supercharger operates by utilizing a photoaic lattice in which a .laser^getierated.photon bifurcates into an etectron-peidtFcn pair -within a coherence envelope, driven by nonlinear optical effects. The device consist* of four regions where the bifurcation, acceleration, and. energy generation processes occur. In. Region A, the photon bifurcates due to the &.c. Kerr effect, generating an electton. in one waveguide and a. positron in another waveguide. •Ke^onsRand C»e whetottasophrifcles-areM yBlodti®s>wwlting in a small spatial separation. 'Tli& separation,allows for the acc-efestion of particles and the subsequent generation <rf:en&r^,Ci4wd^ yiitii a 10 mm x 10 mill energy chip-powered by a 10 mW laser, Sit outputof 10 Watts could be achfeved,''representing.a .significant-ener-gy:gain. Ths paper further discusses the potential for even greater energy outputs through- optimization of design parameters aad the use of additional waveguides. 5 1 Introduction The pursuit of efficient and sustainable energy sources has driven significant advancements in various fields of science and. engineering. Among these, the exploration of photonic and quantum phenomena offers promising avenues for novel, energy generation methods. Dirac Drives Limited has focused on leveraging the unique properties of light quanta to develop an innovative energy chip that harnesses the inherent potential of photonic lattices. The theoretical foundation of this technology is rooted in the concept that photons, traditionally understood as elementary particles of light, may be more accurately described as composite (couplet) particles consisting of electron-positron pairs. This hypothesis, supported by experimental evidence previously discussed in our paper ¢1), forms the foundation for advancing our work into practical, commercial applications, thereby underpinning the design of the Dirac Drive Supercharger, referred to as the Dirac Supercharger. In collaboration with academic, and commercial partners, Dirac Drives has embarked on a series of experiments aimed at verifying the theoretical concepts, refining experimental. techniques, and ultimately developing the prototype of the Dirac Supercharger. The device operates by inducing a bifurcation of photons within a nonlinear optical lattice, resulting in the separation of electrons and positrons. These particles are then manipulated through carefully designed regions of the chip to generate electrical energy. The process involves a series of stages, each contributing to the overall energy output, significantly amplified through the exploitation of repulsive gravitational forces and precise control of particle dynamics. In this paper, we present our ongoing efforts to verify these findings, characterize the experiments, and design &prototype Dirac Supercharger. We include an approximate calculation of the energy output achievable by the Supercharger., detailing its operational principles, describing the functions of its key regions, and exploring the theoretical and practical implications of this technology. Our findings indicate that the Supercharger lias the potential to revolutionize energy generation, offering a compact and highly efficient solution that could be integrated into various electronic devices. By optimizing the design parameters, this technology' could pave the way for significant advancements in the field of energy conversion and photonic technology 2 Motivation via Pei Experiments The concept of optical diametric drive acceleration, which underpins our work, draws signiffcant inspiration from the groundbreaking experiments conducted by Pei et al. and presented in 2019 (2) and 2020 (3). These studies demonstrated that a single Gaussian-like light beam could spontaneously self-bend due to nonlinear effects within a uniform photonic lattice, leading to the beam’s separation into two components experiencing opposite types of diffraction—normal and anomalous. This separation resulted in a self-accelerating behavior analogous to the interaction between positive and negative mass objects, effectively breaking traditional action-reaction symmetry. Pei et al. validated this phenomenon experimentally using a one-dimensional photonic lattice created in a lithium niobate crystal, demonstrating a clear shift in the beam’s position due to nonlinear effects. Their findings opened new avenues for applications in beam steering and optical switching, where diametric-drive acceleration could provide a simpler and more efficient alternative to traditional methods. Building upon these insights, Dirac Drives aims to further develop and refine the Pei experiments, integrating them into the context of creating a functional Dirac Supercharger. A significant advantage of our approach lies in our collaboration with the Universit}' of Southampton, particularly their Nanofabrication Centre, where the necessary lithium niobate waveguide arrays — crucial components in the Pei experiments — can be fabricated. This partnership has already yielded key milestones, including the successful separation of negative and positive mass beams within a waveguide array chip. This setup, now ready for experimental use, is expected to replicate the spontaneous self-acceleration, of positive mass (electrons) and negative mass (positrons) observed in the Pei experiments. Furthermore, we are advancing our efforts by integrating electrodes into additional chips to record energy gains, thus pushing the boundaries of what is possible with this technology. Milos Nedeqtowc has successfully generated M-beams and Gamma-beams, achieving segregation of a photon beam into electrctorich and positron-rich streams. This not.only demonstrates the generation of negative mass in a laboratory setting but also supports the hypothesis that photons are composite particles composed of two halves. This finding aligns with Ian Ciague’s published work in (1), suggesting a strong. repulsive gravithtioBal force- acting between the positive and 'negative masses. 3 Photon Propagation and Energy Conversion Regions In the design of the Dirac Drive Supercharger, the.manipulation of photons through carefully structured regions plays a critical role in the device’s functionality. These regions are illustrated in Fig. 1, each serving a distinct purpose to facilitate the conversion of photon energy into usable electrical power. The process begins in Region-A, where incoming photons are split inta< electron-positron pairs within an optically iiGiiliiiBar medium. As the partieM propagate tlirough subsequent regions, their intdra^ dectrie fields; and waveguide structures—lead to energy ^harvesting, culminating--in the. generation of a: voltage output in Region D. This section- details the speeifc operations witlun eaA regies shown in. Fig. 1, highlighting the innovative use of photonic lattices 'and nonlinear optical effects in achieving efficient energy t»m®rsion. Fig. 1. Schematic representation of the waveguide array. Region At Photons from a laser, such as a compact 1500 nm wavelength solid-state laser, propagate- along an entrance waveguide until thev reach a waveguide splitter, where the entrance of the waveguide bifurcates into two elongate working waveguides. Region A is constructed, from an optically nonlinear material, such as Lithium Niobate on Insulator (LNOI), which exhibits the a.c. Kerr effect—a phenomenon where the refractive index of a material changes in response to the intensity of the light (i.e., electric field) passing through it, thereby creating a nonlinear interaction. In this region, the photons are split into electaon-positron pairs, with one waveguide having a higher probability of electrons and the other of positrons. The two elongated waveguides are spaced less than a wavelength of the photons apart, placing them within the spatial coherence envelope of the photons. This coherence ensures that the resulting electron-positron pairs can propagate along their respective elongate working waveguides without the positrons annihilating with surrounding, matter. As the photons bifurcate, their velocity decreases, converting part of their energy into the kinetic energy of the electron, mut-atis mutandis into the kinetic energy of the positron. For optimal efficiency, Region A supports the propagation of Floquet-Bloch optical modes, which are special types of wave propagation that occur in periodically structured materials, enhancing the control over the photon’s behavior. Region B: In Region B, two elongate biasing electrodes are positioned orthogonally to the axes of the two elongate working waveguides, as shown in FIG. 1. These electrodes traverse the waveguides and, when activated, are biased by a voltage Vbias- Ths voltage generates an. electric field aligned along the axes of the elongate working waveguides. The primary function of is to control the movement of the electrons and positrons: it decelerates the electrons and accelerates the positrons, or vice versa. This results in a small spatial separation between the electron and positron along the waveguide, allowing for interactions between them. Specifically, the electron is attracted to the positron through Coulombic forces, white the positron is repelled from the electron by strong gravitational forces, as depicted in FIG. 2, These interactions set the stage for further acceleration in Region C, where the particles gain energy. As with Region A, Region B is designed to support the propagation of Fioquet-Bloch optical modes, which enhances the control and efficiency of the device. Region C: In Region C, interacting pairs of electrons and positrons accelerate along the elongate working electrodes, gaining energy through a unique mechanism that exploits the asymmetry in Newton’s Third Law of Motion. This asymmetry arises due to the negative mass of the positrons, which creates a situation where the reaction force does not counterbalance the action force in the usual manner. As a result, the particles can accelerate more effectively. Since the electrons and positrons have already been bifurcated, Fig. 2. Velocity directions arising from gravitation forces acting on an electron and a positron within a spatial coherence field. their speed remains below the speed of light in a vacuum, allowing for controlled energy gain. As in the previous regions, Region C is designed to support the propagation of Floquet-BIoch optical modes, which enhances the overall efficiency of the device. Region D: Region D serves as the energy generation zone of the Dirac Drive Supercharger. In this region, elongate energy generating electrodes .are positioned parallel to the elongate working waveguides, as depicted schematically in FIG. I. These electrodes are strategically placed within the coherence envelope of the photons, ensuring that the propagating electrons .and positrons can effectively couple to their respective energy generating electrodes. As these particles interact with the electrodes, a voltage VoHt is generated, which, along with the associated current flow, constitutes the power output of the chip. As with the previous regions, Region D is designed to support the propagation of Floquet-BIoch optical modes, optimizing the efficiency of energy conversion within the device. 4 Implementation Details Building on the design principles and regional functionalities outlined in the previous section, the implementation of the Dirac Drive Supercharger requires careful consideration of several practical factors to optimize performance. The laser, for instance, is best operated in pulsed mode, as the effectiveness of the photon bifurcation—driven by the nonlinear a.c. Kerr effect—is proportional to the magnitude of the electric field vector of the photons. The pulse repetition, frequency can be conveniently adjusted to control the power output from the chip. The power required to generate the bias voltage cart be derived from the output Vom, as can the power required to energize the laser. Although only two elongate working waveguides are considered above, the design, is flexible enough to incorporate an. array of multiple waveguides, enhancing the chip’s functionality. The integration of the energy chip, its laser and power processing electronic components for processing the output l'oUi may be spatially collocated onto a hybrid optical module .assembly. This opens up possibilities for the incorporation into various electronic devices, such as mobile phones. Positioning the energy chip within a magnetic field, with lines orthogonal to its principal surface plane of the chip, further enhances the bifurcation of photons into their respective electrons and photons in Region A. This enhances the energy generation capabilities in Region D. Optionally, the Supercharger can also be mounted onto a slab Neodymium magnet that is magnetically polarized in an orientation so that the North pole is aligned with one major face of the slab, and the South pole is aligned with the opposite face. These two major faces are substantially parallel to each other. 5 Calculation Initial calculations for the arrangement that is schematically illustrated in FIG. 1 suggests an energy gain of 1000 times, potentially up to x 10,000 with optimized parameters. For a 10 mm X 10 mm Supercharger powered by a 10 mW solid-state laser, an output of 10 Watts is theoretically possible, assuming there are no coupling losses and lossless electron-positron propagation within the chip. More conservative estimates predict a practical output of 3 to 9 Watts output power at Vout, still representing a substantial energy gain. Regions B and C can be spatially combined to allow for simultaneous acceleration and energy gain, within the electric field generated by Vbiaa5 further optimizing the chip’s design. The calculations outlined will now be presented. Below are the constants used for reference. Symbol Quantity Value c Speed of light in vacuum 3 x 1GS m / s ft Planck’s constant 6.626070 x 10-34 Joule Hz A Wavelength of light used for photons 1500 nm (standard telecoms components) £o Permittivity of free space 8.854187 x IO"12 F / m Rest mass of electron 9.19$ x IO"31 kg GX Newtonian gravitational force S.674 x 10-11 m3 / (kg ■ s2) e Charge on electron 1.602 x 10-1® Coulombs L Distance Distance in Region B (see Fig. 1) H Distance Distance in Region C (see Fig. 1) The energy of a photon entering into Region A, denoted by Ei, is defined as where c is the speed of light in a vacuum, ft is Planck's constant, and A is the photon wavelength. The kinetic energy of an electron or positron, in the nan-relativistic approximation, is given by = imiA (2) The Couiombic forces acting on two charges Qi and Q3 are described by r5 , _ 'G 45reqr2 e2 4srecr3 where r is. the distance between the two charges, .such as between an electron and its corresponding positron. The gravitational fort® generated between two masses .¾ and M3, according to Newton's Law pertains to masses of at least macroscopic size, is expressed as _ GjvMiMz Fg = ——g—- When, considering mb. electron and a positron separated by a distance r outside their mutual coherence envelope, (4) simplifies to ,, GW (5) However, at. the quantum scale, when r falls within the spatial coherence range of a photon including an electron coupled to a positron, Clagne in. (1) lias theoretically shown'that Gfj is not applicable. Instead, a / .srtong gra>d.tatfonal foiQS'Gg' —¢,5) to Fa = Gsm2 r2 (6) STAGE 1 As a photon enters Region A, it travels at the speed of light, e. Within Region A, it is hypothesized'—simplifying the calculations—that the photon completely bifurcates into an electron and a positron within its coherence envelope. This bifurcation is a result of nonlinear optical effects occurring within the materials used to fabricate Region A. As an approximation, the energy of the photon (from (1) and (3)) is equally divided between the kinetic energies of the electron and positron 2 2A ,-2 / to V = —r mA = \ V mA As the photon bifurcates, the resulting electron and positron become more distinct, causing the photon to decelerate, consistent, with Snell’s Law (where the velocity of a photon in an optical glass material is slower than in a vacuum). In the Dirac Drive Supercharger, telecom components are utilized for cost-effectiveness, with the wavelength A typically set at approximately 1500 nm. STAGE 2 'In Region B, following the bifurcation, caused by the ac. Kerr effect in Region A, the electron and positron of the given photon are individually influenced by an electric field generated by the bias voltage, The velocities of the electron and positron can be expressed as: (7) where VB is the velocity of the electron and V, is the velocity of the positron, both within the spatial coherence field of their corresponding photon. The bias voltage Hias slightly accelerates the positron and decelerates the electron, leading to a small spatial separation r between them along the axial axis of the elongate working waveguides, as illustrated in FIG. 1. To a first approximation, ~ Vp with a slight difference due to the influence of The axial separation r (i.e., difference in position) between the electron and positron can be derived over a given distance L along the waveguide. .If we consider the velocities in equations (7) and (8), the difference between them, AV = —1^,, can be approximated for small using a first-order Ihylor expansion.. For convenience, we will let 1¾ = and use the fact that (1 + a:)” »1 + nx + Rgwritiag' (?) and (8) in the form of (1:+ a?)n, we obtain feVblas X $ J WV 3 mVg / wheren = i and x is taken to be either or — Soffit. Then. AV becomes / m¥^ m V$ = 1¾} 1 + = leHtas 2 mVQ _ eVaM m V6 ’ 1 eVv \4 2 mV / J ' 1 ^Wjias 2 01¾ / 1 eK£ \ * ur H 1 ■ V b€&S I W"2mW As the electron and positron t rawl along the waveguide, this velocity difference AV leads to a separation, over, a djstange L, the length of the region where the bias voltage is applied. The spatial separation r between the elected and: positron can be calculated .as r = AV f, (9) where t is the time it takes for the particles to travel the distance L and is given by f = . / ,. Hence r becomes r = AV t _ erbias h mPe 1¾ _ e¥^L mVo _ eV^^LinX m he d bias TA he where r must be less than the spatial coherence field of the photon. If we consider the following example with the numerical values for Vbfa» = 1 mV, L = 1 mm and A = ISOOmn, then r as 1.2 / 4m. This calculation confirms that r = IO-® meters lies within the spatial coherence field of a photon with a wavelength of A = ISJOnm. STAGE 3 In Region C, the bifurcated electrons and positrons undergo acceleration due to gravitational interaction. The force acting on the particles, defined by the strong gravitational constant Gs, causes acceleration according to Fs = ma where a is the acceleration of the electron and positron, and Fa is the gravitational force but is calculated using the strong gravitational constant. Gs. When the force Fa acts over a distance H. Le., the length, of Region C, the work IV done is approximated by f 2hc\ m2 „ \^ J Wie r2 Using the data from the device illustrated in Fig. 1, and assuming H = 3.025L, the energy gained per photon is calculated to be approximately 1.326 x 10-i6 Joules per photon. The number of photons, denoted by / V, in the laser beam injected into Region A can be determined by = A7 El R — ¥ f — * bestm — -* * f P A a? -* bcaici''' where is the photon power of the laser beam injected into Region A. For a 10 mW laser beam with A = 1500nm, the number of photons N is calculated to be 7.546 x 10ls photons per second. Thus, the approximate power output Paut available at the generating electrodes l^ut is = NW = 10 Watts. This calculation suggests a power gain of 1000 times. By adjusting 14»» and the distances L and H, power gains on the order of 10,000 times are theoretically passible. Given that 10 Watts might be excessive for a small waveguide structure, an array of waveguides, as shown in FIG. 1, may be required to optimize the Dirac Drive Supercharger’s performance. 6 Chip Optimization While the theoretical calculations suggest substantial power gains from the Dirac Drives Supercharger, practical implementation requires careful consideration of real-world factors. The efficiency of the Supercharger is influenced by the precision of photon bifurcation, the stability of the bias voltage and the quality of the optical materials used. In particular, minimizing losses due to imperfect bifurcation and ensuring the coherence of the photon pairs are critical to achieving the projected energy gains. Th® performance of the Dirac Drives Supercharger can be significantly enhanced by optimizing several key variables: • Number of Electrons per Second Increasing 14™ controls the number of electrons that can be injected into the system, directly affecting the output power. Additionally, effective retention of positrons ensures that a larger fraction of them contribute to energy generation, optimizing the overall efficiency. * Positron Retention and Acceleration (I4ias): The bias voltage Vbi®s not only accelerates electrons but also retards positrons. This retardation, combined with the opposing strong gravitational and electromagnetic forces on positrons, tends to keep them stationary, allowing for effective acceleration of multiple passing electrons. • Length of the Acceleration Zone (H and L): The distance over which electrons and positrons are accelerated as well as the relationship between them directly influences the work done on each particle and therefore the energy generated, ♦ Proximity to Positrons (Separation Distance, r): Minimizing the separation distance r between electrons and positrons increases the interaction strength and energy gain. • Number of Positrons (Laser Power): Higher laser power increases the number of positrons generated, which. in tnni increases the potential output power. 7 Conclusion The Dirac Drives Supercharger, with an energy gain multiplier of 1000 times, represents a groundbreaking approach, to energy generation from photonic lattices. By optimizing key parameters such as the bias voltage, acceleration zone length, and laser power, we can further enhance the chip’s performance, paving the way for its integration into a wide range of electronic, devices. The practical application of the chip could revolutionize the way we approach energy generation, offering a compact and efficient solution suitable for integration into a wide range of electronic devices. Future work will focus on experimental validation of the theoretical predictions, optimization of the chip design, and examining other avenues in photonic technology. References Ciague, I. (2022). “Examination of the electromagnetic force and gravity through the composite (couplet) photon.” Advanced Studies in Theoretical Physics, 16(2): Pei. Yumiao, Yi Hu, Ping Zhang, Chwmei Zhang. Cibo Lou. Christian E. Riiter, Detlef Kip. Demetrios Christodouilides, Zhigang Chen, &Jingjun Xu. (2019). “Coherent propulsion with negative-mass fields in a photonic lattice.” Opties Letters 44(24): 5-949-5952. Pei, Y., Wang, Z„ Hu, Y,, Lou, C,, Cheri, Z., &Xu, J. (2020). “Spontaneous diametric-drive acceleration initiated by a single beam in a photonic lattice.’’ Optics Letters 45(11): 3173-3178,

Claims

1. An energy converter for converting photons into electrical energy, wherein the energy converter is implemented as an integrated circuit in which the photons propagate in a coherent manner, wherein the energy converter includes a configuration of waveguides and electrodes that are configured to receive the photons, at least partially bifurcate the photons into their respective electrons and positrons, configure the at least partially bifurcated electrons and positrons so that they mutually accelerate to provided accelerated electrons and positrons, and harvest the accelerated electrons and positrons to generate the electrical energy.

2. An energy converter of claim 1, wherein the integrated circuit is implemented as a Lithium Niobate photonic integrated circuit ora Lithium-Niobate-On-Insulator photonic integrated circuit.

3. An energy converter of claim 1 or 2, wherein the waveguides are fabricated from an optically non-linear material that is configured to exhibit in use a nonlinear optical characteristic.

4. An energy converter of claim 1, 2 or 3, wherein the waveguides are implemented in an array of mutually parallel elongate waveguides.

5. A method for operating an energy converter for converting photons into electrical energy,wherein the energy converter is implemented as an integrated circuit in which the photons propagate in a coherent manner, wherein the energy converter includes a configuration of waveguides and electrodes that are configured to receive the photons,wherein the method includes:(i) using the energy converter to at least partially bifurcate the photons into their respective electrons and positrons;(ii) configuring the at least partially bifurcated electrons and positrons so that they mutually accelerate to provided accelerated electrons and positrons; and(iii) harvesting the accelerated electrons and positrons to generate the electrical 5 energy.

6. A photonics module including an energy converter of claim 1 together with a laser arrangement including one or more lasers configured in use to generate photons for the energy converter to convert to electrical power.

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