Sulfur-doped carbon-based nanomaterials and methods for forming same - Patents.com

Abstract

The present disclosure relates to a carbon-based nanomaterial composition that can be formed from a gas mixture and sulfur powder. The gas mixture can include a carbon-based gas, oxygen gas, and hydrogen gas. The carbon-based nanomaterial composition can include sulfur-doped nanospheres.

Description

[Technical field]

[0001] The present disclosure relates to sulfur-doped carbon-based nanomaterial compositions and methods of forming the same. More specifically, the present disclosure relates to methods, systems, and apparatus for converting a gas mixture into a sulfur-doped carbon-based nanomaterial composition. [Background technology]

[0002] It is well known that carbon, especially carbon combined with CO and CO2, or any form of carbon that can be converted into greenhouse gases, is responsible for the rise in global temperatures. Various technologies have been developed to capture carbon produced by human activities, primarily industrial processes, the combustion of fossil fuels, and other vehicles (e.g., planes, cars and trucks, and commercial and residential uses).

[0003] Carbon-based materials have many desirable properties, such as high thermal and electrical conductivity along their planes, unique optical properties, high mechanical strength, etc. These properties have led to the use of carbon-based nanomaterials in a variety of applications, including energy storage, electronics, semiconductors, composites, and membranes.

[0004] Existing combustion-based technologies for producing carbon-based nanomaterials use oxygen and carbon-based gas mixtures, but these technologies do not completely and consistently decompose the carbon, resulting in inconsistent products. Summary of the Invention

[0005] According to a first aspect, a carbon-based nanomaterial composition can be formed from a gas mixture and sulfur powder. The gas mixture can include a carbon-based gas, oxygen gas, and hydrogen gas. The carbon-based nanomaterial composition can include sulfur-doped nanospheres.

[0006] According to another aspect, a method of forming a carbon-based nanomaterial composition can include providing a forming mixture that can include a gas mixture and sulfur powder, and igniting the forming mixture to form a carbon-based nanomaterial composition. The gas mixture can include a carbon-based gas, an oxygen gas, and a hydrogen gas. The carbon-based nanomaterial composition can include sulfur-doped nanospheres.

[0007] According to yet another embodiment, the carbon-based nanomaterial composition can include sulfur-doped nanospheres, a carbon content of at least about 60% and not more than about 99% based on elemental analysis of the carbon-based nanomaterial composition, an oxygen content of at least about 0.0% and not more than about 35% based on elemental analysis of the carbon-based nanomaterial composition, and a sulfur content of at least about 1% and not more than about 50%.

[0008] According to another aspect, a carbon-based nanomaterial based cathode can include a layer of a carbon-based nanomaterial composition. The carbon-based nanomaterial composition can be formed from a gas mixture and sulfur powder. The gas mixture can include a carbon-based gas, oxygen gas, and hydrogen gas. The carbon-based nanomaterial composition can include sulfur-doped nanospheres.

[0009] According to another aspect, a method of forming a carbon-based nanomaterial-based cathode can include providing a forming mixture that can include a gas mixture and sulfur powder, igniting the forming mixture to form a carbon-based nanomaterial composition, and forming the carbon-based nanomaterial composition into a layer of the carbon-based nanomaterial-based cathode. The gas mixture can include a carbon-based gas, oxygen gas, and hydrogen gas. The carbon-based nanomaterial composition can include sulfur-doped nanospheres.

[0010] According to yet another embodiment, a carbon-based nanomaterial based cathode can include a layer of a carbon-based nanomaterial composition that can include sulfur-doped nanospheres, a carbon content of at least about 60% and not more than about 99% based on elemental analysis of the carbon-based nanomaterial composition, an oxygen content of at least about 0.0% and not more than about 35% based on elemental analysis of the carbon-based nanomaterial composition, and a sulfur content of at least about 1% and not more than about 50% based on elemental analysis of the carbon-based nanomaterial composition. [Brief description of the drawings]

[0011] Embodiments are illustrated by way of example and not by way of limitation in the accompanying figures.

[0012] [Figure 1] Included are diagrams illustrating methods of forming carbon-based nanomaterial compositions according to embodiments described herein. [Diagram 2] 1 provides a schematic diagram of a carbon capture system according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Diagram 3] 1A-1C illustrate methods of forming a carbon-based nanomaterial-based cathode or a carbon-based nanomaterial-based anode according to embodiments described herein.

[0013] Skilled artisans will appreciate that elements in the figures are illustrated for simplicity and clarity and have not necessarily been drawn to scale. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

[0014] DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS The following discussion focuses on specific implementations and embodiments of the teachings. The detailed description is provided to help explain the particular embodiments and should not be construed as limiting the scope or applicability of the disclosure or teachings. It will be understood that other embodiments may be used based on the disclosure and teachings provided herein.

[0015] The terms "comprises," "comprising," "includes," "including," "has," "having," or other variations are intended to cover a non-exclusive inclusion. For example, a method, article, or apparatus that includes a list of features is not necessarily limited to only those features and may include other features not expressly recited or inherent to such method, article, or apparatus. Unless expressly stated to the contrary, "or" refers to an inclusive or, not an exclusive or. For example, a condition A or B is satisfied by any one of the following: A is true (or present) and B is false (or absent), A is false (or absent) and B is true (or present), or both A and B are true (or present).

[0016] The use of "a" or "an" is also used to describe elements and components described herein. This is done merely for convenience and to convey a general sense of the scope of the invention. This description should be construed as including one, at least one, or the singular inclusive of the plural, or vice versa, unless expressly stated otherwise. For example, where a single item is described herein, the plural item may be used in place of the single item. Similarly, where a plurality of items is described herein, the single item may be used in place of the plural items.

[0017] The embodiments described herein are generally directed to carbon-based nanomaterial compositions that may include sulfur-doped nanospheres. According to certain embodiments, a carbon-based nanomaterial composition may be defined as any carbon-based nanomaterial that may include a specific carbon content and a specific oxygen content.

[0018] Turning first to a method of forming a carbon-based nanomaterial composition, Figure 1 includes a diagram illustrating a forming method 1000 for forming a carbon-based nanomaterial composition according to embodiments described herein. According to certain embodiments, the forming method 1000 can include a first step 1010 of providing a forming mixture and a second step 1020 of igniting the forming mixture to form the carbon-based nanomaterial composition.

[0019] According to a particular embodiment, referring to the first step 1010, the forming mixture may include a gas mixture and sulfur powder.

[0020] According to certain embodiments, the forming mixture may include a content of a specific sulfur powder. For example, the forming mixture may include sulfur powder at a concentration of at least about 1 vol.%, for example, at least about 2 vol.%, or at least about 4 vol.%, or at least about 6 vol.%, or at least about 8 vol.%, or at least about 10 vol.%, or at least about 12 vol.%, or at least about 14 vol.%, or at least about 16 vol.%, or at least about 18 vol.%, or at least about 20 vol.%, or at least about 22 vol.%, or at least about 24 vol.%, or at least about 25 vol.% based on the total volume of the forming mixture. According to still other embodiments, the forming mixture may include sulfur powder at a concentration of about 50 vol.% or less, for example, about 48 vol.% or less, or about 46 vol.% or less, or about 44 vol.% or less, or about 42 vol.% or less, or about 40 vol.% or less, or about 38 vol.% or less, or about 36 vol.% or less, or about 34 vol.% or less, or about 32 vol.% or less, or about 30 vol.% or less, or about 28 vol.% or less, or about 26 vol.% or less. It will be appreciated that the sulfur powder concentration in the forming mixture may be any value between and including any of the minimum and maximum values ​​recited above. It will also be appreciated that the sulfur powder concentration in the forming mixture may be within a range between and including any of the minimum and maximum values ​​recited above.

[0021] According to certain embodiments, the forming mixture may include a content of a particular gas mixture. For example, the forming mixture may include the gas mixture at a concentration of at least about 50% by volume, for example, at least about 52% by volume or at least about 54% by volume or at least about 56% by volume or at least about 58% by volume or at least about 60% by volume or at least about 62% by volume or at least about 64% by volume or at least about 66% by volume or at least about 68% by volume or at least about 70% by volume or at least about 72% by volume or at least about 74% by volume or at least about 75% by volume, based on the total volume of the forming mixture. According to still other embodiments, the forming mixture may include the gas mixture at a concentration of about 98% by volume or less, for example, about 97% by volume or less or about 96% by volume or less or about 94% by volume or less or about 92% by volume or less or about 90% by volume or less or about 88% by volume or less or about 86% by volume or less or about 84% by volume or less or about 82% by volume or less or about 80% by volume or less or about 78% by volume or less or about 76% by volume. It will be appreciated that the gas mixture concentration in the forming mixture may be any value between and including any of the minimum and maximum values ​​recited above. It will further be appreciated that the gas mixture concentration in the forming mixture may be within a range between and including any of the minimum and maximum values ​​recited above.

[0022] According to certain embodiments, the gas mixture may include a carbon-based gas, oxygen gas, and hydrogen gas.

[0023] According to a particular embodiment, the gas mixture has a particular molar ratio of CBG mol / GM mol (CBG mol is equal to the number of moles of carbonaceous gas in the gas mixture, and GM molis equal to the total number of moles of gas in the gas mixture). For example, the gas mixture can include a molar ratio CBG of at least about 0.05, e.g., at least about 0.06, or at least about 0.07, or at least about 0.08, or at least about 0.09, or at least about 0.10, or at least about 0.11, or at least about 0.12, or at least about 0.13, or at least about 0.14, or at least about 0.15, or at least about 0.16, or at least about 0.17, or at least about 0.18, or at least about 0.19, or at least about 0.20, or at least about 0.21, or at least about 0.22, or at least about 0.23, or at least about 0.24, or at least about 0.25, or at least about 0.26, or at least about 0.27, or at least about 0.28, or at least about 0.29, or even at least about 0.30. mol / GM mol According to yet other embodiments, the gas mixture may include a molar ratio CBG of about 0.99 or less, e.g., about 0.95 or less, or about 0.90 or less, or about 0.85 or less, or about 0.80 or less, or about 0.75 or less, or about 0.70 or less, or about 0.69 or less, or about 0.68 or less, or about 0.67 or less, or about 0.66 or less, or about 0.65 or less, or about 0.64 or less, or about 0.63 or less, or about 0.62 or less, or about 0.61 or less, or about 0.60 or less, or about 0.59 or less, or about 0.58 or less, or about 0.57 or less, or about 0.56 or less, or about 0.55 or less, or about 0.54 or less, or about 0.53 or less, or about 0.52 or less, or about 0.51 or less, or even about 0.50 or less. mol / GM mol The gas mixture may include any molar ratio C BG between and including any of the minimum and maximum values ​​listed above. mol / GM mol It will be understood that the gas mixture may further include a molar ratio CBG within a range between any of the minimum and maximum values ​​set forth above, inclusive. mol / GM mol It will be understood that may be included.

[0024] According to certain embodiments, the gas mixture can include a content of a particular carbon-based gas. For example, the gas mixture can include at least about 0.8 mol of a carbon-based gas, such as at least about 0.9 mol, or at least about 1.0 mol, or at least about at least about 1.01 mol, or at least about 1.02 mol, or at least about 1.03 mol, or at least about 1.04 mol, or at least about 1.05 mol, or at least about 1.06 mol, or at least about 1.07 mol, or at least about 1.08 mol, or at least about 1.09 mol, or at least about 1.10 mol, or at least about 1.11 mol, or at least about 1.12 mol, or at least about 1.13 mol, or at least about 1.14 mol, or at least about 1.15 mol, or at least about 1.16 mol, or at least about or at least about 1.17 mol, or at least about 1.18 mol, or at least about 1.19 mol, or at least about 1.20 mol, or at least about 1.25 mol, or at least about 1.30 mol, or at least about 1.35 mol, or at least about 1.40 mol, or at least about 1.45 mol, or at least about 1.50 mol, or at least about 1.75 mol, or at least about 2.0 mol, or at least about 2.5 mol, or at least about 3.0 mol, or at least about 3.5 mol, or at least about 4.0 mol, or at least about 4.5 mol, or at least about 5.0 mol, or at least about 5.5 mol, or at least about 6.0 mol, or even at least about 6.5 mol.According to yet other embodiments, the gas mixture contains about 18 moles or less of a carbon-based gas, e.g., about 17.5 moles or less, or about 17.0 moles or less, or about 16.5 moles or less, or about 16.0 moles or less, or about 15.5 moles or less, or about 15.0 moles or less, or about 14.5 moles or less, or about 14.0 moles or less, or about 13.5 moles or less, or about 13.0 moles or less, or about 12.5 moles or less, or about 12.0 moles or less, or about 11.5 moles or less, or even about 11.0 moles or less, or about 10.5 moles or less, or even about 10.0 moles or less, or about 8.5 moles or less, or about 8.0 moles or less. The carbon-based gas may be present in a concentration of about 1.5 mol or less, or ...

[0025] According to yet other embodiments, the carbon-based gas may be acetylene gas, methane gas, or any combination thereof.

[0026] According to one particular embodiment, the gas mixture is mixed with a specific molar ratio A mol / GM mol (AG mol is equal to the number of moles of acetylene gas in the gas mixture, and GM molis equal to the total number of moles of gas in the gas mixture). For example, the gas mixture can include a molar ratio AG of at least about 0.05, e.g., at least about 0.06, or at least about 0.07, or at least about 0.08, or at least about 0.09, or at least about 0.10, or at least about 0.11, or at least about 0.12, or at least about 0.13, or at least about 0.14, or at least about 0.15, or at least about 0.16, or at least about 0.17, or at least about 0.18, or at least about 0.19, or at least about 0.20, or at least about 0.21, or at least about 0.22, or at least about 0.23, or at least about 0.24, or at least about 0.25, or at least about 0.26, or at least about 0.27, or at least about 0.28, or at least about 0.29, or even at least about 0.30. mol / GM mol According to yet other embodiments, the gas mixture may include a molar ratio AG of about 0.99 or less, e.g., about 0.95 or less, or about 0.90 or less, or about 0.85 or less, or about 0.80 or less, or about 0.75 or less, or about 0.70 or less, or about 0.69 or less, or about 0.68 or less, or about 0.67 or less, or about 0.66 or less, or about 0.65 or less, or about 0.64 or less, or about 0.63 or less, or about 0.62 or less, or about 0.61 or less, or about 0.60 or less, or about 0.59 or less, or about 0.58 or less, or about 0.57 or less, or about 0.56 or less, or about 0.55 or less, or about 0.54 or less, or about 0.53 or less, or about 0.52 or less, or about 0.51 or less, or even about 0.50 or less. mol / GM mol The gas mixture may include any molar ratio A, B, C, D, E ... mol / GM mol It will be understood that the gas mixture may further include a molar ratio A, B, C, D, E ... mol / GM mol It will be understood that may be included.

[0027] According to certain embodiments, the gas mixture can include a content of a particular acetylene gas. For example, the gas mixture can include acetylene gas in a concentration of at least about 1.0 mol, such as at least about 1.01 mol, or at least about 1.02 mol, or at least about 1.03 mol, or at least about 1.04 mol, or at least about 1.05 mol, or at least about 1.06 mol, or at least about 1.07 mol, or at least about 1.08 mol, or at least about 1.09 mol, or at least about 1.10 mol, or at least about 1.11 mol, or at least about 1.12 mol, or at least about 1.13 mol, or at least about 1.14 mol, or at least about 1.15 mol, or at least about 1.16 mol, or at least about 1.17 mol, or at least about 1.18 mol, or at least about 1.19 mol, or even at least about 1.20 mol. According to yet other embodiments, the gas mixture contains about 18 moles or less of acetylene gas, e.g., about 17.5 moles or less, or about 17.0 moles or less, or about 16.5 moles or less, or about 16.0 moles or less, or about 15.5 moles or less, or about 15.0 moles or less, or about 14.5 moles or less, or about 14.0 moles or less, or about 13.5 moles or less, or about 13.0 moles or less, or about 12.5 moles or less, or about 12.0 moles or less, or about 11.5 moles or less, or even about 11.0 moles or less, or about 10.5 moles or less, or even about 10.0 moles or less, or about 8.5 moles or less, or about 8. The acetylene gas may be present in a concentration of 0 mol or less, or about 7.5 mol or less, or about 7.0 mol or less, or about 6.5 mol or less, or about 6.0 mol or less, or about 5.5 mol or less, or about 5.0 mol or less, or about 4.5 mol or less, or about 4.0 mol or less, or about 3.9 mol or less, or about 3.8 mol or less, or about 3.7 mol or less, or about 3.6 mol or less, or about 3.5 mol or less, or about 3.4 mol or less, or about 3.3 mol or less, or about 3.2 mol or less, or about 3.1 mol or less, or about 3.0 mol or less, or about 2.9 mol or less, or about 2.8 mol or less, or even about 2.7 mol or less. It will be appreciated that the acetylene gas concentration in the gas mixture may be any value between (and including) any of the minimum and maximum values ​​recited above.It will further be understood that the concentration of acetylene gas in the gas mixture may be within a range between, and including, any of the minimum and maximum values ​​set forth above.

[0028] According to one particular embodiment, the gas mixture is a mixture of gases having a particular molar ratio OG mol / GM mol (O.G. mol is equal to the number of moles of oxygen gas in the gas mixture, and GM mol is equal to the total number of moles of gas in the gas mixture. For example, the gas mixture can include a molar ratio OG of at least about 0.01, e.g., at least about 0.02, or at least about 0.03, or at least about 0.04, or at least about 0.05, or at least about 0.06, or at least about 0.07, or at least about 0.08, or at least about 0.09, or at least about 0.10, or at least about 0.11, or at least about 0.12, or at least about 0.13, or at least about 0.14, or at least about 0.15, or at least about 0.16, or at least about 0.17, or at least about 0.18, or at least about 0.19, or even at least about 0.20. mol / GM mol According to yet other embodiments, the gas mixture may include a molar ratio OG of about 0.85 or less, e.g., about 0.80 or less, or about 0.75 or less, or about 0.70 or less, or about 0.65 or less, or about 0.60 or less, or about 0.55 or less, or about 0.50 or less, or about 0.45 or less, or about 0.40 or less, or about 0.39 or less, or about 0.38 or less, or about 0.37 or less, or about 0.36 or less, or about 0.35 or less, or about 0.34 or less, or about 0.33 or less, or about 0.32 or less, or about 0.31 or less, or about 0.30 or less, or about 0.29 or less, or about 0.28 or less, or about 0.27 or less, or about 0.26 or less, or even about 0.25 or less. mol / GM mol The gas mixture may include any molar ratio OG between and including any of the minimum and maximum values ​​listed above. mol / GM mol It will be understood that the gas mixture may further include a molar ratio OG within a range between any of the minimum and maximum values ​​set forth above, inclusive. mol / GMmol It will be understood that may be included.

[0029] According to certain embodiments, the gas mixture can include a specific oxygen gas content. For example, the gas mixture can include oxygen gas at a concentration of at least about 0.1 mol, such as at least about 0.11 mol, or at least about 0.12 mol, or at least about 0.13 mol, or at least about 0.14 mol, or at least about 0.15 mol, or at least about 0.16 mol, or at least about 0.17 mol, or at least about 0.18 mol, or at least about 0.19 mol, or at least about 0.20 mol, or at least about 0.21 mol, or at least about 0.22 mol, or at least about 0.23 mol, or at least about 0.24 mol, or at least about 0.25 mol, or at least about 0.26 mol, or at least about 0.27 mol, or at least about 0.28 mol, or at least about 0.29 mol, or even at least about 0.30 mol. According to yet other embodiments, the gas mixture contains about 13 moles or less of oxygen gas, e.g., about 12.5 moles or less, or about 11.0 moles or less, or about 11.5 moles or less, or about 11.0 moles or less, or about 10.5 moles or less, or about 10.0 moles or less, or about 9.5 moles or less, or about 9.0 moles or less, or about 8.5 moles or less, or about 8.0 moles or less, or about 7.5 moles or less, or about 7.0 moles or less, or about 6.5 moles or less, or about 6.0 moles or less, or about 5.5 moles or less, or about 5.0 moles or less, or about 4.5 moles or less, or about 4.0 moles or less. mol or less, or about 3.5 mol or less, or about 3.0 mol or less, or about 2.5 mol or less, or about 2.0 mol or less, or about 1.5 mol or less, or about 1.0 mol or less, or about 0.98 mol or less, or about 0.96 mol or less, or about 0.94 mol or less, or about 0.92 mol or less, or about 0.90 mol or less, or about 0.88 mol or less, or about 0.86 mol or less, or about 0.84 mol or less, or about 0.82 mol or less, or about 0.80 mol or less, or about 0.78 mol or less, or about 0.76 mol or less, or even about 0.74 mol or less. It will be understood that the oxygen gas concentration in the gas mixture may be any value between (inclusive of) any of the minimum and maximum values ​​recited above. It will further be understood that the oxygen gas concentration in the gas mixture may be within (inclusive of) any of the minimum and maximum values ​​recited above.

[0030] According to one particular embodiment, the gas mixture has a particular molar ratio H mol / GM mol (HG mol is equal to the number of moles of hydrogen gas in the gas mixture, and GM mol is equal to the total number of moles of gas in the gas mixture). For example, the gas mixture can include a molar ratio H G of at least about 0.0, e.g., at least about 0.01, or at least about 0.02, or at least about 0.03, or at least about 0.04, or at least about 0.05, or at least about 0.06, or at least about 0.07, or at least about 0.08, or at least about 0.09, or at least about 0.10, or at least about 0.11, or at least about 0.12, or at least about 0.13, or at least about 0.14, or at least about 0.15, or at least about 0.16, or at least about 0.17, or at least about 0.18, or at least about 0.19, or even at least about 0.20. mol / GM mol According to yet other embodiments, the gas mixture may include a molar ratio H G of about 0.99 or less, e.g., about 0.95 or less, or about 0.90 or less, or about 0.85 or less, or about 0.80 or less, or about 0.75 or less, or about 0.70 or less, or about 0.65 or less, or about 0.60 or less, or about 0.55 or less, or about 0.50 or less, or about 0.45 or less, or about 0.40 or less, or about 0.39 or less, or about 0.38 or less, or about 0.37 or less, or about 0.36 or less, or about 0.35 or less, or about 0.34 or less, or about 0.33 or less, or about 0.32 or less, or about 0.31 or less, or about 0.30 or less, or about 0.29 or less, or about 0.28 or less, or about 0.27 or less, or about 0.26 or less, or even about 0.25 or less. mol / GM mol The gas mixture may include any molar ratio H,G,H ... mol / GM mol It will be understood that the gas mixture may further include a molar ratio H, G, or H, in the range between any of the minimum and maximum values ​​set forth above, inclusive. mol / GM mol It will be understood that may be included.

[0031] According to yet another embodiment, the gas mixture can include a specific hydrogen gas content. For example, the gas mixture can include hydrogen gas at a concentration of at least about 0.0 mol, such as at least about 0.25 mol, or at least about 0.50 mol, or at least about 0.75 mol, or at least about 1.0 mol, or at least about 1.25 mol, or at least about 1.50 mol, or at least about 1.75 mol, or at least about 2.0 mol, or at least about 2.5 mol, or at least about 3.0 mol, or at least about 3.5 mol, or at least about 4.0 mol, or at least about 4.5 mol, or at least about 5.0 mol, or at least about 5.5 mol, or at least about 6.0 mol, or at least about 7.0 mol, or at least about 8.0 mol, or at least about 8.5 mol, or at least about 9.0 mol, or at least about 9.5 mol, or even at least about 10.0 mol. According to yet other embodiments, the gas mixture can include hydrogen gas at a concentration of about 20.0 mol or less, for example, about 19.5 mol or less, or about 19.0 mol or less, or about 18.5 mol or less, or about 18.0 mol or less, or about 17.5 mol or less, or about 17.0 mol or less, or about 16.5 mol or less, or about 16.0 mol or less, or about 15.5 mol or less, or about 15.0 mol or less, or about 14.5 mol or less, or about 14.0 mol or less, or about 13.5 mol or less, or about 13.0 mol or less, or about 12.5 mol or less, or about 12.0 mol or less, or about 11.5 mol or less, or even about 11.0 mol or less, or about 10.5 mol or less, or even about 10.0 mol or less. It will be understood that the hydrogen gas concentration in the gas mixture can be any value between (and including) any of the minimum and maximum values ​​listed above. It will further be understood that the concentration of hydrogen gas in the gas mixture may be within a range between, and including, any of the minimum and maximum values ​​set forth above.

[0032] According to one particular embodiment, the gas mixture is mixed with a specific molar ratio MG mol / GM mol (M.G. mol is equal to the number of moles of methane gas in the gas mixture, and GMmol is equal to the total number of moles of gas in the gas mixture. For example, the gas mixture can include a molar ratio MG of at least about 0.0, e.g., at least about 0.05, or at least about 0.06, or at least about 0.07, or at least about 0.08, or at least about 0.09, or at least about 0.10, or at least about 0.11, or at least about 0.12, or at least about 0.13, or at least about 0.14, or at least about 0.15, or at least about 0.16, or at least about 0.17, or at least about 0.18, or at least about 0.19, or at least about 0.20, or at least about 0.21, or at least about 0.22, or at least about 0.23, or at least about 0.24, or at least about 0.25, or at least about 0.26, or at least about 0.27, or at least about 0.28, or at least about 0.29, or even at least about 0.30. mol / GM mol According to yet other embodiments, the gas mixture may include a molar ratio MG of about 0.99 or less, e.g., about 0.95 or less, or about 0.90 or less, or about 0.85 or less, or about 0.80 or less, or about 0.75 or less, or about 0.70 or less, or about 0.65 or less, or about 0.60 or less, or about 0.55 or less, or about 0.50 or less, or about 0.45 or less, or about 0.40 or less, or about 0.39 or less, or about 0.38 or less, or about 0.37 or less, or about 0.36 or less, or about 0.35 or less, or about 0.34 or less, or about 0.33 or less, or about 0.32 or less, or about 0.31 or less, or about 0.30 or less, or about 0.29 or less, or about 0.28 or less, or about 0.27 or less, or about 0.26 or less, or even about 0.25 or less. mol / GM mol The gas mixture may include any value between (and including) any of the minimum and maximum values ​​above in the molar ratio MG mol / GM mol It will be understood that the gas mixture may further include a molar ratio MG mol / GM mol It will be understood that may be included.

[0033] According to certain embodiments, the gas mixture can include a specific methane gas content. For example, the gas mixture can include methane gas at a concentration of at least about 1.0 mol, for example, at least about 1.01 mol, or at least about 1.02 mol, or at least about 1.03 mol, or at least about 1.04 mol, or at least about 1.05 mol, or at least about 1.06 mol, or at least about 1.07 mol, or at least about 1.08 mol, or at least about 1.09 mol, or at least about 1.10 mol, or at least about 1.11 mol, or at least about 1.12 mol, or at least about 1.13 mol, or at least about 1.14 mol, or at least about 1.15 mol, or at least about 1.16 mol, or at least about 1.17 mol, or at least about 1.18 mol, or at least about 1.19 mol, or even at least about 1.20 mol.According to yet another embodiment, the gas mixture contains about 20.0 moles or less of methane gas, for example, about 19.5 moles or less, or about 19.0 moles or less, or about 18.5 moles or less, or about 18.0 moles or less, or about 17.5 moles or less, or about 17.0 moles or less, or about 16.5 moles or less, or about 16.0 moles or less, or about 15.5 moles or less, or about 15.0 moles or less, or about 14.5 moles or less, or about 14.0 moles or less, or about 13.5 moles or less, or about 13.0 moles or less, or about 12.5 moles or less, or about 12.0 moles or less, or about 11.5 moles or less, or even about 11.0 moles or less, or about 10.5 moles or less, or about 10.0 moles or less, or about 9.5 moles or less, or about 9.0 moles or less, or about 8.5 moles or less. or about 8.0 mol or less, or about 7.5 mol or less, or about 7.0 mol or less, or about 6.5 mol or less, or about 6.0 mol or less, or about 5.5 mol or less, or about 5.0 mol or less, or about 4.5 mol or less, or about 4.0 mol or less, or about 3.5 mol or less, or about 3.0 mol or less, or about 2.5 mol or less, or about 2.40 mol or less, or about 2.39 mol or less, or about 2.38 mol or less, or about 2.37 mol or less, or about 2.36 mol or less, or about 2.35 mol or less, or about 2.34 mol or less, or about 2.33 mol or less, or about 2.30 mol or less, or about 2.29 mol or less, or about 2.28 mol or less, or about 2.27 mol or less, or about 2.26 mol or less, or even about 2.25 mol or less. It will be understood that the methane gas concentration in the gas mixture may be any value between (and including) any of the minimum and maximum values ​​recited above. It will further be understood that the concentration of methane gas in the gas mixture may be within a range between and including any of the minimum and maximum values ​​set forth above.

[0034] According to yet other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterial composition may be formed at a particular combustion temperature. For example, the carbon-based nanomaterial composition may be formed at a combustion temperature of at least about 1500°C, such as at least about 1600°C, or at least about 1700°C, or at least about 1800°C, or at least about 1900°C, or at least about 2000°C, or at least about 2100°C, or even at least about 2200°C. According to yet other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterial composition may be formed at a combustion temperature of about 3000°C or less, such as about 2900°C or less, or about 2800°C or less, or about 2700°C or less, or about 2600°C or less, or about 2500°C or less, or about 2400°C or less, or even about 2300°C or less. It will be further understood that the carbon-based nanomaterial composition may be formed at any combustion temperature between and including any of the minimum and maximum values ​​listed above. It will further be understood that the carbon-based nanomaterial composition may be formed at a combustion temperature ranging between and including any of the minimum and maximum values ​​set forth above.

[0035] According to yet other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterial composition may be formed at a particular combustion pressure. For example, the carbon-based nanomaterial composition may be formed at a combustion pressure of at least about 200 PSI, such as at least about 300 PSI, or at least about 400 PSI, or at least about 500 PSI, or at least about 600 PSI, or at least about 700 PSI, or at least about 800 PSI, or even at least about 900 PSI. According to yet other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterial composition may be formed at a combustion pressure of about 3000 PSI or less, such as about 2900 PSI or less, or about 2800 PSI or less, or about 2700 PSI or less, or about 2600 PSI or less, or about 2500 PSI or less, or about 2400 PSI or less, or even about 2300 PSI or less. It will be appreciated that the carbon-based nanomaterial composition may be formed at any combustion pressure between and including any of the minimum and maximum values ​​listed above. It will further be understood that the carbon content in the carbon-based nanomaterial composition may be formed at a combustion pressure that is within a range between (and including) any of the minimum and maximum values ​​set forth above.

[0036] With reference to an embodiment of a carbon-based nanomaterial composition formed according to formation method 1000, the carbon-based nanomaterial composition can include sulfur-doped nanospheres, a specific carbon content based on elemental analysis, and a specific oxygen content based on elemental analysis.

[0037] According to certain embodiments, the sulfur doped nanospheres can have a particular diameter. For example, the sulfur doped nanospheres can have a diameter of at least about 5 nm, such as at least about 10 nm, or at least about 20 nm, or at least about 30 nm, or at least about 40 nm, or at least about 50 nm, or at least about 60 nm, or at least about 70 nm, or at least about 80 nm, or at least about 90 nm, or at least about 100 nm, or at least about 150 nm, or at least about 200 nm, or even at least about 250 nm. According to yet other embodiments, the sulfur-doped nanospheres may have a diameter of about 500 nm or less, for example, about 490 nm or less, about 480 nm or less, about 460 nm or less, about 450 nm or less, about 440 nm or less, about 430 nm or less, about 420 nm or less, about 410 nm or less, about 400 nm or less, about 390 nm or less, about 380 nm or less, about 370 nm or less, about 360 nm or less, about 350 nm or less, about 340 nm or less, about 330 nm or less, about 320 nm or less, about 310 nm or less, or even about 300 nm or less. It will be understood that the diameter of the sulfur-doped nanospheres may be any value between (inclusive of) any of the minimum and maximum values ​​listed above. It will also be understood that the diameter of the sulfur-doped nanospheres may be within (inclusive of) any of the minimum and maximum values ​​listed above.

[0038] According to certain embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterial composition may comprise a specific carbon content based on elemental analysis performed using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). For example, the carbon-based nanomaterial composition may comprise a carbon content of at least about 60%, such as at least about 62%, or at least about 64%, or at least about 66%, or at least about 68%, or at least about 70%, or at least about 72%, or at least about 74%, or at least about 76%, or at least about 78%, or at least about 80%, or at least about 83%, or at least about 85%, or at least about 88%, or at least about 90%, or at least about 91%, or at least about 92%, or at least about 93%, or at least about 94.0%, or even at least about 95.0%. According to yet other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterial composition may comprise a carbon content of about 99% or less, such as about 97% or less, or about 95% or less, or about 93% or less, or even about 91% or less. It will be understood that the carbon content in the carbon-based nanomaterial composition may be any value between and including any of the minimum and maximum values ​​recited above. It will further be understood that the carbon content in the carbon-based nanomaterial composition may be within a range between and including any of the minimum and maximum values ​​recited above.

[0039] According to yet another embodiment, the carbon-based nanomaterial composition may include a specific oxygen content based on elemental analysis performed using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). For example, the carbon-based nanomaterial composition may include an oxygen content of at least about 0.0%, such as at least about 0.5%, or at least about 1.0%, or at least about 1.5%, or at least about 2.0%, or at least about 2.5%, or at least about 3.0%, or at least about 3.5%, or at least about 4.0%, or at least about 4.5%, or at least about 5.0%, or at least about 10%, or at least about 15%, or even at least about 20%. According to yet another embodiment, the carbon-based nanomaterial composition may include an oxygen content of about 35% or less, such as about 30% or less, or about 25% or less, or about 23% or less, or about 20% or less, or about 18% or less, or about 15% or less, or about 13% or less, or about 10% or less, or about 8% or less, or even about 6.0% or less. It will be understood that the oxygen content in the carbon-based nanomaterial composition may be any value between and including any of the minimum and maximum values ​​recited above. It will further be understood that the oxygen content in the carbon-based nanomaterial composition may be within a range between and including any of the minimum and maximum values ​​recited above.

[0040] According to certain embodiments, the sulfur-doped nanospheres may contain a certain sulfur content based on elemental analysis performed using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). For example, the sulfur-doped nanospheres may contain sulfur at a concentration of at least about 2%, such as at least about 4%, or at least about 6%, or at least about 8%, or at least about 10%, or at least about 12%, or at least about 14%, or at least about 16%, or at least about 18%, or at least about 20%, or at least about 22%, or at least about 24%, or at least about 25%. According to still other embodiments, the sulfur-doped nanospheres may contain sulfur at a concentration of about 50% or less, such as about 48% or less by volume, or about 46% or less by volume, or about 44% or less by volume, or about 42% or less by volume, or about 40% or less by volume, or about 38% or less by volume, or about 36% or less by volume, or about 34% or less by volume, or about 32% or less by volume, or about 30% or less by volume, or about 28% or less by volume, or about 26% or less by volume. It will be appreciated that the sulfur concentration in the sulfur-doped nanospheres may be any value between and including any of the minimum and maximum values ​​recited above. It will also be appreciated that the sulfur concentration in the sulfur-doped nanospheres may be within a range between and including any of the minimum and maximum values ​​recited above.

[0041] According to yet another embodiment, the carbon-based nanomaterial composition may include a specific sulfur content based on elemental analysis performed using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). For example, the carbon-based nanomaterial composition may include sulfur at a concentration of at least about 2%, such as at least about 4%, or at least about 6%, or at least about 8%, or at least about 10%, or at least about 12%, or at least about 14%, or at least about 16%, or at least about 18%, or at least about 20%, or at least about 22%, or at least about 24%, or at least about 25%. According to yet another embodiment, the carbon-based nanomaterial composition may include sulfur at a concentration of about 50% or less, such as about 48% or less by volume, or about 46% or less by volume, or about 44% or less by volume, or about 42% or less by volume, or about 40% or less by volume, or about 38% or less by volume, or about 36% or less by volume, or about 34% or less by volume, or about 32% or less by volume, or about 30% or less by volume, or about 28% or less by volume, or about 26% or less by volume. It will be understood that the sulfur concentration in the carbon-based nanomaterial composition may be any value between and including any of the minimum and maximum values ​​recited above. It will also be understood that the sulfur concentration in the carbon-based nanomaterial composition may be within a range between and including any of the minimum and maximum values ​​recited above.

[0042] According to yet other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterial composition can have a particular D / G ratio as determined by performing Raman spectroscopy on a powder sample and detangling the spectrum produced. For example, the carbon-based nanomaterial composition can have a D / G ratio of at least about 0.1, e.g., at least about 0.15, or at least about 0.20, or at least about 0.25, or at least about 0.30, or at least about 0.35, or at least about 0.40, or at least about 0.45. According to yet other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterial composition may have a D / G ratio of about 2.0 or less, e.g., about 1.95 or less, or about 1.90 or less, or about 1.85 or less, or about 1.80 or less, or about 1.75 or less, or about 1.70 or less, or about 1.65 or less, or about 1.60 or less, or about 1.55 or less, or about 1.50 or less, or about 1.45 or less, or about 1.40 or less, or about 1.35 or less, or about 1.30 or less, or about 1.25 or less, or about 1.20 or less, or about 1.15 or less, or about 1.10 or less, or about 1.05 or less, or about 1.00 or less, or about 0.95 or less, or about 0.9 or less, or about 0.85 or less, or about 0.8 or less, or about 0.75 or less, or about 0.7 or less, or about 0.65 or less, or even about 0.6 or less. It will be understood that the D / G ratio in the carbon-based nanomaterial composition may be any value between and including any of the minimum and maximum values ​​recited above. It will further be understood that the D / G ratio in the carbon-based nanomaterial composition may be within a range between and including any of the minimum and maximum values ​​recited above.

[0043] According to yet other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterial composition can have a particular aspect ratio measured by dividing the lateral size of a given sample by its thickness. For example, the carbon-based nanomaterial composition can have an aspect ratio of at least about 1.0, such as at least about 5 or at least about 10 or at least about 20. According to yet other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterial composition can have an aspect ratio of about 100 or less, such as about 90 or less or about 80 or less or about 70 or less or about 60 or less. It will be understood that the aspect ratio in the carbon-based nanomaterial composition can be any value between and including any of the minimum and maximum values ​​listed above. It will also be understood that the aspect ratio in the carbon-based nanomaterial composition can be within a range between and including any of the minimum and maximum values ​​listed above.

[0044] According to yet another embodiment, the carbon-based nanomaterial composition has a specific carbon hybridization ratio P sp3 / P sp2 (P sp3 is the percentage of carbon in the carbon-based nanomaterial composition that has sp3 hybridization, and P sp2 where P is the percentage of carbon in the carbon-based nanomaterial composition that has sp2 hybridization. For example, the carbon-based nanomaterial composition can have a carbon hybridization ratio P of at least about 0.0, e.g., at least about 0.1, or at least about 0.2, or at least about 0.3, or at least about 0.4, or at least about 0.5, or at least about 0.6, or at least about 0.7, or at least about 0.8, or at least about 0.9, or at least about 1.0, or at least about 1.1, or at least about 1.2, or at least about 1.3, or at least about 1.4, or even at least about 1.5. sp3 / P sp2According to yet other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterial composition may have a carbon hybridization ratio P of about 5.00 or less, e.g., about 4.75 or less, or about 4.5 or less, or about 4.25 or less, or about 4.0 or less, or about 3.75 or less, or about 3.50 or less, or about 3.25 or less, or about 3.0 or less, or about 2.9 or less, or about 2.8 or less, or about 2.7 or less, or about 2.6 or less, or about 2.5 or less, or about 2.4 or less, or about 2.3 or less, or about 2.2 or less, or about 2.1 or less, or even about 2.0 or less. sp3 / P sp2 The carbon hybridization ratio P in the carbon-based nanomaterial composition may be sp3 / P sp2 It will be understood that the carbon hybridization ratio P in the carbon-based nanomaterial composition may be any value between (and including) any of the minimum and maximum values ​​listed above. sp3 / P sp2 It will be appreciated that may be within a range between (and including) any of the minimum and maximum values ​​recited above.

[0045] According to certain embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterial may have a specific carbon structure. For example, according to certain embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterial may include a carbon-based nanosheet. According to certain embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterial may consist of a carbon-based nanosheet. For the purposes of the embodiments described herein, a nanosheet may be defined as a two-dimensional allotrope of carbon. According to yet other embodiments, the nanosheet may have Sp2 hybridized carbon atoms connected by sigma and pi bonds in a hexagonal lattice of polycyclic aromatic rings.

[0046] According to certain embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials may include carbon-based nanoflakes. According to certain embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials may consist of carbon-based nanoflakes. For purposes of the embodiments described herein, a nanoflake may be defined as a two-dimensional carbon sheet, such as a lamella, of a carbon-based nanomaterial. According to yet other embodiments, the nanoflakes may have a two-dimensional carbon sheet size of about 50 nm to 100 nm.

[0047] According to certain embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterial may include carbon-based nanospheres. According to certain embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterial may consist of carbon-based nanospheres. For purposes of the embodiments described herein, a nanosphere may be defined as an Sp2 hybridized form of carbon having clusters of carbon atoms formed into a spherical structure via covalent bonds. According to certain embodiments, the radius of the nanosphere ranges from about 50 nm to about 250 nm.

[0048] According to certain embodiments, the carbon-based nano-material may include a carbon-based nano-onion. According to certain embodiments, the carbon-based nano-material may consist of a carbon-based nano-onion. For purposes of the embodiments described herein, a nano-onion may be defined as a nanostructure that includes multiple concentric shells of hexagonal lattice sheets distorted to form a spherical structure. According to yet other embodiments, the nano-onion includes folded layers resembling the shell of an onion and may include a small amount of amorphous carbon.

[0049] According to yet another embodiment, the carbon-based nanomaterial may include carbon black. According to a particular embodiment, the carbon-based nanomaterial may consist of carbon black. For the purposes of the embodiments described herein, carbon black may be defined as a spherical material with a radius of less than 1000 nm. According to yet another embodiment, the carbon black may be amorphous and a fine black powder.

[0050] According to yet other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterial may include turbostratic carbon. According to certain embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterial may consist of turbostratic carbon. For the purposes of the embodiments described herein, turbostratic carbon may be defined as a material having a mixture of sp2-hybridized carbon and sp3-hybridized carbon, where the sp2-hybridized planes are surrounded and connected by an sp3-hybridized amorphous matrix. Turbostratic carbon may include curved sheets of carbon polyaromatic structures, such as carbon-based nanomaterials, forming grape-like fractal aggregates of primary particles.

[0051] According to yet other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials may include any combination of carbon-based nanosheets, carbon-based nanoflakes, carbon-based nanospheres, carbon-based nano-onions, carbon black, or turbostratic carbon. According to yet other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials may consist of any combination of carbon-based nanosheets, carbon-based nanoflakes, carbon-based nanospheres, carbon-based nano-onions, carbon black, or turbostratic carbon.

[0052] Referring now to a system for synthesizing carbon-based nanomaterials according to embodiments described herein, FIG. 2 includes a diagram of a carbon capture system according to embodiments described herein. As shown in FIG. 2, a carbon capture system 100 according to embodiments of the present disclosure includes a combustion chamber 10 for converting hydrocarbon gases or liquids into carbon-based nanomaterials. The system 100 can be scaled as needed and installed, for example, at a hydrocarbon drilling operation site or other suitable hydrocarbon feed site. Advantageously, the apparatus and methods disclosed herein allow a wide range of hydrocarbons to be used as feedstocks, thereby converting many types of carbon-containing fluids, such as industrial flue gas products, to produce valuable products, such as carbon-based nanomaterials. Thus, the disclosure herein beneficially teaches the capture of various carbons in industrial products and minimizing greenhouse gas emissions therefrom while providing products useful for further industrial processes, materials, and equipment, such as proton-electron membranes coated with carbon-based nanomaterials. The combustion chamber 10 of FIG. 2 may be a heavy duty chamber with multiple injection ports for controlled injection of the hydrocarbon material and separate injection of oxygen and hydrogen, which upon ignition forces the recombination of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen to form carbon-based nanomaterials and other products that do not contribute to greenhouse gas emissions, such as water. Without being bound by theory, the use of controlled separate injection of oxygen and hydrogen results in much faster combustion of the hydrocarbon material compared to traditional oxidizers, which allows for more complete decomposition of the hydrocarbon material. The combustion chamber 10 may be formed of any suitable material, such as aluminum, titanium aluminum, nickel aluminum, cast iron, steel, etc. In some embodiments, the combustion chamber 10 is configured to withstand an internal pressure of at least 1000 psi.

[0053] The combustion chamber 10 may include one or more sensors configured to monitor and measure conditions within the combustion chamber 10. In some embodiments, the combustion chamber 10 includes a temperature sensor 18 configured to measure a temperature within the combustion chamber 10. In some embodiments, the combustion chamber 10 includes a low pressure sensor 16, a pressure sensor 14, and a high pressure sensor 12, each configured to measure a pressure within the combustion chamber 10. In one or more embodiments, the combustion chamber 10 may include an opacity sensor configured to measure an opacity within the combustion chamber 10. In some embodiments, the combustion chamber 10 may include a vacuum valve configured to create a vacuum within the combustion chamber 10 as a precursor to introducing a reactant (or an inert gas). In some embodiments, the combustion chamber 10 includes a pressure relief valve configured to release pressure from the combustion chamber 10. The pressure relief valve may be actuated when a threshold pressure is reached within the combustion chamber 10 and / or actuated on demand, for example, at a set time following each combustion within the combustion chamber 10.

[0054] The system includes an inert gas source 40, a flue gas source 50, an oxygen source 60, and a hydrogen source 70, each in fluid communication with the combustion chamber 10. The inert gas source 40 is arranged to supply an inert gas, such as argon, under pressure to the combustion chamber 10, the pressure of which may be monitored by a pressure sensor 44. The inert gas provides an inert environment for clean combustion in the combustion chamber 10. For example, the inert environment may prevent or inhibit the formation of NOx (nitrogen oxides) that may occur. A flow meter 46 is provided between the inert gas source 40 and the combustion chamber 10, and is configured to measure the flow rate of the inert gas from the inert gas source 40 to the combustion chamber 10. The inert gas is introduced into the combustion chamber 10 via an injection port 48, which may include a one-way valve to maintain pressure in the combustion chamber 10 and avoid flashback. In some embodiments, the one-way valve is a solenoid valve.

[0055] The flue gas source 50 supplies the combustion chamber 10 with a carbon-based gas or liquid. Suitable carbon-based gases or liquids include various commercial or industrial products that typically contain carbon in a hydrocarbon, including, but not limited to, carbon dioxide, methane, propane, acetylene, butane, or combinations thereof. The carbon content of the carbon-based gas or liquid is not particularly limited. In some embodiments, the flue gas source 50 is an exhaust stream from an industrial reaction process, such as a coal energy plant, a drilling operation, a combustion engine, or a landfill. In other embodiments, the exhaust stream from the industrial reaction process may be collected and stored in a tank or other container that may later be used in the system 100. In some embodiments, the flue gas source 50 comprises a holding tank configured to receive and pressurize the exhaust stream from such an industrial process to provide a consistent feed pressure to the apparatus herein. In any embodiment, the flue gas source 50 may include a pressure sensor 54 in communication with the flue gas source 50 configured to monitor the pressure of the carbon-based gas or liquid from the flue gas source 50. Between the flue gas source 50 and the combustion chamber 10, a flow meter 56 is provided that is configured to measure the flow rate of the carbonaceous gas or liquid from the flue gas source 50 to the combustion chamber 10. The carbonaceous gas or liquid is introduced into the combustion chamber 10 via an injection port 58, which may include a one-way valve to maintain pressure in the combustion chamber 10 and avoid flashback. In some embodiments, the one-way valve is a solenoid valve. In some embodiments, a flash arrester 52 may be included between the flue gas source 50 and the combustion chamber 10, for example, between the pressure sensor 54 and the flue gas source 50. The flash arrester 52 may include a sensor that is configured to detect flashback during the combustion process in the combustion chamber 10 and accordingly shut down the system 100 to minimize or avoid the risk of an explosion or fire.

[0056] The oxygen source 60 supplies oxygen gas to the combustion chamber 10. In some embodiments, the oxygen source 60 is pressurized to about 50 psi or more. In some embodiments, the oxygen source 60 receives oxygen from a proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolyzer and optionally pressurizes the oxygen. In other embodiments, the oxygen source 60 includes an oxygen cylinder. In any embodiment, the oxygen source 60 may include a pressure sensor 64 in communication with the oxygen source 60 configured to monitor the pressure of the oxygen from the oxygen source 60. A flow meter 66 is provided between the oxygen source 60 and the combustion chamber 10 and configured to measure the flow rate of oxygen from the oxygen source 60 to the combustion chamber 10. The oxygen is introduced into the combustion chamber 10 through an injection port 68, which may include a one-way valve to maintain pressure in the combustion chamber 10 and avoid flashback. In some embodiments, the one-way valve is a solenoid valve. In some embodiments, a flash arrester 62 may be included between the oxygen source 60 and the combustion chamber 10, for example, between the pressure sensor 64 and the oxygen source 60. The flash arrestor 62 may include a sensor configured to detect flashback during the combustion process within the combustion chamber 10 and shut down the system 100 accordingly.

[0057] A hydrogen source 70 supplies hydrogen gas to the combustion chamber 10. In some embodiments, the hydrogen source 70 is pressurized to about 50 psi or more. In some embodiments, the hydrogen source 70 receives hydrogen from a proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolyzer and optionally pressurizes the hydrogen. In other embodiments, the hydrogen source 70 includes a hydrogen cylinder. In any embodiment, the hydrogen source 70 may include a pressure sensor 74 in communication with the hydrogen source 70 configured to monitor the pressure of the hydrogen from the hydrogen source 70. A flow meter 76 is provided between the hydrogen source 70 and the combustion chamber 10 and configured to measure the flow rate of oxygen from the hydrogen source 70 to the combustion chamber 10. Hydrogen is introduced into the combustion chamber 10 through an injection port 78, which may include a one-way valve to maintain pressure in the combustion chamber 10 and avoid flashback. In some embodiments, the one-way valve is a solenoid valve. In some embodiments, a flash arrester 72 may be included between the hydrogen source 70 and the combustion chamber 10, for example, between the pressure sensor 74 and the hydrogen source 70. The flash arrestor 72 may include a sensor configured to detect flashback during the combustion process within the combustion chamber 10 and shut down the system 100 accordingly.

[0058] The combustion chamber 10 includes an ignition device 38, such as a spark plug. The ignition device 38 is configured to initiate a series of precisely timed combustion events. For example, each combustion event may last approximately 1 millisecond. The combustion intervals and duration may be appropriately adjusted based on the measurement conditions of the system 100. In one or more embodiments, the ignition device 38 is located at a midpoint of the combustion chamber 10. With this configuration, as particles of the reactants (flue gas, oxygen, and hydrogen) accelerate in each direction, the particles collide at each end and assemble the carbon-based nanomaterials.

[0059] The system 100 also includes a controller 30 configured to receive inputs from sensors in the system 100 and control the combustion conditions in the combustion chamber 10. In some embodiments, the controller 30 is configured to receive inputs from one or more of the flow meters 46, 56, 66, 76, the temperature sensor 18, the low pressure sensor 16, the pressure sensor 14, the high pressure sensor 12, and the pressure sensors 44, 54, 64, 74. In some embodiments, the controller 30 includes a converter 20 configured to receive the inputs as analog signals and convert them to digital signals.

[0060] The controller 30 may also include a driver 36. In some embodiments, the driver 36 is configured to operate one or more of the solenoid valves of the injection ports 48, 58, 68, 78 and / or to operate the igniter 38. In some embodiments, the controller 30 may also include a power distributor 32 that distributes power throughout the system, for example, to the solenoid valves of the injection ports 48, 58, 68, 78 and the igniter 38.

[0061] In one or more embodiments, the system 100 includes a user interface 34. The user interface 34 can display one or more of the measurements from the sensors described above. In some embodiments, the user interface 34 can be configured to allow customization of combustion conditions such as flow rate, pressure, temperature, etc. The user interface 34 can allow individual control of each parameter of the system 100 or can include pre-programmed functionality.

[0062] In one or more embodiments, the combustion chamber 10 is maintained at about 100° F. or less prior to combustion, which aids in increasing pressure as carbon-based nanomaterials are produced. After combustion, the temperature within the combustion chamber 10 may be on the order of about 120° F. In some embodiments, the pressure within the combustion chamber 10 is maintained at about 5-20 psi prior to combustion. In some embodiments, the pressure within the combustion chamber 10 prior to combustion is about half the pressure after combustion, for example, about 10-40 psi, which aids in efficient conversion of carbon-based flue gases into carbon-based nanomaterial production.

[0063] In some embodiments, the system 100 is automated to provide a cost-effective method for on-site or off-site carbon-based nanomaterial production. The automated system 100 determines the mixture of each internal combustion in the chamber to produce carbon-based nanomaterials in real time. In other embodiments, the system 100 can be manually controlled by using the user interface 34.

[0064] In either embodiment, the system 100 can be configured to measure the composition of the carbon-based gas or liquid in real time. Such measurements can be derived, for example, from measured temperature and pressure changes in the combustion chamber 10 during and after combustion. The ratio of the carbon-based gas or liquid, hydrogen, and oxygen can be precisely adjusted to achieve a consistent carbon-based nanomaterial product, or to modify the conversion of carbon from the carbon-based feedstock to carbon-based nanomaterial to increase its yield, or ideally both. After each combustion, the system 100 can fine-tune one or more parameters as needed to improve the efficiency of carbon-based nanomaterial production. Multiple combustions may be required to reach optimal combustion conditions for a given carbon-based gas or liquid. However, precise control of each input reactant allows the system 100 to operate with a wide range of carbon sources, even variable carbon sources.

[0065] According to yet other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterial compositions formed according to the embodiments described herein may be used to form a carbon-based nanomaterial-based cathode or a carbon-based nanomaterial-based anode.

[0066] Turning to the method of forming a carbon-based nanomaterial-based cathode or carbon-based nanomaterial-based anode, Figure 3 includes a diagram illustrating a forming method 3000 for forming a carbon-based nanomaterial-based cathode or carbon-based nanomaterial-based anode according to embodiments described herein. According to certain embodiments, the forming method 3000 can include a first step 3010 of providing a forming mixture, a second step 3020 of igniting the forming mixture to form a carbon-based nanomaterial composition, and a third step 3030 of forming the carbon-based nanomaterial composition into a layer of the carbon-based nanomaterial-based cathode or carbon-based nanomaterial-based anode.

[0067] According to certain embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterial-based cathodes or carbon-based nanomaterial-based anodes of the embodiments described herein can be used in a variety of applications, including, but not limited to, PEM fuel cells, PEM electrolyzers, batteries, or capacitors.

[0068] Turning now to other specific applications or uses of carbon-based nanomaterials formed according to embodiments described herein, the carbon-based nanomaterials can be used in a variety of applications. For example, according to certain embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials can be used to form concrete. According to certain embodiments, the concrete mixture can include carbon-based nanomaterials having any of the properties described herein. Without being bound to a particular theory, the carbon-based nanomaterials can improve the structural performance of the concrete, such as reducing slump, extending the time to usable set, and reducing water demand. According to yet other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials can improve the thermal properties of the concrete.

[0069] According to yet other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials can be used in the formation of building materials, such as bricks. According to certain embodiments, the building materials can include carbon-based nanomaterials having any of the properties described herein. According to yet other embodiments, the bricks can include carbon-based nanomaterials having any of the properties described herein. Without being bound to a particular theory, the carbon-based nanomaterials can improve the conductivity of the building materials or bricks. According to yet other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials can improve the structural performance of the building materials or bricks. According to yet other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials can improve the thermal properties of the building materials or bricks.

[0070] According to yet other embodiments, carbon-based nanomaterials can be used to form the oil. According to certain embodiments, the oil can include carbon-based nanomaterials having any of the properties described herein. Without being bound to a particular theory, the carbon-based nanomaterials can improve the friction reducing properties of the oil. According to yet other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials can improve the thermal properties of the oil.

[0071] According to yet other embodiments, carbon-based nanomaterials can be used to form filters. According to certain embodiments, a filter can include a carbon-based nanomaterial having any of the properties described herein. Without being bound to a particular theory, the carbon-based nanomaterial can improve the performance of the filter.

[0072] According to yet another embodiment, carbon-based nanomaterials can be used for radio frequency energy harvesting. Without being bound to a particular theory, carbon-based nanomaterials can enhance long distance energy transfer.

[0073] According to still other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials can be used to form a capacitor. According to certain embodiments, a capacitor can include a carbon-based nanomaterial having any of the properties described herein. Without being bound to a particular theory, the carbon-based nanomaterials can improve the energy density of the capacitor. According to yet other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials can improve the charge and discharge rates of the capacitor.

[0074] According to yet other embodiments, carbon-based nanomaterials can be used in geothermal processes. Without being bound to a particular theory, carbon-based nanomaterials can improve the thermal properties of geothermal processes.

[0075] According to still other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials can be used in paint formation, paint durability, and paint adhesion. According to certain embodiments, the paint can include carbon-based nanomaterials having any of the properties described herein. Without being bound to a particular theory, the carbon-based nanomaterials can improve the corrosion resistance of the paint. According to still other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials can improve the thermal properties of the paint. According to still other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials can improve the color properties of the paint. According to still other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials can improve the durability of the paint. According to other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials can improve the adhesion of the paint.

[0076] According to yet other embodiments, carbon-based nanomaterials can be used to form a coolant. According to certain embodiments, the coolant can include a carbon-based nanomaterial having any of the properties described herein. Without being bound to a particular theory, the carbon-based nanomaterial can improve the thermal properties of the coolant. According to still other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterial can improve the flow of the coolant by reducing friction.

[0077] According to still other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials can be used to form metals. According to certain embodiments, the metals can include carbon-based nanomaterials having any of the properties described herein. Without being bound to a particular theory, the carbon-based nanomaterials can improve the structural properties of the metal. According to still other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials can improve the thermal properties of the metal. According to still other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials can improve the corrosion properties of the metal. According to still other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials can improve the flexibility of the metal. According to still other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials can improve the durability of the metal.

[0078] According to yet other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials can be used to form tire additives. According to certain embodiments, the tire additives can include carbon-based nanomaterials having any of the properties described herein. Without being bound to a particular theory, the carbon-based nanomaterials can improve the wear, color, thermal properties, and grip of the tire additive.

[0079] According to still other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials can be used to form a variety of domestic or commercial countertops. According to certain embodiments, the domestic or commercial countertops can include carbon-based nanomaterials having any of the properties described herein. Without being bound to a particular theory, the carbon-based nanomaterials can improve the strength of the domestic or commercial countertops. According to still other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials can improve the scratch and wear resistance of the domestic or commercial countertops. According to still other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials can improve the thermal properties of the domestic or commercial countertops.

[0080] According to yet other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials can be used to form digital displays. According to certain embodiments, a digital display can include carbon-based nanomaterials having any of the properties described herein.

[0081] According to yet other embodiments, carbon-based nanomaterials can be used to form sunscreens. According to certain embodiments, sunscreens can include carbon-based nanomaterials having any of the properties described herein. Without being bound to a particular theory, carbon-based nanomaterials can improve the thermal properties of the sunscreen.

[0082] According to yet other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials can be used to form soaps or shampoos. According to certain embodiments, the soaps or shampoos can include carbon-based nanomaterials having any of the properties described herein. Without being bound to a particular theory, the carbon-based nanomaterials can improve the cleaning properties of the soaps or shampoos.

[0083] According to yet other embodiments, carbon-based nanomaterials can be used to form non-stick or thermally conductive coatings for pans and pots. According to certain embodiments, the non-stick or thermally conductive coatings for pans and pots can include carbon-based nanomaterials having any of the properties described herein. Without being bound to a particular theory, the carbon-based nanomaterials can improve the thermal properties of the non-stick or thermally conductive coatings for pans and pots.

[0084] According to yet other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials can be used to form sunglasses. According to certain embodiments, the sunglasses can include carbon-based nanomaterials having any of the properties described herein. Without being bound to a particular theory, the carbon-based nanomaterials can improve the thermal properties of the sunglasses. According to yet other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials can improve the UV absorption of the sunglasses.

[0085] According to yet other embodiments, carbon-based nanomaterials can be used to form Wi-Fi antennas. According to certain embodiments, a Wi-Fi antenna can include a carbon-based nanomaterial having any of the properties described herein. Without being bound to a particular theory, the carbon-based nanomaterial can improve signal reception of the Wi-Fi antenna.

[0086] According to yet other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials can be used to form textile products. According to certain embodiments, textile products can include carbon-based nanomaterials having any of the properties described herein.

[0087] According to still other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials can be used to form glasses. According to certain embodiments, the glasses can include carbon-based nanomaterials having any of the properties described herein. Without being bound to a particular theory, the carbon-based nanomaterials can improve the thermal properties of the glasses. According to still other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials can improve the structural properties of the glasses. According to still other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials can improve the color properties of the glasses.

[0088] According to still other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials can be used to form solar panels. According to certain embodiments, the solar panels can include carbon-based nanomaterials having any of the properties described herein. Without being bound to a particular theory, the carbon-based nanomaterials can improve the conductivity, light absorption, or strength of the solar panel. According to yet other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials can improve the thermal properties of the solar panel.

[0089] According to yet other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials can be used to form a solar epoxy. According to certain embodiments, the epoxy can include a carbon-based nanomaterial having any of the properties described herein. Without being bound to a particular theory, the carbon-based nanomaterials can improve the tensile strength and performance of the epoxy. According to yet other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials can improve the thermal properties of the epoxy.

[0090] According to yet other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials can be used to form photovoltaic windows. According to certain embodiments, photovoltaic windows can include carbon-based nanomaterials having any of the properties described herein.

[0091] According to still other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials can be used to form the ceramic additive. According to certain embodiments, the ceramic additive can include a carbon-based nanomaterial having any of the properties described herein. Without being bound to a particular theory, the carbon-based nanomaterials can improve the thermal properties of the ceramic additive. According to still other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials can improve the structural properties of the ceramic additive. According to still other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials can improve the color properties of the ceramic additive.

[0092] According to yet other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials can be used to form biomedical implants. According to certain embodiments, the biomedical implants can include carbon-based nanomaterials having any of the properties described herein.

[0093] According to yet other embodiments, carbon-based nanomaterials can be used in the paper and pulp industry.

[0094] According to yet other embodiments, carbon-based nanomaterials can be used to form reversible hydrogen storage materials.

[0095] According to yet other embodiments, carbon-based nanomaterials may be used to form polishing compound additives.

[0096] According to yet other embodiments, carbon-based nanomaterials can be used in the sports industry.

[0097] According to yet other embodiments, carbon-based nanomaterials may be used to form weather stripping materials.

[0098] According to yet other embodiments, carbon-based nanomaterials can be used to form lightweight military armor, which is a lightweight, highly resilient ballistic garment.

[0099] According to yet other embodiments, carbon-based nanomaterials can be used to form carbon hexagons that can provide structural integrity to other materials.

[0100] According to still other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials can be used to form a grease. According to certain embodiments, the grease can include a carbon-based nanomaterial having any of the properties described herein. Without being bound to a particular theory, the carbon-based nanomaterials can improve the thermal properties of the grease. According to still other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials can improve the lubricity of the grease. According to still other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials can improve the color properties of the grease.

[0101] According to still other embodiments, carbon-based nanomaterials can be used to form adhesives. According to certain embodiments, the adhesives can include carbon-based nanomaterials having any of the properties described herein. Without being bound to a particular theory, the carbon-based nanomaterials can increase the surface area of ​​the adhesive. According to yet other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials can increase the thermal properties of the adhesive.

[0102] According to yet other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials can be used to form roofing materials, such as shingles, tar coatings, metal roofing materials, and the like. According to certain embodiments, the roofing materials can include carbon-based nanomaterials having any of the properties described herein. According to yet other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials can improve the structural performance of the roofing materials. According to yet other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials can improve the thermal properties of the roofing materials.

[0103] According to yet other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials can be used in soil formation. According to certain embodiments, the soil can include carbon-based nanomaterials having any of the properties described herein. According to yet other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials can improve soil stabilization (anti-hydro faction) and soil amendment (nutrients).

[0104] According to yet other embodiments, carbon-based nanomaterials can be used to form fire retardant articles such as fire extinguishers or blankets.

[0105] According to yet other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials can be used to form batteries.

[0106] According to yet other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials may be used in the formation of fuel cell catalysts.

[0107] According to yet other embodiments, carbon-based nanomaterials may be used in the formation or operation of nuclear power plants.

[0108] According to yet other embodiments, carbon-based nanomaterials can be used in alcohol distillation or water purification.

[0109] According to yet other embodiments, carbon-based nanomaterials can be used to form drug delivery systems.

[0110] According to yet other embodiments, carbon-based nanomaterials can be used in the formulation of cancer treatments.

[0111] According to yet other embodiments, carbon-based nanomaterials can be used in the formation of gene delivery devices.

[0112] According to yet other embodiments, carbon-based nanomaterials can be used for monitoring diabetes.

[0113] According to yet other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials can be used in the formation of biosensors.

[0114] According to yet other embodiments, carbon-based nanomaterials can be used to form the light generator.

[0115] According to yet other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials may be used to form transistors.

[0116] According to yet other embodiments, carbon-based nanomaterials can be used to form waterproofing materials.

[0117] According to yet other embodiments, carbon-based nanomaterials can be used to form wearable proofing.

[0118] According to yet other embodiments, carbon-based nanomaterials can be used to form wearable electronics.

[0119] According to yet other embodiments, carbon-based nanomaterials can be used to form touch screens.

[0120] According to yet other embodiments, carbon-based nanomaterials can be used to form flexible screens.

[0121] According to yet other embodiments, carbon-based nanomaterials can be used to form food packaging.

[0122] According to yet other embodiments, carbon-based nanomaterials can be used in desalination processes.

[0123] According to yet other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials may be used in the formation of or in combination with gasoline. According to certain embodiments, the gasoline may include carbon-based nanomaterials having any of the properties described herein.

[0124] According to yet other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials may be used in the formation of or in combination with ethanol or ethanol-based fuels. According to certain embodiments, the ethanol or ethanol-based fuels may include carbon-based nanomaterials having any of the properties described herein.

[0125] According to yet other embodiments, carbon-based nanomaterials can be used in the formation of or in combination with cancer targeting materials, such as peptides or other known proteins, According to certain embodiments, the cancer targeting materials can include carbon-based nanomaterials having any of the properties described herein.

[0126] According to yet other embodiments, the carbon-based nanomaterials may be used in the formation of or in combination with medical drug delivery systems, particularly nano drug delivery systems. According to certain embodiments, the drug delivery systems may include carbon-based nanomaterials having any of the properties described herein.

[0127] Various aspects and embodiments are possible. Some of these aspects and embodiments are described herein. After reading this specification, a person skilled in the art will understand that these aspects and embodiments are merely examples and do not limit the scope of the present invention. The embodiment can be according to any one or more of the embodiments listed below.

[0128] Embodiment 1. A carbon-based nanomaterial composition formed from a formation mixture comprising a gas mixture and sulfur powder, wherein the gas mixture comprises a carbon-based gas, oxygen gas, and hydrogen gas, and the carbon-based nanomaterial composition comprises sulfur-doped nanospheres.

[0129] Embodiment 2. A method of forming a carbon-based nanomaterial composition, the method comprising: providing a forming mixture comprising a gas mixture and sulfur powder, the gas mixture comprising a carbon-based gas, oxygen gas, and hydrogen gas; and igniting the gas mixture to form a carbon-based nanomaterial composition, the carbon-based nanomaterial composition comprising sulfur-doped nanospheres.

[0130] Embodiment 3. A carbon-based nanomaterial composition comprising sulfur-doped nanospheres, a carbon content of at least about 60% and not more than about 99% based on elemental analysis of the carbon-based nanomaterial composition, an oxygen content of at least about 0.0% and not more than about 35% based on elemental analysis of the carbon-based nanomaterial composition, and a sulfur content of at least about 1% and not more than about 50%.

[0131] Embodiment 4. The carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method of any one of embodiments 1, 2, and 3, wherein the sulfur-doped nanospheres have an average diameter of at least about 5 nm.

[0132] Embodiment 5. The carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method of any one of embodiments 1, 2, and 3, wherein the sulfur-doped nanospheres have an average diameter of about 500 nm or less.

[0133] Embodiment 6. The carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method of any one of embodiments 1, 2, and 3, wherein the carbon-based nanomaterial composition comprises a sulfur content of at least about 1% based on elemental analysis of the carbon-based nanomaterial composition.

[0134] Embodiment 7. The carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method of any one of embodiments 1, 2, and 3, wherein the carbon-based nanomaterial composition comprises a sulfur content of about 50% or less based on elemental analysis of the carbon-based nanomaterial composition.

[0135] Embodiment 8. The carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method of any one of embodiments 1, 2, and 3, wherein the carbon-based nanomaterial composition comprises a carbon content of at least about 60% based on elemental analysis of the carbon-based nanomaterial composition.

[0136] Embodiment 9. The carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method of any one of embodiments 1, 2, and 3, wherein the carbon-based nanomaterial composition comprises a carbon content of about 99% or less based on elemental analysis of the carbon-based nanomaterial composition.

[0137] Embodiment 10. The carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method of any one of embodiments 1, 2, and 3, wherein the carbon-based nanomaterial composition comprises an oxygen content of at least about 0.0% based on elemental analysis of the carbon-based nanomaterial composition.

[0138] Embodiment 11. A carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method according to any one of embodiments 1, 2, and 3, wherein the carbon-based nanomaterial composition comprises an oxygen content of about 35% or less based on elemental analysis of the carbon-based nanomaterial composition.

[0139] Embodiment 12. A carbon-based nanomaterial composition having a carbon hybridization ratio P of at least about 0.0. sp3 / P sp2 (P sp3 is the percentage of carbon in the carbon-based nanomaterial composition that has sp3 hybridization, and P sp2 The carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method of any one of embodiments 1, 2, and 3, comprising:

[0140] Embodiment 13. The carbon-based nanomaterial has a carbon hybridization ratio P of about 5.0 or less. sp3 / P sp2 (P sp3 is the percentage of carbon in the carbon-based nanomaterial composition that has sp3 hybridization, and P sp2 The carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method of any one of embodiments 1, 2, and 3, wherein x is the percentage of carbon in the carbon-based nanomaterial composition that has sp2 hybridization.

[0141] Embodiment 14. The carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method of any one of embodiments 1, 2, and 3, wherein the carbon-based nanomaterial composition comprises a D / G ratio of about 0.1 or less.

[0142] Embodiment 15. The carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method of any one of embodiments 1, 2, and 3, wherein the carbon-based nanomaterial composition comprises a D / G ratio of at least about 2.0.

[0143] Embodiment 16. The carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method of any one of embodiments 1, 2, and 3, wherein the carbon-based nanomaterial composition comprises an aspect ratio of about 100 or less.

[0144] Embodiment 17. The carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method of any one of embodiments 1, 2, and 3, wherein the carbon-based nanomaterial composition comprises an aspect ratio of at least about 1.

[0145] Embodiment 18. A carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method according to any one of embodiments 1, 2, and 3, wherein the carbon-based nanomaterial composition is formed from a forming mixture, the forming mixture comprising a gas mixture and sulfur powder.

[0146] Embodiment 19. A carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method according to any one of embodiments 1, 2, and 18, wherein the forming mixture comprises a gas mixture at a concentration of at least about 50% by volume relative to the total volume of the forming mixture.

[0147] Embodiment 20. The carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method of any one of embodiments 1, 2, and 18, wherein the forming mixture comprises sulfur powder in a concentration of about 98% by volume or less, based on the total volume of the forming mixture.

[0148] Embodiment 21. A carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method according to any one of embodiments 1, 2 and 18, wherein the forming mixture comprises sulfur powder in a concentration of at least about 2% by volume, based on the total volume of the forming mixture.

[0149] Embodiment 22. A carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method according to any one of embodiments 1, 2 and 18, wherein the forming mixture comprises a gas mixture at a concentration of about 50% by volume or less relative to the total volume of the forming mixture.

[0150] Embodiment 23. The carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method of any one of embodiments 1, 2, and 18, wherein the gas mixture comprises a carbon-based gas in a concentration of at least about 0.8 molar.

[0151] Embodiment 24. A carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method according to any one of embodiments 1, 2 and 18, wherein the gas mixture comprises a carbon-based gas in a concentration of about 18 molar or less.

[0152] Embodiment 25. The carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method of any one of embodiments 1, 2, and 18, wherein the carbon-based gas comprises acetylene gas, methane gas, or any combination thereof.

[0153] Embodiment 26. A carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method according to any one of embodiments 1, 2 and 18, wherein the gas mixture comprises oxygen gas in a concentration of at least about 0.1 molar.

[0154] Embodiment 27. A carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method according to any one of embodiments 1, 2 and 18, wherein the gas mixture comprises oxygen gas at a concentration of about 13.0 molar or less.

[0155] Embodiment 28. The carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method of any one of embodiments 1, 2, and 18, wherein the gas mixture comprises hydrogen gas at a concentration of at least about 0.0 molar.

[0156] Embodiment 29. A carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method according to any one of embodiments 1, 2 and 18, wherein the gas mixture comprises hydrogen gas at a concentration of about 20 molar or less.

[0157] Embodiment 30. The carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method of any one of embodiments 1, 2, and 18, wherein the gas mixture comprises acetylene gas in a concentration of at least about 0.8 molar.

[0158] Embodiment 31. A carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method according to any one of embodiments 1, 2 and 18, wherein the gas mixture comprises acetylene gas in a concentration of about 18 molar or less.

[0159] Embodiment 32. The carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method of any one of embodiments 1, 2, and 18, wherein the gas mixture comprises methane gas in a concentration of at least about 0.8 molar.

[0160] Embodiment 33. A carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method according to any one of embodiments 1, 2 and 18, wherein the gas mixture comprises methane gas at a concentration of about 20.0 molar or less.

[0161] Embodiment 34. The carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method of any one of embodiments 1, 2, and 3, wherein the carbon-based nanomaterial composition is formed at a combustion temperature of at least about 1500°C.

[0162] Embodiment 35. The carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method of any one of embodiments 1, 2, and 3, wherein the carbon-based nanomaterial composition is formed at a combustion temperature of about 3000° C. or less.

[0163] Embodiment 36. The carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method of any one of embodiments 1, 2, and 3, wherein the carbon-based nanomaterial composition is formed at a combustion pressure of at least about 200 PSI.

[0164] Embodiment 37. The carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method of any one of embodiments 1, 2, and 3, wherein the carbon-based nanomaterial composition is formed at a combustion pressure of about 3000 PSI or less.

[0165] Embodiment 38. A carbon-based nanomaterial composition is formed in a system for carbon-based nanomaterial synthesis, the system comprising an enclosed chamber including a hollow interior, a carbon-based gas source fluidly coupled to the chamber and configured to supply a carbon-based gas to the hollow interior, a hydrogen source independent of the carbon-based gas source and fluidly coupled to the chamber and configured to supply hydrogen to the hollow interior, an oxygen source independent of the carbon-based gas source and fluidly coupled to the chamber and configured to supply oxygen to the hollow interior, and a carbon-based gas, hydrogen, and oxygen source in the hollow interior. 4. The carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method of any one of embodiments 1, 2 and 3, comprising an igniter configured to ignite; a first flow meter coupled to a carbon-based gas source, a second flow meter coupled to a hydrogen source, a third flow meter coupled to an oxygen source; and a controller in communication with the first, second and third flow meters and configured to receive flow data from the first, second and third flow meters, wherein the controller is configured to adjust flow rates from one or more of the carbon-based gas source, the hydrogen source, and / or the oxygen source in response to the flow data.

[0166] Embodiment 39. The carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method of embodiment 38, wherein the carbon-based gas is a flue gas resulting from an industrial reaction process.

[0167] Embodiment 40. The carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method of embodiment 39, wherein the industrial reaction process is a coal energy plant, a mining operation, a combustion engine, or a landfill.

[0168] Embodiment 41. A carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method as described in embodiment 39, wherein the carbon-based gas source comprises a storage tank, an inlet line, and an outlet line, the storage tank is coupled to the chamber via the outlet line, and flue gas is delivered from the industrial reaction process through the inlet line to the storage tank.

[0169] Embodiment 42. The carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method of embodiment 39, wherein the chamber is co-located with an industrial reaction process.

[0170] Embodiment 43. The carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method of embodiment 38, further comprising an inert gas source fluidly coupled to the chamber and configured to provide an inert gas to the hollow interior.

[0171] Embodiment 44. The carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method of embodiment 38, wherein a carbon-based gas source is coupled to the chamber via a first one-way valve, a hydrogen source is coupled to the chamber via a second one-way valve, and an oxygen source is coupled to the chamber via a third one-way valve.

[0172] Embodiment 45. The carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method of embodiment 44, wherein the chamber further comprises an exhaust valve.

[0173] Embodiment 46. The carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method of embodiment 38, further comprising a pressure sensor configured to measure the pressure in the hollow interior and a temperature sensor configured to measure the temperature in the hollow interior, wherein the controller is configured to communicate with the pressure sensor and receive pressure data from the pressure sensor, the controller is configured to communicate with the temperature sensor and receive temperature data from the temperature sensor, and the controller is configured to adjust flow rates from one or more of the carbon-based gas source, the hydrogen source, and the oxygen source in response to the flow rate data, the pressure data, the temperature data, or a combination thereof.

[0174] Embodiment 47. A carbon-based nanomaterial-based cathode comprising a layer of a carbon-based nanomaterial composition formed from a forming mixture comprising a gas mixture and sulfur powder, wherein the gas mixture comprises a carbon-based gas, oxygen gas, and hydrogen gas, and the carbon-based nanomaterial composition comprises sulfur-doped nanospheres.

[0175] Embodiment 48. A method of forming a carbon-based nanomaterial-based cathode, the method comprising: supplying a forming mixture comprising a gas mixture and sulfur powder, the gas mixture comprising a carbon-based gas, oxygen gas, and hydrogen gas; igniting the gas mixture to form a carbon-based nanomaterial composition, the carbon-based nanomaterial composition comprising sulfur-doped nanospheres; and forming the carbon-based nanomaterial composition into a layer of the carbon-based nanomaterial-based cathode.

[0176] Embodiment 49. A carbon-based nanomaterial-based cathode comprising a layer of a carbon-based nanomaterial composition, the carbon-based nanomaterial composition comprising sulfur-doped nanospheres, a carbon content of at least about 60% and not more than about 99% based on elemental analysis of the carbon-based nanomaterial composition, and an oxygen content of at least about 0% and not more than about 35%, and a sulfur content of at least about 2% and not more than about 50% based on elemental analysis of the carbon-based nanomaterial composition.

[0177] Embodiment 50. The carbon-based nanomaterial-based cathode or method according to any one of embodiments 47, 48, and 49, wherein the sulfur-doped nanospheres have an average diameter of at least about 5 nm.

[0178] Embodiment 51. The carbon-based nanomaterial-based cathode or method according to any one of embodiments 47, 48, and 49, wherein the sulfur-doped nanospheres have an average diameter of about 500 nm or less.

[0179] Embodiment 52. The carbon-based nanomaterial-based cathode or method of any one of embodiments 47, 48, and 49, wherein the carbon-based nanomaterial composition comprises a sulfur content of at least about 2% based on elemental analysis of the carbon-based nanomaterial composition.

[0180] Embodiment 53. The carbon-based nanomaterial-based cathode or method of any one of embodiments 47, 48, and 49, wherein the carbon-based nanomaterial composition comprises a sulfur content of about 50% or less based on elemental analysis of the carbon-based nanomaterial composition.

[0181] Embodiment 54. The carbon-based nanomaterial-based cathode or method of any one of embodiments 47, 48, and 49, wherein the carbon-based nanomaterial composition comprises a carbon content of at least about 60% based on elemental analysis of the carbon-based nanomaterial composition.

[0182] Embodiment 55. The carbon-based nanomaterial-based cathode or method of any one of embodiments 47, 48, and 49, wherein the carbon-based nanomaterial composition comprises a carbon content of about 99% or less based on elemental analysis of the carbon-based nanomaterial composition.

[0183] Embodiment 56. The carbon-based nanomaterial-based cathode or method of any one of embodiments 47, 48, and 49, wherein the carbon-based nanomaterial composition comprises an oxygen content of at least about 1% based on elemental analysis of the carbon-based nanomaterial composition.

[0184] Embodiment 57. The carbon-based nanomaterial-based cathode or method of any one of embodiments 47, 48, and 49, wherein the carbon-based nanomaterial composition comprises an oxygen content of about 35% or less based on elemental analysis of the carbon-based nanomaterial composition.

[0185] Embodiment 58. A carbon-based nanomaterial composition having a carbon hybridization ratio P of at least about 1.0. sp3 / P sp2 (P sp3 is the percentage of carbon in the carbon-based nanomaterial composition that has sp3 hybridization, and P sp2 50. The carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method of any one of embodiments 47, 48, and 49, comprising:

[0186] Embodiment 59. The carbon-based nanomaterial has a carbon hybridization ratio P of about 5.0 or less. sp3 / P sp2 (P sp3 is the percentage of carbon in the carbon-based nanomaterial composition that has sp3 hybridization, and P sp250. The carbon-based nanomaterial-based cathode or method of any one of embodiments 47, 48, and 49, wherein M is the percentage of carbon in the carbon-based nanomaterial composition that has sp2 hybridization.

[0187] Embodiment 60. The carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method of any one of embodiments 47, 48, and 49, wherein the carbon-based nanomaterial composition comprises a D / G ratio of about 0.1 or less.

[0188] Embodiment 61. The carbon-based nanomaterial-based cathode or method of any one of embodiments 47, 48, and 49, wherein the carbon-based nanomaterial composition comprises a D / G ratio of at least about 2.0.

[0189] Embodiment 62. The carbon-based nanomaterial-based cathode or method of any one of embodiments 47, 48, and 49, wherein the carbon-based nanomaterial composition comprises an aspect ratio of about 100 or less.

[0190] Embodiment 63. The carbon-based nanomaterial-based cathode or method of any one of embodiments 47, 48, and 49, wherein the carbon-based nanomaterial composition comprises an aspect ratio of at least about 1.

[0191] Embodiment 64. The carbon-based nanomaterial-based cathode or method of any one of embodiments 47, 48, and 49, wherein the carbon-based nanomaterial composition is formed from a forming mixture, the forming mixture comprising a gas mixture and sulfur powder.

[0192] Embodiment 65. The carbon-based nanomaterial-based cathode or method according to any one of embodiments 47, 48, and 64, wherein the forming mixture comprises a gas mixture at a concentration of at least about 50% by volume relative to the total volume of the forming mixture.

[0193] Embodiment 66. The carbon-based nanomaterial-based cathode or method according to any one of embodiments 47, 48, and 64, wherein the forming mixture comprises sulfur powder at a concentration of about 98% by volume or less, based on the total volume of the forming mixture.

[0194] Embodiment 67. The carbon-based nanomaterial-based cathode or method according to any one of embodiments 47, 48, and 64, wherein the forming mixture comprises sulfur powder at a concentration of at least about 2% by volume, based on the total volume of the forming mixture.

[0195] Embodiment 68. The carbon-based nanomaterial-based cathode or method according to any one of embodiments 47, 48, and 64, wherein the forming mixture comprises a gas mixture at a concentration of about 50% by volume or less relative to the total volume of the forming mixture.

[0196] Embodiment 69. The carbon-based nanomaterial-based cathode or method according to any one of embodiments 1, 2, and 18, wherein the gas mixture comprises a carbon-based gas in a concentration of at least about 0.8 mol.

[0197] Embodiment 70. The carbon-based nanomaterial-based cathode or method according to any one of embodiments 47, 48, and 64, wherein the gas mixture comprises a carbon-based gas in a concentration of about 4.0 molar or less.

[0198] Embodiment 71. The carbon-based nanomaterial-based cathode or method according to any one of embodiments 47, 48, and 64, wherein the carbon-based gas comprises acetylene, methane, or any combination thereof.

[0199] Embodiment 72. The carbon-based nanomaterial-based cathode or method according to any one of embodiments 47, 48, and 64, wherein the gas mixture comprises oxygen gas in a concentration of at least about 0.1 mol.

[0200] Embodiment 73. The carbon-based nanomaterial-based cathode or method according to any one of embodiments 47, 48, and 64, wherein the gas mixture comprises oxygen gas at a concentration of about 1.0 molar or less.

[0201] Embodiment 74. The carbon-based nanomaterial-based cathode or method according to any one of embodiments 47, 48, and 64, wherein the gas mixture comprises hydrogen gas in a concentration of at least about 0.4 molar.

[0202] Embodiment 75. The carbon-based nanomaterial-based cathode or method according to any one of embodiments 47, 48, and 64, wherein the gas mixture comprises hydrogen gas at a concentration of about 1.6 molar or less.

[0203] Embodiment 76. The carbon-based nanomaterial-based cathode, carbon-based nanomaterial-based anode, or method of any one of embodiments 47, 48, and 64, wherein the gas mixture comprises methane gas at a concentration of at least about 0.8 molar.

[0204] Embodiment 77. The carbon-based nanomaterial-based cathode, carbon-based nanomaterial-based anode, or method of any one of embodiments 47, 48, and 64, wherein the gas mixture comprises methane gas at a concentration of about 2.4 molar or less.

[0205] Embodiment 78. The carbon-based nanomaterial-based cathode, carbon-based nanomaterial-based anode, or method of any one of embodiments 47, 48, and 64, wherein the gas mixture comprises methane gas at a concentration of at least about 0.8 molar.

[0206] Embodiment 79. The carbon-based nanomaterial-based cathode, carbon-based nanomaterial-based anode, or method of any one of embodiments 47, 48, and 64, wherein the gas mixture comprises methane gas at a concentration of about 2.4 molar or less.

[0207] Embodiment 80. The carbon-based nanomaterial-based cathode, carbon-based nanomaterial-based anode, or method of any one of embodiments 47, 48, and 49, wherein the carbon-based nanomaterial composition is formed at a combustion temperature of at least about 1500°C.

[0208] Embodiment 81. The carbon-based nanomaterial-based cathode, carbon-based nanomaterial-based anode, or method of any one of embodiments 47, 48, and 49, wherein the carbon-based nanomaterial composition is formed at a combustion temperature of about 3000° C. or less.

[0209] Embodiment 82. The carbon-based nanomaterial-based cathode, carbon-based nanomaterial-based anode, or method of any one of embodiments 47, 48, and 49, wherein the carbon-based nanomaterial composition is formed at a combustion pressure of at least about 200 PSI.

[0210] Embodiment 83. The carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method of any one of embodiments 47, 48, and 49, wherein the carbon-based nanomaterial composition is formed at a combustion pressure of about 3000 PSI or less.

[0211] Embodiment 84. The gas mixture comprises a molar ratio of at least about 0.05 and no more than about 0.7 CBG mol / GM mol Carbon-based gas (AG mol is equal to the number of moles of acetylene gas in the gas mixture, and GM mol 19. The carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method of any one of embodiments 1, 2, and 18, comprising:

[0212] Embodiment 85. The gas mixture has a molar ratio OG of at least about 0.01 and not more than about 0.4. mol / GM mol Oxygen gas (OG mol is equal to the number of moles of oxygen gas in the gas mixture, and GM mol 19. The carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method of any one of embodiments 1, 2, and 18, comprising:

[0213] Embodiment 86. The gas mixture comprises a molar ratio H-G of at least about 0.01 and not more than about 0.55. mol / GM mol Hydrogen gas (HG mol is equal to the number of moles of hydrogen gas in the gas mixture, and GM mol 19. The carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method of any one of embodiments 1, 2, and 18, comprising:

[0214] Embodiment 87. The gas mixture has a molar ratio A G of at least about 0.05 and not more than about 0.7. mol / GM mol Acetylene gas (AG mol is equal to the number of moles of acetylene gas in the gas mixture, and GM mol 19. The carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method of any one of embodiments 1, 2, and 18, comprising:

[0215] Embodiment 88. The gas mixture has a molar ratio MG mol / GM mol of methane gas (MG mol is equal to the number of moles of methane gas in the gas mixture, and GM mol 19. The carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method of any one of embodiments 1, 2, and 18, comprising:

[0216] Embodiment 89. The gas mixture has a molar ratio of at least about 0.05 and no more than about 0.7 CBG mol / GM mol Carbon-based gas (AG mol is equal to the number of moles of acetylene gas in the gas mixture, and GM mol 50. The carbon-based nanomaterial-based cathode, carbon-based nanomaterial-based anode, or method of any one of embodiments 47, 48, and 49, comprising:

[0217] Embodiment 90. The gas mixture has a molar ratio OG of at least about 0.01 and not more than about 0.4. mol / GM mol Oxygen gas (OG mol is equal to the number of moles of oxygen gas in the gas mixture, and GM mol 50. The carbon-based nanomaterial-based cathode, carbon-based nanomaterial-based anode, or method of any one of embodiments 47, 48, and 49, comprising:

[0218] Embodiment 91. The gas mixture comprises a molar ratio H-G of at least about 0.01 and not more than about 0.55. mol / GM mol Hydrogen gas (HGmol is equal to the number of moles of hydrogen gas in the gas mixture, and GM mol 50. The carbon-based nanomaterial-based cathode, carbon-based nanomaterial-based anode, or method of any one of embodiments 47, 48, and 49, comprising:

[0219] Embodiment 92. The gas mixture has a molar ratio A G of at least about 0.05 and not more than about 0.7. mol / GM mol Acetylene gas (AG mol is equal to the number of moles of acetylene gas in the gas mixture, and GM mol 50. The carbon-based nanomaterial-based cathode, carbon-based nanomaterial-based anode, or method of any one of embodiments 47, 48, and 49, comprising:

[0220] Embodiment 93. The gas mixture has a molar ratio MG mol / GM mol of methane gas (MG mol is equal to the number of moles of methane gas in the gas mixture, and GM mol 50. The carbon-based nanomaterial-based cathode, carbon-based nanomaterial-based anode, or method of any one of embodiments 47, 48, and 49, comprising:

[0221] It should be noted that not all activities described in the general description or examples above are required, some of the specific activities may be non-required, and one or more additional activities may be performed in addition to the activities described. Furthermore, the order in which the activities are listed does not necessarily correspond to the order in which the activities are performed.

[0222] Benefits, other advantages, and solutions to problems have been described above with respect to certain embodiments. However, the benefits, advantages, solutions to problems, and features that may lead to the occurrence or salience of the benefits, advantages, or solutions should not be construed as critical, essential, or essential features of any or all of the claims.

[0223] The detailed descriptions and illustrations of the embodiments described herein are intended to provide a general understanding of the structure of the various embodiments. The detailed descriptions and illustrations are not intended to be exhaustive and comprehensive descriptions of all elements and features of apparatus and systems that use the structures or methods described herein. Separate embodiments may be provided in combination in a single embodiment, and conversely, various features that are described for brevity in the context of a single embodiment may be provided separately or in any subcombination. Furthermore, references to values ​​specified within ranges include each and every value within that range. Many other embodiments may become apparent to those skilled in the art only after reading this specification. Other embodiments may be used and derived from the disclosure, such that structural substitutions, logical substitutions, or other changes may be made without departing from the scope of the disclosure. The disclosure is therefore to be regarded as illustrative and not restrictive.

Claims

1. 1. A carbon-based nanomaterial composition formed from a forming mixture comprising a gas mixture and sulfur powder, the gas mixture comprises a carbon-based gas, an oxygen gas, and a hydrogen gas; A carbon-based nanomaterial composition, wherein the carbon-based nanomaterial composition comprises sulfur-doped nanospheres.

2. 1. A method of forming a carbon-based nanomaterial composition, the method comprising: providing a forming mixture comprising a gas mixture and sulfur powder, the gas mixture comprising a carbon-based gas, an oxygen gas, and a hydrogen gas; and igniting the gas mixture to form the carbon-based nanomaterial composition. The method, wherein the carbon-based nanomaterial composition comprises sulfur-doped nanospheres.

3. 1. A carbon-based nanomaterial composition comprising: Sulfur doped nanospheres, a carbon content of at least about 60% and no more than about 99% based on elemental analysis of the carbon-based nanomaterial composition; an oxygen content of at least about 1% and no more than about 35% based on elemental analysis of the carbon-based nanomaterial composition; and A carbon-based nanomaterial composition comprising a sulfur content of at least about 2% and no more than about 50%.

4. 4. The carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method of claim 1, 2, or 3, wherein the sulfur-doped nanospheres have an average diameter of at least about 5 nm.

5. 4. The carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method of claim 1, 2, or 3, wherein the sulfur-doped nanospheres have an average diameter of about 500 nm or less.

6. 4. The carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method of claim 1, 2, or 3, wherein the carbon-based nanomaterial composition comprises a sulfur content of at least about 2% based on elemental analysis of the carbon-based nanomaterial composition.

7. 4. The carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method of claim 1, 2, or 3, wherein the carbon-based nanomaterial composition comprises a sulfur content of about 50% or less based on elemental analysis of the carbon-based nanomaterial composition.

8. 4. The carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method of claim 1, 2, or 3, wherein the carbon-based nanomaterial composition comprises a carbon content of at least about 60% based on elemental analysis of the carbon-based nanomaterial composition.

9. 4. The carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method of claim 1, 2, or 3, wherein the carbon-based nanomaterial composition comprises no more than about 99% carbon content based on elemental analysis of the carbon-based nanomaterial composition.

10. 4. The carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method of claim 1, 2, or 3, wherein the carbon-based nanomaterial composition comprises an oxygen content of at least about 1% based on elemental analysis of the carbon-based nanomaterial composition.

11. 4. The carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method of claim 1, 2, or 3, wherein the carbon-based nanomaterial composition comprises an oxygen content of about 35% or less based on elemental analysis of the carbon-based nanomaterial composition.

12. The carbon-based nanomaterial composition has a carbon hybridization ratio P of at least about 4.

0. ｓｐ３ / P ｓｐ２ (P ｓｐ３ is the percentage of carbon in the carbon-based nanomaterial composition that has sp3 hybridization, and P ｓｐ２ 4. The carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method of claim 1, 2, or 3, comprising a carbon-based nanomaterial composition having a sp2 hybridization ratio of 0.1 to 0.5,

13. The carbon-based nanomaterial has a carbon hybridization ratio P of about 5.0 or less. ｓｐ３ / P ｓｐ２ (P ｓｐ３ is the percentage of carbon in the carbon-based nanomaterial composition that has sp3 hybridization; P ｓｐ２ 4. The carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method of claim 1, 2, or 3, wherein x is the percentage of carbon in the carbon-based nanomaterial composition that has sp2 hybridization.

14. 4. The carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method of claim 1, 2, or 3, wherein the carbon-based nanomaterial composition comprises a D / G ratio of about 0.5 or less.

15. 4. The carbon-based nanomaterial composition or method of claim 1, 2, or 3, wherein the carbon-based nanomaterial composition comprises a D / G ratio of at least about 2.0.

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