Electrode assembly and secondary battery

Abstract

To provide a secondary battery improved in reliability and cycle life.SOLUTION: A secondary battery includes an electrode assembly having a series of stacked layers, and the series of stacked layers have an offset between electrode and counter-electrode layers in a unit cell member. A set of constraints includes: a primary constraint system having first and second primary growth constraints that are separated from each other in a longitudinal direction, at least one primary connecting member connecting the first and second primary growth constraints; and a secondary constraint system having first and second primary growth constraints that are separated from each other in a second direction, at least one member of the series of stacked layers connecting the first and second primary growth constraints. The primary constraint system at least partially restraints growth of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction, and the secondary constraint system at least partially restrains growth of the electrode assembly in a second direction orthogonal to the longitudinal direction.SELECTED DRAWING: Figure 1A

Description

[Technical Field]

[0001] The present disclosure relates generally to electrode assemblies for use in energy storage devices such as secondary batteries. [Background technology]

[0002] A rocking chair or insertion secondary battery is a type of energy storage device in which carrier ions, such as lithium ions, sodium ions, potassium ions, calcium ions, or magnesium ions, migrate between a positive electrode and a negative electrode through an electrolyte. A secondary battery may include a single battery cell or two or more battery cells electrically coupled to form a battery, each of which may include a positive electrode, a negative electrode, a microporous separator, and an electrolyte.

[0003] In a rocking chair battery cell, both the positive and negative electrodes contain materials into which carrier ions can be inserted and extracted. When the cell is discharged, carrier ions are extracted from the negative electrode and inserted into the positive electrode. When the cell is charged, the reverse process occurs: carrier ions are extracted from the positive electrode and inserted into the negative electrode. Summary of the Invention [Problem to be solved by the invention]

[0004] One of the challenges inherent in the transfer of carrier ions between electrodes is the fact that the electrodes tend to expand and contract as the battery is repeatedly charged and discharged. Swelling and contraction during cycling tends to be problematic for the reliability and cycle life of the battery, as electrode expansion can cause electrical shorts and battery failure. Yet another potential problem is misalignment of the electrodes. This can occur, for example, when physical or mechanical stresses on the battery during manufacturing, use, or shipping can lead to short circuits and battery failure.

[0005] Therefore, there remains a need to control the expansion and contraction of electrodes during battery cycling to improve the reliability and cycle life of the battery. There also remains a need for controlled electrode placement and a structure that improves the mechanical stability of the battery without excessively increasing the battery's footprint.

[0006] Additionally, there remains a need for a reliable and effective means of manufacturing such batteries, i.e., an efficient manufacturing method for providing batteries having electrode assemblies with carefully controlled placement and controlled expansion of the electrode assemblies during cycling of the battery. [Means for solving the problem]

[0007] One aspect of the present disclosure relates to a secondary battery for cycling between a charged state and a discharged state, the secondary battery including a battery housing, an electrode assembly, a lithium ion battery within the battery housing, and a set of electrode constraints, wherein: (a) The electrode assembly has a horizontal axis, a vertical axis, and a height axis that are perpendicular to each other and correspond to the x-axis, y-axis, and z-axis, respectively, of a virtual three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system, a first vertical end surface and a second vertical end surface that are separated from each other, and an electrode assembly vertical axis A EA and a side surface surrounding the first and second longitudinal end surfaces, the side surface having opposing first and second regions on either side of the longitudinal axis and separated in a first direction perpendicular to the longitudinal axis, the electrode assembly having a maximum width W measured laterally. EA and the maximum length L measured laterally and bounded by the sides EA and the maximum height H measured in the height direction and bounded by the sides EA and where the maximum length L EA and maximum width W EA Maximum height H EA the ratio to is at least 2:1, (b) the electrode assembly includes a series of layers stacked in a stacking direction parallel to a longitudinal axis within the electrode assembly, the series of layers including a set of negative electrode active material layers, a set of negative electrode current collector layers, a set of separator material layers, a set of positive electrode active material layers, and a set of positive electrode current collector material layers, wherein: (i) Each of the negative electrode active material layer groups has a length L corresponding to the ferret diameter of the negative electrode active material layer measured in the lateral direction between the opposing first and second lateral end surfaces of the negative electrode active material layer. E and a height H corresponding to the ferret diameter of the negative electrode active material layer measured in the height direction between the opposing first and second height end faces of the negative electrode active material layer. E and W corresponding to the ferret diameter of the negative electrode active material layer measured in the longitudinal direction between the first and second opposing surfaces of the negative electrode active material layer. E and where H E and W E L for E is at least 5:1, (ii) Each of the positive electrode active material layer groups has a length L corresponding to the ferret diameter of the positive electrode active material layer measured in the lateral direction between the opposing first and second lateral end surfaces of the positive electrode active material layer. E and a height H corresponding to the ferret diameter of the positive electrode active material layer measured in the height direction between the opposing first and second height end faces of the positive electrode active material layer. E and W corresponding to the ferret diameter of the positive electrode active material layer measured in the longitudinal direction between the first and second opposing surfaces of the positive electrode active material layer. E and where H E and W E L for E is at least 5:1, (iii) each of the sets of negative electrode active material layers comprises a particulate material including at least 60% by weight of a negative electrode active material, less than 20% by weight of a conductive additive, and a binder material, wherein the negative electrode active material comprises a silicon-containing material; (c) the set of electrode constraints includes a first-order constraint system and a second-order constraint system; (i) the primary constraint system includes first and second growth constraints and at least one primary connecting member, the first and second primary growth constraints being separated from one another in the vertical direction, the primary connecting member connecting the first and second primary growth constraints to at least partially constrain growth of the electrode assembly in the vertical direction; and (ii) the secondary constraint system includes first and second secondary growth constraints connected by each of a series of separated and stacked layers in a second direction, wherein the secondary constraint system at least partially constrains growth of the electrode assembly in the second direction upon cycling of the secondary battery, the second direction being orthogonal to the machine direction; and (iii) the primary constraint system maintains a pressure on the electrode assembly in the stacking direction that exceeds the pressure maintained on the electrode assembly in each of two directions perpendicular to each other and perpendicular to the stacking direction; (d) the electrode assembly includes a set of unit cells, wherein each unit cell includes a unit cell portion of a first member of a set of electrode current collector layers, a member of a set of separators that are ion-permeable to carrier ions, a first member of a set of electrode active material layers, a unit cell portion of a first member of a set of counter electrode current collector layers, and a first member of a set of counter electrode active material layers, wherein (aa) the first member of the set of electrode active material layers is adjacent to a first side of the separator and the first member of the set of counter electrode material layers is adjacent to an opposite second side of the separator, (bb) the separator electrically isolates the first member of the set of electrode active material layers from the first member of the set of counter electrode active material layers, and during cycling between charge and discharge states of the battery, carrier ions are exchanged primarily between the first member of the set of electrode active material layers and the first member of the set of counter electrode active material layers through the separator of each such unit cell, and (cc) within each unit cell, a. The first height end surface of the electrode active material layer and the first height end surface of the counter electrode active material layer are on the same side of the electrode assembly, and the 2D map in the XZ plane of the median height position of the first opposing height end surfaces of the electrode active material layer is E Along the first height end surface plot E VP1The 2D map in the XZ plane of the median height position of the first opposing height end face of the counter electrode active material layer is traced, and the length L of the counter electrode active material layer is calculated. C Along the first height end surface plot CE VP1 where the length of the first counter electrode active material layer, L C In at least 60% of the cases, (i) the vertically measured plot E VP1 and CE VP1 The absolute value of the separation distance S between Z1 is 1000 μm ≧ |S Z1 |≧5 μm is satisfied, and (ii) between the first height end surface of the electrode active material layer and the first height end surface of the counter electrode active material layer, the first height end surface of the counter electrode active material layer is arranged inside the first height end surface of the electrode active material layer, b. The second height end surface of the electrode active material layer and the second height end surface of the counter electrode active material layer are on the same side of the electrode assembly and are opposite to the first height end surface of the electrode active material layer and the first height end surface of the counter electrode active material layer, respectively. The 2D map in the XZ plane of the median height position of the second opposing height end surfaces of the electrode active material layer is E Along the second height end surface plot E VP2 The 2D map in the XZ plane of the median height position of the second opposing height end face of the counter electrode active material layer is traced, and the length L of the counter electrode active material layer is calculated. C Along the second height end surface plot CE VP2 where the length of the second counter electrode active material layer, L C In at least 60% of the cases, (i) the vertically measured plot E VP2 and CE VP2 The absolute value of the separation distance S between Z2 is 1000 μm ≧ |S Z2 |≧5 μm, and (ii) between the second height end face of the electrode active material layer and the second height end face of the counter electrode active material layer, the second height end face of the counter electrode active material layer is disposed on the inner side of the second height end face of the electrode active material layer.

[0008] Another aspect of the present disclosure relates to a secondary battery for cycling between a charged state and a discharged state, the secondary battery including a battery housing, an electrode assembly, carrier ions within the battery housing, and a set of electrode constraints, wherein: (a) The electrode assembly has a horizontal axis, a vertical axis, and a height axis that are perpendicular to each other and correspond to the x-axis, y-axis, and z-axis, respectively, of a virtual three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system, a first vertical end surface and a second vertical end surface that are separated from each other, and an electrode assembly vertical axis A EA and a side surface surrounding the first and second longitudinal end surfaces, the side surface having opposing first and second regions on either side of the longitudinal axis and separated in a first direction perpendicular to the longitudinal axis, the electrode assembly having a maximum width W measured laterally. EA and the maximum length L measured laterally and bounded by the sides EA and the maximum height H measured in the vertical direction and bounded by the sides EA and where the maximum length L EA and / or maximum width W EA is the maximum height H EA is larger than (b) the electrode assembly includes a series of layers stacked in a stacking direction parallel to a longitudinal axis within the electrode assembly, the series of layers including a set of negative electrode active material layers, a set of negative electrode current collector layers, a set of separator material layers, a set of positive electrode active material layers, and a set of positive electrode current collector material layers, wherein: (i) Each of the negative electrode active material layer groups has a length L corresponding to the ferret diameter of the negative electrode active material layer measured in the lateral direction between the opposing first and second lateral end surfaces of the negative electrode active material layer. E and a height H corresponding to the ferret diameter of the negative electrode active material layer measured in the height direction between the opposing first and second height end faces of the negative electrode active material layer. E and W corresponding to the ferret diameter of the negative electrode active material layer measured in the longitudinal direction between the first and second opposing surfaces of the negative electrode active material layer. E and where H E and W E L for E is at least 5:1, (ii) Each of the sets of positive electrode material layers has a length L corresponding to the ferret diameter of the positive electrode active material layer measured laterally between the opposing first and second lateral end surfaces of the positive electrode active material layer. E and a height H corresponding to the ferret diameter of the positive electrode active material layer measured in the height direction between the opposing first and second height end faces of the positive electrode active material layer. E and W corresponding to the ferret diameter of the positive electrode active material layer measured in the longitudinal direction between the first and second opposing surfaces of the positive electrode active material layer. E and where H E and W E L for E is at least 5:1, (iii) each of the negative electrode active material layer groups includes a particulate material including at least 60% by mass of a negative electrode active material, less than 20% by mass of a conductive additive, and a binder material; (c) the set of electrode constraints includes a first-order constraint system and a second-order constraint system; (i) the primary constraint system includes first and second growth constraints and at least one primary connecting member, the first and second primary growth constraints being separated from one another in the vertical direction, the primary connecting member connecting the first and second primary growth constraints to at least partially constrain growth of the electrode assembly in the vertical direction; and (ii) the secondary constraint system includes first and second secondary growth constraints connected by each of a series of separated and stacked layers in a second direction, wherein the secondary constraint system at least partially constrains growth of the electrode assembly in the second direction upon cycling of the secondary battery, the second direction being orthogonal to the machine direction; and (iii) the primary constraint system maintains a pressure on the electrode assembly in the stacking direction that exceeds the pressure maintained on the electrode assembly in each of two directions perpendicular to each other and perpendicular to the stacking direction; (d) The stacked series of layers includes layers having opposing end faces laterally spaced apart from one another, the opposing end faces of the layers exhibiting laterally oriented plastic deformation and deformation due to expansion and contraction of the layers at the opposing end faces.

[0009] Other aspects, features and embodiments of the present disclosure are in part described and in part apparent in the following description and drawings. [Brief explanation of the drawings]

[0010] [Figure 1A] FIG. 1 is a perspective view of one embodiment of a constraint system deployed with an electrode assembly. [Figure 1B] Schematic diagram of one embodiment of a three-dimensional electrode assembly for a secondary battery. [Figure 1C] Inset cross-sectional view of the electrode assembly of Figure 1B [Figure 1D] 1B is a cross-sectional view of the electrode assembly of FIG. 1B taken along line E in FIG. 1B. [Figure 2A] Schematic diagram of one embodiment of a three-dimensional electrode assembly. [Figure 2B] Schematic diagram of one embodiment of a three-dimensional electrode assembly showing members of a set of anode structures in constrained and expanded configurations. [Figure 2C] Schematic diagram of one embodiment of a three-dimensional electrode assembly showing members of a set of anode structures in constrained and expanded configurations. [Figure 3A] 1 shows examples of different shapes and sizes of electrode assemblies. [Figure 3B] 1 shows examples of different shapes and sizes of electrode assemblies. [Figure 3C] 1 shows examples of different shapes and sizes of electrode assemblies. [Figure 3D] 1 shows examples of different shapes and sizes of electrode assemblies. [Figure 3E] 1 shows examples of different shapes and sizes of electrode assemblies. [Figure 3F] 1 shows examples of different shapes and sizes of electrode assemblies. [Figure 3G] 1 shows examples of different shapes and sizes of electrode assemblies. [Figure 3H] 1 shows examples of different shapes and sizes of electrode assemblies. [Figure 4A]FIG. 1B is a cross-sectional view showing one embodiment of an electrode assembly taken along line A-A′ shown in FIG. 1A and further showing elements of the primary and secondary growth constraint systems. [Figure 4B] 1B is a cross-sectional view of an embodiment of an electrode assembly taken along line BB' shown in FIG. 1A, further illustrating elements of the primary and secondary growth constraint systems. [Figure 4C] 1B is a cross-sectional view of an embodiment of an electrode assembly taken along line BB' shown in FIG. 1A, further illustrating elements of the primary and secondary growth constraint systems. [Figure 5] 1B is a cross-sectional view of an embodiment of an electrode assembly taken along line A-A1′ shown in FIG. 1A. [Figure 6A] FIG. 1 is a top view illustrating one embodiment of a porous secondary growth constraint on an electrode assembly and one embodiment for bonding the secondary growth constraint to the electrode assembly. [Figure 6B] FIG. 1 is a top view illustrating one embodiment of a porous secondary growth constraint on an electrode assembly and one embodiment for bonding the secondary growth constraint to the electrode assembly. [Figure 7] 1B is a cross-sectional view of an embodiment of an electrode assembly taken along line A-A' shown in FIG. 1A, further including a set of electrode constraints that includes an embodiment of a primary constraint system and an embodiment of a secondary constraint system. [Figure 8A] 1 is a force diagram illustrating the forces exerted on an electrode assembly by a set of electrode constraints and the forces exerted by the electrode structure upon repeated cycling of a battery including the electrode assembly, according to one embodiment; [Figure 8B] 1 is a force diagram illustrating the forces exerted on an electrode assembly by a set of electrode constraints and the forces exerted by the electrode structure upon repeated cycling of a battery including the electrode assembly, according to one embodiment; [Figure 9A] FIG. 1B is a cross-sectional view of an embodiment of an electrode assembly taken along line A-A′ shown in FIG. 1A , further including a set of electrode constraints including an embodiment of a primary growth constraint system and an embodiment of a secondary growth constraint system in which an electrode backbone is used. [Figure 9B]FIG. 1B is a cross-sectional view of an embodiment of an electrode assembly taken along line A-A′ shown in FIG. 1A , further including a set of electrode constraints including an embodiment of a primary growth constraint system and an embodiment of a secondary growth constraint system in which an electrode current collector is used. [Figure 10] 1 is an exploded view illustrating an embodiment of an energy storage device or secondary battery that utilizes an embodiment of a set of growth constraints. [Figure 11A] 10A and 10B show an embodiment for determining the height offset and / or separation distance SZ1, SZ2 between the height end surface of the electrode material layer and the height end surface of the counter-electrode material layer. [Figure 11B] 10A and 10B show an embodiment for determining the height offset and / or separation distance SZ1, SZ2 between the height end surface of the electrode material layer and the height end surface of the counter-electrode material layer. [Figure 11C] 10A and 10B show an embodiment for determining the height offset and / or separation distance SZ1, SZ2 between the height end surface of the electrode material layer and the height end surface of the counter-electrode material layer. [Figure 12A] 10A and 10B illustrate embodiments for determining the lateral offset and / or separation distances SX1 and SX2 between the lateral end surfaces of the electrode active material layer and the counter electrode active material layer. [Figure 12B] 10A and 10B illustrate embodiments for determining the lateral offset and / or separation distances SX1 and SX2 between the lateral end surfaces of the electrode active material layer and the counter electrode active material layer. [Figure 12C] 10A and 10B illustrate embodiments for determining the lateral offset and / or separation distances SX1 and SX2 between the lateral end surfaces of the electrode active material layer and the counter electrode active material layer. [Figure 13A] FIG. 10 shows an embodiment for determining the heights HE, HC and lengths LE, LC of the electrode active material layer and / or counter electrode active material layer according to the diameter of the ferret itself. [Figure 13B] FIG. 10 shows an embodiment for determining the heights HE, HC and lengths LE, LC of the electrode active material layer and / or counter electrode active material layer according to the diameter of the ferret itself. [Figure 14A]1A and 1B are cross-sectional views in the ZY plane of embodiments of a unit cell having an electrode active material layer and a counter electrode active material layer, both with and without a height offset and / or separation distance. [Figure 14B] 1A and 1B are cross-sectional views in the ZY plane of embodiments of a unit cell having an electrode active material layer and a counter electrode active material layer, both with and without a height offset and / or separation distance. [Figure 14C] 1A and 1B are cross-sectional views in the ZY plane of embodiments of a unit cell having an electrode active material layer and a counter electrode active material layer, both with and without a height offset and / or separation distance. [Figure 14D] 1A and 1B are cross-sectional views in the ZY plane of embodiments of a unit cell having an electrode active material layer and a counter electrode active material layer, both with and without a height offset and / or separation distance. [Figure 14E] 1A and 1B are cross-sectional views in the ZY plane of embodiments of a unit cell having an electrode active material layer and a counter electrode active material layer, both with and without a height offset and / or separation distance. [Figure 14F] 1A and 1B are cross-sectional views in the ZY plane of embodiments of a unit cell having an electrode active material layer and a counter electrode active material layer, both with and without a height offset and / or separation distance. [Figure 14G] 1A and 1B are cross-sectional views in the ZY plane of embodiments of a unit cell having an electrode active material layer and a counter electrode active material layer, both with and without a height offset and / or separation distance. [Figure 14H] 1A and 1B are cross-sectional views in the ZY plane of embodiments of a unit cell having an electrode active material layer and a counter electrode active material layer, both with and without a height offset and / or separation distance. [Figure 15A] 1A and 1B are cross-sectional views in the YX plane of embodiments of a unit cell having an electrode active material layer and a counter electrode active material layer, both with and without lateral offset and / or separation distance. [Figure 15B]1A and 1B are cross-sectional views in the YX plane of embodiments of a unit cell having an electrode active material layer and a counter electrode active material layer, both with and without lateral offset and / or separation distance. [Figure 15C] 1A and 1B are cross-sectional views in the YX plane of embodiments of a unit cell having an electrode active material layer and a counter electrode active material layer, both with and without lateral offset and / or separation distance. [Figure 15D] 1A and 1B are cross-sectional views in the YX plane of embodiments of a unit cell having an electrode active material layer and a counter electrode active material layer, both with and without lateral offset and / or separation distance. [Figure 15E] 1A and 1B are cross-sectional views in the YX plane of embodiments of a unit cell having an electrode active material layer and a counter electrode active material layer, both with and without lateral offset and / or separation distance. [Figure 15F] 1A and 1B are cross-sectional views in the YX plane of embodiments of a unit cell having an electrode active material layer and a counter electrode active material layer, both with and without lateral offset and / or separation distance. [Figure 16A] FIG. 1 illustrates an embodiment of an electrode assembly having an electrode bus bar and a counter electrode bus bar. [Figure 16A-1] A cross-sectional view of FIG. 16A in the XY plane [Figure 16B] FIG. 1 illustrates an embodiment of an electrode assembly having an electrode bus bar and a counter electrode bus bar. [Figure 16B-1] A cross-sectional view of FIG. 16B in the XY plane [Figure 17] FIG. 1 illustrates an embodiment of a secondary battery having an alternating arrangement of electrode and counter-electrode structures. [Figure 18A] 1 is a cross-sectional view in the ZY plane of an embodiment of an electrode assembly having an auxiliary electrode; [Figure 18B] 1 is a cross-sectional view in the ZY plane of an embodiment of an electrode assembly having an auxiliary electrode; [Figure 19]Schematic diagram showing before and after images of a negative electrode subunit following edge removal of the negative electrode subunit, exposing the current collector edge and showing plastic deformation of a portion of the current collector edge resulting from edge removal at the current collector edge. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

[0011] Other aspects, embodiments, and features of the present subject matter will become apparent from the following detailed description when considered in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, which are schematic and are not intended to be drawn to scale. For clarity, not every element or component is labeled in every figure, nor is every element or component of every embodiment of the present subject matter shown unless illustration is necessary for those skilled in the art to understand the subject matter.

[0012] [Definition] As used herein, the terms "a," "an," and "the" (i.e., singular) refer to plural referents unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. For example, in one example, reference to "an electrode" includes both a single electrode and multiple similar electrodes.

[0013] As used herein, "about" and "approximately" refer to plus or minus 10%, 5%, or 1% of the stated value. For example, in one example, "about 250 μm" could include 225 μm to 275 μm. As a further example, in one example, "about 1000 μm" could include 900 μm to 1100 μm. Unless otherwise noted, all numerical values ​​expressing quantities (e.g., measurements) and the like used in the specification and claims should be understood as being modified in all instances by the word "about." Accordingly, unless expressly indicated otherwise, the numerical parameters set forth in the following specification and claims are approximations. Each numerical parameter should be understood in light of, at least, the number of reported significant digits and by applying ordinary rounding techniques.

[0014] "Anode" as used herein in the context of secondary batteries refers to the negative electrode of the secondary battery.

[0015] As used herein, "anode active" refers to a material suitable for use in the anode of a secondary battery.

[0016] "Cathode" as used herein in the context of secondary batteries refers to the positive electrode of the secondary battery.

[0017] As used herein, "cathode active" refers to a material suitable for use in the cathode of a secondary battery.

[0018] As used herein in the context of the state of a secondary battery, "state of charge" refers to a state in which a secondary battery is charged to at least 75% of its rated capacity. For example, the battery may be charged to at least 80% of its rated capacity, at least 90% of its rated capacity, or at least 95% of its rated capacity (e.g., 100% of its rated capacity).

[0019] As used herein, "C-rate" refers to a measure of the rate at which a secondary battery is discharged, and is defined as the discharge current divided by the theoretical current draw. Under the theoretical current draw, the battery delivers its nominal rated capacity in 1 hour. For example, a C-rate of 1C refers to a discharge current that will discharge the battery in 1 hour, a C-rate of 2C refers to a discharge current that will discharge the battery in 1 / 2 hour, and a C-rate of C / 2 refers to a discharge current that will discharge the battery in 2 hours.

[0020] As used herein in the context of the state of a secondary battery, a "discharged state" refers to a state in which a secondary battery is discharged to less than 25% of its rated capacity. For example, a battery may be discharged to less than 20% of its rated capacity (e.g., 10% of the rated capacity), as well as to less than 5% of its rated capacity (e.g., 0% of the rated capacity).

[0021] As used herein, "cycling" in the context of cycling a secondary battery between a charging state and a discharging state refers to charging and / or discharging the battery, cycling the battery from a first state, which may be a charging state or a discharging state, to a second state that is opposite to the first state (e.g., charging if the first state is a discharging state, or discharging if the first state is a charging state), and then operating the battery back to the first state to complete the cycle. That is, one cycle of a secondary battery between a charging state and a discharging state may include, in a charging cycle, charging the battery from the discharging state to the charging state, and then discharging it back to the discharging state to complete the cycle. One cycle may also include, in a discharging cycle, discharging the battery from the charging state to the discharging state, and then charging it back to the charging state to complete the cycle.

[0022] The "ferret diameter" referred to herein with respect to an electrode assembly, an electrode active material layer, and / or a counter electrode active material layer is defined as the distance between two parallel planes that bound the structure (i.e., the electrode assembly, the electrode active material layer, and / or the counter electrode active material layer), measured in a direction perpendicular to the two planes. For example, the longitudinal ferret diameter of an electrode assembly is the distance measured longitudinally between two parallel planes that bound the electrode assembly and are perpendicular to the longitudinal direction. For example, the transverse ferret diameter of an electrode assembly is the distance measured transversely between two parallel planes that bound the electrode assembly and are perpendicular to the transverse direction. For example, the height ferret diameter of an electrode assembly is the distance measured heightwise between two parallel planes that bound the electrode assembly and are perpendicular to the height direction. For example, the transverse ferret diameter of an electrode active material layer is the distance measured transversely between two parallel planes that bound the electrode active material layer and are perpendicular to the transverse direction. For example, the ferret diameter in the height direction of the electrode active material layer is the distance measured in the height direction between two parallel planes perpendicular to the height direction that bound the electrode active material layer. For example, the ferret diameter in the lateral direction of the counter electrode active material layer is the distance measured in the lateral direction between two parallel planes perpendicular to the lateral direction that bound the counter electrode active material layer. For example, the ferret diameter in the height direction of the counter electrode active material layer is the distance measured in the height direction between two parallel planes perpendicular to the height direction that bound the counter electrode active material layer.

[0023] As used herein, the terms "vertical axis," "horizontal axis," and "height axis" refer to axes that are perpendicular to one another (i.e., perpendicular to one another). For example, the terms "vertical axis," "horizontal axis," and "height axis" used herein are approximations of a Cartesian coordinate system used to define three-dimensional positions or orientations. Thus, the description of elements of the present subject matter herein is not limited to the particular axis or axes used to describe the three-dimensional orientation of the elements. In other words, the axes may be interchangeable when referring to the three-dimensional positions of the present subject matter.

[0024] As used herein, the terms "longitudinal," "lateral," and "height" refer to directions that are perpendicular to one another (i.e., perpendicular to one another). For example, the terms "longitudinal," "lateral," and "height" as used herein may be approximately parallel to the longitudinal, lateral, and height axes, respectively, of a Cartesian coordinate system used to define three-dimensional positions or directions.

[0025] As used herein, the term "repeated cycles" in the context of cycles between a charged state and a discharged state of a secondary battery refers to multiple cycles from a discharged state to a charged state or from a charged state to a discharged state. For example, the repeated cycles between a charged state and a discharged state may include at least two cycles from a discharged state to a charged state. This may include, for example, charging from a discharged state to a charged state, discharging from a charged state back to a discharged state, charging again to a charged state, and finally discharging back to a discharged state. For further example, the at least two repeated cycles between a charged state and a discharged state may include discharging from a charged state to a discharged state, charging back to a charged state, discharging again to a discharged state, and finally charging back to a charged state. As a further example, the repeated cycles between a charged state and a discharged state may include at least five cycles from a discharged state to a charged state, or even at least 10 cycles. For further example, the repeated cycles between a charged state and a discharged state may include at least 25, 50, 100, 300, or even 1000 cycles from a discharged state to a charged state.

[0026] As used herein in the context of secondary batteries, "rated capacity" refers to the capacity of a secondary battery to deliver a specific current over a period of time, measured under standard temperature (25°C) conditions. For example, rated capacity can be measured in units of [Amp·hours] by determining the current output over a given time period, or by determining the time period for which that current can be output for a given current, and then multiplying the current by time. For example, for a battery rated at 20 Amp·hours, if the current is specified at a rated current of 2 amps, the battery can be understood to provide that current output for 10 hours. Conversely, if the rated time period is specified as 10 hours, the battery can be understood to output 2 amps for 10 hours. In particular, the rated capacity of a secondary battery can be given as the rated capacity at a specific discharge current, such as a C-rate. Here, the C-rate is an indicator of the discharge rate relative to the battery's capacity. For example, a C-rate of 1C indicates a discharge current that discharges the battery in 1 hour, 2C indicates a discharge current that discharges the battery in 1 / 2 hour, C / 2 indicates a discharge current that discharges the battery in 2 hours, and so on. So, for example, a battery with a rated capacity of 20 Amp·hr at a C-rate of 1C will provide a discharge current of 20 Amp for 1 hour, while a battery with a rated capacity of 20 Amp·hr at a C-rate of 2C will provide a discharge current of 40 Amp for 1 / 2 hour, and a battery with a rated capacity of 20 Amp·hr at a C-rate of C / 2 will provide a discharge current of 10 Amp for 2 hours.

[0027] As used herein in the context of the dimensions of an electrode assembly, "maximum width (W EA )" is the electrode It corresponds to the maximum width of the electrode assembly measured vertically from two opposing points on the vertical end faces of the assembly.

[0028] As used herein in the context of the dimensions of an electrode assembly, "maximum length (L EA )" corresponds to the maximum length of the electrode assembly measured laterally from two opposing points on the sides of the electrode assembly.

[0029] As used herein in the context of the dimensions of an electrode assembly, "maximum height (H EA)" corresponds to the maximum height of the electrode assembly measured laterally from two opposing points on the sides of the electrode assembly.

[0030] As used herein, "centroid" refers to the geometric center of a planar object, which is the arithmetic mean location of all points within the object. In n-dimensional space, the centroid is the mean location of all points of the object in all coordinate directions. For purposes of describing the centroids of objects herein, such as negative and positive electrode subunits and negative and positive electrode active material layers, the objects can be treated as substantially 2D objects, with the centroid being substantially identical to the center of mass of the object. For example, the centroid of a positive or negative electrode subunit, or a positive or negative electrode active material layer, can be substantially identical to its center of mass.

[0031] [Detailed explanation] Generally, aspects of the present disclosure relate to energy storage devices 100 (e.g., secondary batteries 102) that cycle between charged and discharged states, as well as methods for their manufacture, such as those shown in Figures 1B, 2A, and / or 20. The secondary battery 102 includes a battery housing 104, an electrode assembly 106, and carrier ions, and may also include a non-aqueous liquid electrolyte within the battery housing. The secondary battery may also include a set of electrode constraints 108 that limit the growth of the electrode assembly 106. The limited growth of the electrode assembly 106 may be a macroscopic increase in one or more dimensions of the electrode assembly 106.

[0032] Aspects of the present disclosure further provide for reduced offset and / or separation distance in height and lateral directions for electrode active material layers and counter electrode active material layers. This can improve the storage capacity of secondary batteries without unduly increasing the risk of short circuit or failure of the secondary batteries, as described in detail below. Aspects of the present disclosure can also provide methods for manufacturing secondary batteries and / or structures and configurations that can provide high energy density for secondary batteries with reduced footprints.

[0033] Furthermore, in certain embodiments, aspects of the present disclosure include three-dimensional constraining structures that offer particular advantages when incorporated into energy storage devices 100, such as batteries, capacitors, or fuel cells. In one embodiment, the constraining structures have a configuration and / or structure selected to resist at least one of growth, swelling, and / or expansion of the electrode assembly that can occur when the secondary battery 102 is repeatedly cycled between a charged and a discharged state. In particular, when transitioning from a discharged state to a charged state, carrier ions, such as one or more of lithium ions, sodium ions, potassium ions, calcium ions, and magnesium ions, migrate between the positive and negative electrodes of the battery. Upon reaching the electrode, the carrier ions intercalate or alloy into the electrode material, increasing the size and volume of the electrode. Conversely, when reversed to transition from a charged state to a discharged state, the ions de-intercalate or de-alloy, causing the electrode to shrink. This alloying and / or intercalation, as well as de-alloying and / or de-intercalation, can cause large volume changes in the electrode. In yet another embodiment, the transport of carrier ions from the electrodes can increase the size of the electrodes, for example, by increasing the electrostatic repulsion of residual layers of material (using LCO and other materials). Other mechanisms that can cause swelling in the secondary battery 102 can include, for example, the formation of an SEI on the electrodes, decomposition of the electrolyte and other components, and even gas formation. Thus, repeated expansion and contraction of the electrodes during charge and discharge, as well as other swelling mechanisms, can create strain in the electrode assembly 106, leading to reduced performance and ultimately failure of the secondary battery.

[0034] 2A-2C, the effect of repeated expansion and / or contraction of an electrode assembly 106, according to an embodiment of the present disclosure, can be illustrated. FIG. 2A illustrates an embodiment of a three-dimensional electrode assembly 106 having a collection of electrode structures 110 and a collection of counter-electrode structures 112 (e.g., a collection of anode and cathode structures, respectively). The three-dimensional electrode assembly 106 of this embodiment provides alternating sets of interdigitated electrode structures 110 and counter-electrode structures 112, which in the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 2A are aligned along a longitudinal axis A, parallel to the Y-axis. EA, a horizontal axis (not shown) parallel to the X-axis, and a height axis (not shown) parallel to the Z-axis. The X, Y, and Z axes shown here are arbitrary and are intended only to illustrate mutually orthogonal bases in a reference space and are not intended to limit the structure to any particular orientation. During charge and discharge cycling of a secondary battery 102 having an electrode assembly 106, carrier ions migrate between the electrode assembly 110 and the counter electrode assembly 112, respectively, in a direction generally parallel to the Y-axis as shown in the embodiment shown in FIG. 2A, and the effects of carrier ion intercalation and / or alloying into the electrode material can be seen in the embodiments shown in FIGS. 2B-2C. In particular, FIG. 2B illustrates an embodiment of an electrode assembly 106 having an electrode structure 110 in a relatively unexpanded state, such as before the secondary battery 106 is repeatedly cycled between a charged state and a discharged state. In comparison, FIG. 2C illustrates an embodiment of an electrode assembly 106 having an electrode structure 110 after the secondary battery has been repeatedly cycled for a predetermined number of cycles. As shown in this figure, the dimensions of the electrode structure 110 can increase significantly in the stacking direction (e.g., the Y-direction) due to intercalation and / or alloying of carrier ions into the electrode material, or by other mechanisms described above. The dimensions of the electrode structure 110 can also increase significantly in other directions (not shown in FIG. 2C ), such as the Z-direction. Furthermore, the increase in the dimensions of the electrode structure 110 can result in deformation of structures within the electrode assembly, such as deformation of the counter-electrode structure 112 and separator 130 within the assembly, to accommodate the expansion of the electrode structure 110. The expansion of the electrode structure 110 can ultimately result in bulging and / or warping of the electrode assembly 106 at its longitudinal ends, as shown in the embodiment shown in FIG. 2C (and in other directions, such as the top and bottom surfaces in the Z-direction). Thus, an electrode assembly 106 according to one embodiment can exhibit significant expansion and contraction along the longitudinal (Y) axis and other axes of the assembly 106 due to the intercalation and deintercalation of carrier ions during charge and discharge processes.

[0035] Thus, in one embodiment, a primary growth constraint system 151 is provided to mitigate and / or reduce at least one of growth, expansion, and / or expansion of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction (i.e., the direction parallel to the Y-axis), e.g., as shown in FIG. 1A . For example, the primary growth constraint system 151 may include structure configured to constrain growth by opposing expansion at the longitudinal end surfaces 116, 118 of the electrode assembly 106. In one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 includes first and second primary growth constraints 154, 156 that are separated from one another in the longitudinal direction and operate together with at least one primary connecting member 162 connecting the first and second primary growth constraints 154, 156 to one another to constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106. For example, the first and second primary growth constraints 154, 156 may at least partially cover the first and second longitudinal end faces 116, 118 of the electrode assembly 106 and may operate in conjunction with connecting members 162, 164 connecting the primary growth constraints 154, 156 to one another to resist and constrain growth of the electrode assembly 106 that occurs during repeated charge and / or discharge cycles. Further discussion of embodiments and operation of the primary growth constraint system 151 is provided in detail below.

[0036] Additionally, repeated cycling of the charge and discharge process in the secondary battery 102 can induce growth and strain in the electrode assembly 106 not only in the vertical direction (e.g., the Y-axis direction in FIG. 2A ) but also in directions perpendicular to the vertical direction, such as the lateral and height directions (e.g., the X-axis and Z-axis directions in FIG. 2A , respectively), as described above. Furthermore, in certain embodiments, incorporating a primary growth constraint system 151 to constrain growth in one direction may even exacerbate growth and / or bulging in one or more other directions. For example, if a primary growth constraint system 151 is provided to constrain the vertical growth of the electrode assembly 106, the intercalation of carrier ions and the resulting expansion of the electrode structure during charge and discharge cycles may induce strain in one or more other directions. In particular, in one embodiment, the strain generated by the combination of electrode growth / bulging and vertical growth constraint may cause buckling or other failure of the electrode assembly 106 in the height (e.g., the Z-axis direction in FIG. 2A ) or lateral (e.g., the X-axis direction in FIG. 2A ) directions.

[0037] Thus, in one embodiment of the present disclosure, the secondary battery 102 may include not only the primary growth constraint system 151 but also at least one secondary growth constraint system 152, which may operate in conjunction with the primary growth constraint system 151 to constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 along multiple axes of the electrode assembly 106. For example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may be configured to operate in conjunction with or otherwise synergistically with the primary growth constraint system 151 to constrain the overall growth of the electrode assembly 106, thereby providing improved performance and reduced incidence of failure of the electrode assembly 106 and the secondary battery having the primary and secondary growth constraint systems 151 and 152, respectively. Further discussion of embodiments of the interrelationship between each of the primary and secondary growth constraint systems 151 and 152, as well as their operation to constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106, is provided in detail below.

[0038] Constraining the growth of the electrode assembly 106 means that the overall macroscopic increase in one or more dimensions of the electrode assembly 106 is constrained, as described above. That is, although changes in the volume of one or more electrodes within the electrode assembly 106 may occur on a small (e.g., microscopic) scale during charge and discharge cycling, the overall growth of the electrode assembly 106 may be constrained such that the increase in one or more dimensions of the electrode assembly 106 (along the X-axis, Y-axis, and Z-axis) is controlled. Microscopic changes in electrode volume may be observable, for example, via a scanning electron microscope (SEM). A set of electrode constraints 108 may be able to inhibit the growth of some individual electrodes at a microscopic level, but growth is at least constrained (although it may still occur). While the volume change of each electrode during charge / discharge may be small at the microscopic level of an individual electrode, cycling between the charged and discharged states may have the additive effect of resulting in a relatively large volume change at the macroscopic level of the entire electrode assembly 106, which may cause strain on the electrode assembly 106.

[0039] According to one embodiment, the electrode active material used in the electrode structure 110 corresponding to the anode of the electrode assembly 106 includes a material that expands when carrier ions are inserted into the electrode active material during charging of the secondary battery 102. For example, the electrode active material may include an anode active material that accepts a sufficient amount of carrier ions to cause an increase in the volume of the electrode active material during charging of the secondary battery, e.g., by inserting or alloying the carrier ions. For example, in one embodiment, the electrode active material may include a material capable of accepting more than 1 mole of carrier ions per mole of electrode active material when the secondary battery 102 is charged from a discharged state to a charged state. As a further example, the electrode active material may include a material capable of accepting 1.5 moles or more (e.g., 2.0 moles or more) of carrier ions per mole of electrode active material, or even a material capable of accepting 2.5 moles or more (e.g., 3.5 moles or more). The carrier ions accepted by the electrode active material may be at least one of lithium, potassium, sodium, calcium, and magnesium. Examples of electrode active materials that expand to provide such a volume change include one or more of silicon (e.g., SiO), aluminum, tin, zinc, silver, antimony, bismuth, gold, platinum, germanium, palladium, and alloys and compounds thereof. For example, in one embodiment, the electrode active material may include a particulate silicon-containing material, such as one or more of particulate silicon, particulate silicon oxide, and mixtures thereof. In yet another embodiment, the electrode active material may include a material that exhibits a smaller or negligible volume change. For example, in one embodiment, the electrode active material may include a carbon-containing material, such as graphite. In yet another embodiment, the electrode structure includes a layer of lithium that functions as the electrode active material layer.

[0040] Yet other embodiments of the present disclosure may include an energy storage device 100, such as a secondary battery 102, and / or a structure therefor, including an electrode assembly 106, that does not include a constraint system or is constrained by a constraint system other than the set of electrode constraints 108 described herein.

[0041] [Electrode Assembly] 1B and 2A, in one embodiment, the electrode assembly 106 includes a collection of electrode structures 110, a collection of counter-electrode structures 112, and an electrically insulating separator 130 that electrically insulates the electrode structures 110 from the counter-electrode structures 112. In one example, as shown in FIG. 1B, the electrode assembly includes a series of stacks 800 including alternating electrode structures 110 and counter-electrode structures. FIG. 1C is an inset view illustrating a secondary battery including the electrode assembly 106 of FIG. 1B, and FIG. 1D is a cross-sectional view of a secondary battery including the electrode assembly 106 of FIG. 1B. As yet another example, in the embodiment shown in FIG. 2A, the electrode assembly 106 includes an interdigitated electrode assembly 106 including interdigitated electrode and counter-electrode structures.

[0042] Furthermore, as used herein, for each embodiment where the term "electrode" is used to describe a material or structure, such as an "electrode structure" or "electrode active material," it should be understood that such structure and / or materials may, in certain embodiments, correspond to that of a "negative electrode," such as a "negative electrode structure" or "negative electrode active material." Similarly, as used herein, for each embodiment where the term "counter electrode" is used to describe a material or structure, such as a "counter electrode structure" or "counter electrode active material," it should be understood that such structure and / or materials may, in certain embodiments, correspond to that of a "positive electrode," such as a "positive electrode structure" or "positive electrode active material." That is, where appropriate, any embodiment described in terms of an electrode and / or counter electrode may correspond to the same embodiment (including the corresponding structures and materials, respectively) where the electrode and / or counter electrode is specifically a negative electrode and / or a positive electrode.

[0043] In one embodiment, the electrode structure 110 includes an electrode active material layer 132, an electrode backbone 134 supporting the electrode active material layer 132, and an electrode current collector 136, which may be an ionically porous current collector that allows ions to pass therethrough, as shown in the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 7. For example, in one embodiment, the electrode structure 110 may include an anode structure including an anode active material layer, an anode backbone, and an anode current collector. In yet another embodiment, as shown in FIG. 1B, the electrode structure 110 may include an anode structure including an anode current collector 136 and an anode active material layer 132. For example, the anode current collector 136 may include an anode current collector layer disposed between one or more anode active material layers. In yet another embodiment, the electrode structure 110 may include a single layer of material, such as a lithium sheet electrode. Similarly, in one embodiment, as illustrated in the embodiment shown in FIG. 7 , the counter electrode structure 112 includes a counter electrode active material layer 138, a counter electrode current collector 140, and a counter electrode backbone 141 supporting one or more of the counter electrode current collectors 140 and / or the counter electrode active material layer 138. For example, in one embodiment, the counter electrode structure 112 may include a cathode structure including a cathode active material layer, a cathode current collector, and a cathode backbone. In yet another embodiment, as shown in FIG. 1B , the counter electrode structure 110 may include a cathode structure including a cathode current collector 140 and a cathode active material layer 138. The electrically insulating microporous separator 130 allows carrier ions to pass therethrough and migrate between the electrode structure 110 and the counter electrode structure 112 within the electrode assembly 106 during charge and / or discharge processes. Furthermore, it should be understood that electrode structure 110 and counter electrode structure 112 are not limited to the particular embodiments and structures described herein, respectively, and that other configurations, structures, and / or materials than those specifically described herein may be provided to form electrode structure 110 and counter electrode structure 112. For example, electrode structure 110 and counter electrode structure 112 may be provided such that the structures are substantially free of electrode backbone 134 and / or counter electrode backbone 141, or both, such as in FIG. 1B and / or where regions of electrode structure 110 and / or counter electrode structure 112 that include a backbone are instead comprised of electrode active material and / or counter electrode active material.

[0044] 1B and 2A, the members of the set of electrode structures 110 and the set of counter-electrode structures 112 are arranged in an alternating order, the direction of the alternating order corresponding to the stacking direction D. The electrode assembly 106 according to this embodiment further includes a vertical axis, a horizontal axis, and a height axis that are orthogonal to each other, and the vertical axis A EA is generally parallel to or corresponds to the stacking direction D of the members of the set of electrode structures and the set of counter-electrode structures. EA is depicted as corresponding to the Y axis, the horizontal axis is depicted as corresponding to the X axis, and the height axis is depicted as corresponding to the Z axis. While Figure 2A is referenced herein for explanations of various features, including dimensions and axes, related to secondary batteries and electrode assemblies, it should be understood that such explanations may also apply to the embodiments shown in other figures herein, including the embodiments of Figures 1B-1E.

[0045] Additionally, the electrode assembly 106 has a maximum width W measured in the longitudinal direction (Y-axis direction). EA , the maximum length L measured in the transverse direction (X-axis direction) bounded by the side faces EA , and the maximum height H measured in the height direction (Z-axis direction) bounded by the side surfaces EA The maximum width W EA It can be understood that the maximum width W of the electrode assembly 106 as measured from the point where the longitudinal end faces 116, 118 of the electrode assembly 106 face each other, where the electrode assembly is at its widest in the longitudinal direction. For example, with reference to the embodiment of the electrode assembly 106 of FIG. 2A, the maximum width W EA It can be understood that the maximum width W simply corresponds to the width of the assembly 106 as measured longitudinally. However, with reference to the embodiment of the electrode assembly 106 shown in FIG. 3H, the maximum width W EA It can be seen that the maximum length L corresponds to the width measured from the two opposite points 300a, 300b where the electrode assembly 106 is at its widest in the longitudinal direction, as opposed to the width measured from the opposite points 301a, 301b where the electrode assembly 106 is narrower. EAcan be understood to correspond to the maximum length of the electrode assembly as measured from opposite points on the side 142 of the electrode assembly 106 where the electrode assembly is laterally longest. Referring again to the embodiment of FIG. 2A, the maximum length L EA can be understood simply as the length of the electrode assembly 106. Meanwhile, in the embodiment shown in FIG. 3H, the maximum length L EA corresponds to the length of the electrode assembly measured from the two opposite points 302a, 302b where the electrode assembly is laterally longest, as opposed to the length measured from the opposite points 303a, 303b where the electrode assembly is shorter. Along similar lines, the maximum height H EA It can be understood that the maximum height H corresponds to the maximum height of the electrode assembly measured from the highest point on the side surface 143 of the electrode assembly in the height direction of the side surface 143 of the electrode assembly. That is, in the embodiment shown in FIG. 2A, the maximum height H EA is simply the height of the electrode assembly. Although not specifically shown in the embodiment shown in FIG. 3H, if the electrode assembly has different heights at one or more points in the longitudinal and lateral directions, the maximum height H of the electrode assembly EA is the maximum width W EA and maximum length L EA As explained by analogy with the maximum length L of the electrode assembly 106, it can be understood that the maximum length L of the electrode assembly 106 corresponds to the height measured from two opposite points where the electrode assembly is short, as opposed to the height measured from two opposite points where the electrode assembly is at its highest in the height direction. EA , maximum width W EA , and maximum height H EA may vary depending on the energy storage device 100 and its intended use. For example, in one embodiment, the electrode assembly 106 has a maximum length L that is typical of the dimensions of conventional length secondary batteries. EA , width W EA , and height H EA By way of further example, in one embodiment, the electrode assembly 106 may include a maximum length L EA , width W EA , and height H EA may include:

[0046] In some embodiments, the dimension L EA ,W EA ,H EA is the maximum height H along the height axis (Z axis) EA The maximum length L along the horizontal axis (X axis) that is longer than EA and / or selected to provide the electrode assembly 106 with a maximum width WEA along the longitudinal axis (Y-axis). For example, in the embodiment shown in FIG. 2A, the dimension L EA ,W EA ,H EA is selected to provide the electrode assembly 106 with the largest dimensions along a horizontal axis (X-axis) perpendicular to the electrode structure stacking direction D, and along a vertical axis (Y-axis) coincident with the electrode structure stacking direction D. That is, the maximum length L EA and / or maximum width W EA is the maximum height H EA For example, in one embodiment, the maximum height H EA Maximum length L for EA The ratio may be at least 2:1. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the maximum height H EA Maximum length L for EA The ratio may be at least 5:1. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the maximum height H EA Maximum length L for EA The ratio may be at least 10:1. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the maximum height H EA Maximum length L for EA The ratio may be at least 15:1. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the maximum height H EA Maximum length L for EA The ratio can be at least 20: 1. The ratio of different dimensions can allow for optimal configuration within the energy storage device, maximizing the amount of active material and thereby increasing energy density.

[0047] In some embodiments, the maximum width W EA is the maximum height H EA For example, in one embodiment, the maximum height HEA Maximum width W EA The ratio may be at least 2:1. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the maximum height H EA Maximum width W EA The ratio may be at least 5:1. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the maximum height H EA Maximum width W EA The ratio may be at least 10:1. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the maximum height H EA Maximum width W EA The ratio may be at least 15:1. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the maximum height H EA Maximum width W EA The ratio may be at least 20:1.

[0048] According to one embodiment, the maximum length L EA Maximum width W EA The ratio of may be selected to be within a predetermined range that provides an optimal configuration. For example, in one embodiment, the maximum length L EA Maximum width W EA The ratio may be in the range of 1:5 to 5:1. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the maximum length L EA Maximum width W EA The ratio may be in the range of 1:3 to 3:1. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the maximum length L EA Maximum width W EA The ratio may be in the range of 1:2 to 2:1.

[0049] In the embodiment shown in FIGS. 1B and 2A, the electrode assembly 106 has a first longitudinal end surface 116 and a longitudinal axis A. EA The electrode assembly 106 has a second longitudinal end surface 118 separated from and opposed to the first longitudinal end surface 116 along a longitudinal axis A. EA and further includes a side surface 142 that at least partially surrounds and connects the first and second longitudinal end surfaces 116, 118. In one embodiment, the maximum width W EA is the longitudinal axis A measured from the first longitudinal end face 116 to the second longitudinal end face 118EA Similarly, the maximum length L EA may be bounded by the side 142 and, in one embodiment, may be a dimension measured from the opposing first and second regions 144, 146 of the side 142 along a horizontal axis perpendicular to the vertical axis. EA may be bounded by the side 142 and may be measured from opposing first and second regions 148, 150 of the side 142 along a height axis perpendicular to the longitudinal axis.

[0050] For clarity, only four electrode structures 110 and four counter electrode structures 112 are shown in the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 2A , and similarly, only a limited number of electrode structures 110 and counter electrode structures are shown in FIG. 1B . In one embodiment, the alternating arrangement of members of the sets of electrode structures 110 and the sets of counter electrode structures 112 may include any number of members for each set, depending on the energy storage device 100 and its intended use, and the alternating arrangement of members of the sets of electrode structures 110 and the sets of counter electrode structures 112 may be spaced apart, for example, as shown in FIG. 2A . As a further example, in one embodiment, each member of the set of electrode structures 110 may be between two members of the set of counter electrode structures 112, except where the alternating arrangement terminates along the stacking direction D. As a further example, in one embodiment, each member of the set of counter electrode structures 112 may be between two members of the set of electrode structures 110, except where the alternating arrangement terminates along the stacking direction D. By way of further example, in one embodiment, and more generally discussed, the set of electrode structures 110 and the set of counter-electrode structures 112 each have N members, where each of the N-1 electrode structure members 110 is between two counter-electrode structure members 112, and each of the N-1 counter-electrode structure members 112 is between two electrode structure members 110, and N is at least 2. By way of further example, in one embodiment, N is at least 4. By way of further example, in one embodiment, N is at least 5. By way of further example, in one embodiment, N is at least 10. By way of further example, in one embodiment, N is at least 25. By way of further example, in one embodiment, N is at least 50. By way of further example, in one embodiment, N is at least 100 or greater. In one embodiment, the members of the electrode and / or counter-electrode sets extend sufficiently from an imaginary backplane (e.g., a plane substantially coincident with the surface of the electrode assembly) to have a surface area (ignoring porosity) that is greater than twice the geometric footprint (i.e., projection) of the members within the backplane.In certain embodiments, the ratio of the surface area of ​​a non-laminar (i.e., three-dimensional) electrode structure and / or counter-electrode structure to its geometric footprint in the virtual backplane can be at least about 5, at least about 10, at least about 50, at least about 100, and / or at least about 500. Generally, however, the ratio is between about 2 and about 1000. In such an embodiment, the members of the electrode assembly are essentially non-laminar. By way of further example, in such an embodiment, the members of the counter-electrode assembly are essentially non-laminar. By way of further example, in such an embodiment, the members of the electrode assembly and the members of the counter-electrode assembly are essentially non-laminar.

[0051] According to one embodiment, the electrode assembly 106 has longitudinal ends 117, 119 at which the electrode assembly 106 terminates. According to one embodiment, the alternating arrangement of the electrode structures 110 and counter electrode structures 112 in the electrode assembly 106 terminates symmetrically along the longitudinal direction, such as the longitudinal arrangement of the electrode structures 110 at each end 117, 119 of the electrode assembly 106 or the longitudinal arrangement of the counter electrode structures 112 at each end 117, 119 of the electrode assembly 106. In another embodiment, the alternating arrangement of the electrode structures 110 and counter electrode structures 112 is symmetrical along the longitudinal axis A, for example. EA The electrode structure 110 is located at one end 117 of the longitudinal axis A EAThe electrode assembly 106 may terminate asymmetrically along its longitudinal direction, with one end 117, 119 terminated with a counter electrode structure 112 at the other end 119. In yet another embodiment, the electrode assembly 106 may terminate at one or more substructures of the electrode structure 110 and / or the counter electrode structure 112 at one or more ends 117, 119 of the electrode assembly 106. By way of example, according to one embodiment, the alternating arrangement of the electrode structures 110 and counter electrode structures 112 may terminate at one or more substructures of the electrode structure 110 and the counter electrode structure 112, including the electrode backbone 134, the counter electrode backbone 141, the electrode current collector 136, the counter electrode current collector 140, the electrode active material layer 132, the counter electrode active material layer 138, etc., or may terminate at a structure such as the separator 130, and the structures at each longitudinal end 117, 119 of the electrode assembly 106 may be the same (symmetric) or different (asymmetric). The longitudinal terminations 117 , 119 of the electrode assembly 106 may include first and second longitudinal end faces 116 , 118 that are contacted by first and second primary growth constraints 154 , 156 to constrain the overall growth of the electrode assembly 106 .

[0052] According to yet another embodiment, the electrode assembly 106 has first and second lateral ends 145, 147 (see, e.g., FIGS. 1B and 2A) that can contact one or more electrode tabs 190 and / or counter electrode tabs 192 (see, e.g., FIG. 20) that can be used to electrically connect the electrode structures 110 and / or counter electrode structures 112 to a load and / or voltage source (not shown). For example, the electrode assembly 106 can include an electrode bus 194 (see, e.g., FIG. 2A) that can connect each electrode structure 110, which pools current from each member of the set of electrode structures 110. Similarly, the electrode assembly 106 can include a counter electrode bus 196 to which each counter electrode structure 112 can be connected, which pools current from each member of the set of counter electrode structures 112. The electrode bus 194 and / or counter electrode bus 196 each have a length, measured in direction D, that extends substantially the entire length of the interdigitated series of electrode structures 110, 112. In the embodiment shown in FIG. 20 , the electrode tab 190 and / or counter electrode tab 192 include electrode tab extensions 191, 193 that electrically connect to the electrode bus 194 and / or counter electrode bus 196 and extend substantially their entire length. Alternatively, the electrode tab 190 and / or counter electrode tab 192 can be directly connected to the electrode bus 194 and / or counter electrode tab 196 at an intermediate end or location along its length without requiring the tab extensions 191, 193. Thus, in one embodiment, the electrode bus 194 and / or counter electrode bus 196 can laterally form at least a portion of the terminal ends 145, 147 of the electrode assembly 106, connecting the electrode assembly to the tabs 190, 192 and electrically connecting the electrode assembly to a load and / or voltage source (not shown). Additionally, in another embodiment, the electrode assembly 106 includes first and second terminal ends 149, 153 disposed along the height axis (Z-axis). For example, in one embodiment, each electrode structure 110 and / or counter electrode structure 112 is provided with an upper and lower coating of separator material, as shown in FIG. 2, where the coatings form the ends 149, 153 of the electrode assembly 106 in the height direction.The terminations 149, 153, which may be formed of a coating of separator material, include first and second surface regions 148, 150 of the side 142 along the height axis, which may be positioned in contact with first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160 to limit growth in the height direction.

[0053] In general, the electrode assembly 106 can include longitudinal end faces 116, 118 that are planar, coplanar, or non-planar. For example, in one embodiment, the opposing longitudinal end faces 116, 118 can be convex. As a further example, in one embodiment, the opposing longitudinal end faces 116, 118 can be concave. As a further example, in one embodiment, the opposing longitudinal end faces 116, 118 are substantially planar. In certain embodiments, the electrode assembly 106 can include opposing longitudinal end faces 116, 118 that have any range of two-dimensional shapes when projected onto a plane. For example, the longitudinal end faces 116, 118 can independently have smoothly curved shapes (e.g., circular, elliptical, hyperbolic, or parabolic), they can independently include a series of lines and vertices (e.g., polygonal), or they can independently include smoothly curved shapes and include one or more straight lines and vertices. Similarly, the side surface 142 of the electrode assembly 106 may have a smoothly curved shape (e.g., the electrode assembly 106 may have a circular, elliptical, hyperbolic, or parabolic cross-sectional shape), or the side surface 142 may include two or more straight lines connected at vertices (e.g., the electrode assembly 106 may have a polygonal cross-section). For example, in one embodiment, the electrode assembly 106 has a cylindrical, elliptical cylindrical, parabolic cylindrical, or hyperbolic cylindrical shape. By way of further example, in such an embodiment, the electrode assembly 106 may have a prismatic shape having opposing longitudinal end surfaces 116, 118 of the same size and shape, and a side surface 142 (i.e., the surface extending between the opposing longitudinal end surfaces 116, 118) that is parallelogram-shaped. By way of further example, in one such embodiment, the electrode assembly 106 has a shape corresponding to a triangular prism, with the electrode assembly 106 having two opposing triangular longitudinal end faces 116, 118 and a side face 142 consisting of three parallelograms (e.g., rectangular) extending between the two longitudinal end faces. By way of further example, in such an embodiment, the electrode assembly 106 has a shape corresponding to a right prism, with the electrode assembly 106 having two opposing rectangular longitudinal end faces 116, 118 and a side face including four parallelograms (e.g., rectangular) faces.By way of further example, in one such embodiment, the electrode assembly has a shape corresponding to a pentagonal prism, a hexagonal prism, etc., and the electrode assembly 106 includes two opposing pentagonal, hexagonal, etc. longitudinal end faces 116, 118, respectively, and side faces each including five, six, etc. parallelogram (e.g., rectangular) faces.

[0054] 3A-3H, several exemplary geometries are shown schematically for the electrode assembly 106. More specifically, in FIG. 3A, the electrode assembly 106 is oriented along a longitudinal axis A EA and a first and second opposed longitudinal end faces 116, 118 spaced apart along a longitudinal axis A. EA 3B, the electrode assembly 106 has a triangular prism shape with a longitudinal axis A and a side surface 142 including three rectangular faces connecting the longitudinal end surfaces 116, 118. EA and a first and second longitudinal end faces 116, 118 of opposing parallelograms spaced apart along a longitudinal axis A connecting the two longitudinal end faces 116, 118. EA 3C, the electrode assembly 106 has a shape of a parallelogram prism having a longitudinal axis A and a side surface 142 including four parallelogram faces that surround the longitudinal axis A. EA and a first and second rectangular longitudinal end faces 116, 118 spaced apart along a longitudinal axis A. EA 3D, the electrode assembly 106 has a shape of a rectangular pillar having two longitudinal end faces 116, 118 and a side face 142 including four rectangular faces that connect the two longitudinal end faces 116, 118 to surround the longitudinal axis A. EA and a first and second pentagonal longitudinal end faces 116, 118 spaced apart along a longitudinal axis A. EA 3E, the electrode assembly 106 has a shape of a pentagonal prism having two longitudinal end faces 116, 118 and a side face 142 including five rectangular faces that connect the two longitudinal end faces 116, 118 to surround the longitudinal axis A. EA and a first and second hexagonal longitudinal end faces 116, 118 spaced apart along a longitudinal axis A. EA 3E, the electrode assembly has a shape of a hexagonal prism having two longitudinal end faces 116, 118 and a side face 142 including six rectangular faces that connect the two longitudinal end faces 116, 118 to surround the longitudinal axis A. EAand a first and second square end surface 116, 118 spaced apart along a longitudinal axis A. EA 3F, the electrode assembly has a square truncated pyramid shape having a side surface 142 including four trapezoidal faces connecting two longitudinal end faces 116, 118 so as to enclose a square truncated pyramid, where the dimensions along the longitudinal axes of the trapezoidal faces taper from a larger dimension at the first face 116 to a smaller dimension at the second face 118, the size of the second face being smaller than the size of the first face. EA and a first and second opposed square longitudinal end faces 116, 118 spaced apart along a longitudinal axis A. EA 3H, the electrode assembly 106 has a pentagonal truncated pyramidal shape with a first side including five trapezoidal faces connecting two longitudinal end faces 116, 118 to enclose a first end face 117, 119 of the electrode assembly 106. The trapezoidal faces taper in dimension along the longitudinal axis from a larger dimension at the first face 116 to a smaller dimension at the second face 118, with the size of the second face being smaller than the size of the first face. In FIG. 3H, the electrode assembly 106 has a longitudinally pyramidal shape with the electrode structure 110 and counter-electrode structure 112 having lengths that decrease from a first length toward the center of the electrode assembly 106 on the longitudinal axis to a second length at the longitudinal ends 117, 119 of the electrode assembly 106.

[0055] [Electrode / Counter Electrode Separation Distance] In one embodiment, the electrode assembly 106 includes an electrode structure 110 and a counter electrode structure 112, where the height (height direction) and / or length (lateral direction) offset between the electrode active material layer 132 and the counter electrode active material layer 138 of adjacent electrode structures 110 and 112 is selected to be within a predetermined range. To illustrate, FIG. 14A shows an embodiment of a portion of an electrode assembly 106 including an electrode active material layer 132 of an electrode structure 110 adjacent to a counter electrode active material layer 138 of a counter electrode structure 112, with a microporous separator 130 therebetween. In this cross-sectional view, the Z-direction height of the electrode active material layer 132 is approximately the same as the Z-direction height of the counter electrode active material layer 138. While a structure in which the electrode active material layer 132 and the counter electrode active material layer 138 have the same height can be advantageous in that it matches the carrier ion capacity between the layers, thereby improving the power storage capacity of a secondary battery 102 having layers of equal height, such layers of equal height can also be problematic. As a result, carrier ions may plate out or dendrites may form, ultimately leading to poor battery performance or failure. The height of the cathode active material layer 138 may be increased to mitigate this problem. 1 Although the size may be reduced relative to the layers 138, 132, excessive non-uniformity in size will affect the storage capacity and functionality of the secondary battery. Furthermore, even if an offset or separation distance is provided between the layers 138, 132, mechanical jerks or bumps in the secondary battery having the layers, such as during use or transportation of the secondary battery 106, may shift and change the arrangement of the layers 138, 132 such that any original offset and / or separation distance between the layers is negligible or eliminated.

[0056] Accordingly, aspects of the present disclosure are directed to the discovery that by providing a set of constraints 108 (such as a set corresponding to any of the embodiments described herein), alignment between the layers 138, 132 of the electrode structure 110 and the counter-electrode structure 112 can be maintained even under physical and functional stresses encountered during normal use or transportation of the secondary battery. Thus, the predetermined offset and / or separation distance can be selected to be small enough to provide good storage capacity of the secondary battery 106 while at the same time imparting a reduced risk of short circuit or failure of the battery, and the predetermined offset can be selected to be no more than 5 μm, and typically no more than 500 μm.

[0057] 14A-14H, further embodiments according to the present disclosure are described. Specifically, it should be noted that the electrode assembly 106 includes a collection of electrode structures 110, a collection of electrode current collectors 136, a collection of separators 130, a collection of counter electrode structures 112, a collection of counter electrode current collectors 140, and a collection of unit cells 504. As also shown by reference to FIGS. 1B and 2A, the members of the collection of electrode structures and counter electrode structures are arranged in alternating order in the vertical direction. Each member of the collection of electrode structures 110 has a length L corresponding to a ferret diameter measured laterally between the electrode current collector 136 and the first and second opposing lateral end faces 502a, 502b. E (See, for example, FIG. 15A ) and a height H corresponding to the ferret diameter measured in the height direction between the first and second opposing height end faces 500 a and 500 b of the electrode active material 132. E (See, e.g., FIG. 17 ). Each member of the electrode structure 110 also includes an electrode active material layer 132 having a width W corresponding to a ferret diameter of the electrode active material layer 132 measured longitudinally between the first and second opposing surfaces of the electrode active material. E Each member of the set of counter electrode structures has a length L corresponding to a ferret diameter measured laterally between the counter electrode current collector 140 and the first and second opposing end surfaces 503 a, 503 b of the counter electrode active material layer 138 (see, for example, FIG. 14A). C and a height H corresponding to the ferret diameter measured in the height direction between the first and second opposing end surfaces 501a and 501b of the counter electrode active material layer 138 (see, for example, FIG. 15A).C Each member of the set of counter electrode structures 112 has a width W corresponding to the ferret diameter of the counter electrode active material layer 138 measured longitudinally between the first and second opposing surfaces of the electrode active material layer. C (See, for example, FIG. 14A)

[0058] As defined above, the ferret diameter of the electrode active material layer 132 in the lateral direction is the distance measured laterally between two parallel planes perpendicular to the lateral direction that bound the electrode active material layer. The ferret diameter of the electrode active material layer 132 in the height direction is the distance measured vertically between two parallel planes perpendicular to the height direction that bound the electrode active material layer. The ferret diameter of the counter electrode active material layer 138 in the lateral direction is the distance measured laterally between two parallel planes perpendicular to the lateral direction that bound the counter electrode active material layer. The ferret diameter of the counter electrode active material layer 138 in the height direction is the distance measured vertically between two parallel planes perpendicular to the height direction that bound the counter electrode active material layer. For illustrative purposes, FIGS. 13A and 13B show the ferret diameters of the electrode active material layer 132 and / or the counter electrode active material layer 138 determined in a single 2D plane. Specifically, FIG. 13A shows a 2D slice of the electrode active material layer 132 and / or the counter electrode active material layer taken in the ZY plane. The distance between the two parallel XY planes (505a, 505b) that limit the layer in the Z direction (height direction) is the height of the layer H in the plane (i.e., H E or H C ) corresponds to the maximum height of the layer. That is, the ferret diameter in the height direction can be understood to correspond to a measure of the maximum height of the layer. Although the depiction in FIG. 13A is only a depiction of a 2D slice for purposes of explanation, it can be understood that in 3D space, the ferret diameter in the height direction is not limited to a single slice, but is the distance between XY planes 505a, 505b separated from each other in the height direction, and confines the three-dimensional layer therebetween. Similarly, FIG. 13B shows a 2D slice of the electrode active material layer 132 and / or the counter electrode active material layer 138 as taken in the XZ plane. The distance between two parallel ZY planes (505c, 505d) that confine the layer in the X direction (lateral direction) is the length L of the layer within the plane (i.e., L E or L C) corresponds to the width W of the electrode active material layer 132. That is, the lateral ferret diameter can be understood to correspond to a measure of the maximum length of the layer. Although the depiction in FIG. 13B is only a depiction of a 2D slice for the purpose of explanation, it can be understood that in 3D space, the lateral ferret diameter is not limited to one slice, but is the distance between ZY planes 505c and 505d that are laterally separated from each other, and limits the three-dimensional layer therebetween. The width W of the electrode active material layer 132 E and / or the width W of the counter electrode active material layer 138 C In order to obtain the ferret diameter of the electrode active material layer and / or the counter electrode active material layer in the longitudinal direction, the ferret diameter is similarly obtained.

[0059] In one embodiment, the electrode assembly 106 has mutually perpendicular horizontal, vertical, and height axes, which correspond to the X, Y, and Z axes, respectively, of an imaginary three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system, first and second vertical end faces separated from one another in the vertical direction, and a longitudinal axis A of the electrode assembly, as described elsewhere herein. EA and side surfaces connecting the first and second longitudinal end surfaces to surround the longitudinal axis, wherein the side surfaces have opposing first and second regions on opposite sides of the longitudinal axis and are separated in a first direction perpendicular to the longitudinal axis, and the electrode assembly has a maximum width W measured in the longitudinal direction. EA and the maximum length L measured laterally bounded by the sides EA and the maximum length H measured in the height direction bounded by the sides EA and

[0060] 14A-14H, each unit cell 504 includes a unit cell portion of a first electrode current collector 136 of the set of electrode current collectors, a separator 130 (e.g., a separator including a porous material) that is ion-permeable to carrier ions, a first electrode active material layer 132 of one member of the electrode set, a unit cell portion of a first counter electrode current collector 140 of the set of counter electrode current collectors, and a first counter electrode active material layer 138 of one member of the set of counter electrodes. In one embodiment, in the case of contacting and / or adjacent members 504a, 504b, and 504c of the unit cell set (e.g., as shown in FIG. 18A), at least a portion of the electrode current collector 136 and / or counter electrode current collector may be shared between units (504a and 504b, and 504b and 504c). For example, referring to FIG. 18A , it can be seen that unit cells 504a and 504b share the counter electrode current collector 140, while unit cells 504b and 504c share the electrode current collector 136. In one embodiment, each unit cell includes one-half of a shared current collector, although other structural arrangements may be provided. According to yet another embodiment, for a current collector that forms part of a terminal unit cell at a longitudinal end of the electrode assembly 106, the unit cell 504 can include a non-shared current collector, thus including the entire current collector as part of the cell.

[0061] Further, with reference again to the unit cells shown in FIGS. 14A-14H and 18A, within each unit cell 504, the first electrode active material layer 132a is adjacent to the first side 506a of the separator 130, and the first counter electrode life18A , electrode structure 110 includes both a first electrode active material layer 132a forming part of unit cell 504a and a second electrode active material layer 132b forming part of a vertically adjacent unit cell. Similarly, counter electrode structure 112 includes both a first counter electrode active material layer 138a forming part of unit cell 504a and a second counter electrode active material layer 138b forming a vertically adjacent unit cell (504b). The separator 130 electrically separates the first electrode active material layer 132a from the first counter electrode active material layer 138a, and carrier ions are primarily exchanged between the first electrode active material layer 132a and the first counter electrode active material layer 138a through the separator 130 of each such unit cell 504 during cycling of the battery between charged and discharged states.

[0062] To further clarify the offset and / or separation distance between the first electrode active material layer 132a and the first counter electrode active material layer 138a in each unit cell 504, reference is made to FIGS. 11A-11C and 12A-12C. In particular, with reference to FIGS. 11A-11C, the offset and / or separation distance in the height direction will be described. As illustrated in FIG. 11A in this embodiment, the first height end faces 500a, 501a of the electrode active material layer 132 and the counter electrode active material layer 138 are on the same side of the electrode assembly 106. Furthermore, the length L of the electrode active material layer E A 2D map of the central height positions of the first opposing height end faces 500a of the electrode active material layer 132 in the XZ plane along the first height end face plot E VP1, 500a of the electrode active material layer 132 is traced. That is, as shown in FIG. 11C, for each ZY plane along the lateral (X) direction, the median Z position of the surface can be determined as a function of Y at a particular lateral position (X1, X2, X3, etc.) in that ZY plane. FIG. 11C generally illustrates an example of a line indicating the median Z position of the height edge 500a for a particular ZY plane in a selected X slice (e.g., the slice at X1). (Note that FIG. 11C generally illustrates the determination of the median height position (dashed line at the top and bottom of the figure) for a height edge, i.e., either the first and second height edges 500a, 500b of the electrode active material layer 132 and / or the first and second height edges 501a, 501b of the counter electrode active material layer 138.) FIG. 11B illustrates the determination of this median height position (the length L of the electrode active material). E along (i.e., length L E a first height end surface plot E corresponding to the median height position (z position) where a 2D map of the x-axis (determined at each x-position X1, X2, X3 along the x-axis) is plotted as a function of x (e.g., X1, X2, X3, etc.); VP1 For example, the median height position 132 of the height end surface 500a of the electrode active material layer 132 is located at the first lateral end X L0 to the second lateral end X of the electrode active material layer LE can be plotted as a function of x for the corresponding x-positions up to LE -X L0 is the ferret diameter of the electrode active material layer 132 in the horizontal direction (the length L of the electrode active material layer 132 E ) is equivalent to

[0063] Similarly, in the case of the first opposing end surface 501a of the counter electrode active material layer 138, the length L C A 2D map of the median height positions of the first opposing height end surfaces 501a of the counter electrode active material layer in the XZ plane along the first height end surface plot CE VP111C, for each of the ZY planes along the lateral direction, the median height position (z-position) of the height edge surface 501a of the counter electrode active material layer 138 can be determined by taking the median z-position of the surface as a function of y at a particular lateral position (X1, X2, X3, etc.) in that ZY plane. FIG. 11C generally shows an example of a line indicating the median height position (z-position) of the height edge surface 501a of a particular YZ plane in a selected x-slice (e.g., slice X1). FIG. 11B shows the line indicating this median height position (the length L of the counter electrode active material). C along (i.e., length L C a first height end surface plot CE corresponding to the median height position (z position) where a 2D map of the x-axis (determined at each x-position X1, X2, X3 along the x-axis) is plotted as a function of x (e.g., X1, X2, X3, etc.); VP1 For example, the median height position 138 of the height end surface 501a of the counter electrode active material layer 138 is located at the first lateral end X 0C to the second lateral end X of the counter electrode active material layer LC can be plotted as a function of x for the corresponding x-positions up to LC -X L0 is the ferret diameter of the counter electrode active material layer 138 in the horizontal direction (the length L of the counter electrode active material layer 138 C ) is equivalent to

[0064] Furthermore, the offset and / or separation distance requirement for the height separation between the first height surfaces 500a, 501a of the electrode active material layer 132 and the counter electrode active material layer 138 may be determined by the length L of the first counter electrode active material layer. C For at least 60% of the plot, (i) the vertically measured plot E VP1 ,CE VP1 Separation distance S between Z1 The absolute value of is 1000 μm ≧ |S Z1 In one embodiment, the length L of the first counter electrode active material layer is required to be ≥ 5 μm. CFor at least 60% of the points, (ii) the first height end face of the counter electrode active material layer is required to be disposed inward (e.g., inward along 508) relative to the first height end face of the electrode active material layer between the first height end faces 500a, 500b of the electrode active material layer 132 and the counter electrode active material layer 138. That is, referring to FIG. 11B , the plot E at any point along x is VP1 and CE VP1 The separation distance S corresponds to the distance between Z1 The absolute value of is the length L of the first counter electrode active material layer 138 C At least 60% of X 0C From X LC It can be seen that the length L of the first counter electrode active material layer 138 is required to be 1000 μm or less and 5 μm or more for at least 60% of the position x (60% of the ferret diameter of the counter electrode active material layer in the horizontal direction). C At least 60% of X 0C From X LC It can be seen that for at least 60% of the position x (60% of the ferret diameter of the counter electrode active material layer in the horizontal direction), the first height end face of the counter electrode active material layer is arranged inward with respect to the first height end face of the electrode active material layer.

[0065] In one embodiment, S Z1 The absolute value of S may be 5 μm or more, for example, 10 μm or more, 15 μm or more, 20 μm or more, 35 μm or more, 45 μm or more, 50 μm or more, 75 μm or more, 100 μm or more, 150 μm or more, and 200 μm or more. Z1 The absolute value of S may be 1000 microns or less, for example, 500 μm or less, 475 μm or less, 425 μm or less, 400 μm or less, 375 μm or less, 350 μm or less, 325 μm or less, 300 μm or less, and 250 μm or less. Z1 The absolute value of is 1000 μm ≧ |S Z1 |≧5μm, 500μm≧|S Z1 |≧10 μm and / or 250 μm≧|S Z1 In yet another embodiment, the width W of the counter electrode active material layer 132 in the unit cell may follow the relationship: |≧20 μm.E For a ferret diameter of S Z1 The absolute value of is 5×W E ≧|S Z1 |≧0.05×W E Furthermore, in one embodiment, the absolute value and / or |S Z1 The relationship between | and the length L of the first counter electrode active material layer C This may be true for more than 60% of the length L of the first counter electrode active material layer. C For at least 65%, at least 70%, at least 75%, at least 80%, at least 90%, or even at least 95% of the total.

[0066] Additionally, X 0C From X LC For at least 60% of the position x up to the position x (60% of the lateral ferret diameter of the counter electrode active material layer), the first height edge of the counter electrode active material layer is disposed inwardly relative to the first height edge of the electrode active material layer. That is, the electrode active material layer 132 can be understood to have a median height position (the z position in the YZ plane for a particular X slice, as shown in FIG. 11C ), i.e., to be further along the inward direction 508 of the electrode assembly 106 than the median height position of the electrode active material layer 132. This height offset of the electrode active material layer 132 relative to the counter electrode active material layer 138 can be seen in FIG. 11A , which shows the height of the electrode active material layer 132 exceeding the height of the counter electrode active material layer 138, as well as in FIG. 11B , which shows the height of the electrode active material layer 132 exceeding the height of the counter electrode active material layer 138, along the lateral direction. VP1 The median height position E of the electrode active material layer 132 exceeds VP1 11B, which shows the length L of the first counter electrode active material layer. C 60% or more of the length L of the first counter electrode active material C For at least 65%, at least 70%, at least 75%, at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, or even at least 95% of the total length of the counter electrode active material layer, the first height end surface of the counter electrode active material layer is disposed inward relative to the first height end surface of the electrode active material layer.

[0067] In one embodiment, the separation distance SZ1 The above-mentioned relationship for the first height end faces 500a, 501a of the electrode active material layer 132 and the counter electrode active material layer 138 can be similarly defined for the second height end faces 500b, 501b (for example, as shown in FIG. 18A) of the electrode active material layer 132 and the counter electrode active material layer 138. That is, the second height end faces 500b, 501b are on the same side of the electrode assembly 106 and face the first height end faces 500a, 501a of the electrode active material layer 132 and the counter electrode active material layer 138, respectively. Furthermore, the above-mentioned separation distance S Z1 And / or the length L of the electrode active material layer, similar to the description of the offset E A 2D map of the median height positions of the second opposing height end faces 500b of the electrode active material layer 132 in the XZ plane along the second height end face plot E VP2 11A-11C, for each YZ plane along the lateral direction, the median z-position of the surface at a particular lateral position (X1, X2, X3, etc.) in that YZ plane can be obtained as a function of y to determine the median height position (z-position) of the second height end surface 500b of the electrode active material layer 132. FIG. 11C generally shows an example of a line indicating the median height position (z-position) of the second height end surface 500b for a particular YZ plane in a selected x-slice (e.g., slice X1). FIG. 11B shows a second height end surface plot E corresponding to the median height position (z-position) plotted as a function of x (e.g., X1, X2, X3, etc.). VP2 (the length of the electrode active material layer L E along (i.e., length L E 1 illustrates an embodiment in which a 2D map of this median height position (determined at each x-position X1, X2, X3 along the x-axis) traces. For example, the median height position of the second height edge 500b of the electrode active material layer 132 can be plotted as a function of x (lateral position), where x-position is the x-axis at the first lateral edge of the electrode active material layer. 0E to X at the second lateral end surface of the electrode active material layer LE Supports up to X LE -X L0 is the ferret diameter of the electrode active material layer 132 in the horizontal direction (the length L of the electrode active material layer 132 E ) is equivalent to

[0068] Similarly, in the case of the second opposing end surface 501b of the counter electrode active material layer 138, the length L C A 2D map of the median height position of the second opposing height end surface 501b of the counter electrode active material layer 138 in the XZ plane along the second height end surface plot CE VP2 11A-11C, for each of the YZ planes along the lateral direction, the median height position (z position) of the second height end surface 501b of the counter electrode active material layer 138 can be determined by taking the median z position of the surface as a function of y at a particular lateral position (e.g., X1, X2, X3, etc.) in that YZ plane. FIG. 11C generally shows an example of a line indicating the median height position (z position) of the second height end surface 501b for a particular YZ plane in a selected x slice (e.g., slice X1). FIG. 11B shows the length L of the counter electrode active material. C along (i.e., length L C This 2D map of median height positions (at each of the x-positions X1, X2, and X3 along the x-axis) is plotted as a function of x corresponding to the median height position (z-position) to form a second height end surface plot CE. VP2 For example, the median height position of the second height edge 501b of the counter electrode active material layer 138 is plotted as a function of x (lateral position), where x position is the X 0C from X at the second lateral end of the counter electrode active material layer LC Supports up to X LC -X L0 is the ferret diameter in the lateral direction of the counter electrode active material layer 138 (the length L of the counter electrode active material layer 138) C ) is equivalent to

[0069] Furthermore, the offset and / or separation distance requirements for the height separation between the second height end surfaces 500b, 501b of the electrode active material layer 132 and the counter electrode active material layer 138 are determined by the length L of the first counter electrode active material layer. C For at least 60% of (i) Plot E VP2 and CE VP2The separation distance S measured in the vertical direction between Z2 The absolute value of is 1000 μm ≧ |S Z2 In one embodiment, the length L of the first counter electrode active material layer is required to be ≧5 μm. C For at least 60% of (ii) Between the second height end faces 500b, 501b of the electrode active material layer 132 and the counter electrode active material layer 138, the second height end face of the counter electrode active material layer is required to be disposed inside the second height end face of the electrode active material layer. That is, referring to FIG. 11B, the separation distance S Z2 The absolute value of the plot E at any given point along x VP2 ,CE VP2 The length L of the first counter electrode active material layer 138 corresponds to the distance between the C At least 60% of X 0C From X LC It can be seen that the length L of the first counter electrode active material layer 138 is required to be 1000 μm or less and 5 μm or more for at least 60% of the position x (60% of the ferret diameter in the horizontal direction of the counter electrode active material layer). C For at least 60% of the 0C From X LC It can also be seen that for at least 60% of the position x (60% of the lateral ferret diameter of the counter electrode active material layer), the second height end surface of the counter electrode active material layer is located inside the second height end surface of the electrode active material layer.

[0070] In one embodiment, S Z2 The absolute value of may be 5 μm or more, for example, 10 μm or more, 15 μm or more, 20 μm or more, 35 μm or more, 45 μm or more, 50 μm or more, 75 μm or more, 100 μm or more, 150 μm or more, and 200 μm or more. Z2 The absolute value of S may be 1000 μm or less, for example, 500 μm or less, 475 μm or less, 425 μm or less, 400 μm or less, 375 μm or less, 350 μm or less, 325 μm or less, 300 μm or less, and 250 μm or less. Z2The absolute value of is 1000 μm ≧ |S Z2 |≧5μm, 500μm≧|S Z2 |≧10 μm and / or 250 μm≧|S Z2 In yet another embodiment, the width W of the counter electrode active material layer 132 in the unit cell may follow the relationship |≧20 μm. E For a ferret diameter of S Z2 The absolute value of is 5×W E ≧|S Z2 |≧0.05×W E Furthermore, in one embodiment, |S Z2 Any of the above values ​​and / or relationships of | may be used in conjunction with the length L of the first counter electrode active material layer. C For example, the length L of the first counter electrode active material layer is more than 60% of the length L C may be true in at least 65%, at least 70%, at least 75%, at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, and at least 95% of cases. Z2 The values ​​and / or relationships described above for S Z1 and / or S of length Lc Z1 This may be true for different proportions than in the case of

[0071] Additionally, X 0C From X LC For at least 60% of the position x (60% of the ferret diameter in the horizontal direction of the counter electrode active material layer) up to the position x, the second height end face of the counter electrode active material layer is disposed inside the second height end face of the electrode active material layer. That is, the electrode active material layer 132 is C11C ) that is closer to the side than the counter electrode active material layer 130 for at least 60% of the distance. In other words, the counter electrode active material layer 138 can be understood to have a median height position (z position in the YZ plane for a particular X slice, as shown in FIG. 11C ) that is further along the inward direction 508 of the electrode assembly 106 than the median height position of the electrode active material layer 132. This height offset of the electrode active material layer 132 relative to the counter electrode active material layer 138 is illustrated in the embodiment of FIG. 11A , which shows the height of the electrode active material layer 132 exceeding the height of the counter electrode active material layer 138, and the median height position CE of the counter electrode active material layer along the side. VP2 The central height position E of the electrode active material layer 132 is lower than VP2 11B, which shows the plot of FIG. 11B. In one embodiment, the second height edge of the counter electrode active material layer is equal to the length L of the first counter electrode active material layer. C 60% or more of the length L of the first counter electrode active material layer C At least 65%, at least 70%, at least 75%, at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, and at least 95% of the length L of the counter electrode active material layer is located inside the first height end face of the electrode active material layer. C The proportion may be different for the first height end face compared to the second height end face.

[0072] Furthermore, in one embodiment, the electrode assembly 106 further includes a lateral offset and / or separation distance between the lateral ends of the electrode active material layer 132 and the counter electrode active material layer 138 in each unit cell. The lateral offset and / or separation distance is described with reference to FIGS. 12A-12C. As shown in FIG. 12A of this embodiment, the first lateral end faces 502a, 503a of the electrode active material layer and the counter electrode active material layer 138 are on the same side of the electrode assembly 106 (see also FIGS. 15A-15F). Furthermore, the height H of the electrode active material layer E A 2D map of the median lateral positions in the XZ plane of the first opposing lateral end surface 502a of the electrode active material layer 132 along the first lateral end surface plot E TP112A , the median lateral position (x position) of the lateral end surface 502a of the electrode active material layer 132 for each YX plane along the height direction can be determined by obtaining the median x position of the surface as a function of y at a specific height position (Z1, Z2, Z3, etc.) in the YX plane. FIG. 23C generally shows an example of a line indicating the median lateral position (x position) of the first lateral end surface 502a in a specific YX plane in a selected z slice (e.g., a slice at Z1). FIG. 11C generally shows an example of a line indicating the median height position (Z position) of the height end surface 500a for a specific ZY plane in a selected X slice (e.g., a slice at X1). (Note that FIG. 23C generally illustrates the determination of the median lateral position (dashed lines at the top and bottom of the figure) relative to the lateral edges, i.e., either the first and second lateral edges 502a, 502b of the electrode active material layer 132 and / or the first and second lateral edges 503a, 503b of the counter electrode active material layer 138.) FIG. 12B illustrates the determination of this median lateral position (dashed lines at the top and bottom of the figure) relative to the electrode active material length H E along (i.e., length H E A first lateral end surface plot E corresponding to the median lateral position (x-position) where a 2D map of the x-axis (determined at each z-position Z1, Z2, Z3 along the x-axis) is plotted as a function of z (e.g., Z1, Z2, Z3, etc.). TP1 For example, the median horizontal position of the height edge 502a of the electrode active material layer 132 is the first horizontal edge Z 0E to the second lateral end Z of the electrode active material layer HE can be plotted as a function of z for the corresponding z positions up to HE -Z 0E is the ferret diameter of the electrode active material layer 132 in the height direction (height H E ) is equivalent to

[0073] Similarly, in the case of the first lateral end surface 503a of the counter electrode active material layer 138, the height H C A 2D map of the median lateral positions of the first opposing lateral end surfaces 503a of the counter electrode active material layer 138 in the XZ plane along the first lateral end surface plot CE TP112A-12C, for each YX plane along the height direction, the median lateral position (x-position) of the lateral edge surface 503a of the counter electrode active material layer 138 can be determined by taking the median x-position of the surface as a function of y at a particular height position (Z1, Z2, Z3, etc.) in that YX plane. FIG. 23C generally shows an example of a line indicating the median lateral position (x-position) of the lateral edge surface 503a of a particular YX plane at a selected z-slice (e.g., slice Z1). FIG. 12B shows this median lateral position (as measured at the height H of the counter electrode active material). C along (i.e., height H C a first lateral end surface plot CE corresponding to a median lateral position (x-position) where a 2D map of the x-axis (determined at each z-position Z1, Z2, Z3 along the x-axis) is plotted as a function of z (e.g., Z1, Z2, Z3, etc.); TP1 For example, the median horizontal position of the horizontal end surface 503a of the counter electrode active material layer 138 is the first height end Z 0C From the second height end Z of the counter electrode active material layer HC can be plotted as a function of z (height position) for the corresponding z position up to HC -Z 0C is the ferret diameter of the counter electrode active material layer 138 in the height direction (height H C ) is equivalent to

[0074] Furthermore, the offset and / or separation distance requirement for the lateral separation between the first lateral surfaces 502a, 502b of the electrode active material layer 132 and the counter electrode active material layer 138 may be determined by the height H C For at least 60% of the plot, (i) the vertically measured plot E TP1 ,CE TP1 Separation distance S between X1 The absolute value of is 1000 μm ≧ |S X1 In one embodiment, the height H of the first counter electrode active material layer is required to satisfy | ≧ 5 μm. CFor at least 60% of the distances between the first lateral end faces 502a, 503a of the electrode active material layer 132 and the counter electrode active material layer 138, the first lateral end face of the counter electrode active material layer is required to be positioned inward relative to the first lateral end face of the electrode active material layer. That is, referring to FIG. 12B , the plot E at any point along z is TP1 and CE TP1 The separation distance S corresponds to the distance between X1 The absolute value of is the height H of the first counter electrode active material layer 138 C At least 60% of Z 0C From Z HC It can be seen that the height H of the first counter electrode active material layer 138 is required to be 1000 μm or less and 5 μm or more for at least 60% of the position z (60% of the ferret diameter of the counter electrode active material layer in the height direction). C At least 60% of Z 0C From Z HC It can be seen that for at least 60% of position z (60% of the ferret diameter of the counter electrode active material layer in the height direction), the first lateral end surface of the counter electrode active material layer is positioned inward relative to the first lateral end surface of the electrode active material layer.

[0075] In one embodiment, S X1 The absolute value of S may be 5 μm or more, for example, 10 μm or more, 15 μm or more, 20 μm or more, 35 μm or more, 45 μm or more, 50 μm or more, 75 μm or more, 100 μm or more, 150 μm or more, and 200 μm or more. X1 The absolute value of S may be 1000 microns or less, for example, 500 μm or less, 475 μm or less, 425 μm or less, 400 μm or less, 375 μm or less, 350 μm or less, 325 μm or less, 300 μm or less, and 250 μm or less. X1 The absolute value of is 1000 μm ≧ |S X1 |≧5μm, 500μm≧|S X1 |≧10 μm and / or 250 μm≧|S X1 In yet another embodiment, the width W of the counter electrode active material layer 132 in the unit cell may follow the relationship: |≧20 μm. EFor a ferret diameter of S X1 The absolute value of is 5×W E ≧|S X1 |≧0.05×W E Furthermore, in one embodiment, the absolute value and / or |S X1 The relationship between | and the height H of the first counter electrode active material layer C This may be true for more than 60% of the first counter electrode active material layer height H C For at least 65%, at least 70%, at least 75%, at least 80%, at least 90%, or even at least 95% of the total. X1 The above values ​​and / or relationships for S Z1 and / or S Z2 It may be the same as or different from that relating to

[0076] Furthermore, Z 0C From Z HC For at least 60% of the z-axis (60% of the ferret diameter in the height direction of the counter electrode active material layer), the first lateral edge of the counter electrode active material layer is disposed inwardly relative to the first lateral edge of the electrode active material layer. That is, the electrode active material layer 132 can be understood to have a median lateral position (x-position in the XY plane for a particular Z-slice, as shown in FIG. 23C ) that is further along the inward direction 510 of the electrode assembly 106 than the median lateral position of the electrode active material layer 132. This lateral offset of the electrode active material layer 132 relative to the counter electrode active material layer 138 is shown in FIG. 12A , which illustrates the length of the electrode active material layer 132 beyond the length of the counter electrode active material layer 138, as well as the median lateral position CE of the counter electrode active material layer along the height direction. TP1 The median horizontal position E of the electrode active material layer 132 exceeds TP1 12B, which shows the height H of the first counter electrode active material layer. C 60% or more of the height H of the first counter electrode active material CFor at least 65%, at least 70%, at least 75%, at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, or even at least 95% of the total length of the counter electrode active material layer, the first lateral end surface of the counter electrode active material layer is disposed inwardly relative to the first lateral end surface of the electrode active material layer.

[0077] In one embodiment, the separation distance S X1 The above-described relationship between the first lateral end faces 502a, 503a of the electrode active material layer 132 and the counter electrode active material layer 138 can be similarly defined for the second lateral end faces 502b, 503b (e.g., as shown in Figures 15A-15F) of the electrode active material layer 132 and the counter electrode active material layer 138. That is, the second lateral end faces 502b, 503b are on the same side of the electrode assembly 106 and face the first lateral end faces 502a, 503a of the electrode active material layer 132 and the counter electrode active material layer 138, respectively. Furthermore, the above-described separation distance S X1 and / or the height H of the electrode active material layer, similar to the explanation for the offset. E A 2D map of the median lateral positions of the second opposing lateral end surface 502b of the electrode active material layer 132 in the XZ plane along the second lateral end surface plot E TP2 12A-12C, for each YX plane along the height direction, the median x-position of the surface is obtained as a function of y at a particular height position (Z1, Z2, Z3, etc.) in the YX plane, thereby determining the median lateral position (x-position) of the second lateral end surface 502b of the electrode active material layer 132. FIG. 23C generally shows an example of a line indicating the median lateral position (x-position) of the second lateral end surface 502b relative to a particular YX plane in a selected slice (e.g., slice Z1). FIG. 12B shows a second lateral end surface plot E corresponding to the median lateral position (x-position) plotted as a function of z (e.g., Z1, Z2, Z3, etc.). TP2 (height H of the electrode active material layer) E along (i.e., height H E1 illustrates an embodiment in which a 2D map of this median lateral position (determined at each z position Z1, Z2, Z3 along the z axis) traces. For example, the median lateral position of the second lateral edge 502b of the electrode active material layer 132 can be plotted as a function of z (height position), where z position is the Z position at the first height edge of the electrode active material layer. 0E Z at the second height end surface of the electrode active material layer HE Supports up to Z HE -Z 0E is the ferret diameter of the electrode active material layer 132 in the height direction (height H E ) is equivalent to

[0078] Similarly, in the case of the second lateral end surface 503b of the counter electrode active material layer 138, the height H C A 2D map of the median lateral positions of the second opposing lateral end surface 503b of the counter electrode active material layer 138 in the XZ plane along the second lateral end surface plot CE TP2 12A-12C, for each YX plane along the height direction, the median lateral position (x-position) of the second lateral end surface 503b of the counter electrode active material layer 138 can be determined by taking the median z-position of the surface as a function of y at a particular height position (e.g., Z1, Z2, Z3, etc.) in that YX plane. FIG. 23C generally shows an example of a line indicating the median lateral position (x-position) of the second lateral end surface 503b relative to a particular YX plane in a selected z-slice (e.g., slice Z1). FIG. 12B shows the height H of the counter electrode active material layer 138. C along (i.e., height H C This 2D map of median lateral positions (at each of the z positions Z1, Z2, and Z3 along the x-axis) is plotted as a function of z corresponding to the median lateral position (x-position) to form a second lateral end surface plot CE. TP2 For example, the median lateral position of the second lateral end surface 503b of the counter electrode active material layer 138 is plotted as a function of z (height position), where z position is the Z 0C From Z at the second lateral end of the counter electrode active material layer HC Supports up to Z HC -Z0C is the ferret diameter in the height direction of the counter electrode active material layer 138 (height H C ) is equivalent to

[0079] Furthermore, the offset and / or separation distance requirements for the lateral separation between the second lateral end surfaces 502b, 503b of the electrode active material layer 132 and the counter electrode active material layer 138 may be determined by the height H C For at least 60% of (i) Plot E TP2 and CE TP2 The separation distance S measured in the vertical direction between X2 The absolute value of is 1000 μm ≧ |S X2 In one embodiment, the height H of the first counter electrode active material layer is required to be ≧5 μm. C For at least 60% of (ii) Between the second lateral end surfaces 502b, 503b of the electrode active material layer 132 and the counter electrode active material layer 138, the second lateral end surface of the counter electrode active material layer is required to be disposed inside the second lateral end surface of the electrode active material layer. That is, referring to FIG. 12B, the separation distance S X2 The absolute value of the plot E at any given point along z TP2 ,CE TP2 The height H of the first counter electrode active material layer 138 corresponds to the distance between the C At least 60% of Z 0C From Z HC It can be seen that the height H of the first counter electrode active material layer 138 is required to be 1000 μm or less and 5 μm or more for at least 60% of the position z (60% of the ferret diameter in the height direction of the counter electrode active material layer). C For at least 60% of the 0C From Z HC It can also be seen that for at least 60% of position z (60% of the ferret diameter in the height direction of the counter electrode active material layer), the second lateral end surface of the counter electrode active material layer is positioned inside the second lateral end surface of the electrode active material layer.

[0080] In one embodiment, S X2The absolute value of may be 5 μm or more, for example, 10 μm or more, 15 μm or more, 20 μm or more, 35 μm or more, 45 μm or more, 50 μm or more, 75 μm or more, 100 μm or more, 150 μm or more, and 200 μm or more. X2 The absolute value of S may be 1000 μm or less, for example, 500 μm or less, 475 μm or less, 425 μm or less, 400 μm or less, 375 μm or less, 350 μm or less, 325 μm or less, 300 μm or less, and 250 μm or less. X2 The absolute value of is 1000 μm ≧ |S X2 |≧5μm, 500μm≧|S X2 |≧10 μm and / or 250 μm≧|S X2 In yet another embodiment, the width W of the counter electrode active material layer 132 in the unit cell may follow the relationship |≧20 μm. E For a ferret diameter of S X2 The absolute value of is 5×W E ≧|S X2 |≧0.05×W E Furthermore, in one embodiment, |S X2 Any of the above values ​​and / or relationships of | | may be used to determine the height H of the first counter electrode active material layer. C For example, the height H of the first counter electrode active material layer is more than 60% of C may be true in at least 65%, at least 70%, at least 75%, at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, and at least 95% of cases. X2 The values ​​and / or relationships described above for S X1 and / or S of height Hc X1 This may be true for different proportions than in the case of

[0081] Furthermore, Z 0C From Z HCFor at least 60% of the position z (60% of the ferret diameter in the height direction of the counter electrode active material layer) up to the position z, the second lateral end face of the counter electrode active material layer is disposed inside the second lateral end face of the electrode active material layer. C 23C ) that is closer to the side than the counter electrode active material layer 130 for at least 60% of the counter electrode active material layer 138. In other words, the counter electrode active material layer 138 can be understood to have a median lateral position (x position in the XY plane for a particular Z slice, as shown in FIG. 23C ) that is further along the inward direction 510 of the electrode assembly 106 than the median lateral position of the electrode active material layer 132. This lateral offset of the electrode active material layer 132 relative to the counter electrode active material layer 138 is comparable to the embodiment of FIG. 12A , which shows the length of the electrode active material layer 132 exceeding the length of the counter electrode active material layer 138, and the median lateral position CE of the counter electrode active material layer along the height direction. TP2 The central lateral position E of the electrode active material layer 132 is lower than TP2 12B, which shows the second lateral end surface of the counter electrode active material layer. In one embodiment, the second lateral end surface of the counter electrode active material layer is 60% or more of the height H C of the first counter electrode active material layer (e.g., 60% or more of the height H C of the first counter electrode active material layer). C At least 65%, at least 70%, at least 75%, at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, and at least 95% of the height H of the counter electrode active material layer is located inside the second lateral end surface of the electrode active material layer. C The proportion of may be different for the first lateral end surface compared to the second lateral end surface.

[0082] According to one embodiment, the height and / or lateral offset and / or separation distance are maintained by providing a set of electrode constraints 108 that can maintain and stabilize the arrangement of the electrode active material layer 132 and the counter electrode active material layer 138 in each unit cell, and also stabilize the position of the electrode structure 110 and the counter electrode structure 112 relative to one another in the electrode assembly 106. In one embodiment, the set of electrode constraints 108 can include any of those described herein (including any combination thereof, or portions thereof). For example, in one embodiment, the set of electrode constraints 108 includes a primary constraint system 151 that includes first and second primary growth constraints 154, 156 and at least one primary connecting member 162. The first and second primary growth constraints 154, 156 are separated from one another in the vertical direction, and at least one primary connecting member 162 connects the first and second primary growth constraints 154, 156, such that the primary constraint system 151 constrains the longitudinal growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that the longitudinal ferret diameter of the electrode assembly increases by less than 20% over 20 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. In yet another embodiment, the set of electrode constraints 108 includes a secondary constraint system 152 including first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160 separated in a second direction and connected by at least one secondary connecting member 166. The secondary constraint system 155 at least partially constrains the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in a second direction during cycles of the secondary battery 106. The second direction is perpendicular to the vertical direction. Further embodiments of the electrode constraints 108 are described below.

[0083] Returning to Figures 14A-14H, various different configurations of the unit cell 504 are described with respect to height separation distance and / or offset. In the illustrated embodiment, a portion of the set of electrode constraints 108 is located at a height edge of at least one of the layers 132 and can be connected to one or more structures of the unit cell 504. For example, the set of electrode constraints 108 can include first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160, where the growth constraints can be connected to the height edges of the unit cell structures. In the embodiment shown in Figure 14A, the first and second growth constraints 158, 160 are attached via an adhesive layer 516 that bonds the unit cell structures to the constraints 158, 160 (the cutaway in Figure 1A shows the top constraint 158). In Figure 14A, the height edges of the electrode current collector 136, separator layer 130, and counter electrode current collector 140 are bonded to the first and second growth constraints 158, 160 via the adhesive layer 516. Thus, as described in further detail below, one or more of the electrode current collector, separator layer 130, and counter electrode current collector 140, independently or collectively, act as secondary connecting members 166 connecting the first and second growth constraints and constraining the growth of the electrode assembly 106. FIG. 14B shows a further example in which the electrode current collector 136, separator layer 130, and counter electrode current collector 140 of a unit cell 504 are all bonded to first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160. Alternatively, certain structures may be bonded to the first secondary growth constraint 158 ​​and other structures may be bonded to the second secondary growth constraint 160. In the embodiment shown in FIG. 14C, the height ends of both the electrode current collector 136 and the separator layer 130 are bonded to the first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160, while the counter electrode current collector 140 terminates short of contacting the first and second secondary growth constraints in the height direction. In the embodiment shown in Figures 14D-14E, the height ends of both the electrode current collector 136 and the counter electrode current collector 140 are bonded to the first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160, while the separator 130 terminates short of contacting the first and second secondary growth constraints in the height direction.In the embodiment shown in Figure 14F, the height ends of the electrode current collector 136 are connected to the first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160, while the separator 130 and the counter electrode current collector 140 terminate short of contacting the first and second secondary growth constraints in the height direction. In the embodiment shown in Figures 14G-14H, the height ends of the counter electrode current collector 140 are bonded to the first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160, while the separator 130 and the electrode current collector 136 terminate short of contacting the first and second secondary growth constraints in the height direction.

[0084] Furthermore, in one embodiment, the unit cell 504 may include one or more insulating members 514 disposed between one or more of the first and second elevational surfaces of the electrode active material layer 132 and / or the counter electrode active material layer. The insulating member 514 may be electrically insulating to restrict short circuits between structures within the unit cell 504. The insulating member may be non-ion permeable, or at least less ion permeable than the separator 130, and may inhibit the passage of carrier ions. That is, the insulating member 514 may be provided to insulate the elevational surfaces of the electrode active material layer 132 and the counter electrode active material layer 138 from plating out, dendrite formation, and / or other electrochemical reactions to which the exposed surfaces would otherwise be susceptible, thereby extending the life of a secondary battery 102 having a unit cell 504 with the insulating member 514. For example, insulating member 514 may have an ionic permeability and / or ionic conductance that is less than the ionic permeability and / or ionic conductance of separator 130 disposed in the same unit cell 504. For example, insulating member 514 may have the same and / or similar permeability and / or conductance to carrier ions as carrier ion insulating material layer 674, described further below. Insulating member 514 may be prepared from a number of different materials, including ceramic, polymer, glass, and combinations and / or composites thereof.

[0085] 14A , the unit cell 504 does not have an insulating member 514 because both the first height end faces 500a, 501a of the electrode active material layer 132 and the counter electrode active material layer 138 have height dimensions z that are even substantially the same height as the first secondary growth constraint 158. The second height end faces 500b, 501b may similarly reach the second secondary growth constraint 160 in the opposite height direction (not shown). In certain embodiments, even if the insulating member 514 is not provided on one or more height faces of the electrode active material layer 132 and the counter electrode active material layer 138, the unit cell may still have a predetermined height offset S as described above. Z1 ,S Z2 Therefore, in one aspect, the embodiment shown in FIG. 14A may include an offset S even when the insulating member 514 is not provided. Z1 and / or offset S Z2 (not explicitly stated).

[0086] The embodiment shown in FIG. 14B has a distinct offset S between the first height end surfaces 500a, 501a of the electrode active material layer and the counter electrode active material layer. Z1 and / or the offset S between the second height end surfaces 500a, 501a (not shown) of the electrode active material layer and the counter electrode active material layer. Z2 14B illustrates a unit cell 504 having a first height end surface 501 a of the counter electrode active material layer 138 and the inner surface of the first secondary growth constraint 158, and / or a second height end surface 501 b of the counter electrode active material layer 138 and the inner surface of the second secondary growth constraint 160 (not shown). Although not shown in the 2D ZY plane illustrated in FIG. 14B , the insulating member 515 extends over most, and even the entire, height surface of the counter electrode active material layer 138 (e.g., in the vertical (y) direction) and horizontal (x) direction (i.e., into the page of FIG. 14B )), covering one or more of the height surfaces 501 a, 501 b. Furthermore, in the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 14B , the insulating member 514 is disposed between and / or surrounded by the separator 130 at one vertical end of the counter electrode active material layer 138 and the counter electrode current collector 140 at the other vertical end.

[0087] The embodiment shown in FIG. 14C has a distinct offset S between the first height end surfaces 500a, 501a of the electrode active material layer and the counter electrode active material layer. Z1 and / or the offset S between the second height end surfaces 500b, 501b (not shown) of the electrode active material layer and the counter electrode active material layer. Z2 Also shown is a unit cell 504 having a height 501 a, 501 b, 501 c, 501 d, 501 e, 501 f, 501 g, 501 i, 501 i, 501 i, 501 i, 501 i, 501 i, 501 i, 501 i, 501 i, 501 i, 501 i, 501 i, 501 i, 501 i, 501 b ... That is, the insulating member 514 may extend vertically toward and around adjacent unit cell structures, such as adjacent counter electrode active material layers 138 of adjacent unit cell structures. In one embodiment, the insulating member 514 may extend across one or more elevational surfaces 501 a, 501 b of adjacent counter electrode active material layers 138 by passing over the counter electrode current collector 140 separating layers 138 in adjacent unit cells 504 a, 504 b and over the elevational surfaces of adjacent counter electrode active material layers 138 in adjacent cells. That is, the insulating member 514 may extend across the height surfaces 501, 501b of one or more of the counter electrode active material layers 138 in the first unit cell 504a and onto the height surfaces 501a, 501b of one or more of the counter electrode active material layers 138 in the second unit cell 504b adjacent to the first unit cell 504a by traversing the height surfaces of the counter electrode current collector 140 that vertically separate the unit cells 504a, 504b from each other.

[0088] The embodiment shown in FIG. 14D illustrates a unit cell 504 in which an insulating member 514 is provided between a first height end surface 500 a of the counter electrode active material layer 138 and the inner surface of the first secondary growth constraint 158 ​​and / or between a second height end surface 500 b of the counter electrode active material layer 138 and the inner surface (not shown) of the second secondary growth constraint 160, and further extends over one or more height surfaces 518 a, 518 b of the separator 130 so as to cover one or more height end surfaces 500 a, 500 b of the electrode active material layer 138. That is, the insulating member 514 is provided between the first height end surface 500a of the electrode active material layer 132 and the inner surface of the first secondary growth constraint 158, and / or between the second height end surface 500b of the electrode active material layer 132 and the inner surface (not shown) of the second secondary growth constraint 160 (as well as in the space between the first and second growth constraints 158, 160 and the height surfaces 518a, 518b of the separator 130). Although not shown in the 2D ZY plane shown in FIG. 14D , the insulating member 515 extends substantially, or even entirely, over the height surfaces of the electrode active material layer 132 and the counter electrode active material layer 138, such as in the vertical direction (y direction) and horizontal direction (x direction, i.e., into the paper in FIG. 14D ), covering one or more of the height surfaces 500a, 500b, 501a, 501b. Furthermore, in the embodiment shown in FIG. 14D , an insulating member 514 is disposed between and / or surrounded by an electrode current collector 136 at one longitudinal end of the unit cell 504 and an electrode current collector 140 at the other longitudinal end.

[0089] The embodiment shown in FIG. 14D has an offset S between the first height end faces 500a, 501a of the electrode active material layer and the counter electrode active material layer. V1 and / or the offset S between the second height end faces 500a, 501a of the electrode active material layer and the counter electrode active material layer. V2 Although not explicitly shown, aspects of the embodiment shown in FIG. 14D may be implemented using a height offset S as described herein. Z1 and / or S Z2For example, the embodiment shown in Figure 14E includes the same and / or similar structure as Figure 14D in that the insulating member 514 covers not only one or more height end faces 501a, 501b of the counter electrode active material layer 138, but also one or more height end faces 500a, 500b of the electrode active material layer 132. However, Figure 14E does not include a distinct height offset and / or separation distance S between the height end faces 500a, 500b of the electrode active material layer 132 and the height end faces 501a, 501b of the counter electrode active material layer 138. Z1 14F shows the insulating member 514. Thus, in the illustrated embodiment, the insulating member 514 has a first thickness T1 measured in the inner and outer height planes of the insulating member 514 across the first and second height edges 500a, 500b of the electrode active material layer 132 and a second thickness T2 measured in the inner and outer height planes of the insulating member 514 across the first and second height edges 501a, 501b of the counter electrode active material layer 138, the first thickness T1 being less than the second thickness T2. Also, although only a single insulating member 514 is shown, multiple insulating members 514 may be included, such as a first insulating member having a first thickness T1 over the electrode active material layer and a second insulating member having a second thickness T2 over the counter electrode active material layer 138. The embodiment shown in FIG. 14F is similar to the embodiment shown in FIG. 14E in that one or more insulating members 514 have thicknesses T1 and T2, respectively, relative to their placement on the height edges of the electrode active material layer and the counter electrode active material layer. However, as discussed above with reference to FIG. 14C, in this embodiment, the insulating member 514 extends over one or more elevational surfaces 516 of the counter electrode current collector 140, as well as may extend to cover surfaces within adjacent unit cells.

[0090] The embodiment shown in FIG. 14G illustrates a unit cell 504 in which an insulating member 514 is provided between a first height end surface 500 a of the counter electrode active material layer 138 and the inner surface of the first secondary growth constraint 158 ​​and / or between a second height end surface 500 b of the counter electrode active material layer 138 and the inner surface (not shown) of the second secondary growth constraint 160, and further extends over one or more height surfaces 518 a, 518 b of the separator 130 so as to cover one or more height end surfaces 500 a, 500 b of the electrode active material layer 138. That is, the insulating member 514 is provided between the first height end surface 500a of the electrode active material layer 132 and the inner surface of the first secondary growth constraint 158, and / or between the second height end surface 500b of the electrode active material layer 132 and the inner surface (not shown) of the second secondary growth constraint 160 (as well as in the space between the first and second growth constraints 158, 160 and the height surfaces 518a, 518b of the separator 130). Although not shown in the 2D ZY plane shown in FIG. 14D , the insulating member 515 extends substantially, or even entirely, over the height surfaces of the electrode active material layer 132 and the counter electrode active material layer 138, such as in the vertical direction (y direction) and horizontal direction (x direction, i.e., into the paper in FIG. 14D ), covering one or more of the height surfaces 500a, 500b, 501a, 501b. 14G, the insulating member 514 is surrounded by the counter electrode current collector 140 at one longitudinal end of the unit cell 504 but extends longitudinally over one or more elevational end faces 520 of the electrode current collector 136. For example, similar to FIG. 14C described above, the insulating member 514 may extend longitudinally toward and around adjacent unit cell structures, such as adjacent electrode active material layers 132 of adjacent unit cell structures. In one embodiment, the insulating member 514 may extend across one or more elevational faces 500a, 500b of adjacent electrode active material layers 132 by passing over the electrode current collector 136 separating the layers 132 between adjacent unit cells 504a, 504b and over the elevational faces of adjacent electrode active material layers 132 in adjacent cells.That is, the insulating member 514 may extend across the height surfaces 500, 500b of one or more of the electrode active material layers 132 in the first unit cell 504a and onto the height surfaces 500a, 500b of the electrode active material layer 132 in the second unit cell 504b adjacent to the first unit cell 504a by crossing the height end surfaces 520a, 520b of the counter electrode current collector 140 that separate the unit cells 504a, 504b from each other in the vertical direction.

[0091] The embodiment shown in FIG. 14G has an offset S between the first height end surfaces 500a, 501a of the electrode active material layer and the counter electrode active material layer. Z1 and / or the offset S between the second height end faces 500a, 501a of the electrode active material layer and the counter electrode active material layer. Z2 Although not explicitly shown, aspects of the embodiment shown in FIG. 14G may be implemented using a height offset S as described herein. Z1 and / or S Z2 For example, the embodiment shown in Figure 14H includes the same and / or similar structure as Figure 14G in that the insulating member 514 covers not only one or more height end faces 501a, 501b of the counter electrode active material layer 138, but also one or more height end faces 500a, 500b of the electrode active material layer 132. However, Figure 14H does not include a distinct height offset and / or separation distance S between the height end faces 500a, 500b of the electrode active material layer 132 and the height end faces 501a, 501b of the counter electrode active material layer 138. V11. Thus, in the illustrated embodiment, the insulating member 514 has a first thickness T1 measured in the inner and outer height planes of the insulating member 514 across the first and second height edges 500 a, 500 b of the electrode active material layer 132, and a second thickness T2 measured in the inner and outer height planes of the insulating member 514 across the first and second height edges 501 a, 501 b of the counter electrode active material layer 138, the first thickness T1 being less than the second thickness T2. Also, although only a single insulating member 514 is shown, multiple insulating members 514 may be included, such as a first insulating member having a first thickness T1 over the electrode active material layer and a second insulating member having a second thickness T2 over the counter electrode active material layer 138.

[0092] 15A-15F, the insulating member 514 and / or the lateral offset S X1 ,S X2 Further embodiments of unit cell 504 are described with or without a discernible lateral offset S. In the embodiment shown in FIG. 15A, electrode active material layers 132 and 138 may provide the offset and / or separation distances described above along the X axis, as shown in the embodiment of FIG. 15B, for example. X1 and / or offset S X2 15A includes an electrode current collector 136, an electrode active material layer 132, a separator 130, a counter electrode active material layer 138, and a counter electrode current collector 140. While the embodiment of FIG. 15A does not include an insulating member 514, it can be understood that the electrode current collector 136 extends past the second ends 502b, 503b of the electrode active material layer 132 and the counter electrode active material layer 138 and may be connected to an electrode bus bar 600, as shown in FIGS. 16A-16F . Similarly, the counter electrode current collector 140 extends past the first lateral ends 502a, 503a of the electrode active material layer 132 and the counter electrode active material layer 138 and may be connected to a counter electrode bus bar 602, as shown in FIGS. 16A-16F .

[0093] 15B, a unit cell configuration will be described having an insulating member 514 extending over at least one lateral surface 503a, 503b of the counter electrode active material layer 138. In the embodiment shown, the insulating member 514 is disposed on either lateral end of the counter electrode active material layer 138 and is positioned between (and surrounded by) the counter electrode current collector 140 at one longitudinal end of the unit cell 504 and the separator 130 at the other longitudinal end of the unit cell. In the embodiment shown, the insulating member 514 extends over the length L of the electrode active material layer 132. E , and is separated from the electrode active material layer 132 by a separator having the same lateral length as the electrode active material layer. The lateral extent of the insulating member 514 in the x-direction is, in one embodiment, determined by the lateral separation distance and / or lateral offset S as shown in FIG. 15B. X1 ,S X2 Although not shown in the 2D YX plane shown in FIG. 15B, the insulating member may be the same as the height H E , and may extend in the z direction, such as between opposing height end faces 501a, 501b.

[0094] 15C also illustrates a unit cell configuration having an insulating member 514 extending over at least one lateral surface 503 a, 503 b of the counter electrode active material layer 138. In the illustrated embodiment, the insulating member 514 is disposed at one lateral end of the counter electrode active material layer 138 and includes a separator layer 130 at at least one longitudinal end of the unit cell 504. At the other longitudinal end, at least one of the insulating members is further surrounded by a counter electrode current collector 140. However, at least one of the insulating members 514 may extend beyond one of the lateral surfaces 522 a, 522 b of the counter electrode current collector 140 at the other longitudinal end of the unit cell 504. That is, the insulating member 514 may extend vertically beyond the lateral end surface of the counter electrode active material layer 138 to cover the counter electrode current collector 140 and further cover the lateral surface of the counter electrode active material layer of an adjacent unit cell. In the embodiment shown in FIG. 15B, the insulating member 514 is formed over the length L of the electrode active material layer 132. E, and is separated from the electrode active material layer 132 by a separator having the same lateral length as the electrode active material layer 132. The lateral extent of the insulating member 514 in the x-direction is, in one embodiment, determined by a lateral separation distance and / or lateral offset S as shown in FIG. X1 ,S X2 Although not shown in the 2D YX plane shown in FIG. 15C, the insulating member may be the same as the height H E 15C, except that the counter electrode current collector 140 has a length that extends past the lateral surface of the insulating member 514, and the length of the electrode current collector 136 also extends past the lateral end surface of the electrode active material layer.

[0095] In the embodiment shown in FIG. 15D , a unit cell configuration is shown in which the insulating member 514 extends across at least one of the lateral surfaces 502 a, 502 b, 503 a, 503 b of both the electrode active material layer 132 and the counter electrode active material layer 138. In the illustrated embodiment, the insulating member 514 is disposed at either lateral end of the electrode active material layer 132 and the counter electrode active material layer 138. The insulating member is disposed between (and surrounded by) the electrode current collector 136 at one longitudinal end and the electrode current collector 140 at the other longitudinal end. The insulating member 514 can extend over the lateral end surfaces 524 a, 524 b of the separator 130 so as to pass through the lateral surfaces of the electrode active material layer 132 and the counter electrode active material layer 138. In the embodiment shown in FIG. 15D , the insulating member 514 has a lateral extent that matches the length of the electrode current collector 136 at one lateral end and the length of the electrode current collector 140 at the other lateral end. In the illustrated embodiment, the electrode active material layer 132 and the counter electrode active material layer 138 are not shown as having a lateral offset and / or separation distance, but may include a separation distance and / or offset. Also, although not shown in the 2D YX plane shown in FIG. 15D , the insulating member also extends beyond the height H of the counter electrode active material layer 138. E , and may extend in the z direction, such as between the opposing height edges 501a, 501b.

[0096] 15F also illustrates a unit cell configuration in which an insulating member 514 extends over at least one lateral surface 503 a, 503 b of the counter electrode active material layer 138. In the illustrated embodiment, the insulating member 514 is disposed at either lateral end of the counter electrode active material layer 138. The insulating member 514 covers the lateral surfaces of both the electrode active material layer 132 and the counter electrode active material layer, and is disposed between (or surrounded by) the electrode current collector 136 at one longitudinal end and the counter electrode current collector 140 at the other, i.e., at least one lateral end. In the illustrated embodiment, the insulating member further extends over lateral surfaces 524 a, 524 b of the separator 130, between and on the electrode active material layer 132 and the counter electrode active material layer 138. In the illustrated embodiment, the insulating member 514 has a first lateral thickness T1 extending from a height edge of the electrode active material layer 132 and a second lateral thickness T2 extending from a height edge of the counter electrode active material layer 138, the second lateral thickness being greater than the first lateral thickness. In one embodiment, the difference in lateral width between the second thickness T2 and the first thickness T1 is referred to as the lateral offset and / or separation distance S X1 and / or S X2 Furthermore, in the illustrated embodiment, at least one of the insulating members 514 may extend over one of the lateral surfaces 522 a, 522 b of the counter electrode current collector 138 at one of the longitudinal ends of the unit cell 504. That is, the insulating member 514 may extend beyond the lateral surface of the counter electrode active material layer 138 to cover the counter electrode current collector 140 and further to cover the lateral surface of the counter electrode active material layer of an adjacent unit cell. On the other hand, the insulating member 514 at the opposing lateral end may be surrounded by the counter electrode current collector 136 such that the lateral length of the counter electrode active material layer exceeds the lateral thickness of the insulating member. At the other longitudinal end, the insulating member 514 is surrounded by the electrode current collector 136 such that the lateral thickness of the insulating member matches the lateral length of the electrode current collector 136, and at the other lateral end, the electrode current collector 136 exceeds the lateral thickness of the insulating member. Although not shown in the 2D YX plane shown in FIG. 15C, the insulating member has a height H E, and may extend in the z direction, such as between the opposing height edges 501a, 501b.

[0097] Furthermore, for purposes of determining the first and second heights and / or lateral edge surfaces of the electrode active material layer 132 and / or counter electrode active material layer 138, only the portions of the layers containing the electrode active material and / or counter electrode active material that can contribute to the electrochemical reaction in each unit cell 504 are considered to be part of the active material layers 132, 138. That is, if the electrode active material or counter electrode active material is altered such that it can no longer act as an electrode active material or counter electrode active material, for example, by covering the active material with an ionically insulating material, that portion that is substantially removed as contributing to the electrochemical unit cell is not counted as part of the electrode active material layer 132 and / or counter electrode active material layer 138.

[0098] [Electrode busbar and counter electrode busbar] In one embodiment, the secondary battery 102 includes one or more of an electrode bus bar 600 and a counter electrode bus bar 602 (as shown in FIG. 17 ) for collecting current from the electrode current collector 136 and the counter electrode current collector 140. As similarly described with respect to embodiments having offsets and / or separation distances above, the electrode assembly 106 may include a set of electrode structures, a set of electrode current collectors, a set of separators, a set of counter electrode structures, a set of counter electrode current collectors, and a set of unit cells in which members of the set of electrode structures and the set of counter electrode structures are arranged alternately in the vertical direction. Furthermore, each member of the set of electrode structures has a length L corresponding to a ferret diameter of the electrode active material measured laterally between the electrode current collector and the first and second opposing end faces of the electrode active material layer. E and a width W corresponding to the ferret diameter of the electrode active material measured longitudinally between the first and second opposing end surfaces of the electrode active material layer. E and an electrode active material layer having the

[0099] Furthermore, as described elsewhere herein, in one embodiment, the electrode assembly has first and second longitudinal end faces separated from one another in the longitudinal direction, with mutually perpendicular horizontal, vertical, and height axes corresponding to the x-, y-, and z-axes, respectively, of an imaginary three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system, and the longitudinal axis A of the electrode assembly is EA and has a side surface that surrounds the first and second longitudinal end surfaces and connects the first and second longitudinal end surfaces.

[0100] Referring to FIG. 17, each member of the set of electrode structures 110 includes an electrode current collector 136 that collects current from the electrode active material layer 132, and the electrode current collector extends along the length L of the electrode active material layer 132. E and includes an electrode current collector end 604 that extends laterally at least partially along the length L of the counter electrode active material layer 132 and beyond the first lateral end surface 503 a of the counter electrode active material layer 138. Additionally, each member of the set of counter electrode structures 112 includes a counter electrode current collector 140 for collecting current from the counter electrode active material layer 138, the counter electrode current collector 140 extending laterally along the length L of the counter electrode active material layer 132. C 17, the electrode current collector 136 and the counter electrode current collector 140 are sandwiched between adjacent layers of electrode active material (in the case of electrode structure 110) or adjacent layers of counter electrode active material (in the case of counter electrode structure 112). However, the current collectors can be area current collectors that are present on at least a portion of the surface of the electrode active material layer and / or counter electrode active material layer that faces the separator 130 between the electrode structure 110 and the counter electrode structure 112. Further, in the embodiment shown in FIG. 17, the electrode bus bar 600 and the counter electrode bus bar 602 are disposed on opposite lateral sides of the electrode assembly 106, with the electrode current collector end 604 electrically and / or physically connected to the electrode bus bar 600 at one lateral end and the counter electrode current collector end 606 electrically and / or physically connected to the counter electrode bus bar 602 at the opposite lateral end.

[0101] Also similar to the above, each unit cell 504 of the electrode assembly includes a unit cell portion of a first electrode current collector of the set of electrode current collectors, a first electrode active material layer of one member of the set of electrode current collectors, a separator ionically permeable to carrier ions, a first electrode active material layer of one member of the set of electrode current collectors, and a unit cell portion of the first electrode current collector of the set of electrode current collectors, wherein the battery has (aa) a first electrode active material layer adjacent to a first side of the separator and a first counter electrode active material layer adjacent to an opposing second side of the separator, and (bb) a separator electrically insulates the first electrode active material layer from the first counter electrode active material layer, and carrier ions are primarily exchanged between the first electrode active material layer and the first counter electrode active material layer through the separator of each unit cell during cycling of the battery between charge and discharge states.

[0102] Refer to FIG. 16A, which illustrates one embodiment of a bus bar, which can be either an electrode bus bar 600 or a counter electrode bus bar 602 (depending on whether an electrode current collector or a counter electrode current collector is attached to it). That is, FIG. 16A can be understood to illustrate a structure suitable for either an electrode bus bar 600 or a counter electrode bus bar 602. While FIG. 16A-1 is illustrated with respect to an electrode bus bar 600, it should be understood that the same structure illustrated is also suitable for a counter electrode bus bar 602, as described herein, even if not specifically shown. A secondary battery may include a single electrode bus bar 600 and a single counter electrode bus bar 602 for connecting to all of the electrode current collectors and counter electrode current collectors, respectively, of an electrode assembly 106, and / or multiple bus bars and / or counter electrode bus bars may be provided. For example, when FIG. 16A is understood as illustrating an embodiment of an electrode bus bar 600, it can be seen that the electrode bus bar 600 includes at least one conductive segment 608 configured to electrically connect to a set of electrode current collectors 136 and extending in a longitudinal direction (Y direction) between the first and second longitudinal end faces 116, 118 of the electrode assembly 106. The conductive segment 608 comprises a first side face 610 having an inner surface 612 facing the first lateral end face 503 a of the counter electrode active material layer 136, and an opposing second side face 614 having an outer surface 616. Additionally, the conductive segment 608 optionally has a plurality of openings 618 spaced apart along the longitudinal direction. The conductive segment 608 of the electrode bus bar 600 is positioned with respect to the electrode current collector end 604 such that the electrode current collector end 604 extends at least partially beyond the thickness of the conductive segment 608 and is in electrical connection therewith. The conductive segments 608 may have a total thickness t measured between the inner surface 612 and the outer surface 616, and the electrode current collector ends 608 may extend through the openings 618 into at least the thickness of the conductive segments or may extend completely beyond the thickness of the conductive segments (i.e., beyond the thickness t measured laterally). Although an electrode bus bar 600 having a single conductive segment 608 is depicted in FIG. 16A, certain embodiments may include multiple conductive segments.

[0103] 16A is understood to illustrate an embodiment of a counter electrode bus bar 602, the counter electrode bus bar 602 includes at least one conductive segment 608 configured to electrically connect to a set of counter electrode current collectors 140 and extends in a longitudinal direction (Y direction) between the first and second longitudinal end faces 116, 118 of the electrode assembly 106. The conductive segment 608 comprises a first side face 610 having an inner surface 612 facing the second lateral end face 502b of the electrode active material layer 136, and an opposing second side face 614 having an outer surface 616. The conductive segment 608 further optionally includes a plurality of openings 618 spaced apart along the longitudinal direction. The conductive segment 608 of the electrode bus bar 600 is positioned with respect to the counter electrode current collector end 606 such that the counter electrode current collector end 606 extends at least partially beyond the thickness of the conductive segment 608 and is electrically connected thereto. The conductive segment 608 may have a total thickness t measured between the interior 612 and the exterior surface 616, and the counter electrode current collector end 606 may extend through the opening 618 into at least the thickness of the conductive segment, or even extend completely beyond the thickness of the conductive segment (i.e., beyond the thickness t measured laterally). Although a counter electrode bus bar 602 having a single conductive segment 608 is depicted in FIG. 16A, certain embodiments may include multiple conductive segments.

[0104] Additionally, according to one embodiment, the secondary battery 102 having the bus bar 600 and counter electrode bus bar 602 further includes a set of electrode constraints, such as any of the constraints described herein. For example, in one embodiment, the set of electrode constraints 108 includes a primary constraint system 151 consisting of first and second primary growth constraints 154, 156 and at least one primary connecting member 162, the first and second primary growth constraints 154, 156 spaced apart from one another in the longitudinal direction, and at least one primary connecting member 162 connecting the first and second primary growth constraints 154, 156, wherein the primary constraint system 151 constrains the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the longitudinal direction such that any increase in ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction over 20 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 20%. In yet another embodiment, the set of electrode constraints 108 further includes a secondary constraint system 152 including first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160 separated in a second direction and connected by at least one secondary connecting member 166, wherein the secondary constraint system 152 at least partially constrains growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction upon cycling of the secondary battery 106, the second direction being orthogonal to the longitudinal direction. Further embodiments of the set of electrode constraints 108 are described below.

[0105] Further embodiments of the electrode bus bar 600 and / or the counter electrode bus bar 602 are described with reference to Figure 16A. In one embodiment, as shown in Figure 16A, the electrode bus bar 600 includes conductive segments 608 having a plurality of longitudinally spaced apart openings 618, each configured to extend at least partially therethrough to electrically connect one or more electrode current collector ends 604 to the electrode bus bar 600. Similarly, the counter electrode bus bar 602 includes conductive segments 608 having a plurality of longitudinally spaced apart openings 618, each configured to allow one or more electrode current collector ends 606 to extend at least partially therethrough to electrically connect one or more electrode current collector ends 606 to the counter electrode bus bar 602. 16A-1, it can be seen that, on the electrode bus bar side, the current collector 132 of the electrode structure 110 extends beyond the first lateral surface 502a of the electrode active material 132 and through an opening 618 formed in the conductive segment. The electrode current collector end 604 is connected to the outer surface 616 of the electrode bus bar 600. Similarly, although not specifically shown, at the other lateral end where the counter electrode bus bar 602 is located, the electrode current collector 140 of the counter electrode structure 112 extends beyond the second lateral surface 503b of the counter electrode active material layer 138 and through an opening 618 formed in the conductive segment. The counter electrode current collector end 606 is connected to the outer surface 616 of the counter electrode bus bar 600.

[0106] Furthermore, in some embodiments, both the electrode bus bar 600 and the counter electrode bus bar 602 may include multiple openings 618, while in yet other embodiments, only the electrode bus bar 600 may include openings 618, and in yet other embodiments, only the counter electrode bus bar 602 may include openings 618. In yet other embodiments, a secondary battery may include both an electrode bus bar and a counter electrode bus bar, and in yet other embodiments, a secondary battery may include only an electrode bus bar or a counter electrode bus bar, with current being collected from the remaining current collectors via another mechanism. In the embodiment shown in FIGS. 16A and 16A-1 , the openings 618 are shown sized to pass an electrode current collector or a counter electrode current collector. In one embodiment, the openings may be sized and configured to allow only a single current collector through each opening, while in yet other embodiments, the openings may be sized to pass multiple electrode current collectors 136 and / or counter electrode current collectors 140. 16A and 16A-1, the electrode current collector end and / or counter electrode current collector end extend entirely through one or more of the openings 618, with the ends 604, 606 bent toward the outer surface 616 of the electrode and / or counter electrode bus bar for attachment to a portion 622 of the outer electrode and / or counter electrode bus bar between the openings 618. The ends 604, 608 may simultaneously and / or optionally be connected to other portions of the conductive segment 608, such as portions of the conductive segment above or below the opening in height, and / or to the inner surface 624 of the opening 618 itself.

[0107] 16B and 16B-1, the electrode current collector end and / or counter electrode current collector end 604, 606 extend entirely through one or more of the openings 618, with the ends bent toward the outer surface 616 of the electrode and / or counter electrode bus bar. However, in this embodiment, at least one or more of the electrode current collector ends extends at least partially longitudinally toward or past an adjacent opening 618 (e.g., past an adjacent opening as shown in FIG. 16B-1) for attachment to an end of a separate electrode current collector and / or counter electrode current collector. That is, the ends of the electrode and / or counter electrode current collector may be attached to each other. In yet another embodiment, also shown in FIG. 16B-1 , the electrode current collector end and / or electrode current collector end are attached to the electrode bus bar and / or portion 622 of the electrode bus bar outer surface 616 between the openings 618 at a first end region 624 and to a separate electrode current collector end and / or electrode current collector end at a second end region 626.

[0108] In one embodiment, the electrode current collector end 604 and / or counter electrode current collector end 606 are attached to one or more portions 622 of the outer surface of the electrode busbar and / or counter electrode busbar, and / or to separate electrode current collector ends and / or counter electrode current collector ends (such as adjacent current collectors extending through adjacent openings) via at least one of adhesives, welding, crimping, brazing, riveting, mechanical pressure / friction, clamping, and soldering. The ends 604, 604 may also be connected to other portions of the electrode busbar and / or counter electrode busbar, such as the inner surface 624 of the opening 618 or other portions of the busbar, via such attachment. Furthermore, the number of current collector ends that are attached to each other, as opposed to only to the busbar, can be selected according to a preferred embodiment. For example, in one embodiment, in a given set, each of the electrode current collector end and counter electrode current collector end is individually attached to the portion 622 of the outer surface 616 of the electrode busbar 600 and / or counter electrode busbar 602. In yet another embodiment, the electrode current collector ends and / or at least a portion of the electrode current collector ends are attached to one another (e.g., by extending through an opening and then toward or through an adjacent opening to connect to an adjacent current collector end), and at least one of the electrode current collector ends and / or at least one of the electrode current collector ends is attached to an electrode bus bar and / or a portion of an outer surface of the electrode bus bar (e.g., to provide an electrical connection between the bus bar and the electrode current collector ends that are attached to one another). In yet another embodiment, all of the current collectors in a collection may be individually connected to a bus bar without being attached to any other current collector ends.

[0109] In further embodiments, the electrode current collector end and / or counter electrode current collector end have a surface area (e.g., first area 624) that contacts a surface (e.g., an outer surface) of the bus bar and / or counter electrode bus bar. For example, the electrode current collector end and / or counter electrode current collector end have a surface area that attaches to at least one of the outer surface of the electrode bus bar and / or counter electrode bus bar and the inner surface 624 of the opening 618 in the bus bar and / or counter electrode bus bar. In one embodiment, one or more ends of the electrode bus bar and / or counter electrode bus bar may comprise a connection surface area that is attached to the inner surface 612 of the bus bar and / or counter electrode bus bar. The size of the connection surface area may be selected depending on the type of attachment selected for attaching the end to the electrode bus bar and / or counter electrode bus bar. 16A-1 and 16B-1 , the electrode bus bar and / or counter-electrode bus bar include a layer 628 of insulating material on an interior surface 612 adjacent the lateral ends of the electrode and / or counter-electrode, and a layer of conductive material (e.g., conductive segments 608) on an exterior surface 616 opposite the interior surface. The layer 628 of insulating material may include insulating members 514 disposed between the lateral surfaces of the electrode active material layer 132 and / or counter-electrode active material layer 138 and the bus bar, as described elsewhere herein, and / or may comprise a separate layer 632 of insulating material along the interior surface of the bus bar to insulate the electrode assembly from the conductive segments of the bus bar.

[0110] In one embodiment, the material and / or physical properties of the electrode current collector 136 and / or counter electrode current collector 140 may be selected to provide good electrical contact to the busbar while imparting good structural stability to the electrode assembly. For example, in one embodiment, the electrode current collector end 604 and / or counter electrode current collector end 606 (and optionally at least a portion, or even the entire electrode and / or counter electrode current collector) comprise the same material as the material comprising the electrode busbar and / or counter electrode busbar. For example, if the busbar and / or counter electrode busbar are made of aluminum, the electrode current collector and / or counter electrode current collector may also be made of aluminum. In one embodiment, the electrode current collector end and / or counter electrode current collector end comprise any material selected from the group consisting of aluminum, copper, stainless steel, nickel, nickel alloys, carbon, and combinations / alloys thereof. Furthermore, in one embodiment, the electrode current collector end and / or counter electrode current collector end may comprise a material having a conductivity relatively close to that of the material of the electrode bus and / or counter electrode bus, and / or the electrode current collector and / or counter electrode current collector may comprise the same material as the material of the electrode bus and / or counter electrode bus.

[0111] In yet another embodiment, the ends of the electrode current collector and / or counter electrode current collector extend through openings 618 in the electrode bus bar and / or counter electrode bus bar and are folded back toward the outer surface 616 of the electrode bus bar and / or counter electrode bus bar for attachment thereto, and the region 624 of the end folded back for attachment to the outer surface is substantially planar, as shown, for example, in FIGS. 16A and 16A-1.

[0112] In one embodiment, the electrode current collector 136 and / or the counter electrode current collector 140 have a length L of the layer of electrode material. E and / or the length L of the layer of counter electrode material C and L E and L C is defined as above. For example, in one embodiment, the electrode current collector and / or electrode current collector has a length L of the layer of electrode material. E and / or the length L of the layer of counter electrode material CIn another embodiment, the electrode current collector and / or the counter electrode current collector each extend laterally along the length L of the layer of electrode material. E and / or the length L of the layer of counter electrode material C In yet another embodiment, the electrode current collector and / or the counter electrode current collector each extend laterally along the length L of the layer of electrode material. E and / or the length L of the layer of counter electrode material C In yet another embodiment, the electrode current collector and / or the counter electrode current collector each extend laterally along the length L of the layer of electrode material. E and / or the length L of the layer of counter electrode material C Extends laterally for at least 90% or more along the

[0113] Furthermore, in one embodiment, the electrode current collector and / or the counter electrode current collector each have a height H of the layer of electrode material in the height direction. E and / or the height H of the layer of counter electrode material C extends at least 50% along H E and H C is defined as above. For example, in one embodiment, the electrode current collector and / or the counter electrode current collector each have a layer height H E and / or the height H of the layer of counter electrode material C In another embodiment, the electrode current collector and / or the counter electrode current collector each extend in the height direction at least 60% along the height H of the layer of electrode material. E and / or the height H of the layer of counter electrode material C In yet another embodiment, the electrode current collector and / or the counter electrode current collector each extend in a height direction along the height H of the layer of electrode material. E and / or the height H of the layer of counter electrode material C In yet another embodiment, the electrode current collector and / or the counter electrode current collector each extend in the height direction along the height H of the layer of electrode material. E and / or the height H of the layer of counter electrode material C extends along the height direction for at least 90% of the

[0114] 18A and 18B, the electrode assembly 106 is comprised of at least one of a height electrode current collector end 640 and a height counter-electrode current collector end 642 that extends beyond one or more of the first and second height surfaces 500a, 500b, 501a, 501b of the adjacent electrode active material layer 132 and / or counter electrode active material layer 138. In one embodiment, the height current collector ends 640, 642 may also be at least partially covered with a carrier ion insulating material, as described in further detail below, to reduce the possibility of shorting and / or plating out of carrier ions on the exposed height current collector ends.

[0115] According to one embodiment, for at least one of the members of the electrode set and the members of the counter-electrode set, either (I) and / or (II) holds true. (I) Each member of the electrode structure 110 includes an electrode current collector 136 for collecting current from the electrode active material layer 132, and the electrode current collector 136 has a height H of the electrode active material layer 132. E and includes at least one of (a) and (b): (a) First height electrode current collector end surface 640a extending beyond first height end surface 500a of electrode active material layer 132 (b) a second height electrode current collector end 640b extending beyond the second height end surface 500b of the electrode active material layer 132; (II) Each member of the counter electrode structure 112 includes a counter electrode current collector 140 for collecting current from the counter electrode active material layer 138, and the counter electrode current collector 140 has a height H of the counter electrode active material layer 138. C and includes at least one of (a) and (b): (a) First height vs. electrode current collector end 642a extending beyond first height end surface 501a in the height direction of electrode active material layer 138 (b) the second-height electrode current collector end 642b extending beyond the second-height end surface 501b of the electrode active material layer 138; With reference to the embodiment shown in FIG. 18A, it can be seen that the height edges 640a, 640b, 642a, 642b of both the electrode current collector 136 and the counter electrode current collector 140 extend past the first and second height edge surfaces of the electrode active material layer 132 and the counter electrode active material layer 138.

[0116] [Electrode constraints] In one embodiment, a set of electrode constraints 108 is provided that constrain the overall macroscopic growth of the electrode assembly 106, as illustrated in FIG. 1A , for example. The set of electrode constraints 108 can constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 along one or more dimensions to reduce swelling and deformation of the electrode assembly 106, thereby improving the reliability and cycle life of an energy storage device 100 having the set of electrode constraints 108. As discussed above, without being limited to any particular theory, it is believed that during charging and discharging of the secondary battery 102, carrier ions migrating between the electrode structure 110 and the counter electrode structure 112 can intercalate into the electrode active material, causing the electrode active material and / or the electrode structure 110 to expand. This expansion of the electrode structure 110 can cause deformation and swelling of the electrode and / or electrode assembly 106, which can compromise the structural integrity of the electrode assembly 106 and / or increase the likelihood of electrical shorts or other failures. In one example, excessive swelling and / or expansion and contraction of the electrode active material layer 132 during cycling of the energy storage device 100 can cause pieces of the electrode active material to detach and / or peel off from the electrode active material layer 132, thereby compromising the efficiency and cycle life of the energy storage device 100. In yet another example, excessive swelling and / or expansion and contraction of the electrode active material layer 132 can cause the electrode active material to fracture the electrically insulating microporous separator 130, thereby causing electrical shorts and other failures of the electrode assembly 106. Thus, the set of electrode constraints 108 constrain this swelling or growth that might otherwise occur with cycling between charged and discharged states, improving the reliability, efficiency, and / or cycle life of the energy storage device 100.

[0117] According to one embodiment, the set of electrode constraints 108 includes a primary growth constraint system 151 for constraining growth and / or swelling along the longitudinal axis of the electrode assembly 106 (e.g., the Y-axis in FIG. 1A ). In another embodiment, the set of electrode constraints 108 may include a secondary growth constraint system 152 for constraining growth along the height axis (e.g., the Z-axis in FIG. 1A ). In yet another embodiment, the set of electrode constraints 108 may include a tertiary growth constraint system 155 for constraining growth along the horizontal axis (e.g., the X-axis in FIG. 4C ). In one embodiment, the set of electrode constraints 108 includes the primary growth constraint system 151 and the secondary growth constraint system 152, respectively, as well as the tertiary growth constraint system 155 that operate cooperatively to constrain growth along the longitudinal and height axes (e.g., the Y-axis and the Z-axis), and also along all of the longitudinal, height, and horizontal axes (e.g., the Y-axis, the Z-axis, and the X-axis) simultaneously. For example, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain growth that might otherwise occur along the stacking direction D of the electrode assembly 106 during cycling between charge and discharge states, and the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain swelling and growth that might occur along the height axis to prevent buckling or other deformation of the electrode assembly 106 in the height direction. In a further embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain swelling and / or expansion along the height axis that might be exacerbated by the growth constraint imposed by the primary growth constraint system 151. The tertiary growth constraint system 155 may also optionally reduce swelling and / or expansion along the horizontal axis that might occur during the cycling process. That is, according to one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 and the secondary growth constraint system 152, and optionally the tertiary growth constraint system 155, may cooperate to cooperatively constrain the multidimensional growth of the electrode assembly 106.

[0118] 4A-4B, one embodiment of a set of electrode constraints 108 having a primary growth constraint system 151 and a secondary growth constraint system 152 for an electrode assembly 106 is shown. FIG. 4A shows a cross-sectional view of the electrode assembly 106 of FIG. 1A taken along the vertical axis (Y-axis), such that the resulting 2D cross-section is illustrated with the height axis (Z-axis) and the vertical axis (Y-axis). FIG. 4B shows a cross-sectional view of the electrode assembly 106 of FIG. 1A taken along the horizontal axis (X-axis), such that the resulting 2D cross-section is illustrated with the height axis (Z-axis) and the horizontal axis (X-axis). As shown in FIG. 4A, the primary growth constraint system 151 can generally include first and second primary growth constraints 154, 156, respectively, spaced apart from one another along the vertical direction (Y-axis). For example, in one embodiment, the first and second primary growth constraints 154, 156 each include a first primary growth constraint 154 at least partially or entirely covering a first longitudinal end surface 116 of the electrode assembly 106 and a second primary growth constraint 156 at least partially or entirely covering a second longitudinal end surface 118 of the electrode assembly 106. In yet another aspect, one or more of the first and second primary growth constraints 154, 156 can be internal to the longitudinal ends 117, 119 of the electrode assembly 106, such as when one or more of the primary growth constraints include an internal structure of the electrode assembly 106. The primary growth constraint system 151 further includes at least one primary connecting member 162 connecting the first and second primary growth constraints 154, 156 and can have a major axis parallel to the longitudinal direction. For example, primary growth constraint system 151 may include first and second primary connecting members 162, 164, respectively, spaced apart from one another along an axis perpendicular to the longitudinal axis, such as along the height axis (Z-axis) in the illustrated embodiment. First and second primary connecting members 162, 164 may connect first and second primary growth constraints 154, 156, respectively, to one another and serve to maintain first and second primary growth constraints 154, 156 in tension with one another to constrain growth along the longitudinal axis of electrode assembly 106.

[0119] According to one embodiment, the set of electrode constraints 108, including the primary growth constraint system 151, may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the vertical direction (i.e., the electrode stacking direction D) such that the increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the vertical direction over 20 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 20% between the charged and discharged states. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the vertical growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that the increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the vertical direction over 30 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 20%. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the vertical growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that the increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the vertical direction over 50 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 20%. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the longitudinal growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction is less than 20% over 80 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the longitudinal growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction is less than 20% over 100 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the longitudinal growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction is less than 20% over 200 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the longitudinal growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction is less than 20% over 300 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the longitudinal growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction over 500 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 20%.By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the longitudinal growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction is less than 20% over 800 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the longitudinal growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction is less than 20% over 1000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the longitudinal growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction is less than 20% over 2000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the longitudinal growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction is less than 20% over 3000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the longitudinal growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction is less than 20% over 5,000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the longitudinal growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction is less than 20% over 8,000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the longitudinal growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction is less than 20% over 10,000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery.

[0120] According to yet another embodiment, the set of electrode constraints 108, including the primary growth constraint system 151, may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the vertical direction such that the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the vertical direction increases by less than 10% over 10 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the vertical growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the vertical direction increases by less than 10% over 20 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the vertical growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the vertical direction increases by less than 10% over 30 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the vertical growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the vertical direction increases by less than 10% over 50 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the longitudinal growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction is less than 10% over 80 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the longitudinal growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction is less than 10% over 100 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the longitudinal growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction is less than 10% over 200 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the longitudinal growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction is less than 10% over 300 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery.By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the longitudinal growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction is less than 10% over 500 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the longitudinal growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction is less than 10% over 800 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the longitudinal growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction is less than 10% over 1000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the longitudinal growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction is less than 10% over 2000 consecutive cycles. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the longitudinal growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction is less than 10% over 3,000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the longitudinal growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction is less than 10% over 5,000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the longitudinal growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction is less than 10% over 8,000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the longitudinal growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction is less than 10% over 10,000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery.

[0121] According to yet another embodiment, the set of electrode constraints 108, including the primary growth constraint system 151, may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the vertical direction such that the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the vertical direction increases by less than 5% over five consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the vertical growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the vertical direction increases by less than 5% over ten consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the vertical growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the vertical direction increases by less than 5% over twenty consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the vertical growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the vertical direction increases by less than 5% over thirty consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the longitudinal growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction is less than 5% over 50 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the longitudinal growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction is less than 5% over 80 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the longitudinal growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction is less than 5% over 100 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the longitudinal growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction is less than 5% over 200 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery.By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the longitudinal growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction is less than 5% over 300 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the longitudinal growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction is less than 5% over 500 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the longitudinal growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction is less than 5% over 800 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the longitudinal growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction is less than 5% over 1000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the longitudinal growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction is less than 5% over 2000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the longitudinal growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction is less than 5% over 3000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the longitudinal growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction is less than 5% over 5000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the longitudinal growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction is less than 5% over 8000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery.As a further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the longitudinal growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the longitudinal electrode assembly over 10,000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 5%.

[0122] According to yet another embodiment, the set of electrode constraints 108, including the primary growth constraint system 151, may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the vertical direction such that the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the vertical direction increases by less than 1% per cycle of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the vertical growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the vertical direction over five consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 1%. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the vertical growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the vertical direction over ten consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 1%. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the vertical growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the vertical direction over twenty consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 1%. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the longitudinal growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction is less than 1% over 30 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the longitudinal growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction is less than 1% over 50 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the longitudinal growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction is less than 1% over 80 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the longitudinal growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction is less than 1% over 100 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery.By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the longitudinal growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction is less than 1% over 200 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the longitudinal growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction is less than 1% over 300 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the longitudinal growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction is less than 1% over 500 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the longitudinal growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction is less than 1% over 800 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the longitudinal growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction is less than 1% over 1000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the longitudinal growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction is less than 1% over 2000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the longitudinal growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction is less than 1% over 3000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the longitudinal growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction is less than 1% over 5000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery.By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the longitudinal growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction over 8,000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 1%. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 may constrain the longitudinal growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the longitudinal direction over 10,000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 1%.

[0123] A charged state means that the secondary battery 102 is charged to at least 75% of its rated capacity, e.g., at least 80% of the rated capacity, or even at least 90% of the rated capacity, e.g., at least 95% of the rated capacity, or even 100% of the rated capacity. A discharged state means that the secondary battery is discharged to less than 25% of the rated capacity, e.g., less than 20% of the rated capacity, or even less than 10%, e.g., less than 5% of the rated capacity, or even exactly 0%. Furthermore, it should be noted that the actual capacity of the secondary battery 102 may change over time and depending on the number of cycles the battery has undergone. That is, the secondary battery 102 may initially exhibit a measured capacity close to the rated capacity, but the battery's actual capacity decreases over time, and the secondary battery 102 is considered to be at the end of its life when its actual capacity when transitioning from a charged state to a discharged state drops to 80% or less of its rated capacity.

[0124] 4A and 4B , the set of electrode constraints 108 further includes a secondary growth constraint system 152, which may generally include first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160, respectively, spaced apart from one another along a second direction orthogonal to the longitudinal direction, such as along the height axis (Z-axis) in the illustrated embodiment. For example, in one embodiment, the first secondary growth constraint 158 ​​extends at least partially across a first region 148 of the lateral surface 142 of the electrode assembly 106, and the second secondary growth constraint 160 extends at least partially across a second region 150 of the lateral surface 142 of the electrode assembly 106 opposite the first region 148. In yet another aspect, one or more of the first and second secondary growth constraints 154, 156 may be internal to the side surface 142 of the electrode assembly 106, such as when one or more of the secondary growth constraints constitute an internal structure of the electrode assembly 106. In one embodiment, the first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160 are each connected by at least one secondary connecting member 166, which may have a major axis parallel to a second direction, such as a height axis. The secondary connecting member 166 may serve to connect and hold the first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160 in tension with each other, such as to constrain growth in the height direction (e.g., along the Z-axis) and constrain growth of the electrode assembly 106 along a direction perpendicular to the longitudinal direction. In the embodiment depicted in FIG. 4A , the at least one secondary connecting member 166 may correspond to at least one of the first and second primary growth constraints 154, 156. However, the secondary connecting member 166 is not limited thereto and may alternatively and / or additionally include other structures and / or configurations.

[0125] According to one embodiment, the set of electrode constraints including the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in a second direction (a direction perpendicular to the longitudinal direction, e.g., the height (z-axis) direction) such that the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly increases by less than 20% over 20 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly increases by less than 20% over 30 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly increases by less than 20% over 50 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction is less than 20% over 80 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction is less than 20% over 100 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction is less than 20% over 200 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction over 300 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 20%. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction over 500 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 20%.By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction is less than 20% over 800 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction is less than 20% over 1000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction is less than 20% over 2000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction is less than 20% over 3000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction is less than 20% over 5000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction is less than 20% over 8000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. As a further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction over 10,000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 20%.

[0126] According to yet another embodiment, the set of electrode constraints 108, including the primary growth constraint system 151, may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction increases by less than 10% over 10 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction increases by less than 10% over 20 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction increases by less than 10% over 30 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction is less than 10% over 50 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction is less than 10% over 80 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction is less than 10% over 100 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction over 200 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 10%. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction is less than 10% over 300 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery.By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction is less than 10% over 500 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction is less than 10% over 800 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction is less than 10% over 1000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction is less than 10% over 2000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction is less than 10% over 3000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction is less than 10% over 5000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction over 8,000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 10%. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction is less than 10% over 10,000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery.

[0127] According to yet another embodiment, the set of electrode constraints 108, including the primary growth constraint system 151, may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction increases by less than 5% over five consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction increases by less than 5% over ten consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction increases by less than 5% over twenty consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction is less than 5% over 30 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction is less than 5% over 50 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction is less than 5% over 80 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction is less than 5% over 100 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction over 200 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 5%.By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction is less than 5% over 300 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction is less than 5% over 500 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction is less than 5% over 800 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction is less than 5% over 1000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction is less than 5% over 2000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction is less than 5% over 3000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction is less than 5% over 5000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction is less than 5% over 8000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery.As a further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction over 10,000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 5%.

[0128] According to yet another embodiment, the set of electrode constraints 108, including the primary growth constraint system 151, may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction increases by less than 1% per cycle of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction increases by less than 1% over five consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction increases by less than 1% over ten consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction increases by less than 1% over twenty consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction is less than 1% over 30 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction is less than 1% over 50 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction is less than 1% over 80 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction is less than 1% over 100 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery.By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction is less than 1% over 200 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction is less than 1% over 300 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction is less than 1% over 500 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction is less than 1% over 800 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction is less than 1% over 1000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction is less than 1% over 2000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction is less than 1% over 3000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction is less than 1% over 5000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery.By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction is less than 1% over 8,000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the second direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the second direction is less than 1% over 10,000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery.

[0129] FIG. 4C illustrates one embodiment of the set of electrode constraints 108, further including a tertiary growth constraint system 155 for constraining the growth of the electrode assembly in a third direction orthogonal to the longitudinal and second directions, e.g., the transverse (X) direction. The tertiary growth constraint system 155 may be provided in addition to the primary growth constraint system 151 and the secondary growth constraint system 152, respectively, to constrain the overall growth of the electrode assembly 106 in three dimensions, and / or may be provided in combination with either the primary growth constraint system 151 and the secondary growth constraint system 152, respectively, to constrain the overall growth of the electrode assembly 106 in two dimensions. FIG. 4C illustrates a cross-section of the electrode assembly 106 of FIG. 1A cut along the transverse axis (X-axis), such that the resulting two-dimensional cross-section is illustrated with the height axis (Z-axis) and the transverse axis (X-axis). As shown in FIG. 4C, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may generally include first and second tertiary growth constraints 157, 159, respectively, spaced apart from one another along a third direction, such as the transverse (X-axis). For example, in one embodiment, the first tertiary growth constraint 157 extends at least partially across a first region 144 of the lateral surface 142 of the electrode assembly 106, and the second tertiary growth constraint 159 extends at least partially across a second region 146 of the lateral surface 142 of the electrode assembly 106 that is laterally opposite the first region 144. In yet another aspect, one or more of the first and second tertiary growth constraints 157, 159 may be internal to the lateral surface 142 of the electrode assembly 106, such as when one or more of the tertiary growth constraints constitute an internal structure of the electrode assembly 106. In one embodiment, the first and second tertiary growth constraints 157, 159 are each connected by at least one tertiary connecting member 165, which may have a major axis parallel to the third direction. The tertiary connecting members 165 may serve to constrain growth of the electrode assembly 106 by connecting and holding the first and second tertiary growth constraints 157, 159, respectively, in tension with one another, e.g., by constraining growth in a lateral direction (e.g., along the X-axis) perpendicular to the longitudinal direction. In the embodiment depicted in FIG. 4C , at least one tertiary connecting member 165 may correspond to at least one of the first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160.However, the tertiary connecting members 165 are not limited thereto and may alternatively and / or additionally include other structures and / or configurations. For example, in one embodiment, at least one tertiary connecting member 165 may correspond to at least one of the first and second primary growth constraints 154, 156 (not shown).

[0130] According to one embodiment, the set of electrode constraints having the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in a third direction (a direction orthogonal to the longitudinal direction, e.g., the horizontal (X-axis) direction) such that the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly increases by less than 20% over 20 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in a third direction such that the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly increases by less than 20% over 30 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in a third direction such that the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly increases by less than 20% over 50 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction is less than 20% over 80 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction is less than 20% over 100 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction is less than 20% over 200 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction over 300 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 20%. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction over 500 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 20%.By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction is less than 20% over 800 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction is less than 20% over 1000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction is less than 20% over 2000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction is less than 20% over 3000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction is less than 20% over 5000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction is less than 20% over 8000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. As a further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction over 10,000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 20%.

[0131] According to yet another embodiment, the set of electrode constraints 108, including the primary growth constraint system 151, may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction increases by less than 10% over 10 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction increases by less than 10% over 20 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction increases by less than 10% over 30 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction is less than 10% over 50 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction is less than 10% over 80 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction is less than 10% over 100 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction over 200 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 10%. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction over 300 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 10%.By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction is less than 10% over 500 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction is less than 10% over 800 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction is less than 10% over 1000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction is less than 10% over 2000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction is less than 10% over 3000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction is less than 10% over 5000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction over 8,000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 10%. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction is less than 10% over 10,000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery.

[0132] According to yet another embodiment, the set of electrode constraints 108, including the primary growth constraint system 151, may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction increases by less than 5% over five consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction increases by less than 5% over ten consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction increases by less than 5% over twenty consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction is less than 5% over 30 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction is less than 5% over 50 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction is less than 5% over 80 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction over 100 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 5%. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction over 200 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 5%.By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction is less than 5% over 300 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction is less than 5% over 500 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction is less than 5% over 800 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction is less than 5% over 1000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction is less than 5% over 2000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction is less than 5% over 3000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction is less than 5% over 5000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction is less than 5% over 8000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery.As a further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction over 10,000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 5%.

[0133] According to yet another embodiment, the set of electrode constraints 108, including the primary growth constraint system 151, may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction increases by less than 1% per cycle of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction over five consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 1%. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction is less than 1% over ten consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction is less than 1% over 20 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction is less than 1% over 30 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction is less than 1% over 50 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction over 80 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 1%. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction over 100 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery is less than 1%.By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction is less than 1% over 200 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction is less than 1% over 300 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction is less than 1% over 500 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction is less than 1% over 800 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction is less than 1% over 1000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction is less than 1% over 2000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction is less than 1% over 3000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction is less than 1% over 5000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery.By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction is less than 1% over 8,000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 may constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the third direction such that any increase in the ferret diameter of the electrode assembly in the third direction is less than 1% over 10,000 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery.

[0134] According to one embodiment, primary growth constraint system 151, secondary growth constraint system 152, and optionally tertiary growth constraint system 155 are configured to operate cooperatively. For example, portions of primary growth constraint system 151 may operate cooperatively as portions of secondary growth constraint system 152, and / or portions of secondary growth constraint system 152 may act cooperatively as portions of primary growth constraint system 151, and any portions of primary growth constraint system 151 and / or secondary constraint system 152 may act cooperatively as portions of a tertiary growth constraint system, or vice versa. For example, in the embodiment shown in FIGS. 4A and 4B , first and second primary connecting members 162, 164 of primary growth constraint system 151 may function as at least a portion of, or the entire structure of, first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160, respectively, that constrain growth in a second direction perpendicular to the longitudinal direction. In yet another embodiment, as described above, one or more of the first and second primary growth constraints 154, 156 can function as one or more secondary connecting members 166 for connecting the first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160, respectively. Conversely, at least some of the first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160 can function as the first and second primary connecting members 162, 164, respectively, of the primary growth constraint system 151, and at least one secondary connecting member 166 of the secondary growth constraint system 152 can, in one embodiment, function as one or more secondary connecting members 166 of the first and second primary growth constraints 154, 156, respectively. In yet another embodiment, at least a portion of the first and second primary connecting members 162, 164 of the primary growth constraint system 151 and / or at least one secondary connecting member 166 of the secondary growth constraint system 152 can function as at least a portion of, or the entire structure of, the first and second tertiary growth constraints 157, 159, respectively, which constrain growth in a lateral direction perpendicular to the vertical direction. In yet another embodiment, one or more of the first and second primary growth constraints 154, 156 and / or the first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160 can function as one or more tertiary connecting members 166 for connecting the first and second tertiary growth constraints 157, 159, respectively.Conversely, at least a portion of the first and second tertiary growth constraints 157, 159 can function as the first and second primary connecting members 162, 164 of the primary growth constraint system 151, respectively, and / or as at least one secondary connecting member 166 of the secondary growth constraint system 152. Also, at least one tertiary connecting member 165 of the tertiary growth constraint system 155 can function, in one embodiment, as one or more of the first and second primary growth constraints 154, 156, respectively, and / or one or more of the first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160. Alternatively and / or additionally, the primary growth constraints, secondary growth constraints, and / or tertiary growth constraints may include other structures that cooperate to constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106. Thus, the primary growth constraint system 151 and the secondary growth constraint system 152, and optionally the third growth constraint system 155, may share components and / or structures that act to constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106.

[0135] In one embodiment, the set of electrode constraints 108 can include structures such as primary and secondary growth constraints and primary and secondary connecting members, which may be structures external and / or internal to the battery housing 104 or may be part of the battery housing 104 itself. For example, the set of electrode constraints 108 can comprise a combination of structures including not only the battery housing 104 but also other structural members. In such an embodiment, the battery housing 104 can be a component of the primary growth constraint system 151 and / or the secondary growth constraint system 152. Stated differently, in one embodiment, the battery housing 104, alone or in combination with one or more other structures (inside and / or outside the battery housing 104, e.g., the primary growth constraint system 151 and / or the secondary growth constraint system 152), constrains the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the electrode stacking direction D and / or a second direction D orthogonal to the stacking direction. For example, one or more of the primary growth constraint systems 154, 156 and the secondary growth constraint systems 158, 160 can constitute structures internal to the electrode assembly. In another embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 and / or the secondary growth constraint system 152 do not include the battery housing 104; instead, one or more discrete structures other than the battery housing 104 (inside the battery housing 104 and / or outside the battery housing 104) constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 in the electrode stacking direction D and / or a second direction orthogonal to the stacking direction D. In another embodiment, the primary growth constraint system and the secondary growth constraint system, and optionally also the tertiary growth constraint system, are within the battery housing, which may be a closed battery housing, such as a sealed battery housing. The electrode assembly 106 may be constrained by the set of electrode constraints 108 with a pressure greater than the pressure exerted by growth and / or swelling of the electrode assembly 106 during repeated cycling of the energy storage device 100 or a secondary battery having the electrode assembly 106.

[0136] In one exemplary embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 includes one or more discrete structures within the battery housing 104 that constrain the growth of the electrode structure 110 in the stacking direction D by exerting a pressure that exceeds the pressure generated by the electrode structure 110 in the stacking direction D during repeated cycling of a secondary battery 102 having the electrode structure 110 as part of the electrode assembly 106. In another exemplary embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 includes one or more discrete structures within the battery housing 104 that constrain the growth of the electrode structure 112 in the stacking direction D by exerting a pressure that exceeds the pressure generated by the electrode structure 112 in the stacking direction D during repeated cycling of a secondary battery 102 having the electrode structure 112 as part of the electrode assembly 106. The secondary growth constraint system 152 may similarly include one or more discrete structures within the battery housing 104 that, during repeated cycling of a secondary battery 102 having the electrode structure 110 or counter electrode structure 112, constrain the growth of at least one of the electrode structure 110 and the counter electrode structure 112 in a second direction by exerting a pressure in the second direction (e.g., the height (Z) axis) perpendicular to the stacking direction D that exceeds the pressure generated by the electrode structure 110 or the counter electrode structure 112, respectively.

[0137] In yet another embodiment, the first and second primary growth constraints 154, 156 of the primary growth constraint system 151 constrain growth of the electrode assembly 106 by exerting pressure on the first and second longitudinal end faces 116, 118, respectively, of the electrode assembly 106 that exceeds the pressure they exert on other faces of the electrode assembly 106 (in directions perpendicular to the longitudinal direction, such as first and second regions of the side 142 of the electrode assembly 106 along the lateral and / or elevational axes). That is, the first and second primary growth constraints 154, 156 may exert a pressure in the longitudinal direction (Y-axis) that exceeds the pressure exerted thereby in orthogonal directions, such as the lateral (X-axis) and elevation (Z-axis) directions. For example, in one such embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 constrains the growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that the pressure on the first and second vertical end faces 116, 118 (i.e., in the stacking direction D) exceeds the pressure maintained on the electrode assembly 106 by the primary growth constraint system 151 in at least one of two directions perpendicular to the stacking direction D, or in both directions, by a factor at least 3. By way of further example, in one such embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 constrains the growth of the electrode assembly 106 at a pressure on the first and second vertical end faces 116, 118 (i.e., in the stacking direction D) that exceeds the pressure maintained on the electrode assembly 106 by the primary growth constraint system 151 in at least one, or both, of two directions perpendicular to the stacking direction D by a factor at least 4, which pressure exceeds the pressure maintained on the electrode assembly 106 by the primary growth constraint system 151 in at least one, or both, of two directions perpendicular to the stacking direction D. By way of further example, in one such embodiment, the primary growth constraint system 151 constrains the growth of the electrode assembly 106 with a pressure on the first and second vertical end faces 116, 118 (i.e., in the stacking direction D) that exceeds the pressure maintained on the electrode assembly 106 in at least one, or both, of two directions perpendicular to the stacking direction D by a factor at least 5.

[0138] Similarly, in one embodiment, the first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160 of the primary growth constraint system 151 constrain growth of the electrode assembly 106 by exerting pressure on first and second regions of the side surface 142 of the electrode assembly 106 in a second direction perpendicular to the vertical direction (e.g., on the first and second surface regions 148, 150 that face each other along the height axis, i.e., vertically) that exceeds the pressure exerted by the first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160, respectively, on other surfaces of the electrode assembly 106 perpendicular to the second direction. That is, the first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160 may exert a pressure in the height direction (Z-axis) that exceeds the pressure exerted thereby in perpendicular directions, such as the horizontal (X-axis) and vertical (Y-axis) directions. For example, in one such embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 constrains the growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that the pressure on each of the first and second opposing surface regions 148, 150 (i.e., in the height direction) exceeds, in at least one or both of two orthogonal directions, the pressure maintained on the electrode assembly 106 by the secondary growth constraint system 152 by a factor of at least 3. By further example, in one such embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 constrains the growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that the pressure on each of the first and second opposing surface regions 148, 150 (i.e., in the height direction) exceeds, in at least one or both of two orthogonal directions, the pressure maintained on the electrode assembly 106 by the secondary growth constraint system 152 by a factor of at least 4. By way of further example, in one such embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 constrains the growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that the pressure on each of the first and second opposing surface regions 148, 150 (i.e., in the height direction) exceeds the pressure maintained on the electrode assembly 106 by the secondary growth constraint system 152 in at least one or both of two directions perpendicular thereto by a factor of at least 5.

[0139] In yet another embodiment, the first and second tertiary growth constraints 157, 159 of the tertiary growth constraint system 155 constrain the growth of the electrode assembly 106 by exerting pressure on first and second regions of the side surface 142 of the electrode assembly 106 in a third direction orthogonal to the longitudinal and second directions (e.g., on opposing first and second surface regions 161, 163 along a lateral axis, i.e., laterally) that exceeds the pressure exerted by the tertiary growth constraint system 155 on other surfaces of the electrode assembly 106 in a direction orthogonal to the second direction. That is, the first and second tertiary growth constraints 157, 159 may each exert a pressure in the lateral direction (X-axis) that exceeds the pressure exerted thereby in an orthogonal direction thereto, such as the height (Z-axis) direction and the longitudinal (Y-axis) direction. For example, in one such embodiment, the tertiary growth constraint system 155 constrains the growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that the pressure on each of the first and second opposing surface regions 144, 146 (i.e., in the lateral direction) exceeds, in at least one or both of two orthogonal directions, the pressure maintained on the electrode assembly 106 by the secondary growth constraint system 152 by a factor at least 3. By further example, in one such embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 constrains the growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that the pressure on each of the first and second opposing surface regions 148, 150 (i.e., in the lateral direction) exceeds, in at least one or both of two orthogonal directions, the pressure maintained on the electrode assembly 106 by the tertiary growth constraint system 155 by a factor at least 4. By way of further example, in one such embodiment, the secondary growth constraint system 152 constrains the growth of the electrode assembly 106 such that the pressure on each of the first and second opposing surface regions 148, 150 (i.e., in the lateral direction) exceeds the pressure maintained on the electrode assembly 106 by the tertiary growth constraint system 155 in at least one or both of two directions perpendicular thereto (i.e., by a factor at least 5).

[0140] In one embodiment, the set of electrode constraints 108 includes a primary growth constraint system 151, a secondary growth constraint system 152, and optionally a tertiary growth constraint system 155, and may be configured to exert a pressure on the electrode assembly 106 that is greater than the pressure exerted by the set of electrode constraints in any direction perpendicular to the longitudinal direction (e.g., the Z or X direction). That is, when the pressures exerted by each of the primary growth constraint system 151, secondary growth constraint system 152, and optionally tertiary growth constraint system 155 that make up the set of electrode constraints 108 are summed, the pressure exerted on the electrode assembly 106 along the longitudinal axis exceeds the pressure exerted on the electrode assembly 106 in the direction perpendicular thereto. For example, in one such embodiment, the set of electrode constraints 108 exert a pressure on the first and second longitudinal end faces 116, 118 (i.e., in the stacking direction D) in at least one or both of two directions perpendicular to the stacking direction D that is at least three times greater than the pressure maintained on the electrode assembly 106 by the set of electrode constraints 108. By further example, in one such embodiment, the set of electrode constraints 108 exert a pressure on the first and second longitudinal end faces 116, 118 (i.e., in the stacking direction D) in at least one or both of two directions perpendicular to the stacking direction D that is at least four times greater than the pressure maintained on the electrode assembly 106 by the set of electrode constraints 108. By way of further example, in one such embodiment, the set of electrode constraints 108 exerts a pressure on the first and second longitudinal end faces 116, 118 (i.e., in the stacking direction D) that exceeds the pressure maintained on the electrode assembly 106 by a factor at least 5 in at least one of two directions perpendicular to the stacking direction D, or in both directions.

[0141] According to one embodiment, the first and second longitudinal end faces 116, 118 each have a combined surface area that is less than a predetermined amount of the overall surface area of ​​the electrode assembly 106. For example, in one embodiment, the electrode assembly 106 may have a geometric shape corresponding to that of a rectangular prism having first and second longitudinal end faces 116, 118, respectively, and side faces 142 extending between the end faces 116, 118, respectively, which make up the remaining surfaces of the electrode assembly 106 and have surface areas 144, 146 facing in the X direction (i.e., the sides of the rectangular pillar) and surface areas 148, 150 facing in the Z direction (i.e., the top and bottom faces of the rectangular prism, where X, Y, and Z are dimensions measured in directions corresponding to the X, Y, and Z axes, respectively). Thus, the total surface area is the sum of the surface area covered by the lateral surface 142 (i.e., the surface area of ​​the opposing surfaces 144, 146, 148, 150 in X and Z) plus the surface area of ​​the first and second longitudinal end faces 116, 118, respectively. According to one aspect of the present disclosure, the sum of the surface areas of each of the first and second longitudinal end faces 116, 118 is less than 33% of the total surface area of ​​the electrode assembly 106. For example, in one such embodiment, the sum of the surface areas of each of the first and second longitudinal end faces 116, 118 is less than 25% of the total surface area of ​​the electrode assembly 106. For example, in one such embodiment, the sum of the surface areas of each of the first and second longitudinal end faces 116, 118 is less than 20% of the total surface area of ​​the electrode assembly 106. For example, in one such embodiment, the sum of the surface areas of the first and second longitudinal end faces 116, 118 is less than 15% of the total surface area of ​​the electrode assembly 106. For example, in one such embodiment, the sum of the surface areas of the first and second longitudinal end faces 116, 118 is less than 10% of the total surface area of ​​the electrode assembly 106.

[0142] In yet another embodiment, the electrode assembly 106 is configured such that the surface area of ​​the projection of the electrode assembly 106 onto a plane perpendicular to the stacking direction (i.e., the vertical direction) is smaller than the surface area of ​​the projection of the electrode assembly 106 onto another perpendicular plane. For example, with reference to the embodiment of the electrode assembly 106 (e.g., a rectangular pillar) shown in FIG. 2A, the surface area of ​​the projection of the electrode assembly 106 onto a plane perpendicular to the stacking direction (i.e., the XZ plane) is L EA ×H EA Similarly, the projection of the electrode assembly 106 onto the ZY plane is W EA ×H EA and the projection of the electrode assembly 106 onto the XY plane is L EA ×W EA Thus, the electrode assembly 106 is configured such that the stacking direction intersects the plane on which the projection with the smallest surface area lies. Thus, in the embodiment of FIG. 2A, the electrode assembly 106 is configured such that the stacking direction intersects the plane on which the projection with the smallest surface area lies. EA ×L EA The electrode assembly is positioned so that it intersects with the XZ plane on which the projection with the smallest surface area corresponding to the projection with the smallest surface area (e.g., H EA ×L EA ) are positioned so as to be perpendicular to the stacking direction.

[0143] In yet another embodiment, the secondary battery 102 may include multiple electrode assemblies 106 stacked together to form an electrode stack and constrained by one or more shared electrode constraints. For example, in one embodiment, at least a portion of one or more of the primary growth constraint system 151 and the secondary growth constraint system 152 may be shared by the multiple electrode assemblies 106 forming the electrode assembly stack. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the multiple electrode assemblies 106 forming the stack may be constrained in the height direction by a secondary growth constraint system 152 having a first secondary growth constraint 158 ​​on an upper electrode assembly 106 in the stack and a second secondary growth constraint 160 on a lower electrode assembly 106 in the stack, such that the multiple electrode assemblies 106 forming the electrode assembly stack are constrained in the height direction by the shared secondary growth constraint system. Similarly, a portion of the primary growth constraint system 151 may also be shared. Thus, in one embodiment, similar to the single electrode assembly described above, the surface area of ​​the projection of the stack of electrode assemblies 106 in a plane perpendicular to the stacking direction (i.e., vertically) is smaller than the surface area of ​​the projection of the stack of electrode assemblies 106 in another perpendicular plane. That is, the multiple electrode assemblies 106 may be configured such that their stacking directions (i.e., vertical directions) intersect and the area of ​​the projection of the electrode assembly stack 106 onto other orthogonal planes is smallest among the projections of the electrode assembly stack 106 onto other orthogonal planes.

[0144] According to one embodiment, the electrode assembly 106 further includes an electrode structure 110 configured such that the surface area of ​​the projection of the electrode structure 110 in a plane perpendicular to the stacking direction (i.e., in the vertical direction) is greater than the surface area of ​​the projection of the electrode structure 100 in another perpendicular plane. For example, with reference to the embodiment shown in Figures 2 and 7, the electrodes 110 each have a length L measured in the horizontal direction. ES , the width measured in the longitudinal direction W ES , and the height H measured in the height direction ES Therefore, as shown in FIGS. 2 and 7, the projection onto the XZ plane has a surface area L ES ×H ES and its projection onto the YZ plane is the surface area W ES ×HES and its projection onto the XY plane has a surface area L ES ×W ES Among these, the plane corresponding to the projection having the largest surface area is selected to be perpendicular to the stacking direction. Similarly, the electrode 1100 may be configured so that the surface area of ​​the projection of the electrode active material 132 on a plane perpendicular to the stacking direction is larger than the surface area of ​​the projection of the electrode active material on another perpendicular plane. For example, in the embodiment shown in FIGS. 2 and 7, the electrode active material has a length L measured in the lateral direction. ES , the width measured in the longitudinal direction W ES , and the height H measured in the height direction ES and can be calculated from the surface area of ​​these projections (L ES , L A , W ES , W A , H ES、 and H ES (Note that, if the dimensions of the electrode active material and / or electrode active material layer 132 vary along one or more axes, the distance may also correspond to the maximum of these dimensions.) In one embodiment, by orienting the electrode structure 110 so that the surface of the electrode structure 100 and / or electrode active material layer 132 with the largest protruding area is perpendicular to the stacking direction, a configuration can be achieved in which the surface of the electrode structure 110 with the largest electrode active material surface area faces the direction of carrier ion travel and undergoes the greatest growth during cycling between charged and discharged states due to intercalation and / or alloying.

[0145] In one embodiment, the electrode structure 110 and the electrode assembly 106 may be configured such that the maximum surface area projection of the electrode structure 110 and / or the electrode active material layer 132 and the minimum surface area projection of the electrode assembly 106 are simultaneously present in a plane perpendicular to the stacking direction. For example, as shown in FIGS. 2 and 7, the XZ plane (L A ×H A ) the projection of the electrode active material 132 is largest, the electrode structure 110 and / or the electrode active material 132 are arranged in such a manner that the projection planes of both projections are perpendicular to the stacking direction. EA ×H EA) that is, the plane having the largest surface area projection of the electrode structure 110 and / or the electrode active material is parallel to (and / or coplanar with) the plane having the smallest surface area projection of the electrode assembly 106. Thus, according to one embodiment, the surface of the electrode structure that is most likely to undergo volumetric growth, i.e., the surface having the highest content of the electrode active material layer, and / or the surface that intersects (e.g., is perpendicular to) the direction of travel of carrier ions during charging and discharging of the secondary battery, faces the surface of the electrode assembly 106 having the smallest surface area. An advantage of providing such a configuration is that a growth constraint system used to constrain this largest growth direction, e.g., along the vertical axis, can be implemented with a growth constraint system that itself has a relatively small surface area compared to the area of ​​the other surfaces of the electrode assembly 106, thereby reducing the volume required to implement the constraint system for constraining the growth of the electrode assembly.

[0146] In one embodiment, the set of constraints can withstand a pressure of 2 MPa or more exerted by the electrode assembly during cycling of the secondary battery between a charged state and a discharged state. In another embodiment, the set of constraints can withstand a pressure of 5 MPa or more exerted by the electrode assembly during cycling of the secondary battery between a charged state and a discharged state. In another embodiment, the set of constraints can withstand a pressure of 7 MPa or more exerted by the electrode assembly during cycling of the secondary battery between a charged state and a discharged state. In yet another embodiment, the set of constraints can withstand a pressure of 10 MPa or more exerted by the electrode assembly during cycling of the secondary battery between a charged state and a discharged state. The set of constraints may be able to withstand and withstand such pressures substantially without fracture or failure of the set of constraints. Furthermore, in some embodiments, the set of constraints can withstand pressures while providing a relatively small volume within the secondary battery 102, as described below.

[0147] In one embodiment, the constraint system 108 occupies a relatively small volume fraction of the combined volume of the electrode assembly 106 and the constraint system 108. That is, the electrode assembly 106 can be understood as having a volume (i.e., a displacement volume) bounded by its exterior surfaces, i.e., the first and second longitudinal end surfaces 116, 118, and the lateral surfaces 42 connecting the end surfaces. The portions of the constraint system 108 that are external to the electrode assembly 106 (i.e., external to the longitudinal end surfaces 116, 118 and lateral surfaces), such that the first and second primary growth constraints 154, 156 are located at the longitudinal ends 117, 119 of the electrode assembly 106 and the first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160 are located at opposite ends of the lateral surfaces 142, similarly occupy a volume corresponding to the displacement volume of the constraint system portion. Thus, in one embodiment, the external portion of the set of electrode constraints 108, including the external portion of the primary growth constraint system 151 (the first and second primary growth constraints 154, 156 and any external ones of the at least one primary connection member, or portions thereof) and the external portion of the secondary growth constraint system 152 (the first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160 and any external ones of the at least one secondary connection member, or portions thereof), occupies 80% or less of the combined volume of the electrode assembly 106 and the external portions of the set of electrode constraints 108. As a further example, in one embodiment, the external portion of the set of electrode constraints occupies 60% or less of the combined volume of the electrode assembly 106 and the external portions of the set of electrode constraints. As yet another example, in one embodiment, the external portion of the set of electrode constraints occupies 40% or less of the combined volume of the electrode assembly 106 and the external portions of the set of electrode constraints. As yet another example, in one embodiment, the external portion of the set of electrode constraints occupies 20% or less of the combined volume of the electrode assembly 106 and the external portions of the set of electrode constraints. In yet another embodiment, the exterior portions of primary growth constraint system 151 (i.e., any exterior first and second growth constraints 154, 156 and at least one primary connecting member, or exterior portions thereof) occupy 40% or less of the combined volume of electrode assembly 106 and the exterior portions of primary growth constraint system 151. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the exterior portions of primary growth constraint system 151 occupy 30% or less of the combined volume of electrode assembly 106 and the exterior portions of primary growth constraint system 151.By way of further example, in one embodiment, the external portion of the primary growth constraint system 151 occupies 20% or less of the combined volume of the electrode assembly 106 and the external portion of the primary growth constraint system 151. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the external portion of the primary growth constraint system 151 occupies 10% or less of the combined volume of the electrode assembly 106 and the external portion of the primary growth constraint system 151. In yet another embodiment, the external portion of the secondary growth constraint system 152 (i.e., any external first and second secondary growth constraints 158, 160 and at least one secondary connecting member, or external portions thereof) occupies 40% or less of the combined volume of the electrode assembly 106 and the external portion of the secondary growth constraint system. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the external portion of the secondary growth constraint system 152 occupies 30% or less of the combined volume of the electrode assembly 106 and the external portion of the secondary growth constraint system. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the external portion of the secondary growth constraint system 152 occupies 20% or less of the combined volume of the electrode assembly 106 and the external portion of the secondary growth constraint system. By way of further example, in one embodiment, the exterior portion of the secondary growth constraint system 152 occupies 10% or less of the combined volume of the electrode assembly 106 and the exterior portion of the secondary growth constraint system.

[0148] According to certain embodiments, the basis for the relatively low volume occupied by a portion of the set of electrode constraints can be understood by reference to the force diagrams shown in FIGS. 8A and 8B. FIG. 8A depicts an embodiment showing the forces ex...

Claims

1. 1. A secondary battery for cycling between charged and discharged states, comprising: a battery housing; an electrode assembly; lithium ions within the battery housing; and a set of electrode constraints, wherein: (a) the electrode assembly has mutually perpendicular horizontal, vertical, and height axes, which correspond to the x-axis, y-axis, and z-axis, respectively, of a virtual three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system, a first vertical end surface and a second vertical end surface separated from each other in the vertical direction, and an electrode assembly vertical axis A ＥＡ and a side surface surrounding the first and second longitudinal end surfaces, the side surface having opposing first and second regions on either side of the longitudinal axis and separated in a first direction perpendicular to the longitudinal axis, the electrode assembly having a maximum width W measured in the transverse direction. ＥＡ and the maximum length L measured laterally and bounded by the side surfaces. ＥＡ and a maximum height H bounded by the side and measured in the height direction. ＥＡ and wherein the maximum length L ＥＡ and the maximum width W ＥＡ The maximum height H ＥＡ is at least 2:1; (b) the electrode assembly includes a series of layers stacked in a stacking direction parallel to the longitudinal axis within the electrode assembly, the series of layers including a set of negative electrode active material layers, a set of negative electrode current collector layers, a set of separator material layers, a set of positive electrode active material layers, and a set of positive electrode current collector material layers, wherein: (i) each member of the set of negative electrode active material layers has a length L corresponding to a ferret diameter of the negative electrode active material layer measured in the lateral direction between the opposing first and second lateral end faces of the negative electrode active material layer; Ｅ and a height H corresponding to a ferret diameter of the negative electrode active material layer measured in the height direction between the opposing first and second height end faces of the negative electrode active material layer. Ｅ and W corresponding to a ferret diameter of the negative electrode active material layer measured in the longitudinal direction between the first and second opposing surfaces of the negative electrode active material layer. Ｅ and where H Ｅ and W Ｅ L for Ｅ is at least 5:1; (ii) each of the positive electrode active material layers has a length L corresponding to a ferret diameter of the positive electrode active material layer measured in the lateral direction between the opposing first and second lateral end surfaces of the positive electrode active material layer; Ｅ and a height H corresponding to a ferret diameter of the positive electrode active material layer measured in the height direction between the opposing first and second height end faces of the positive electrode active material layer. Ｅ and W corresponding to a ferret diameter of the positive electrode active material layer measured in the longitudinal direction between the first and second opposing surfaces of the positive electrode active material layer. Ｅ and where H Ｅ and W Ｅ L for Ｅ is at least 5:1; (iii) each of the negative electrode active material layer sets comprises a particulate material comprising at least 60% by weight of a negative electrode active material, less than 20% by weight of a conductive assistant, and a binder material, the negative electrode active material comprising a silicon-containing material; (c) the set of electrode constraints includes a primary constraint system and a secondary constraint system; (i) the primary constraint system includes first and second growth constraints and at least one primary connecting member, the first and second primary growth constraints being separated from one another in the vertical direction, the at least one primary connecting member connecting the first and second primary growth constraints to at least partially constrain growth of the electrode assembly in the vertical direction; (ii) the secondary constraint system includes first and second secondary growth constraints connected by respective members of the series of stacks separated and stacked in the second direction, where the secondary constraint system at least partially constrains growth of the electrode assembly in the second direction upon cycling of the secondary battery, the second direction being perpendicular to the longitudinal direction; and (iii) the primary constraint system maintains a pressure on the electrode assembly in the stacking direction that exceeds the pressure maintained on the electrode assembly in each of two directions perpendicular to each other and perpendicular to the stacking direction; (d) the electrode assembly includes a collection of unit cells, each unit cell including a unit cell portion of a first member of the collection of electrode current collector layers, a member of the collection of separators that is ionically permeable to the carrier ions, a first member of the collection of electrode active material layers, a unit cell portion of a first member of the collection of counter electrode current collectors, and a first member of the collection of counter electrode active material layers, wherein (aa) the first member of the collection of electrode active material layers is adjacent a first side of the separator and a unit cell portion of a first member of the collection of counter electrode material layers. (b) the separator electrically isolates the first member of the set of electrode active material layers from the first member of the set of counter electrode active material layers, and carrier ions are primarily exchanged between the first member of the set of electrode active material layers and the first member of the set of counter electrode active material layers through the separator in each such unit cell during cycling of the battery between the charged and discharged states; and (c) within each unit cell: a. The first height end surface of the electrode active material layer and the first height end surface of the counter electrode active material layer are on the same side of the electrode assembly, and a 2D map in the X-Z plane of the median height positions of the first opposing height end surfaces of the electrode active material layer is shown along a length LE of the electrode active material layer as a first height end surface plot E ＶＰ１ The 2D map in the XZ plane at the median height position of the first opposing height end surface of the counter electrode active material layer is the length L of the counter electrode active material layer. Ｃ Along the first height end surface plot CE ＶＰ１ where the length L of the first counter electrode active material layer is Ｃ (i) the plot E measured in the height direction in at least 60% of the ＶＰ１ and the plot CE ＶＰ１ The separation distance S between Ｚ１ The absolute value of is 1000 μm ≧ |S Ｚ１ |≧5 μm is satisfied, and (ii) between the first height end surface of the electrode active material layer and the first height end surface of the counter electrode active material layer, the first height end surface of the counter electrode active material layer is disposed inside the first height end surface of the electrode active material layer, b. The second height end surface of the electrode active material layer and the second height end surface of the counter electrode active material layer are on the same side of the electrode assembly and are opposed to the first height end surface of the electrode active material layer and the first height end surface of the counter electrode active material layer, respectively, and a 2D map in the X-Z plane of the median height position of the second opposing height end surface of the electrode active material layer is a length L of the electrode active material layer. Ｅ Along the second height end surface plot E ＶＰ２ The 2D map in the XZ plane at the median height position of the second opposing height end surface of the counter electrode active material layer is the length L of the counter electrode active material layer. Ｃ Along the second height end surface plot CE ＶＰ２ where the length L of the second counter electrode active material layer is Ｃ (i) the plot E measured in the height direction in at least 60% of the ＶＰ２ and the plot CE ＶＰ２ The separation distance S between Ｚ２ The absolute value of is 1000 μm ≧ |S Ｚ２ |≧5 μm is satisfied, and (ii) between the second height end surface of the electrode active material layer and the second height end surface of the counter electrode active material layer, the second height end surface of the counter electrode active material layer is disposed on the inner side with respect to the second height end surface of the electrode active material layer. Secondary battery.

2. the stacked series of layers includes layers having opposing end faces spaced apart from one another in the laterally directed direction, the opposing end faces of the layers exhibiting plastic deformation and deformation oriented in the laterally directed direction due to expansion and contraction of the layers at the opposing end faces; The secondary battery according to claim 1 .

3. Within each unit cell, c. The first lateral end faces of the electrode active material layer and the negative electrode active material layer are on the same side of the electrode assembly, and the height H of the electrode active material layer is Ｅ The 2D map of the median height positions of the first opposing height end faces in the XZ plane along the first lateral end face plot E ＴＰ１ is traced, and the height H of the counter electrode active material layer is Ｃ The 2D map of the median lateral positions of the first opposing lateral end faces in the XZ plane along the first lateral end face plot CE ＴＰ１ wherein, for at least 60% of the height Hc of the counter electrode active material layer, (i) the plot E ＴＰ１ , C.E. ＴＰ１ The lateral measured separation distance S between Ｘ１ The absolute value of |S Ｘ１ |≧5 μm; (ii) the first lateral end surface of the counter electrode active material layer is disposed inwardly with respect to the first vertical end surface of the electrode active material layer, as well as between the first lateral end surface of the electrode active material layer and the first lateral end surface of the counter electrode active material layer; d. The second lateral end surface of the electrode active material layer and the negative electrode active material layer is on the same side of the electrode assembly and faces the first lateral end surface of the electrode active material layer and the negative electrode active material layer, and the height H of the electrode active material layer is Ｅ The 2D map of the median lateral positions of the second opposing lateral end faces in the XZ plane along the second lateral end face plot E ＴＰ２ is traced, and the height H of the counter electrode active material layer is Ｃ The 2D map of the median lateral positions of the second opposing lateral end faces in the XZ plane along the second lateral end face plot CE ＴＰ２ wherein for at least 60% of the height Hc of the second counter electrode active material layer, (i) the plot E ＴＰ２ , C.E. ＴＰ２ The lateral measured separation distance S between Ｘ２ The absolute value of |S Ｘ２ |≧5 μm, and (ii) the second horizontal end surface of the counter electrode active material layer is disposed inwardly with respect to the second vertical end surface of the electrode active material layer, as well as between the second horizontal end surface of the electrode active material layer and the first horizontal end surface of the counter electrode active material layer; The secondary battery according to any one of claims 1 and 2.

4. A secondary battery for cycling between a charged state and a discharged state includes a battery housing, an electrode assembly, carrier ions within the battery housing, and a set of electrode constraints, wherein: (a) the electrode assembly has mutually perpendicular horizontal, vertical and height axes which correspond to the x-axis, y-axis and z-axis, respectively, of a virtual three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system, a first vertical end surface and a second vertical end surface separated from each other in the vertical direction, and an electrode assembly vertical axis A ＥＡ and a side surface surrounding the first and second longitudinal end surfaces, the side surface having opposing first and second regions on either side of the longitudinal axis and separated in a first direction perpendicular to the longitudinal axis, the electrode assembly having a maximum width W measured in the transverse direction. ＥＡ and the maximum length L measured laterally and bounded by the side surfaces. ＥＡ and a maximum height H bounded by the side and measured in the height direction. ＥＡ and wherein the maximum length L ＥＡ and / or the maximum width W ＥＡ is the maximum height H ＥＡ Larger than (b) the electrode assembly includes a series of layers stacked in a stacking direction parallel to the longitudinal axis within the electrode assembly, the series of layers including a set of negative electrode active material layers, a set of negative electrode current collector layers, a set of separator material layers, a set of positive electrode active material layers, and a set of positive electrode current collector material layers, wherein: (i) each of the sets of negative electrode active material layers has a length L corresponding to a ferret diameter of the negative electrode active material layer measured in the lateral direction between the opposing first and second lateral end faces of the negative electrode active material layer; Ｅ and a height H corresponding to a ferret diameter of the negative electrode active material layer measured in the height direction between the opposing first and second height end faces of the negative electrode active material layer. Ｅ and W corresponding to a ferret diameter of the negative electrode active material layer measured in the vertical direction between the first and second opposing surfaces of the negative electrode active material layer. Ｅ and where H Ｅ and W Ｅ L for Ｅ is at least 5:1; (ii) each of the positive electrode material layers has a length L corresponding to a ferret diameter of the positive electrode active material layer measured in the lateral direction between the first and second opposing lateral end faces of the positive electrode active material layer; Ｅ and a height H corresponding to a ferret diameter of the positive electrode active material layer measured in the height direction between the opposing first and second height end faces of the positive electrode active material layer. Ｅ and W corresponding to a ferret diameter of the positive electrode active material layer measured in the longitudinal direction between the first and second opposing surfaces of the positive electrode active material layer. Ｅ and where H Ｅ and W Ｅ L for Ｅ is at least 5:1; (iii) each of the negative electrode active material layer sets comprises a particulate material comprising at least 60% by weight of a negative electrode active material, less than 20% by weight of a conductive assistant, and a binder material; (c) the set of electrode constraints includes a primary constraint system and a secondary constraint system; (i) the primary constraint system includes first and second growth constraints and at least one primary connecting member, the first and second primary growth constraints being separated from one another in the vertical direction, the primary connecting member connecting the first and second primary growth constraints to at least partially constrain growth of the electrode assembly in the vertical direction; and (ii) the secondary constraint system includes first and second secondary growth constraints connected by each of a series of separated and stacked layers in a second direction, where the secondary constraint system at least partially constrains growth of the electrode assembly in the second direction upon cycling of the secondary battery, the second direction being orthogonal to a machine direction; and (iii) the primary constraint system maintains a pressure on the electrode assembly in a stacking direction that exceeds pressures maintained on the electrode assembly in each of two directions perpendicular to each other and perpendicular to the stacking direction; (d) the stacked series of layers includes layers having opposing end faces spaced apart from one another in the laterally direction, the opposing end faces of the layers exhibiting plastic deformation and deformation oriented in the laterally direction due to expansion and contraction of the layers at the opposing end faces. Secondary battery.

5. The electrode assembly includes a set of unit cells, where each unit cell includes a unit cell portion of a first member of the set of electrode current collector layers, a member of a set of separators that are ionically permeable to carrier ions, a first member of the set of electrode active material layers, a unit cell portion of a first member of the set of counter electrode current collectors, and a first member of the set of counter electrode active material layers, where (aa) the first member of the set of electrode active material layers is adjacent a first side of the separator and a unit cell portion of a first member of the set of counter electrode material layers. (b) the separator electrically isolates the first member of the set of electrode active material layers from the first member of the set of counter electrode active material layers, and carrier ions are primarily exchanged between the first member of the set of electrode active material layers and the first member of the set of counter electrode active material layers through the separator in each such unit cell during cycling of the battery between the charged and discharged states; and (c) within each unit cell: a. The first height end surface of the electrode active material layer and the first height end surface of the counter electrode active material layer are on the same side of the electrode assembly, and a 2D map in the X-Z plane of the median height position of the first opposing height end surfaces of the electrode active material layer is a length L of the electrode active material layer. Ｅ Along the first height end surface plot E ＶＰ１ The 2D map in the XZ plane at the median height position of the first opposing height end surface of the counter electrode active material layer is the length L of the counter electrode active material layer. Ｃ Along the first height end surface plot CE ＶＰ１ where the length L of the first counter electrode active material layer is Ｃ (i) the height-direction measured plot E ＶＰ１ , C.E. ＶＰ１ Separation distance S between Ｚ１ The absolute value of is 1000 μm ≧ |S Ｚ１ |≧5 μm is satisfied, and (ii) between the first height end surface of the electrode active material layer and the first height end surface of the counter electrode active material layer, the first height end surface of the counter electrode active material layer is disposed inside with respect to the first height end surface of the electrode active material layer; The second height end surface of the electrode active material layer and the second height end surface of the counter electrode active material layer are on the same side of the electrode assembly and are opposed to the first height end surface of the electrode active material layer and the first height end surface of the counter electrode active material layer, respectively, and a 2D map in the X-Z plane of the median height position of the second opposing height end surfaces of the electrode active material layer is a length L of the electrode active material layer. Ｅ Along the second height end surface plot E ＶＰ２ The 2D map in the XZ plane at the median height position of the second opposing height end surface of the counter electrode active material layer is the length L of the counter electrode active material layer. Ｃ Along the second height end surface plot CE ＶＰ２ where the length L of the second counter electrode active material layer is Ｃ (i) the height-direction measured plot E ＶＰ２ , C.E. ＶＰ２ Separation distance S between Ｚ２ The absolute value of is 1000 μm ≧ |S Ｚ２ |≧5 μm is satisfied, and (ii) between the second height end surface of the electrode active material layer and the second height end surface of the counter electrode active material layer, the second height end surface of the counter electrode active material layer is disposed on the inner side with respect to the second height end surface of the electrode active material layer; The secondary battery according to claim 4 .

6. Within each unit cell, c. a first lateral end surface of the electrode active material layer and the negative electrode active material layer are on the same side of the electrode assembly, and a height H of the electrode active material layer is Ｅ The 2D map of the median height positions of the first opposing height end surface in the XZ plane along the first lateral end surface plot E ＴＰ１ is traced, and the height H of the counter electrode active material layer is Ｃ The 2D map of the median lateral position of the first opposing lateral end surface in the XZ plane along the first lateral end surface plot CE ＴＰ１ wherein, for at least 60% of the height Hc of the counter electrode active material layer, (i) the plot E ＴＰ１ , C.E. ＴＰ１ The lateral measured separation distance S between Ｘ１ The absolute value of |S Ｘ１ |≧5 μm; (ii) the first lateral end surface of the counter electrode active material layer is disposed inwardly with respect to the first height end surface of the electrode active material layer, as well as between the first lateral end surface of the electrode active material layer and the first lateral end surface of the counter electrode active material layer; d. The second lateral end faces of the electrode active material layer and the negative electrode active material layer are on the same side of the electrode assembly and face the first lateral end faces of the electrode active material layer and the negative electrode active material layer, and the height H of the electrode active material layer is Ｅ The 2D map of the median lateral positions of the second opposing lateral end faces in the XZ plane along the second lateral end face plot E ＴＰ２ is traced, and the height H of the counter electrode active material layer is Ｃ The 2D map of the median lateral position of the second opposing lateral end surface in the XZ plane along the second lateral end surface plot CE ＴＰ２ wherein for at least 60% of the height Hc of the second counter electrode active material layer, (i) the plot E ＴＰ２ , C.E. ＴＰ２ The lateral measured separation distance S between Ｘ２ The absolute value of |S Ｘ２ |≧5 μm; and (ii) the second horizontal end surface of the counter electrode active material layer is disposed inwardly with respect to the second vertical end surface of the electrode active material layer, as well as between the second horizontal end surface of the electrode active material layer and the second horizontal end surface of the counter electrode active material layer; The secondary battery according to any one of claims 4 and 5.

7. A secondary battery for cycling between charged and discharged states includes a battery housing, an electrode assembly, a lithium ion battery within the battery housing, and a set of electrode constraints, wherein: (a) the electrode assembly has mutually perpendicular horizontal, vertical and height axes, which correspond to the x-axis, y-axis and z-axis, respectively, of a virtual three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system, first and second vertical end faces separated from each other, and an electrode assembly vertical axis A ＥＡ and a side surface surrounding the first and second longitudinal end surfaces, the side surface having opposing first and second regions on either side of the longitudinal axis and separated in a first direction perpendicular to the longitudinal axis, the electrode assembly having a maximum width W measured in the transverse direction. ＥＡ and the maximum length L measured laterally and bounded by the side surfaces. ＥＡ and a maximum height H bounded by the side and measured in the height direction. ＥＡ and wherein the maximum length L ＥＡ and the maximum width W ＥＡ The maximum height H ＥＡ is at least 2:1; (b) the electrode assembly includes a series of layers stacked in a stacking direction parallel to the longitudinal axis within the electrode assembly, the series of layers including a set of negative electrode active material layers, a set of negative electrode current collector layers, a set of separator material layers, a set of positive electrode active material layers, and a set of positive electrode current collector material layers, wherein: (i) each of the sets of negative electrode active material layers has a length L corresponding to a ferret diameter of the negative electrode active material layer measured in the lateral direction between the opposing first and second lateral end faces of the negative electrode active material layer; Ｅ and a height H corresponding to a ferret diameter of the negative electrode active material layer measured in the height direction between the opposing first and second height end faces of the negative electrode active material layer. Ｅ and W corresponding to a ferret diameter of the negative electrode active material layer measured in the vertical direction between the first and second opposing surfaces of the negative electrode active material layer. Ｅ and where H Ｅ and W Ｅ L for Ｅ is at least 5:1; (ii) each of the positive electrode active material layers has a length L corresponding to a ferret diameter of the positive electrode active material layer measured in the lateral direction between the opposing first and second lateral end surfaces of the positive electrode active material layer; Ｅ and a height H corresponding to a ferret diameter of the positive electrode active material layer measured in the height direction between the opposing first and second height end faces of the positive electrode active material layer. Ｅ and W corresponding to a ferret diameter of the positive electrode active material layer measured in the longitudinal direction between the first and second opposing surfaces of the positive electrode active material layer. Ｅ and where H Ｅ and W Ｅ L for Ｅ is at least 5:1; (iii) each of the negative electrode active material layer sets comprises a particulate material comprising at least 60% by weight of a negative electrode active material, less than 20% by weight of a conductive assistant, and a binder material, the negative electrode active material comprising a silicon-containing material; (c) the set of electrode constraints includes a primary constraint system and a secondary constraint system; (i) the primary constraint system includes first and second growth constraints and at least one primary connecting member, the first and second primary growth constraints being separated from one another in the vertical direction, the primary connecting member connecting the first and second primary growth constraints to at least partially constrain growth of the electrode assembly in the vertical direction; and (ii) the secondary constraint system includes first and second secondary growth constraints connected by each of a series of separated and stacked layers in a second direction, where the secondary constraint system at least partially constrains growth of the electrode assembly in the second direction upon cycling of the secondary battery, the second direction being orthogonal to a machine direction; and (iii) the primary constraint system maintains a pressure on the electrode assembly in the stacking direction that exceeds pressures maintained on the electrode assembly in each of two directions perpendicular to each other and perpendicular to the stacking direction; (d) the electrode assembly includes a set of unit cells, each unit cell including a unit cell portion of a first member of the set of electrode current collector layers, a member of a set of separators that are ionically permeable to carrier ions, a first member of the set of electrode active material layers, a unit cell portion of a first member of the set of counter electrode current collectors, and a first member of the set of counter electrode active material layers, wherein (aa) the first member of the set of electrode active material layers is adjacent a first side of the separator and the first member of the set of counter electrode material layers is adjacent a first side of the separator. a first member of the set of layers adjacent to an opposite second side of the separator, (bb) the separator electrically isolates the first member of the set of electrode active material layers from the first member of the set of counter electrode active material layers, and carrier ions are primarily exchanged between the first member of the set of electrode active material layers and the first member of the set of counter electrode active material layers through the separator of each such unit cell during cycling of the battery between the charged and discharged states, and (cc) within each unit cell: c. a first lateral end surface of the electrode active material layer and the negative electrode active material layer are on the same side of the electrode assembly, and a height H of the electrode active material layer is Ｅ The 2D map of the median height positions of the first opposing height end faces in the XZ plane along the first lateral end face plot E ＴＰ１ is traced, and the height H of the counter electrode active material layer is Ｃ The 2D map of the median lateral position of the first opposing lateral end surface in the XZ plane along the first lateral end surface plot CE ＴＰ１ wherein, for at least 60% of the height Hc of the counter electrode active material layer, (i) the plot E ＴＰ１ , C.E. ＴＰ１ The lateral measured separation distance S between Ｘ１ The absolute value of |S Ｘ１ |≧5 μm; (ii) the first lateral end surface of the counter electrode active material layer is disposed inwardly with respect to the first height end surface of the electrode active material layer, as well as between the first lateral end surface of the electrode active material layer and the first lateral end surface of the counter electrode active material layer; d. The second lateral end faces of the electrode active material layer and the negative electrode active material layer are on the same side of the electrode assembly and face the first lateral end faces of the electrode active material layer and the negative electrode active material layer, and the height H of the electrode active material layer is Ｅ The 2D map of the median lateral positions of the second opposing lateral end faces in the XZ plane along the second lateral end face plot E ＴＰ２ is traced, and the height H of the counter electrode active material layer is Ｃ The 2D map of the median lateral position of the second opposing lateral end surface in the XZ plane along the second lateral end surface plot CE ＴＰ２ wherein for at least 60% of the height Hc of the second counter electrode active material layer, (i) the plot E ＴＰ２ , C.E. ＴＰ２ The lateral measured separation distance S between Ｘ２ The absolute value of |S Ｘ２ |≧5 μm; and (ii) the second horizontal end surface of the counter electrode active material layer is disposed inwardly with respect to the second vertical end surface of the electrode active material layer, as well as between the second horizontal end surface of the electrode active material layer and the second horizontal end surface of the counter electrode active material layer; Secondary battery.

8. the stacked series of layers includes layers having opposing end faces spaced apart from one another in the laterally direction, the opposing end faces of the layers exhibiting plastic deformation and deformation oriented in the laterally direction due to expansion and contraction of the layers at the opposing end faces; The secondary battery according to claim 7.

9. Within each unit cell, a. The first height end surface of the electrode active material layer and the first height end surface of the counter electrode active material layer are on the same side of the electrode assembly, and a 2D map in the X-Z plane of the median height position of the first opposing height end surfaces of the electrode active material layer is a length L of the electrode active material layer. Ｅ Along the first height end surface plot E ＶＰ１ The 2D map in the XZ plane at the median height position of the first opposing height end surface of the counter electrode active material layer is the length L of the counter electrode active material layer. Ｃ Along the first height end surface plot CE ＶＰ１ where the length L of the first counter electrode active material layer is Ｃ (i) the height-direction measured plot E ＶＰ１ , C.E. ＶＰ１ The separation distance S between Ｚ１ The absolute value of is 1000 μm ≧ |S Ｚ１ |≧5 μm is satisfied, and (ii) between the first height end surface of the electrode active material layer and the first height end surface of the counter electrode active material layer, the first height end surface of the counter electrode active material layer is disposed inside with respect to the first height end surface of the electrode active material layer; b. The second height end surface of the electrode active material layer and the second height end surface of the counter electrode active material layer are on the same side of the electrode assembly and are opposed to the first height end surface of the electrode active material layer and the first height end surface of the counter electrode active material layer, respectively, and a 2D map in the X-Z plane of the median height position of the second opposing height end surfaces of the electrode active material layer is a length L of the electrode active material layer. Ｅ Along the second height end surface plot E ＶＰ２ The 2D map in the XZ plane at the median height position of the second opposing height end surface of the counter electrode active material layer is the length L of the counter electrode active material layer. Ｃ Along the second height end surface plot CE ＶＰ２ where the length L of the second counter electrode active material layer is Ｃ (i) the height-direction measured plot E ＶＰ２ , C.E. ＶＰ２ The separation distance S between Ｚ２ The absolute value of is 1000 μm ≧ |S Ｚ２ |≧5 μm is satisfied, and (ii) between the second height end surface of the electrode active material layer and the second height end surface of the counter electrode active material layer, the second height end surface of the counter electrode active material layer is disposed on the inner side with respect to the second height end surface of the electrode active material layer; The secondary battery according to any one of claims 7 to 8.

10. 10. The secondary battery of claim 1, wherein the negative electrode active material layer member comprises a particulate material having at least 80% by weight of the negative electrode active material.

11. 11. The secondary battery according to claim 1, wherein the negative electrode active material layer member comprises a particulate material having at least 90% by weight of the negative electrode active material.

12. 12. The secondary battery according to claim 1, wherein the negative electrode active material layer member comprises a particulate material having at least 95% by weight of the negative electrode active material.

13. The secondary battery according to any one of claims 1 to 12, wherein the electrode active material comprising a silicon-containing material comprises at least one of silicon, silicon oxide, and a mixture thereof.

14. The secondary battery according to any one of claims 1 to 13, wherein the negative electrode active material layer member contains less than 10% by weight of a conductive assistant.

15. The secondary battery according to any one of claims 1 to 14, wherein the components of the negative electrode active material layer include a conductive assistant containing at least one of copper, nickel, and carbon.

16. The secondary battery according to any one of claims 1 to 15, wherein the components of the positive electrode active material layer include a positive electrode active material containing a transition metal oxide material containing lithium and at least one of cobalt and nickel.

17. A secondary battery as described in any one of claims 1 to 16, wherein the first and second secondary growth constraints separated in the second direction are connected to each other by members of the series of stacks consisting of members of the set of negative electrode current collecting layers.

18. the first and second secondary growth constraints separated in the second direction are connected to one another by members of the series of stacks of members of the set of negative electrode current collector layers, the negative electrode current collector layers including a negative electrode backbone layer for an electrode structure of which it is a part; A secondary battery according to any one of claims 1 to 17.

19. the first and second secondary growth constraints separated in the second direction are connected to each other by members of the series of stacks of members of the set of negative electrode current collector layers, and for each member of the negative electrode current collector layer, the member of the negative electrode current collector layer has a member of the set of negative electrode active material layers disposed on a surface thereof. A secondary battery according to any one of claims 1 to 18.

20. the first and second secondary growth constraints separated in the second direction are connected to each other by layer members of a series of stacks of members of the set of negative electrode current collector layers, the members of the set of negative electrode current collector layers including members of negative electrode active material layers disposed on both opposing sides thereof in the series of stacks; A secondary battery according to any one of claims 1 to 19.

21. 21. The secondary battery of claim 1, wherein the members of the set of negative electrode current collector layers include one or more of copper and stainless steel.

22. 22. The secondary battery of claim 1, wherein a member of the negative electrode current collector assembly has a thickness measured in the stacking direction of less than 20 microns and greater than or equal to 2 microns.

23. 23. The secondary battery of claim 1, wherein the members of the set of negative electrode current collector layers have a thickness measured in the stacking direction within the range of 6 to 18 microns.

24. 24. The secondary battery of claim 1, wherein the members of the set of negative electrode current collector layers have a thickness measured in the stacking direction within the range of 8 to 14 microns.

25. A secondary battery as described in any one of claims 1-24, wherein the first and second secondary growth constraints separated in the second direction are connected to each other by a member of the series of stacks having a member of a set of positive electrode current collecting layers.

26. The secondary battery according to any one of claims 1 to 25, wherein the positive electrode current collector layer member comprises aluminum.

27. 27. The secondary battery according to claim 1, wherein the positive electrode current collector layer member has a thickness measured in the stacking direction of less than 20 microns and greater than or equal to 2 microns.

28. 28. The secondary battery according to claim 1, wherein the positive electrode current collector layer member has a thickness measured in the stacking direction within a range of 6-18 microns.

29. 29. The secondary battery according to claim 1, wherein the positive electrode current collector layer member has a thickness measured in the stacking direction within a range of 8-14 microns.

30. The secondary battery of any one of claims 1-29, wherein the first and second secondary growth constraints spaced apart in the second direction are connected to each other by a member of the series of stacks that includes a member of the set of negative electrode active material layers.

31. 31. The secondary battery of claim 1, wherein the first and second secondary growth constraints spaced apart in the second direction are connected to each other by a member of the series of stacks that includes a member of the set of positive electrode active material layers.

32. A secondary battery as described in any one of claims 1-31, wherein the first and second secondary growth constraints spaced apart in the second direction are connected to each other by members of the series of stacks that include members of the set of separator material layers.

33. A secondary battery according to any one of claims 1 to 32, wherein the housing is hermetically sealed.

34. A secondary battery as described in any one of claims 1-33, wherein the set of constraints is within the battery housing.

35. A secondary battery as described in any one of claims 1-34, wherein the primary constraint system is within the battery housing.

36. A secondary battery as described in any one of claims 1-35, wherein the secondary constraint system is within the battery housing.

37. and a tertiary growth constraint system including first and second tertiary growth constraints, wherein the first and second tertiary growth constraints are spaced apart from one another in a third direction perpendicular to the longitudinal direction and the second direction, and at least one tertiary connecting member connects the first and second tertiary growth constraints to at least partially restrain growth of the electrode assembly in the third direction. A secondary battery according to any one of claims 1 to 36.

38. A secondary battery as described in any one of claims 1-37, wherein the tertiary growth constraint system is within the battery housing.

39. 39. The secondary battery of claim 1, wherein the separator material layer comprises a porous separator material that contains a polymer electrolyte or that allows liquid electrolyte to pass through.

40. The secondary battery of any one of claims 1 to 39, wherein the electrode active material comprises a molded body of a silicon-containing particulate electrode active material.

41. a member of the set of negative electrode current collector layers includes a copper-containing layer, and the stacked series includes the member of the set of negative electrode current collector layers in stacked order with a member of the negative electrode active material layer disposed on an opposing side of the negative electrode current collector layer; A secondary battery according to any one of claims 1 to 40.

42. 42. The secondary battery of claim 1, wherein the members of the negative electrode active material layer assembly include compacts of particulate silicon-containing material, the members being disposed on opposing sides of a copper-containing negative electrode current collector forming a negative electrode backbone.

43. The members of the set of electrode active material layers have a height dimension H of at least 2.5 mm. Ｅ The secondary battery according to any one of claims 1 to 42, comprising:

44. The members of the electrode active material layer assembly have a height dimension H of at least 3 mm. Ｅ The secondary battery according to any one of claims 1 to 43, comprising:

45. 45. The secondary battery of claim 1, wherein the negative electrode current collector has both longitudinal ends welded to a conductive bus bar.

46. 46. ​​The secondary battery of any one of claims 1-45, wherein a member of the positive electrode current collector assembly comprises an aluminum-containing material.

47. The primary constraint system restricts the longitudinal growth of the electrode assembly such that the longitudinal ferret diameter of the electrode assembly increases by less than 20% over 20 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery, wherein the state of charge of the secondary battery is at least 75% of the rated capacity of the secondary battery and the state of discharge of the secondary battery is less than 25% of the rated capacity of the secondary battery. A secondary battery according to any one of claims 1 to 46.

48. A secondary battery as described in any one of claims 1-47, wherein the primary constraint array constrains the longitudinal growth of the electrode assembly such that the longitudinal ferret diameter of the electrode assembly increases by less than 20% over 50 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery.

49. A secondary battery as described in any one of claims 1-48, wherein the primary constraint array constrains the longitudinal growth of the electrode assembly such that the longitudinal ferret diameter of the electrode assembly increases by less than 20% over 100 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery.

50. A secondary battery as described in any one of claims 1-49, wherein the primary constraint array constrains the longitudinal growth of the electrode assembly such that the longitudinal ferret diameter of the electrode assembly increases by less than 10% over 10 consecutive cycles of the secondary battery.

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