Charge Sensor

Abstract

The charge detection device includes a substrate, a first electrode and a second electrode, a channel layer disposed on the substrate and electrically connected to the first electrode and the second electrode, and a charge storage layer disposed on or above the channel layer, wherein a steady or time-varying voltage or current is applied between the first electrode and the second electrode, and one or more electrical properties of the channel layer that correlate with the charge introduced into the charge storage layer are measured from the resulting current or voltage between the first electrode and the second electrode.

Description

REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

[0001] This application claims priority to Provisional Application No. 63 / 430,659, filed December 6, 2022, which is incorporated by reference in its entirety into this application. [Technical Field]

[0002] The present disclosure relates to charge sensors, and more particularly to charge sensors that quantify charge with excellent amplification characteristics, low power consumption, fast reset capability, and adaptability to environmental conditions, and have a variety of applications including, but not limited to, mass spectrometers, residual gas analyzers, vacuum gauges, photon sensors, and radiation sensors / detectors. [Background technology]

[0003] Charge sensors are used in a variety of applications. For example, mass spectrometers such as laser desorption mass spectrometers, time-of-flight (ToF) mass spectrometers, and ion mobility spectrometers use charge detection techniques to measure ions. Charge detection techniques are also essential for vacuum pressure measurement, ionizing radiation detection, corona arc detection, the detection of charged particles in accelerators, and space experiments.

[0004] Additionally, electron detection instruments and techniques such as electrometers, scanning electron microscopes (SEMs), transmission electron microscopes, electron energy loss spectrometers, X-ray / ultraviolet photoelectron spectrometers (XPS / UPS) and angle-resolved photoelectron spectroscopy (ARPES) also rely on charge sensors.

[0005] Existing charge sensors rely on electron multipliers or charge collection plates coupled with semiconductor transimpedance amplifiers. Existing charge detection technologies have several limitations. For example, electron multipliers require high voltage and high vacuum, and also require fragile, large channels or dynodes. Charge detection technologies based on semiconductor amplifiers have high detection limits and are therefore not suitable for low-level detection.

[0006] To advance these fields, low-power charge sensors with high intrinsic charge-to-current (or charge-to-voltage) gain are desired. Summary of the Invention

[0007] Aspects of the present disclosure provide a charge sensor that quantifies the charge on a conductor or dielectric that modulates the electrical properties of a nanomaterial film, where the change in current or voltage through the nanomaterial is an amplification function of the accumulated charge. The charge sensor of the present disclosure can achieve excellent amplification characteristics, low power consumption, and rapid reset capability.

[0008] According to an aspect of the present disclosure, a device includes a substrate, a first electrode, a second electrode, a channel layer disposed on the substrate and electrically connected to the first electrode and the second electrode, and a charge storage layer disposed on or above the channel layer. In particular, one or more charges introduced into the charge storage layer may be configured to change one or more electrical properties of the channel layer.

[0009] The following features may be included singly or in any combination.

[0010] In some embodiments, the charge storage layer may include a dielectric layer. For example, the dielectric layer may include Al2O3, SiO2, Si3N4, ZrO2, HfO2, TiO2, SrTO3, CaTiO3, SiC, GaN, TiO2, ZnO, diamond, fullerene, BN, Be3N2, AlP, AlAs, AlGaN, GaP, CdS, ZnSe, ZnS, ZnTe, Cu2O, SnO2, polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), or any combination thereof. The thickness of the dielectric layer may be about 200 nm or less, about 150 nm, about 100 nm, about 50 nm, about 25 nm, about 10 nm, about 5 nm, or about 2 nm.

[0011] In some embodiments, the charge storage layer may include a photosensitive material that exhibits electrical conductivity in response to the incidence of one or more photons, such as SiC, TiO, ZnO, GaO, P3HT, MEH-PPV, a semiconducting polymer, diamond, fullerene, BN, AlP, AlAs, GaN, AlGaN, InGaN, InAlGaN, InN, InP, InO, InSb, GaP, CdS, CdSe, ZnSe, ZnS, ZnTe, CuO, SnO, InGaAs, GaAs, InAs, Ge, InGaAs, PbS, PbTe, PbSe, Ge, Si, or any combination thereof.

[0012] Additionally, one or more charges on the charge storage layer may be configured to be removed by heat, ultraviolet (UV) light, tunneling of oppositely charged ions, electrons or holes, or an electron beam.

[0013] In some embodiments, the charge storage layer may comprise an upper dielectric layer disposed on the channel layer and a third electrode disposed on the upper dielectric layer, In some such embodiments, the third electrode may be electrically connected to one or more external sources and / or collectors of charge.

[0014] In some embodiments, the third electrode may be configured to be reset by connecting it to a predetermined voltage via a switch. Applying the predetermined voltage may remove or add one or more charges from the third electrode. The predetermined voltage may be ground. In some embodiments, the switch may be implemented as a transistor, such as a junction field-effect transistor or a tunnel field-effect transistor. In some embodiments, the switch may be implemented as a physical switch, such as a reed relay. The reset function may include a reset electrode and a tunnel dielectric disposed between the third electrode and the reset electrode. A predetermined voltage may be set on the reset electrode to tunnel charges between the reset electrode and the third electrode through the dielectric and neutralize the charge on the third electrode, thereby resetting the third electrode.

[0015] The substrate may include a lower dielectric layer disposed below the channel layer. The substrate may further include a conductive layer or a semiconducting layer disposed below the lower dielectric layer. A predetermined voltage may be applied to the conductive layer or the semiconducting layer. For example, the predetermined voltage may be ground potential.

[0016] In some embodiments, the device may further include a dielectric encapsulation layer disposed over the first electrode and the second electrode to insulate them from one or more electrical charges. In some embodiments, the dielectric encapsulation layer may cover substantially the entire area of ​​the substrate. In some embodiments, the dielectric encapsulation layer may not cover the channel layer. The device may further include a conductor layer disposed on the dielectric encapsulation layer to provide an electrical ground.

[0017] One or more charges introduced into the charge reservoir layer may be configured to induce charges in the channel layer, thereby changing one or more electrical properties of the channel layer.

[0018] In operation, a constant or time-varying voltage may be applied between the first and second electrodes, and a resulting current may be measured between the first and second electrodes to detect a change in one or more electrical properties of the channel layer. Thus, one or more charges introduced into the charge reservoir layer may be quantified based on the change in one or more electrical properties of the channel layer.

[0019] In some embodiments, a constant or time-varying current may be applied between the first and second electrodes, and a resulting voltage may be measured between the first and second electrodes to detect a change in one or more electrical properties of the channel layer. Thus, one or more charges introduced into the charge reservoir layer may be quantified based on the change in one or more electrical properties of the channel layer.

[0020] In some embodiments, the channel layer may be formed from a metallic, semi-metallic, or semiconducting material. In some such embodiments, the channel layer may be formed from a nanomaterial. For example, the nanomaterial may include graphene, single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs), semiconducting SWNTs, metallic SWNTs, mixed SWNTs, multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWNTs), semiconducting MWNTs, metallic MWNTs, mixed MWNTs, semiconducting nanowires (e.g., silicon nanowires, gallium nitride nanowires, etc.), silicon (Si), graphene, borophene, silicene, MoS2, WS2, MoSe2, WSe2, MoTe2, MXene, or any combination thereof.

[0021] Additionally, one or more charges may be generated by the addition or removal of electrons, cations (positive ions), anions (negative ions), photons, or any combination thereof, or by producing charged particles through radioactive, nuclear, chemical, electrochemical, photochemical, and / or photoelectrochemical processes.

[0022] To quantify radiation, in some embodiments, the device may further include an anode and a cathode, such that in response to one or more photons incident on the device, the cathode becomes positively charged and electrons released from the cathode are captured by the anode. To this end, in some embodiments, the cathode may have a larger radiation interaction cross-section than the anode. In other embodiments, a window may be formed in the anode so that photons can directly interact with the cathode and electrons released from the cathode can be received by the anode. In such embodiments, the radiation interaction cross-section of the anode may not be smaller than that of the cathode. Furthermore, the cathode may be electrically connected to the charge storage layer to allow the charge storage layer to be positively charged, or the anode may be electrically connected to the charge storage layer to allow the charge storage layer to be negatively charged, and these charge states may be quantified based on changes in one or more electrical properties of the channel layer.

[0023] In some embodiments, the device may further comprise a charge collector electrically connected to the charge storage layer for receiving one or more charges and transferring the charges to the charge storage layer. The charge collector may be provided separately from the device and electrically connected to the device.

[0024] In some embodiments, the upper dielectric layer may be sensitive to ultraviolet (UV) light. For example, the UV-sensitive upper dielectric layer may include SiC, TiCh, ZnO, GaO, P3HT, MEH-PPV, a semiconducting polymer, diamond, fullerene, BN, AlP, AlAs, GaN, AlGaN, InGaN, InAlGaN, GaP, CdS, CdSe, CdTe, ZnSe, ZnS, ZnTe, CuO, or any combination thereof.

[0025] In some embodiments, the upper dielectric layer may be sensitive to infrared (IR) light. For example, the infrared-sensitive upper dielectric layer may include InN, InP, InO, InSb, SnO, InGaAs, GaAs, GaSb, InAs, Ge, InGaAs, PbS, PbTe, PbSe, Ge, Si, or any combination thereof.

[0026] In some embodiments, the area of ​​the third electrode may be greater than the area of ​​the channel layer.

[0027] In a related aspect of the present disclosure, a device may include a substrate, a lower dielectric layer disposed on the substrate, a channel layer disposed on the lower dielectric layer, first and second electrodes electrically connected to opposite ends of the channel layer, and a back electrode disposed between the substrate and the lower dielectric layer. In particular, the back electrode may be electrically connected to an external source of one or more charges, and the one or more charges introduced to the back electrode may be configured to change one or more electrical properties of the channel layer. Thus, the one or more charges on the back electrode may be quantified based on the change in one or more electrical properties of the channel layer.

[0028] In related aspects, an electrometer, a storage device, or a time tracking device may be implemented based on the devices described herein.

[0029] In another aspect of the present disclosure, a method for quantifying ion flow using a device comprising a first electrode, a second electrode, a channel layer electrically connected between the first and second electrodes, and a charge storage layer disposed above the channel layer may include allowing one or more charges to be introduced into the charge storage layer by the ion flow, applying a voltage or current between the first and second electrodes, and measuring a change in one or more electrical properties of the channel layer caused by the one or more charges on the charge storage layer, thereby quantifying the ion flow.

[0030] The following features may be included singly or in any combination.

[0031] In some embodiments, a method for quantifying electron flow using a device comprising a first electrode, a second electrode, a channel layer electrically connected between the first and second electrodes, and a charge storage layer disposed on the channel layer may include allowing one or more charges to be introduced onto the charge storage layer by the electron flow, applying a voltage or current between the first and second electrodes, and measuring a change in one or more electrical properties of the channel layer caused by the one or more charges on the charge storage layer, thereby quantifying the electron flow.

[0032] In some embodiments, a method for quantifying photon flow using a device comprising a first electrode, a second electrode, a channel layer electrically connected between the first and second electrodes, and a charge storage layer disposed on the channel layer may include allowing one or more charges to be introduced into the charge storage layer by electrons released by a photoelectric effect caused by the photon flow, applying a voltage or current between the first and second electrodes, and measuring changes in one or more electrical properties of the channel layer caused by the one or more charges on the charge storage layer, thereby quantifying the one or more charges and quantifying the photon flow based on the photoelectron quantum yield.

[0033] Charge sensors according to the present disclosure can provide high amplification with low power consumption, for example, using a drive voltage of about 0.1 V. Charge sensors according to the present disclosure eliminate the need for high voltage, reducing power consumption, and can operate under atmospheric conditions without the need for a vacuum pump. Charge sensors according to embodiments of the present disclosure enable the detection of a variety of analytes, including ions, electrons, photons, and ionizing radiation, based on their charging behavior. Furthermore, charge sensors according to the present disclosure function from vacuum to atmospheric pressure and even above atmospheric pressure, and can detect both positive and negative ions, electrons, photons, and ionizing radiation. [Brief explanation of the drawings]

[0034] For a better understanding of the drawings used in the detailed description of the present disclosure, a brief description of each drawing is provided.

[0035] [Figure 1] FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram illustrating a charge sensor and a configuration for quantifying charge according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 2] 1A to 1C are diagrams illustrating an embodiment of a charge sensor according to the present disclosure and a manufacturing process thereof. [Figure 3] 1A-1C are schematic diagrams illustrating related embodiments of a charge sensor and its manufacturing process according to the present disclosure. [Figure 4] 1A-1C are schematic diagrams illustrating another related embodiment of a charge sensor according to the present disclosure and a manufacturing process thereof. [Figure 5A] 1A and 1B are schematic diagrams illustrating embodiments of a charge sensor according to the present disclosure that include a reset switch. [Figure 5B] FIG. 5B shows a circuit corresponding to the embodiment of FIG. 5A. [Figure 5C] FIG. 10 is a schematic diagram illustrating an embodiment of a charge sensor in accordance with the present disclosure where the reset switch is implemented as a tunnel dielectric and electrode. [Figure 6] FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram illustrating an embodiment of an electrometer based on a charge sensor according to the present disclosure. [Figure 7A] 1A and 1B are schematic diagrams illustrating embodiments of charge sensor-based storage devices according to the present disclosure. [Figure 7B] FIG. 7B illustrates a switching operation for the memory device of FIG. 7A. [Figure 8] 1A and 1B are schematic diagrams illustrating embodiments of passive charge sensor-based time tracking devices according to the present disclosure; [Figure 9A] FIG. 1 illustrates a charge sensor-based photon sensor according to an embodiment of the present disclosure, where the photon detector is remotely located and electrically connected to the top electrode. [Figure 9B] FIG. 1 illustrates a charge sensor-based photon sensor according to an embodiment of the present disclosure, where the photon-detecting cathode is provided integrally with the top electrode. [Figure 9C]FIG. 1 illustrates a charge sensor-based photon sensor with a window formed in the anode according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. [Figure 10A] 1 is a schematic diagram illustrating an embodiment of an ultraviolet dosimeter based on a photon sensor configuration according to the present disclosure; FIG. [Figure 10B] 1 is a schematic diagram illustrating an embodiment of an ultraviolet dosimeter based on a photon sensor configuration according to the present disclosure; FIG. [Figure 11] FIG. 1 is a schematic diagram illustrating a related embodiment of a charge sensor-based UV dosimeter according to the present disclosure. [Figure 12] 1A-1C are schematic diagrams illustrating embodiments of charge sensor-based infrared and / or other wavelength dosimeters according to the present disclosure. [Figure 13A] FIG. 10 is a schematic diagram illustrating another related embodiment of a charge sensor according to the present disclosure. [Figure 13B] FIG. 10 is a schematic diagram illustrating another related embodiment of a charge sensor according to the present disclosure. [Figure 13C] FIG. 10 is a schematic diagram illustrating another related embodiment of a charge sensor according to the present disclosure. [Figure 14] FIG. 10 shows experimental results for measuring the current response of a charge sensor according to the present disclosure using an AC corona discharge ion source. [Figure 15] FIG. 10 shows experimental results for measuring the current response of a charge sensor with a separate charge collector connected to the top electrode according to the present disclosure using an AC corona discharge ion source. [Figure 16] 10A-10C show experimental results for measuring the current response of a charge sensor according to the present disclosure to ions and electrons in a vacuum chamber using a regulated charge source. [Figure 17] FIG. 10 shows experimental results comparing the current response of a charge sensor according to the present disclosure to a flow of positive ions with measured ion currents. [Figure 18] FIG. 10 compares experimental results from a mass spectrometer using a charge sensor according to the present disclosure and a built-in electron multiplier.

[0036] The above drawings are not necessarily to scale, but are rather simplified representations illustrating the basic principles of the present disclosure. Specific design features of the present disclosure, such as specific dimensions, orientations, locations, shapes, and manufacturing processes, are determined in part by the particular application and environment of use. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

[0037] The advantages and features of the present disclosure and the manner in which they are achieved will become apparent with reference to the accompanying drawings and the exemplary embodiments described in detail below, however, the present disclosure is not limited to the exemplary embodiments described herein and may include variations and modifications thereof.

[0038] The exemplary embodiments are provided solely to enable those skilled in the art to appreciate the scope of the present disclosure, which is defined by the claims. Thus, in some embodiments, well-known operations of processes, well-known structures, and well-known techniques are not described in detail so as not to obscure the disclosure. Like reference numerals refer to like elements throughout the specification.

[0039] The terms used herein are for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only and are not intended to limit the disclosure. As used herein, the singular forms "a," "an," and "the" are to be construed as including the plural forms unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Furthermore, as used herein, the terms "comprises" and / or "includes" specify the presence of stated features, elements, steps, operations, components, and / or parts, but do not exclude the presence or addition of one or more other features, elements, steps, operations, components, components, and / or groups thereof. As used herein, the term "and / or" includes any and all combinations of one or more of the associated listed items.

[0040] As used herein, unless otherwise expressly stated or clear from the context, the term "about" is understood to be within the normal tolerance in the art, for example, within ±2 standard deviations of the mean value. "About" is understood to be within 10%, 9%, 8%, 7%, 6%, 5%, 4%, 3%, 2%, 1%, 0.5%, 0.1%, 0.05%, or 0.01% of the specified value. Unless clearly divergent from the context, all numerical values ​​provided herein are modified by the term "about."

[0041] The present disclosure provides a charge sensor that traps charges on a conductor or dielectric that affect one or more electrical properties of an underlying nanomaterial film, where the change in current or voltage across the nanomaterial film is an amplified function of the trapped charge. Charge sensors according to embodiments of the present disclosure can be implemented as charge-to-current amplifiers, charge-to-voltage amplifiers, or charge integrators. Charge sensors according to the present disclosure can be used in a variety of fields, including spectroscopy, chemical and materials analysis, microscopy, residual gas analysis, semiconductor manufacturing, pharmaceutical development, and weapons of mass destruction countermeasures.

[0042] Charge sensors according to the present disclosure can provide high amplification using low power consumption, e.g., a driving voltage of approximately 0.1 V, thereby replacing electron multipliers and photomultipliers in various applications and devices. Charge sensors according to the present disclosure eliminate the need for high voltages, reducing power consumption and enabling operation over a wide pressure range without the need for a vacuum pump. Charge sensors according to embodiments of the present disclosure enable the detection of a variety of analytes, including ions, electrons, photons, and ionizing radiation, based on their charging behavior. Furthermore, charge sensors according to the present disclosure function in a pressure range from vacuum to atmospheric pressure and can detect both positive and negative ions, electrons, photons, and ionizing radiation. Charge sensors according to the present disclosure can also function at pressures above atmospheric pressure. Here, ionizing radiation may include, but is not limited to, x-rays, gamma rays, alpha rays, beta rays, neutrons, muons, and quarks.

[0043] Charge sensors according to the present disclosure may be configured to detect ultraviolet-C radiation emitted by supersonic objects. For example, gas molecules surrounding a supersonic warhead may be decomposed and ionized by aerodynamic heating, emitting radiation in the ultraviolet-C wavelength range. Plumes from missile and rocket engines may become hot enough to emit radiation in the ultraviolet-C wavelength range. The ultraviolet-C radiation emitted by such supersonic warheads may be one of the rare sources of ultraviolet-C radiation below the ozone layer. Charge sensors according to embodiments of the present disclosure may be developed as ultraviolet-C detectors capable of detecting ultraviolet-C radiation emitted by supersonic objects while distinguishing between sunlight and visible light in the ultraviolet-A / B wavelength range. Therefore, the charge sensor can function as a sunlight-independent ultraviolet-C detector for early warning systems and hypersonic object detection systems. The ultraviolet-C radiation may have a wavelength of, for example, about 200 nm to about 280 nm.

[0044] In one aspect of the present disclosure, the top electrode may be formed from a metal that directly or indirectly collects charges that are amplified in a channel layer connecting the first and second electrodes, causing a change in current or voltage therebetween. In some embodiments, the top electrode may float during detection, and the current or voltage between the first and second electrodes through the nanomaterial film may change as a function of the amplification of the collected charges.

[0045] In use, if the top electrode floats during detection, it may become highly charged and need to be returned to a neutral or other desired charge state. Therefore, a switch component may be provided to remove the collected charge from the top electrode and reset the device for continued measurement. In some embodiments, the charge on the top electrode may be reset by applying a bias to a channel or other electrode separated from the top electrode by an insulating layer. Electrons may tunnel into or out of the top electrode to reset the top electrode to the desired charge state, at which point the bias may be turned off. In some embodiments, the tunneling effect may be implemented in a device electrically connected to the top electrode. In some such embodiments, the device may be implemented as a tunneling effect transistor. The tunneling effect transistor may be implemented internally on the substrate or externally using one or more external devices.

[0046] In charge sensors according to the present disclosure, the transconductance as a function of voltage is substantially linear within the dynamic range of the charge sensor, whereas that of semiconductor devices is typically nonlinear. The voltage applied to the charge sensor is substantially linear as a function of collected charge, thereby maintaining a constant gain throughout the dynamic range of the charge sensor. Therefore, newly collected charge generates the same signal regardless of the previous state of the sensor, eliminating the need to know the previous state of the sensor to measure the amount of newly collected charge.

[0047] Charge sensors according to embodiments of the present disclosure offer unique features due to the use of nanomaterial films. For example, unlike bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) and other current-controlled transistors that rely on current through the base, the top electrode of charge sensors according to embodiments of the present disclosure is floating, allowing for rapid discharge of charge accumulated on the top electrode. Furthermore, while voltage-regulated junction-gated field-effect transistors (JFETs) with PN or NP junctions at the gate have finite reverse leakage current and therefore easily enter the saturation region (also known as "pinch-off"), charge sensors according to embodiments of the present disclosure can have a wider dynamic range and reset capability. Furthermore, while metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs) have a gate-oxide channel structure, strongly amplify only one polarity of charge on the gate, and have different amplification modes based on the gate-source voltage, threshold voltage, and source-drain voltage, charge sensors according to embodiments of the present disclosure can respond to both positive and negative charges with nearly equal amplification, allowing for the detection of both positive and negative ions as well as electrons and photons. Furthermore, while a MOSFET requires a threshold voltage on the top gate to allow current to flow between the source and drain, the charge sensor of the present disclosure can detect from the first incident charge, thus achieving a wider dynamic range without sacrificing high flux response.

[0048] Additionally, in some embodiments, the top electrode of a charge sensor according to the present disclosure can detect gas phase ions and electrons. In some embodiments, a charge sensor according to the present disclosure can be located outside the charge source, for example, using a remote charge collector electrically connected to the top electrode. In some embodiments, the charge sensor can detect photons or ionizing radiation, for example, via the photoelectric effect.

[0049] Furthermore, charge detection devices according to the present disclosure are typically fabricated based on photolithography and therefore can be pixelated and formed into one-dimensional or two-dimensional grid arrays to provide spatially resolved measurements and / or redundancy.

[0050] Hereinafter, embodiments of a charge sensor according to the present disclosure will be described with reference to the accompanying drawings.

[0051] FIG. 1 schematically illustrates a charge sensor 100 and a scheme for quantifying charge according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. The charge sensor 100 device includes a conductive substrate 110 and a first dielectric layer (hereinafter also referred to as a lower dielectric layer) 120 disposed on the conductive substrate 110. A first electrode 130 and a second electrode 140 are disposed on the first dielectric layer 120, and a channel layer 150 electrically connects the first electrode 130 and the second electrode 140. Furthermore, a second dielectric layer (hereinafter also referred to as an upper dielectric layer) 160 is disposed on the channel layer 150. In some embodiments, a third electrode (hereinafter also referred to as a top electrode) 170 may be disposed on the second dielectric layer 160. In some embodiments, the conductive substrate 110 functions as a fourth electrode (hereinafter also referred to as a back electrode), to which a predetermined voltage, e.g., ground potential, may be applied. For example, a voltage of approximately −10 V to approximately +10 V may be applied to the fourth electrode 110. Throughout the disclosure, directions such as top and bottom are given with reference to the orientation of the corresponding drawing. These directions should not be understood as absolute directions, as the orientation of the device may change. Thus, as used herein, a "top electrode" is understood to be a charge collection electrode, regardless of its location.

[0052] Upon actuation, one or more charges are introduced into the top electrode 170, and capacitive coupling induces charges in the channel layer 150. In some embodiments (e.g., the embodiment shown in FIG. 2, described below), one or more charges may be introduced into the surface of the second dielectric layer 160. In some such embodiments, the introduced charges may induce a mirror image charge in the channel layer 150. To quantify the one or more charges, a steady or time-varying potential difference or a steady or time-varying current may be applied between the first electrode 130 and the second electrode 140, and the resulting current or voltage between the first electrode 130 and the second electrode 140, respectively, may be measured. For example, a DC voltage of about 10 V or less may be applied between the first electrode 130 and the second electrode 140. For example, a DC voltage of about 5 V, about 1 V, about 0.5 V, about 0.1 V, or about 0.05 V may be applied. Hereinafter, the first electrode 130 and the second electrode 140 may also be referred to as a pair of drive electrodes.

[0053] The electric field between the top electrode 170 and the channel layer 150, generated by one or more charges collected on the top electrode 170, causes a change in one or more electrical properties of the channel layer 150, thus causing a change in the current between the first electrode 130 and the second electrode 140 under a constant voltage. The resulting change in current is then detected. To this end, an ammeter may be provided and configured to measure the resulting current between the first electrode 130 and the second electrode 140. The incident charge is then quantified based on the change in the measured resulting current between the first electrode 130 and the second electrode 140. In some embodiments, to quantify the charge on the top electrode 170, a constant or time-varying current may be applied between the first electrode 130 and the second electrode 140, and a voltmeter may be used to monitor the voltage response across the channel. For example, the one or more electrical properties may include electrical resistance, impedance, etc.

[0054] Although examples are primarily described herein using a voltage source (constant or varying) applied between the first electrode 130 and the second electrode 140 and measuring the resulting change in current, the present disclosure is not limited thereto. In some embodiments, a current source (constant or varying) may be applied between the first electrode 130 and the second electrode 140, and the resulting voltage change between the first electrode 130 and the second electrode 140 may be measured to measure the change in resistance of the channel layer 150, thereby quantifying the charge collected on the top electrode 170. In some embodiments, a time-varying current or voltage may be applied between the first electrode 130 and the second electrode 140, and the resulting voltage or current signal, respectively, may be measured. One or more frequencies for the time-varying current or voltage may be selected, for example, to avoid interference due to noise and / or electromagnetic waves in the circuit.

[0055] 2-4 illustrate schematic diagrams of charge sensor embodiments according to the present disclosure and their nominal manufacturing steps. The manufacturing steps shown are merely illustrative of the components and their interrelationships and are not intended to limit how the devices may be manufactured. Actual manufacturing of the devices can be accomplished in a variety of steps and using a variety of techniques.

[0056] 2, the substrate 201 may include one or more materials that constitute a back electrode for gating the device while providing the mechanical structure of the device. In particular, the substrate 201 may include a first dielectric layer 203 and, optionally, a conductive substrate 202 comprising P-type or N-type doped Si. In some embodiments, the conductive substrate 202 may include graphite. For example, the first dielectric layer 203 may include Al2O3, SiO2, Si3N4, ZrO2, HfO2, TiO2, SrTiO3, CaTiO3, SiC, GaN, TiO2, ZnO, diamond, fullerenes, BN, Be3N2, AlP, AlAs, AlGaN, GaP, CdS, ZnSe, ZnS, ZnTe, Cu2O, SnO2, polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), or any combination thereof.

[0057] A first electrode 204 and a second electrode 205 may be formed on the first dielectric layer 203 of the substrate 201. For example, each of the first electrode 204 and the second electrode 205 may include gold (Au), chromium (Cr) / gold (Au) alloy, titanium (Ti) / gold (Au) alloy, aluminum (Al), palladium (Pd), platinum (Pt), titanium (Ti), copper (Cu), silver (Ag), nickel (Ni), titanium nitride (TiN), tin (Sn), zinc (Zn), chromium (Cr), silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), graphite, or any combination thereof.

[0058] The channel layer 206 may be formed on the first dielectric layer 203 between the first electrode 204 and the second electrode 205. For example, a metal, semi-metal, or semiconducting two-dimensional material film, a network thereof, or the like may be used for the channel layer 206. In some embodiments, graphene, single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs), semiconducting SWNTs, metallic SWNTs, mixed SWNTs, multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWNTs), semiconducting MWNTs, metallic MWNTs, mixed MWNTs, semiconducting nanowires (e.g., silicon nanowires, gallium nitride nanowires, etc.), silicon (Si), graphite, borophene, silicene, MoS2, WS2, MoSe2, WSe2, MoTe2, MXene, or any combination thereof may be used for the channel layer 206. The channel layer of any embodiment of the present disclosure may be single-walled, double-walled, or 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more walls. The carbon nanotube channel may have single-walled, double-walled, or multi-walled tubes.

[0059] A second dielectric layer 207 may be disposed on the channel layer 206. In this embodiment, the second dielectric layer 207 may include a material that becomes conductive in response to incident photons, a magnetic field, an electric field, and / or temperature to adsorb ions and / or charges from incident ions, electrons, or photons and allow the adsorbed ions and / or charges to escape. For example, Al2O3, SiO2, Si3N4, ZrO2, HfO2, TiO2, SrTiO3, CaTiO3, SiC, GaN, TiO2, ZnO, diamond, fullerenes, BN, Be3N2, AlP, AlAs, AlGaN, GaP, CdS, ZnSe, ZnS, ZnTe, Cu2O, SnO2, PDMS, PMMA, PET, PE, PP, or any combination thereof may be used as the second dielectric layer 207.

[0060] Additionally, a dielectric encapsulation layer 208 may be disposed above the first electrode 204 and the second electrode 205, with at least some portion of the second dielectric layer 207 remaining open through the dielectric encapsulation layer 208 for charge collection. The dielectric encapsulation layer 208 may be added to enhance mechanical strength, adhesion, and / or prevent charge injection into the electrodes. For example, Al2O3, SiO2, Si3N4, ZrO2, HfO2, TiO2, SrTiO3, CaTiO3, SiC, GaN, TiO2, ZnO, diamond, fullerenes, BN, Be3N2, AlP, AlAs, AlGaN, GaP, CdS, ZnSe, ZnS, ZnTe, Cu2O, SnO2, PDMS, PMMA, PET, PE, PP, or any combination thereof may be used as the dielectric encapsulation layer 208.

[0061] In some embodiments, a conductive cover layer 209 may be disposed on the dielectric encapsulation layer 208 to prevent charge buildup in the dielectric encapsulation layer 208 due to bias, grounding, etc. For example, Au, Cr-Au alloy, Ti-Au alloy, Al, Pd, Pt, Ti, Cu, Ag, Ni, TiN, Sn, Zn, Cr, Si, Ge, graphite, or any combination thereof may be used for the conductive cover layer 209.

[0062] 2, without intending to be bound by any particular theory, when an electric charge is applied to the second dielectric layer 207, an image electric charge may be induced in the channel layer 206. Thus, the resulting resistance of the channel layer 206 changes, and this change may be quantified by measuring the current or voltage response between the first electrode 204 and the second electrode 205.

[0063] In some embodiments, the second dielectric layer 207 may comprise a material that can be made conductive, such that a charge introduced into the second dielectric layer 207 is neutralized when the second dielectric layer 207 becomes conductive. In some embodiments, a charge of opposite polarity may be introduced into the second dielectric layer 207 to neutralize the second dielectric layer 207. Additionally, the charge on the second dielectric layer 207 may be removed by heat, UV light, tunneling of oppositely charged ions, electrons or holes, and / or an electron beam.

[0064] The thickness of the second dielectric layer 207 may be about 1 mm or less. In some embodiments, the thickness of the second dielectric layer 207 may be about 200 nm or less. For example, the thickness of the second dielectric layer 207 may be about 900 nm, about 800 nm, about 700 nm, about 600 nm, about 500 nm, about 400 nm, about 300 nm, about 200 nm, about 190 nm, about 180 nm, about 170 nm, about 160 nm, about 150 nm, about 140 nm, about 130 nm, about 120 nm, about 110 nm, about 100 nm, about 90 nm, about 80 nm, about 70 nm, about 60 nm, about 50 nm, about 40 nm, about 30 nm, about 20 nm, about 10 nm, about 5 nm, or about 2 nm.

[0065] According to the embodiment of charge sensor 300 shown in FIG. 3, substrate 301 may include one or more materials that constitute a back electrode for gating the device while providing the mechanical structure for the device. In particular, substrate 301 may include a first dielectric layer 303, a conductive substrate 302 including optionally P-type or N-type doped Si, and / or graphite. For example, first dielectric layer 303 may include Al2O3, SiO2, Si3N4, ZrO2, HfO2, TiO2, SrTiO3, CaTiO3, SiC, GaN, TiO2, ZnO, diamond, fullerenes, BN, Be3N2, AlP, AlAs, AlGaN, GaP, CdS, ZnSe, ZnS, ZnTe, Cu2O, SnO2, PDMS, PMMA, PET, PE, PP, or any combination thereof.

[0066] A first electrode 304 and a second electrode 305 may be formed on the first dielectric layer 303 of the substrate 301. For example, each of the first electrode 304 and the second electrode 305 may include Au, a Cr-Au alloy, a Ti-Au alloy, Al, Pd, Pt, Ti, Cu, Ag, Ni, TiN, Sn, Zn, Cr, Si, Ge, graphite, or any combination thereof.

[0067] The channel layer 306 may be formed on the first dielectric layer 303 between the first electrode 304 and the second electrode 305. For example, a metal, semi-metal, or semiconducting two-dimensional material film, a network thereof, or the like may be used for the channel layer 306. In some embodiments, graphene, SWNT, semiconducting SWNT, metallic SWNT, mixed SWNT, MWNT, semiconducting MWNT, metallic MWNT, mixed MWNT, semiconducting nanowire (e.g., silicon nanowire, gallium nitride nanowire, etc.), Si, graphene, borophene, silicene, MoS2, WS2, MoSe2, WSe2, MoTe2, MXene, or any combination thereof may be used for the channel layer 306.

[0068] The second dielectric layer 310 may be disposed on the channel layer 306. For example, Al2O3, SiO2, Si3N4, ZrO2, HfO2, TiO2, SrTiO3, CaTiO3, SiC, GaN, TiO2, ZnO, diamond, fullerene, BN, Be3N2, AlP, AlAs, AlGaN, GaP, CdS, ZnSe, ZnS, ZnTe, Cu2O, SnO2, PDMS, PMMA, PET, PE, PP, or any combination thereof may be used as the second dielectric layer 310. In this embodiment, the second dielectric layer 310 may cover the first electrode 304, the second electrode 305, and the channel layer 306. Therefore, the second dielectric layer 310 may also function as the dielectric encapsulation layer 312.

[0069] The top electrode 311 is disposed on the second dielectric layer 310. In this embodiment, the second dielectric layer 310 allows the top electrode 311 to be electrically isolated (i.e., "float") from the channel layer 306 and may be used to trap incident charges. The charges trapped in the top electrode 311 induce charges in the channel layer 306 by capacitive coupling, creating an electric field between the top electrode 311 and the channel layer 306, thereby changing one or more electrical properties (e.g., resistance) of the channel layer 306.

[0070] In some embodiments, the top electrode 311 may be formed substantially larger than the channel layer 306 to promote "charge focusing" that more effectively alters one or more electrical properties of the channel layer 306 while minimizing interactions with other electrodes and conductors. The larger top electrode 311 may interact with a larger stream of charged particles or other analytes of interest, including photons, while storing the resulting charge in a capacitor formed with the smaller channel layer 306.

[0071] The first conductor layer 302 (which acts as a back electrode) is biased to ground or a predetermined voltage to modify the conductivity of the channel layer 306 before collecting charge. Without intending to be bound by any particular theory, applying a predetermined bias voltage (e.g., ground voltage) to the first conductor layer 302 may increase the sensitivity of the device, extend the dynamic range, improve the linearity of the response, and / or tune the nonlinear behavior to achieve optimal performance of the device.

[0072] By applying a voltage or current (steady or varying) between the first electrode 304 and the second electrode 305 and measuring the resulting current or voltage therebetween, the charge collected on the top electrode 311 may be quantified. For example, Au, Cr-Au alloy, Ti-Au alloy, Al, Pd, Pt, Ti, Cu, Ag, Ni, TiN, Sn, Zn, Cr, Si, Ge, graphite, or any combination thereof may be used as the top electrode 311.

[0073] Additionally, a conductive cover layer 313 may be disposed over the dielectric encapsulation layer 312 to prevent charge buildup on the dielectric encapsulation layer 312 due to bias, grounding, etc., and / or to provide an electrical lead for resetting the top electrode 311, as described in more detail below. The conductive cover layer 313 may be made of Au, Cr-Au alloy, Ti-Au alloy, Al, Pd, Pt, Ti, Cu, Ag, Ni, TiN, Sn, Zn, Cr, Si, Ge, graphite, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the conductive cover layer 313 is integrally formed with the top electrode 311, which may allow a greater number of charges to be collected in a given current, increasing the total amount of collected charge (e.g., "charge focusing").

[0074] 2 and 3 illustrate that charge may be collected and / or at least temporarily stored within the second dielectric layer 207 (FIG. 2) or at the interface between the top electrode 311 and the second dielectric layer 310 (FIG. 3), such that the collected charge affects the electrical properties of the channel layer. Accordingly, these components may be collectively referred to herein as a "charge storage layer," which is understood to encompass a dielectric layer, an electrode (e.g., a top electrode), or both.

[0075] In the embodiment of charge sensor 400 shown in Figure 4, substrate 401 may include one or more materials that constitute a back electrode for gating the device while providing the mechanical structure of the device. In particular, substrate 401 may comprise a first dielectric layer 403 and a conductive substrate 402 that optionally includes P-type or N-type doped Si and / or graphite. For example, first dielectric layer 403 may include Al2O3, SiO2, Si3N4, ZrO2, HfO2, TiO2, SrTiO3, CaTiO3, SiC, GaN, TiO2, ZnO, diamond, fullerenes, BN, Be3N2, AlP, AlAs, AlGaN, GaP, CdS, ZnSe, ZnS, ZnTe, Cu2O, SnO2, PDMS, PMMA, PET, PE, PP, or any combination thereof.

[0076] A first electrode 404 and a second electrode 405 may be formed on the first dielectric layer 403. For example, each of the first electrode 404 and the second electrode 405 may include Au, a Cr-Au alloy, a Ti-Au alloy, Al, Pd, Pt, Ti, Cu, Ag, Ni, TiN, Sn, Zn, Cr, Si, Ge, graphite, or any combination thereof.

[0077] The channel layer 406 may be formed on the first dielectric layer 403 between the first electrode 404 and the second electrode 405. For example, a metal, semi-metal, or semiconducting two-dimensional material film, a network thereof, or the like may be used for the channel layer 406. In some embodiments, graphene, SWNT, semiconducting SWNT, metallic SWNT, mixed SWNT, MWNT, semiconducting MWNT, metallic MWNT, mixed MWNT, semiconducting nanowire (e.g., silicon nanowire, gallium nitride nanowire, etc.), Si, graphene, borophene, silicene, MoS2, WS2, MoSe2, WSe2, MoTe2, MXene, or any combination thereof may be used for the channel layer 406.

[0078] The second dielectric layer 410 may be disposed on the channel layer 406. For example, Al2O3, SiO2, Si3N4, ZrO2, HfO2, TiO2, SrTiO3, CaTiO3, SiC, GaN, TiO2, ZnO, diamond, fullerene, BN, Be3N2, AlP, AlAs, AlGaN, GaP, CdS, ZnSe, ZnS, ZnTe, Cu2O, SnO2, PDMS, PMMA, PET, PE, PP, or any combination thereof may be used as the second dielectric layer 410. In this embodiment, the second dielectric layer 410 may cover the first electrode 404, the second electrode 405, and the channel layer 406.

[0079] The top electrode 411 may be disposed adjacent to (e.g., on or above) the second dielectric layer 410. Similar to the embodiment shown in FIG. 3, the second dielectric layer 410 electrically insulates (i.e., "floats") the top electrode 411 from the channel layer 406 and may be used to trap incident charges. Charges trapped in the top electrode 411 may induce charges in the channel layer 406 through capacitive coupling. The first conductor layer 402 (which functions as a back electrode) may be grounded or biased to change the conductivity of the channel layer 406 before collecting the charges. For example, the bias voltage may be between about -10 V and about +10 V.

[0080] Charge collected on the top electrode 411 may be quantified by applying a constant or time-varying voltage to the first electrode 404 and the second electrode 405 and measuring the resulting current therebetween. Throughout this specification and in any of the embodiments disclosed herein, charge collected on the top electrode may be quantified by applying a constant or varying voltage between the first and second electrodes and measuring the resulting current therebetween, or by applying a constant or varying current between the first and second electrodes and measuring the resulting voltage therebetween. When a time-varying voltage or current is applied, changes in one or more electrical properties of the channel layer may be characterized by impedance, frequency response, phase shift, etc., in addition to or instead of current and voltage response.

[0081] For example, Au, a Cr—Au alloy, a Ti—Au alloy, Al, Pd, Pt, Ti, Cu, Ag, Ni, TiN, Sn, Zn, Cr, Si, Ge, graphite, or any combination thereof may be used as the top electrode 411. In this embodiment, to facilitate resetting of the top electrode 411, the top electrode 411 may be extended above the second dielectric layer 410 to cover either the first electrode 404 or the second electrode 405.

[0082] Additionally, a dielectric encapsulation layer 412 may be disposed above the first electrode 404 and the second electrode 405. Depending on the configuration in which the top electrode 411 extends above either the first electrode 404 or the second electrode 405, the dielectric encapsulation layer 412 may be disposed on the second dielectric layer 410 on one electrode side and on the extended portion of the top electrode 411 on the other electrode side. For example, as shown in FIG. 4 , if the top electrode 411 extends above the second electrode 405, the dielectric encapsulation layer 412 may be disposed on the second dielectric layer 410 on the first electrode 404 side and on the extended portion of the top electrode 411 on the second electrode 405 side. The dielectric encapsulation layer 412 may be added to improve mechanical strength and adhesion and / or prevent charge from being injected into the electrodes. For example, Al2O3, SiO2, Si3N4, ZrO2, HfO2, TiO2, SrTiO3, CaTiO3, SiC, GaN, TiO2, ZnO, diamond, fullerenes, BN, Be3N2, AlP, AlAs, AlGaN, GaP, CdS, ZnSe, ZnS, ZnTe, Cu2O, SnO2, PDMS, PMMA, PET, PE, PP, or any combination thereof may be used as the dielectric encapsulation layer 412.

[0083] In some embodiments, the extended portion of the top electrode 411 may not coincide with the longitudinal direction of the channel layer 406. For example, the extended portion of the top electrode 411 may be oriented substantially perpendicular to the longitudinal direction of the channel layer 406 in a two-dimensional plan view. In such a configuration, the dielectric encapsulation layer 412 may be disposed above the second dielectric layer 410 across both the first electrode 404 side and the second electrode 405 side.

[0084] Additionally, a conductive cover layer 413 may be disposed above the dielectric encapsulation layer 412 to prevent charge buildup on the dielectric encapsulation layer 412 due to bias, grounding, etc. The conductive cover layer 413 may be made of Au, Cr-Au alloy, Ti-Au alloy, Al, Pd, Pt, Ti, Cu, Ag, Ni, TiN, Sn, Zn, Cr, Si, Ge, graphite, or any combination thereof.

[0085] In configurations in which the top electrode floats (see, e.g., FIGS. 3 and 4), the charge accumulated on the top electrode needs to be removed as needed or periodically. As shown in FIGS. 5A and 5B, a reset switch 520 may short the top electrode 501 to ground or a specific potential to remove the charge accumulated on the top electrode 501 and return it to a specific charge state, typically ground. The reset switch 520 may be implemented by any desired electronic reset mechanism, including, for example, semiconductor relays, mechanical relays, and solid-state relays such as high-impedance, low-noise JFETs, reed relays, and the like. In some embodiments, the reset switch 520 may be implemented using one or more transistors (e.g., transistors), including tunnel-effect transistors, either internally implemented on the substrate or externally provided using an external device.

[0086] FIG. 5C schematically illustrates a reset switch 520 implemented as a tunnel dielectric and electrodes similar to a floating gate transistor. A reset electrode 5201 and a tunnel dielectric 5202 may be formed within the device for the reset function. In some embodiments, the reset electrode 5201 may be disposed on the first dielectric 503, and the tunnel dielectric 5202 may be disposed between the top electrode 501 (or an extended portion thereof) and the reset electrode 5201. The reset switch 520 may be used to return the top electrode 501 to a specific charge state through quantum mechanical tunneling of electrons or holes through the tunnel dielectric 5202. The reset electrode 5201, separated from the top electrode 501 by an insulating material (e.g., the tunnel dielectric 5202), may be set to a high or low voltage sufficient to pass charge through the tunnel dielectric 5202. This process may return the top electrode 501 to a predetermined potential, such as ground. Unlike the direct ground shown in FIG. 5A, the top electrode 501 in FIG. 5C may be returned to a specific voltage different from the voltage of the reset electrode 5201. To this end, a variable power supply 5203 may be provided.

[0087] Alternatively or additionally, resetting may be achieved by UV, X-rays, or by balancing the top electrode with charges of opposite polarity (including ions or electrons in the case of positive charges) incident on the top electrode, or by tunneling electrons into or out of the top electrode. In some embodiments, resetting the device may be achieved by changing the second dielectric layer to a conductive state. In various embodiments, resetting may be performed at regular time intervals or may be triggered based on a high-frequency timing circuit. Alternatively or additionally, resetting may be performed as needed using some threshold signal or manually.

[0088] Examples of electronic devices that can be implemented based on the charge sensor according to the present disclosure will now be described with reference to FIGS.

[0089] FIG. 6 illustrates a schematic diagram of an embodiment of an electrometer based on a charge sensor according to the present disclosure. The electrometer device 600 according to the present disclosure is configured to count the total amount of incident charge. Unlike a typical Faraday cup, which only measures the instantaneous charge arrival rate, the electrometer device 600 according to the present disclosure counts the total number of charges received since reset. The electrometer device 600 also has a higher charge-to-current gain than a typical Faraday cup. The electrometer device 600 includes a charge collector 630 configured as a metal surface of a selected shape to collect incoming charges, ions, and / or electrons. To begin measurement, the switch 610 is opened (i.e., in the "P2 position"), disconnecting the charge collector 630 from ground potential. The collected charge is then applied to the top electrode 601, and the change in electrical resistance of the channel layer 605 between the first electrode 602 and the second electrode 603, calibrated to the amount of incident charge, is measured. To reset the electrometer device 600, the switch 610 is switched to the P1 position, ie, ground.

[0090] Figure 6 illustrates an example use of a remote charge detection configuration, and electrometers according to the present disclosure are not limited to the charge sensor configuration shown in Figure 6. In any of the charge sensor configuration embodiments, such as those shown in Figures 1, 3, and 4, the top electrode may be electrically connected to an external / remote charge collector for remote charge collection, similar to charge collector 630 shown in Figure 6.

[0091] FIG. 7A schematically illustrates an embodiment of a memory device based on a charge sensor according to the present disclosure, and FIG. 7B illustrates the switching operation of the memory device of FIG. 7A. To implement memory device 700, as shown in FIG. 7A, a charge sensor according to the present disclosure may be configured to operate between a charged state (e.g., "1" or "on") and a discharged state (e.g., "0" or "off"). More specifically, when first switch 710 is connected to the P2 position, which is connected to a charge (e.g., voltage) source 730, top electrode 701 is charged by charge source 730. When second switch 720 is subsequently opened, top electrode 701 remains in the charged state (e.g., bit value = 1). In this state, when first switch 710 is connected to the grounded P1 position, top electrode 701 is returned to an uncharged state (e.g., bit value = 0), or "erased."

[0092] To read the memory state, a predetermined voltage is applied between the first electrode 702 and the second electrode 703. As described above, when the top electrode 701 is charged, the channel layer 705 is subjected to an electric field formed between the top electrode 701 and the channel layer 705, increasing or decreasing the resistance of the channel layer 705. When the top electrode 701 is not charged, the resistance of the channel layer 705 is lower or higher compared to the charged state. Therefore, the resistance of the channel layer 705 may be determined by measuring the current response to an applied voltage between the first electrode 702 and the second electrode 703. It should be noted that reading the resistance does not change the charged state of the top electrode 701.

[0093] 7B shows that when the first switch 710 is connected to the P2 position, the resistance of the channel layer 705 (shown in the bottom row of FIG. 7B) increases, and when the first switch 710 is connected to the P1 position, the resistance of the channel layer 705 decreases. An increased resistance corresponds to a bit value of 1, and a decreased resistance corresponds to a bit value of 0, or vice versa, allowing the charge sensor device of the present disclosure to read and write binary data, thereby functioning as a memory device.

[0094] FIG. 8 schematically illustrates an embodiment of a passive time tracker based on a charge sensor according to the present disclosure. The passive time tracker 800 provides an estimate of the elapsed time since tracking was set ON, without requiring any additional power source to continue tracking the time lapse. The passive time tracker 800 is initialized / preset by charging the top electrode 801, which is accomplished by switching the first switch 810 to the P2 position and the second switch 820 to the closed position for a predetermined elapsed time, so that the top electrode 801 is connected to the charge source 830. In some embodiments, the predetermined elapsed time may be the time required for the resistance between the first electrode 802 and the second electrode 803 to reach a steady-state value (e.g., R). The charge source 830 may be implemented as a battery-based charging circuit, whether or not it is part of the actual device. When the first switch 810 is removed from the P2 position and maintained open, time tracking is enabled. Due to natural or inherent leakage of charge through the internal circuitry, the charge on the top electrode 801 (and therefore the voltage on the top electrode 801) changes over time, resulting in a change in the resistance of the channel layer 805 between the first electrode 802 and the second electrode 803. A pre-calibrated lookup table may be used to read the resistance value and obtain an estimate of the elapsed time since the device 800 was enabled. Such a time tracking device may be miniaturized and incorporated into shipments scheduled for delivery within a specified time period. The measured resistance value may indicate whether the delivery has arrived beyond the specified delivery date. Furthermore, the time tracking device 800 may be reset by switching the first switch 810 to the P1 position. This process may be repeated, thus making the time tracking device 800 according to the present disclosure reusable.

[0095] 9A-9C schematically illustrate embodiments of a photon sensor based on a charge sensor according to the present disclosure. Referring to FIG. 9A, in some embodiments, a charge sensor device according to the present disclosure may be configured to detect X-rays and / or gamma rays. In such embodiments, the photon sensor device 900 may include an anode 910 and a cathode 920. The cathode 920 may include a material having a higher photon cross-section than the material included in the anode 910. For example, the cathode 920 may have a higher atomic number (Z) than the anode 910. The anode 910 may be electrically connected to ground or a predetermined voltage. For example, the predetermined voltage may be approximately 5 V.

[0096] In a photon sensor device 900 according to an embodiment of the present disclosure, a photon (represented by its energy hν) passes through a low-Z anode 910 and interacts with a high-Z cathode 920, thereby releasing an electron that migrates to the anode 910. In response, the cathode 920 becomes positively charged. The cathode 920 is electrically connected to a top electrode 901, which allows the charge to modulate one or more electrical properties of the channel layer 905. A predetermined voltage (e.g., about 0.1 V) is applied between the first electrode 902 and the second electrode 903, and the resulting current is monitored. Each collected charge may be detected as a shift in the channel resistance, measured by a steady or alternating current or voltage. For example, in such a configuration, the charge-to-current amplification factor (e.g., gain) may be 10 6 From 10 8 Ampere (A) / Coulomb (C) or 10 6 From 10 8 It may be in volts (V) / coulombs (C).

[0097] In the embodiment shown in FIG. 9A, the cathode 920 and the top electrode 901 may be provided separately and electrically connected to each other. In some embodiments, as shown in FIG. 9B, the cathode 920 may be integrally formed as the top electrode and may also function as the top electrode. In some embodiments, as shown in FIG. 9C, a window 9101 may be formed in the anode 910 to allow photons to directly interact with the cathode / top electrode 920, and the anode 910 may receive electrons emitted from the cathode / top electrode 920. In this embodiment, the anode 910 does not need to have a low photon cross-section. Such an embodiment is more suitable for a vacuum-encapsulated environment. In the above embodiments, a spacer 915 (e.g., an insulator or dielectric) may be disposed between the anode 910 and the cathode 920 to electrically isolate them while providing mechanical support for the structure.

[0098] As with the previously described embodiments, the top electrode 901 or cathode 920 may be grounded via a switch for near-instantaneous reset. Due to its integration characteristics and fast reset capability, the photon sensor device 900 mitigates the dead time problems associated with conventional photon sensor devices such as Geiger-Müller tubes or photomultiplier tubes.

[0099] FIG. 10A schematically illustrates an embodiment of an ultraviolet dosimeter (hereinafter interchangeably referred to as a photometer) based on the photon sensor device configuration shown in FIG. 9A , including a switch for initiating a measurement and resetting the device. As described in connection with FIG. 9A , the UV dosimeter device 1000 according to the present disclosure may utilize UV-induced charging of the photoelectric element 1030 due to the photoelectric effect at the surface. The type of metal may be selected based on the minimum photon energy of the UV light to be detected. For example, if the work function of the metal is 4.5 eV, UV photons with photon energies below 4.5 eV will not cause the emission of electrons. FIG. 10B schematically illustrates an embodiment of a UV dosimeter based on the photon sensor device shown in FIG. 9B or 9C , in which the top electrode 1001 also functions as the photoelectric element 1030.

[0100] To activate the UV dosimeter device 1000, the switch 1010 is opened (i.e., "P2"). Incident UV photons then cause a change in the charge state of the top electrode 1001. A constant or time-varying voltage is applied between the first electrode 1002 and the second electrode 1003, and the resistance of the channel layer 1005 is measured from the current between the first electrode 1002 and the second electrode 1003. In some embodiments, a constant or time-varying current may be applied between the first electrode 1002 and the second electrode 1003, and the resistance of the channel layer 1005 may be measured from the voltage between the first electrode 1002 and the second electrode 1003. Incident photons may be quantified based on the change in resistance of the channel layer 1005, and the total amount of UV incident on the metal plate may be quantified. To reset the UV dosimeter device 1000, the first switch 1010 is connected to the grounded P1 position.

[0101] UV dosimeters according to the present disclosure are not limited to the charge sensor device configurations shown in Figures 10A and 10B. In any of the charge sensor configurations, such as those shown in Figures 1, 3, and 4, the top electrode may be electrically connected to an external / remote photometric charge collector device for remote sensing, as shown in Figure 10A. Alternatively, the top electrode may be integrally formed as the same electrode as the photocathode, as shown in Figure 10B.

[0102] 11 is a schematic diagram illustrating a related embodiment of a charge sensor-based UV dosimeter according to the present disclosure. In the UV detection device 1100 shown in FIG. 11, the first switch 1110 is connected to the P2 position and the second switch 1120 is closed, thereby initially charging the top electrode 1101. A steady or time-varying voltage or current may be applied between the first electrode 1102 and the second electrode 1103, and the resistance of the channel layer 1105 between the first electrode 1102 and the second electrode 1103 may be measured before UV irradiation. In this embodiment, the dielectric layer 1106 may include SiC, TiO, ZnO, GaO, P3HT, MEH-PPV, semiconducting polymers, diamond, fullerenes, BN, AlP, AlAs, GaN, AlGaN, InGaN, InAlGaN, GaP, CdS, CdSe, CdTe, ZnSe, ZnS, ZnTe, CuO, or other wide bandgap materials that form a Schottky junction with the metal of the top electrode 1101. In this embodiment, a thin film dielectric or air / vacuum gap 1107 may be disposed between the dielectric layer 1106 and the channel layer 1105.

[0103] To begin measuring UV dose, the second switch 1120 may be opened while the first switch 1110 remains connected to the P2 position or connected to neither the P2 nor the P1 position (i.e., "open"). When UV light is incident, the dielectric layer 1106 may generate a UV-induced charge on the top electrode 1101, thereby changing the charge state of the channel layer 1105. In some embodiments, the channel layer 1105 may comprise a graphene sheet. The change in the charge state of the channel layer 1105 is monitored by measuring the resistance between the first electrode 1102 and the second electrode 1103 and quantified to provide instantaneous detection of UV photons. To reset the UV detector 1100, the first switch 1110 is moved to the P1 position, which is grounded.

[0104] In some embodiments, the dielectric layer 1106 is implemented as an insulator, and the UV-sensitive semiconductor layer is disposed above the top electrode 1101. In such a configuration, the UV-sensitive semiconductor layer does not form a second junction with the channel layer 1105, and therefore, instead of changing the charge state of the channel layer 1105, an electric field is generated between the top electrode 1101 and the channel layer 1105, which changes the resistance of the channel layer 1105.

[0105] For example, UV dosimeters of the present disclosure may be configured to detect ultraviolet-C radiation from supersonic objects while being insensitive to UV-A / B, visible light, and NIR solar radiation. These UV dosimeters function as ultraviolet-C detectors for early warning and supersonic object detection systems.

[0106] FIG. 12 schematically illustrates an embodiment of a charge sensor-based dosimeter for infrared (IR) radiation and / or other wavelengths according to the present disclosure. The IR detection device 1200 shown in FIG. 12 has a similar structure to the UV dosimeter device 1100 shown in FIG. 11, but may include a different photosensitive semiconductor material that responds to IR or other wavelengths of interest. In the IR detection device 1200 shown in FIG. 12, the first switch 1210 may be connected to the P2 position, and the second switch 1220 may be closed to initially charge the top electrode 1201. A steady or time-varying voltage or current may be applied between the first electrode 1202 and the second electrode 1203, and the resistance of the channel layer 1205 between the first electrode 1202 and the second electrode 1203 may be measured before IR irradiation. Dielectric layer 1206 may comprise an IR-sensitive semiconductor such as InN, InP, InO, InSb, SnO2, InGaAs, GaAs, GaSb, InAs, Ge, InGaAs, PbS, PbTe, PbSe, Ge, Si, or other narrow bandgap material that forms a Schottky junction with top electrode 1201. In this embodiment, a dielectric or air / vacuum gap 1207 may be disposed between dielectric layer 1206 and channel layer 1205.

[0107] To initiate infrared light measurements, the second switch 1220 may be opened and / or the first switch 1210 may be decoupled from both the P1 and P2 positions. When infrared light is incident, the infrared light sensitive semiconductor generates infrared light-induced charges on the metal of the top electrode 1201, which changes the charge state of the channel layer 1205. The change in charge state changes the resistance of the channel layer 1205, which is detected by measuring the current or voltage between the first electrode 1202 and the second electrode 1203. To reset the device, the first switch 1210 may be moved to the grounded P1 position.

[0108] In some embodiments, dielectric layer 1206 is implemented as an insulator, and the infrared-sensitive semiconductor layer is disposed above top electrode 1201. In such a configuration, the infrared-sensitive semiconductor layer does not form a second junction with channel layer 1205; therefore, instead of changing the charge state of channel layer 1205, incident infrared photons generate an electric field between top electrode 1201 and channel layer 1205, which changes the resistance of channel layer 1205 therebetween. In some embodiments, the infrared-sensitive semiconductor layer may be replaced with other materials known to be sensitive to light in particular wavelength ranges of interest.

[0109] The structure of the charge sensor according to the present disclosure may be modified in various ways without departing from the scope of the present disclosure. For example, the charge storage layer may be disposed below the channel layer. Such an example is shown in Figures 13A to 13C.

[0110] 13A , an electric charge sensor 1300 according to an embodiment of the present disclosure includes a substrate 1301 and a lower dielectric layer 1302 disposed on the substrate 1301. A channel layer 1306 is disposed on the lower dielectric layer 1302, and the channel layer 1306 is electrically connected to a first electrode 1304 and a second electrode 1305. In particular, a back electrode 1303 is disposed between the substrate 1301 and the lower dielectric layer 1302, and the back electrode 1303 is electrically connected to one or more external charge sources, such as a charge collector as shown in FIG. 6 . Thus, one or more charges introduced from the charge collector to the back electrode 1303 change one or more electrical properties of the channel layer 1306, and the charge on the back electrode 1303 can be quantified by detecting the change in the electrical property of the channel layer 1306.

[0111] 13B, in some embodiments, a dielectric encapsulation layer 1307 is disposed on the channel layer 1306. Furthermore, as shown in FIG. 13C, a top electrode (e.g., a third electrode) 1308 is disposed on the dielectric encapsulation layer 1307. In such embodiments, the top electrode 1308 may function similarly to the back electrode 302 in the embodiment shown in FIG. 3. In these configurations, at least one of the back electrode 1303 or the top electrode 1308 may function as a charge reservoir layer that causes a change in the electrical properties of the channel layer 1306. When the back electrode 1303 is used as a charge reservoir layer, it may be connected to an external charge collector for use in a remote detection device, since it is difficult to expose it to a path of directly incident charge.

[0112] Aspects of the present disclosure also include methods for quantifying ion flow using various embodiments of charge sensors according to the present disclosure. More specifically, the methods may include allowing one or more charges to be introduced into a top electrode (e.g., a third electrode) due to the ion flow, applying a driving voltage or current between the first electrode and the second electrode, and measuring a change in one or more electrical properties of the channel layer due to the one or more charges on the third electrode, thereby quantifying the ion flow. For example, the one or more electrical properties of the channel layer may include electrical resistance, impedance, etc.

[0113] In some embodiments, similar methods may be applied to quantifying electron flow. More specifically, the methods may include allowing one or more charges to be introduced onto a top electrode (e.g., a third electrode) by the electron flow, applying a driving voltage or current between the first and second electrodes, and measuring a change in one or more electrical properties of the channel layer caused by the one or more charges on the third electrode, thereby quantifying the electron flow.

[0114] In some embodiments, a similar method may be applied to quantifying photon current. More specifically, the method may include allowing one or more charges to be introduced onto a top electrode (e.g., a third electrode) by photoelectric effect emission of electrons due to the photon current, applying a driving voltage or current between the first electrode and the second electrode, measuring changes in one or more electrical properties of the channel layer caused by the one or more charges on the third electrode, thereby quantifying the one or more charges, and quantifying the photon current based on the photoelectric quantum yield.

[0115] (experiment) Below, experimental measurement data using a charge sensor device according to an embodiment of the present disclosure is presented.

[0116] FIG. 14 shows the results of an experiment using a corona discharge ion source to measure the current response of a charge sensor according to the present disclosure. In this experiment, two corona discharge ion sources, one positive and one negative, were positioned 200 cm from and facing the device. For each cycle, the positive ion source was turned on for 30 seconds, all ion sources were turned off for 15 seconds, the negative ion source was turned on for 30 seconds, all ion sources were turned off for 15 seconds, and then the cycle was repeated. FIG. 14 shows the resulting current flowing through the channel layer between the first and second electrodes, clearly distinguishing between periods when the positive ion source was on (indicated by the rising portion of the curve) and periods when the negative ion source was on (indicated by the falling portion of the curve).

[0117] Figure 15 shows experimental results for measuring the current response of a charge sensor to a corona discharge ion source using separate charge collectors connected to the top electrode, similar to the embodiment shown in Figure 6. Two corona discharge ion sources, one positive and one negative, were positioned 200 cm from the Faraday cup, facing the Faraday cup. The Faraday cup was connected to the top electrode of the charge sensor device by wires, and the surrounding metal plate was grounded. For each cycle, the positive ion source was turned on for 30 seconds, all ion sources were turned off for 15 seconds, the negative ion source was turned on for 30 seconds, all ion sources were turned off for 15 seconds, and the cycle was then repeated. Figure 15 shows the current response through the channel layer between the first and second electrodes, clearly distinguishing the period when the positive ion source was on (indicated by the rising portion of the curve) from the period when the negative ion source was on (indicated by the falling portion of the curve).

[0118] Figure 16 shows experimental results for a charge sensor according to the present disclosure measuring the current response to ions and electrons in a vacuum chamber generated by a regulated charge source. The charge source was manually controlled to generate either ions or electrons. The top electrode was occasionally grounded to measure the current through the channel layer and reset its charge.

[0119] FIG. 17 shows experimental results comparing the current response of a charge sensor according to the present disclosure to a flow of positive ions with the current generated by the ion flow at the collector electrode of an ion source. The ion source was manually controlled to generate ions at increasing amounts, and the current through the channel layer was measured. The top electrode was occasionally grounded to reset its charge. The collector current of the ion source was also measured and plotted to provide a relative measure of the ions incident on the top electrode. FIG. 17 shows that the deflection angle increases as the ion flow increases, indicating that the current in the channel layer responds as expected to the incident ion flow.

[0120] FIG. 18 shows experimental results comparing the response of a charge sensor according to the present disclosure with that of a commercially available electron multiplier in a residual gas analyzer. The quadrupole mass-to-charge filter residual gas analyzer was operated to scan a mass-to-charge ratio range from 0 to 64 AMU / Z, with either a charge sensor according to the present disclosure or an integrated electron multiplier placed at one end to measure the charge. The signals generated demonstrate that under the same measurement conditions, the charge sensor according to the present disclosure can function with similar behavior to the commercially available charge sensor. In particular, the integrated electron multiplier required a drive voltage of 1000 V or more, while the charge sensor according to the present disclosure operated at around 0.1 V.

[0121] Experimental results have shown that the charge sensor according to the present disclosure can achieve high sensitivity (e.g., about 10,000 times higher amplification compared to built-in electron multipliers) at significantly lower voltages (e.g., about 10,000 times lower voltages) or power. Furthermore, the charge sensor according to the present disclosure does not require a high vacuum or a heavy, power-hungry turbomolecular pump. These advantages can solve the portability problem of instruments such as mass spectrometers and eliminate the need for pressure differential systems in various analytical tools.

[0122] Although the present disclosure has been described above with particular details such as specific components, the exemplary embodiments and drawings are merely provided to facilitate an overall understanding of the present disclosure. Therefore, the present disclosure is not limited to the exemplary embodiments described herein. Those skilled in the art in the technical field related to the present disclosure may make various modifications and improvements. The spirit of the present disclosure is not limited to the exemplary embodiments described above, and the following claims and all technical spirits equivalent or adjusted to the claims should be construed as being within the scope and spirit of the present disclosure.

Claims

1. A substrate; a first electrode and a second electrode; a channel layer disposed on the substrate and electrically connected to the first electrode and the second electrode; a charge storage layer disposed on or above the channel layer; The device is configured such that one or more charges introduced into the charge reservoir layer change one or more electrical properties of the channel layer.

2. The device of claim 1 , wherein the charge reservoir layer comprises a dielectric layer.

3. The dielectric layer is Al ２ O ３ , SiO ２ , Si ３ N ４ , ZrO ２ , HfO ２ , TiO ２ , SrTiO ３ , CaTiO ３ , SiC, GaN, TiO ２ , ZnO, diamond, fullerene, BN, Be ３ N ２ , AlP, AlAs, AlGaN, GaP, CdS, ZnSe, ZnS, ZnTe, Cu ２ O, SnO ２ , polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA), polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), or any combination thereof.

4. The device of claim 2 , wherein the dielectric layer has a thickness of about 100 nm or less.

5. 3. The device of claim 2, wherein one or more charges on the charge storage layer are configured to be removed by heat, UV light, oppositely charged ions, electron or hole tunneling, or an electron beam.

6. The device of claim 1 , wherein the charge reservoir layer comprises a photosensitive material that becomes conductive in response to one or more incident photons.

7. The photosensitive material is SiC, TiO ２ , ZnO, GaO, P3HT, MEH-PPV, semiconductor polymer, diamond, fullerene, BN, AlP, AlAs, GaN, AlG aN, InGaN, InAlGaN, InN, InP, InO, InSb, GaP, CdS, CdSe, ZnSe, ZnS, ZnTe, Cu ２ O, SnO ２ , InGaAs, GaAs, InAs, Ge, InGaAs, PbS, PbTe, PbSe, Ge, Si, or any combination thereof.

8. 10. The device of claim 1, wherein the charge storage layer comprises an upper dielectric layer disposed on the channel layer and a third electrode disposed on the upper dielectric layer.

9. 9. The apparatus of claim 8, wherein the third electrode is configured to be reset by being connected to a predetermined voltage via a switch.

10. 10. The apparatus of claim 9, wherein the predetermined voltage is a ground voltage.

11. The apparatus of claim 9 , wherein the switch is implemented as a transistor.

12. A reset electrode; a tunnel dielectric disposed between the third electrode and the reset electrode; 10. The apparatus of claim 9, wherein the predetermined voltage is set on a reset electrode to allow the third electrode to be reset.

13. The apparatus of claim 8 , wherein the third electrode is electrically connected to one or more external sources or collectors of electrical charges.

14. The device of claim 8 , wherein the upper dielectric layer is sensitive to ultraviolet (UV) light.

15. The upper dielectric layer is made of SiC, TiO ２ , ZnO, GaO, P3HT, MEH-PPV, semiconductor polymer, diamond, fullerene, BN, AlP, AlAs, GaN, AlGaN, InGaN, InAlGaN, GaP, CdS, CdSe, ZnSe, ZnS, ZnTe, Cu ２ 0, or any combination thereof.

16. The device of claim 8 , wherein the upper dielectric layer is sensitive to infrared (IR) light.

17. The upper dielectric layer is made of InN, InP, InO, InSb, or SnO ２ , InGaAs, GaAs, InAs, Ge, InGaAs, PbS, PbTe, PbSe, Ge, Si, or any combination thereof.

18. The device of claim 8 , wherein the area of ​​the third electrode is greater than the area of ​​the channel layer.

19. The device of claim 1 , wherein the substrate comprises a lower dielectric layer disposed below the channel layer.

20. 20. The device of claim 19, wherein the substrate further comprises a conductive or semiconductive layer disposed below the lower dielectric layer.

21. 21. The device of claim 20, wherein the conductive or semiconductive layer has a predetermined voltage applied to it.

22. 22. The apparatus of claim 21, wherein the predetermined voltage is ground potential.

23. 10. The device of claim 1, further comprising a dielectric encapsulation layer disposed over the first and second electrodes to insulate the first and second electrodes from the one or more charges.

24. 24. The device of claim 23, wherein the dielectric encapsulation layer does not cover the charge reservoir layer.

25. 25. The apparatus of claim 24, further comprising a conductor layer disposed on the dielectric encapsulation layer and providing an electrical ground.

26. 10. The device of claim 1, wherein the one or more charges introduced into the charge reservoir layer are configured to induce charges in the channel layer, thereby changing the one or more electrical properties of the channel layer.

27. a constant or time-varying voltage is applied between the first electrode and the second electrode; The apparatus of claim 1 , wherein a current between the first electrode and the second electrode is measured to detect a change in the one or more electrical properties of the channel layer.

28. 28. The device of claim 27, wherein the one or more charges introduced into the charge reservoir layer are quantified based on a change in the one or more electrical properties of the channel layer.

29. a constant or time-varying current is applied between the first electrode and the second electrode; The apparatus of claim 1 , wherein a voltage between the first electrode and the second electrode is measured to detect a change in one or more electrical properties of the channel layer.

30. 30. The device of claim 29, wherein the one or more charges introduced into the charge reservoir layer are quantified based on a change in the one or more electrical properties of the channel layer.

31. The device of claim 1 , wherein the channel layer is formed from a metallic, semi-metallic, or semiconducting material.

32. 32. The device of claim 31 , wherein the channel layer is formed from a nanomaterial.

33. The nanomaterial may be graphene, single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNT), semiconducting SWNT, metallic SWNT, mixed SWNT, multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWNT), semiconducting MWNT, metallic MWNT, mixed MWNT, semiconducting nanowire, Si, graphene, borophene, silicene, MoS ２ , W.S. ２ , MoSe ２ , WSe ２ , MoTe ２ , MXene, or any combination thereof.

34. 10. The device of claim 1, wherein the one or more charges are generated by adding or removing electrons, positive ions, negative ions, photons, or any combination thereof, or by generating charged particles by radioactive, nuclear, chemical, electrochemical, photochemical, and / or photoelectrochemical processes.

35. further comprising an anode and a cathode; 10. The device of claim 1, wherein in response to one or more photons incident on the device, the cathode becomes positively charged and liberated electrons are captured by the anode, and the cathode or the anode is electrically connected to the charge storage layer to allow the charge storage layer to become positively or negatively charged, the amount of charging being quantified based on a change in the one or more electrical properties of the channel layer.

36. 36. The device of claim 35, wherein the anode and the cathode are provided separately from the substrate while being electrically connected to the charge reservoir layer.

37. a charge collector electrically connected to the charge storage layer to receive the one or more charges and transfer the charges to the charge storage layer; 10. The device of claim 1, wherein the charge collector is provided separate from the substrate while being electrically connected to the charge reservoir layer.

38. Electrometer comprising the device of claim 1.

39. A storage device comprising the device of claim 1.

40. A time tracking device comprising the device of claim 1.

41. A UV-C detection device comprising the device according to claim 1.

42. 1. A method for quantifying ion current using a device comprising: a first electrode; a second electrode; a channel layer electrically connected between the first electrode and the second electrode; and a charge reservoir layer disposed above the channel layer, comprising: allowing the ion flow to introduce one or more charges into the charge storage layer; applying a voltage or current between the first electrode and the second electrode; measuring a change in one or more electrical properties of the channel layer caused by the one or more charges on the charge reservoir layer. whereby said ion current is quantified.

43. 1. A method for quantifying electron flow using a device comprising: a first electrode; a second electrode; a channel layer electrically connected between the first electrode and the second electrode; and a charge reservoir layer disposed above the channel layer, comprising: allowing the electron flow to introduce one or more charges into the charge reservoir layer; applying a voltage or current between the first electrode and the second electrode; measuring a change in one or more electrical properties of the channel layer caused by the one or more charges on the charge reservoir layer; whereby said electron flow is quantified.

44. 1. A method for quantifying photon current using a device comprising: a first electrode; a second electrode; a channel layer electrically connected between the first electrode and the second electrode; and a charge reservoir layer disposed above the channel layer, comprising: allowing the introduction of one or more charges onto the charge reservoir layer by electrons emitted by a photoelectric effect caused by the photon stream; applying a voltage or current between the first electrode and the second electrode; measuring a change in one or more electrical properties of the channel layer caused by the one or more charges on the charge reservoir layer; thereby quantifying said one or more charges; and quantifies the photon current based on photon quantum yield.

45. A substrate; a lower dielectric layer disposed on the substrate; a channel layer disposed on the lower dielectric layer; a first electrode and a second electrode electrically connected to both ends of the channel layer; a back electrode disposed between the substrate and the lower dielectric layer; the back electrode is electrically connected to one or more external sources of charge; the one or more charges introduced onto the back electrode are configured to change one or more electrical properties of the channel layer; The device is configured such that the one or more charges on the back electrode are quantified based on a change in the one or more electrical properties of the channel layer.

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