Enhanced proliferation and cytotoxicity of engineered natural killer cells and uses thereof

Abstract

Some embodiments disclosed herein relate to methods and compositions for enhancing the proliferation of NK cells in culture. In some embodiments, the methods utilize one or more soluble interleukins as a media supplement at one or more points during the expansion of NK cells or other immune cells using a population of feeder cells.

Description

[Technical Field]

[0001] Related Stories This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 073,671, filed September 2, 2020, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference.

[0002] Field Some embodiments of the methods and compositions disclosed herein relate to enhanced proliferation and / or enhanced cytotoxicity of engineered immune cells, such as natural killer (NK) cells and / or T cells. [Background technology]

[0003] background The use of engineered cells for cellular immunotherapy allows for the treatment of cancer or other diseases by harnessing various aspects of the immune system to target and destroy diseased or damaged cells. Such treatment requires a sufficient number of engineered cells for the relevant dose of treatment.

[0004] Incorporating materials by reference in an ASCII text file This application incorporates by reference the sequence listing contained in the following ASCII text file submitted concurrently with this application: Filename: NKT064WO_ST25. Created on August 31, 2021, size 126186 bytes. Summary of the Invention

[0005] overview In some embodiments, various methods are provided for enhancing the expansion of immune cells for use in cellular immunotherapy. For example, in some embodiments, methods are provided for repeatedly co-culturing immune cells with a feeder cell line in medium supplemented with stimulatory cytokines. In some embodiments, fresh (e.g., unused) medium and feeder cells are introduced at the beginning of each co-culture iteration. In some embodiments, each co-culture begins with a specific ratio of cells expanded on feeder cells. In some embodiments, repeated co-culture results in significantly enhanced NK cell expansion (e.g., greater than one million-fold, according to some embodiments). In some embodiments, the immune cells are NK cells. In some embodiments, the expanded NK cells are unexpectedly suitable for cell engineering, such as engineering cells to express chimeric receptors (e.g., for use in cancer immunotherapy). In some embodiments, NK cells (or other immune cells) repeatedly co-cultured with feeder cells express such chimeric receptors more reliably than NK cells that have not undergone multi-pulse co-culture. Furthermore, in some embodiments, the engineered NK cells exhibit unexpectedly enhanced cytotoxicity.

[0006] In some embodiments, a method of enhancing the proliferation of natural killer cells for use in immunotherapy is provided, the method comprising co-culturing a population of natural killer (NK) cells with a first population of feeders in a culture medium for a first period of time, wherein the first population of feeder cells comprises cells engineered to express 4-1BBL and membrane-bound interleukin-15 (mbIL15), wherein the population of NK cells is smaller than the population of feeder cells, and wherein the culture medium comprises interleukin 2 (IL2), interleukin 12 (IL12), and interleukin 18 (IL18), wherein the first Co-culturing for one period of time results in an expanded population of NK cells, following which after the first period of time, comprises separating at least a portion of the expanded population of NK cells from the feeder cells and co-culturing at least a portion of the expanded population of NK cells with a second population of feeder cells in fresh medium for a second period of time, wherein the population of NK cells is smaller than the population of feeder cells, wherein the medium comprises interleukin 2 (IL2), interleukin 12 (IL12), and interleukin 18 (IL18), and wherein co-culturing for the second period of time results in a further expanded population of NK cells. In some embodiments, the method further comprises, optionally, repeating the separation and co-culturing steps at least one additional time using fresh medium comprising IL2, IL12, and IL18, thereby resulting in further expansion of the further expanded population of NK cells.

[0007] In some embodiments, repeated co-culturing of expanded NK cells with an additional population of feeder cells and fresh medium results in enhanced NK cell expansion compared to expanding NK cells on feeder cells in the absence of repeated co-culturing.

[0008] In some embodiments, IL2 is present in the medium at a concentration of about 10 units / mL to about 100 units / mL. In some embodiments, IL12 is present in the medium at a concentration of 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, or 100 units / mL, or any concentration within a range defined by any two of the foregoing concentrations. In some embodiments, IL12 is present in the medium at a concentration of between about 10 ng / mL and about 100 ng / mL. In some embodiments, IL12 is 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, In some embodiments, IL18 is present in the medium at a concentration of 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, or 100 ng / mL, or any concentration within a range defined by any two of the foregoing concentrations. In some embodiments, IL18 is present in the medium at a concentration of between about 0.01 ng / mL and about 30 ng / mL.In some embodiments, IL18 is present in the medium at a concentration of 0.01, 0.02, 0.03, 0.04, 0.05, 0.06, 0.07, 0.08, 0.09, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, or 30 ng / mL, or any concentration within a range defined by any two of the foregoing concentrations. In some embodiments, the first and second periods are about 7 days. In some embodiments, the co-culture is repeated at least three times. In some embodiments, IL2 is present in the medium at a concentration of between about 10 units / mL and about 100 units / mL, IL12 is present in the medium at a concentration of between about 10 ng / mL and about 100 ng / mL, and IL18 is present in the medium at a concentration of between about 0.01 ng / mL and about 30 ng / mL. In some embodiments, IL2 is present in the medium at a concentration of between about 10 units / mL and about 100 units / mL, IL12 is present in the medium at a concentration of between about 10 ng / mL and about 100 ng / mL, and IL18 is present in the medium at a concentration of between about 0.01 ng / mL and about 30 ng / mL, wherein the first and second periods are about 7 days, and wherein the co-culture is repeated at least three times. These concentrations of IL2, expressed in units / mL, may be determined according to the WHO international standard for IL2 (National Institute for Biological Standards and Control [NIBSC] 86 / 500).

[0009] In some embodiments, IL2 is present in the medium at a concentration of between about 0.575 ng / mL and about 5.75 ng / mL. In some embodiments, IL2 is present in the medium at a concentration of between about 0.5 ng / mL and about 6 ng / mL. In some embodiments, IL2 is present at a concentration of 0.5, 0.575, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, 5, 5.5, 5.75, or 6 ng / mL, or any concentration within a range defined by any two of the foregoing concentrations. In some embodiments, IL12 is present in the medium at a concentration of between about 10 ng / mL and about 100 ng / mL. In some embodiments, IL12 is 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 1 In some embodiments, IL18 is present in the medium at a concentration of between about 0.01 ng / mL and about 30 ng / mL. In some embodiments, IL18 is present in the medium at a concentration of 0.01, 0.02, 0.03, 0.04, 0.05, 0.06, 0.07, 0.08, 0.09, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, or 30 ng / mL, or any concentration within a range defined by any two of the foregoing concentrations. In some embodiments, the first and second periods are about 7 days. In some embodiments, the co-culture is repeated at least three times.In some embodiments, IL2 is present in the medium at a concentration of between about 0.575 ng / mL and about 5.75 ng / mL (or between about 0.5 ng / mL and about 6 ng / mL), IL12 is present in the medium at a concentration of between about 10 ng / mL and about 100 ng / mL, and IL18 is present in the medium at a concentration of between about 0.01 ng / mL and about 30 ng / mL. In some embodiments, IL2 is present in the medium at a concentration of between about 0.575 ng / mL and about 5.75 ng / mL (or between about 0.5 ng / mL and about 6 ng / mL), IL12 is present in the medium at a concentration of between about 10 ng / mL and about 100 ng / mL, and IL18 is present in the medium at a concentration of between about 0.01 ng / mL and about 30 ng / mL, wherein the first and second time periods are about 7 days, and wherein the co-culture is repeated three or more times.

[0010] In some embodiments, the population of NK cells is present in an amount about 5 to about 25 times less than the population of feeder cells at the start of each co-culture. In some embodiments, the expanded NK cells are separated from the feeder cells by fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS).

[0011] In some embodiments, the population of feeder cells comprises K562 cells that express both 4-1BBL and mbIL15. In some embodiments, repeated co-culture increases the expression of markers of NK cell activation. Furthermore, in some embodiments, repeated co-culture increases the cytotoxicity and / or persistence of the expanded NK cells.

[0012] In some embodiments, the method further includes contacting the NK cells with a vector encoding a chimeric antigen receptor (CAR). In some embodiments, the CAR is configured to target one or more of CD19, CD123, CD70, BCMA, or a ligand for natural killer receptor group D (NKG2D).

[0013] In some embodiments, IL2 is present in the medium at a concentration of less than about 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, or 100 units / mL, or any concentration within a range defined by any two of the foregoing concentrations. In some embodiments, IL2 is present in the medium at a concentration of less than about 50 units / mL. In some embodiments, IL12 is present in the medium at a concentration of less than about 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, or 100 ng / mL, or any concentration within a range defined by any two of the foregoing concentrations. In some embodiments, IL12 is present in the medium at a concentration of less than about 30 ng / mL. In some embodiments, IL18 is present in the medium at a concentration of less than about 1, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, or 50 ng / mL, or any concentration within a range defined by any two of the foregoing concentrations. In some embodiments, IL18 is present in the medium at a concentration of less than about 10 ng / mL, IL2 is present in the medium at a concentration of less than about 50 units / mL, IL12 is present in the medium at a concentration of less than about 30 ng / mL, and IL18 is present in the medium at a concentration of less than about 10 ng / mL.

[0014] In some embodiments, IL2 is present in the medium at a concentration of less than about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10 ng / mL, or any concentration within a range defined by any two of the foregoing concentrations. In some embodiments, IL2 is present in the medium at a concentration of less than about 6 ng / mL. In some embodiments, IL12 is present in the medium at a concentration of less than about 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, or 100 ng / mL. In some embodiments, IL12 is present in the medium at a concentration of less than about 30 ng / mL. In some embodiments, IL18 is present in the medium at a concentration of less than about 1, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, or 50 ng / mL. In some embodiments, IL18 is present in the medium at a concentration of less than about 10 ng / mL. In some embodiments, IL2 is present in the medium at a concentration of less than about 6 ng / mL, IL12 is present in the medium at a concentration of less than about 30 ng / mL, and IL18 is present in the medium at a concentration of less than about 10 ng / mL.

[0015] In some embodiments, IL2 is present in the medium at a concentration of about 20 units / mL to about 50 units / mL. In some embodiments, IL2 is present in the medium at a concentration of about 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, or 50 units / mL, or any concentration within a range defined by any two of the foregoing concentrations. In some embodiments, IL12 is present in the medium at a concentration of between about 15 ng / mL and about 30 ng / mL. In some embodiments, IL12 is present in the medium at a concentration of 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, or 30 ng / mL, or any concentration within a range defined by any two of the foregoing concentrations. In some embodiments, IL18 is present in the medium at a concentration of less than about 5 ng / mL. In some embodiments, IL18 is present in the medium at a concentration of less than 0.01, 0.02, 0.03, 0.04, 0.05, 0.06, 0.07, 0.08, 0.09, 0.1, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 ng / mL, or any concentration within a range defined by any two of the foregoing concentrations. In some embodiments, IL2 is present in the medium at a concentration of between about 20 units / mL and about 50 units / mL, wherein IL12 is present in the medium at a concentration of between about 15 ng / mL and about 30 ng / mL, and IL18 is present in the medium at a concentration of less than about 5 ng / mL.

[0016] In some embodiments, IL2 is present in the medium at a concentration of about 1.15 ng / mL to about 2.875 units / mL. In some embodiments, IL2 is present in the medium at a concentration of about 1 ng / mL to about 3 units / mL. In some embodiments, IL2 is present in the medium at a concentration of about 1, 1.15, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 2.875, or 3 ng / mL, or any concentration within a range defined by any two of the foregoing concentrations. In some embodiments, IL12 is present in the medium at a concentration of about 15 ng / mL to about 30 ng / mL, or any concentration within a range defined by any two of the foregoing concentrations. In some embodiments, IL12 is present in the medium at a concentration of 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, or 30 ng / mL. In some embodiments, IL18 is present in the medium at a concentration of less than about 5 ng / mL. In some embodiments, IL18 is present in the medium at a concentration of less than 0.01, 0.02, 0.03, 0.04, 0.05, 0.06, 0.07, 0.08, 0.09, 0.1, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 ng / mL, or any concentration within a range defined by any two of the foregoing concentrations. In some embodiments, IL2 is present in the medium at a concentration of between about 1.15 ng / mL and about 2.875 ng / mL, wherein IL12 is present in the medium at a concentration of between about 15 ng / mL and about 30 ng / mL, and IL18 is present in the medium at a concentration of less than about 5 ng / mL. In some embodiments, IL2 is present in the medium at a concentration of between about 1 ng / mL and about 3 ng / mL, wherein IL12 is present in the medium at a concentration of between about 15 ng / mL and about 30 ng / mL, and IL18 is present in the medium at a concentration of less than about 5 ng / mL.

[0017] Also provided herein is the use of NK cells expanded by the methods disclosed herein for the preparation of a medicament for the treatment of cancer. Also provided herein is the use of NK cells expanded by the methods disclosed herein for the treatment of cancer.

[0018] Provided herein, in some embodiments, is a population of engineered natural killer (NK) cells comprising an engineered chimeric receptor configured to bind to a marker on a target cancer cell and, upon binding, induce NK cells to exert a cytotoxic effect against the target cancer cell, wherein the NK cells are expanded by first co-culturing a starting population of natural killer (NK) cells with a first population of feeder cells in a medium comprising interleukin 2 (IL2), interleukin 12 (IL12), and interleukin 18 (IL18), wherein the first population of feeder cells is enriched in 4-1BBL and membrane-bound interleukin-15 (mbIL1). 5), wherein the starting population of NK cells is smaller than the population of feeder cells, and wherein the first co-culture results in an intermediately expanded population of NK cells; separating at least a portion of the intermediately expanded population of NK cells from the feeder cells after the first co-culture; co-culturing at least a portion of the population of intermediately expanded NK cells with a second population of feeder cells at least a second time in fresh medium, wherein the portion of the population of NK cells co-cultured with the second population of feeder cells is smaller than the second population of feeder cells, and wherein the at least second co-culture results in a further expanded population of NK cells.

[0019] In some embodiments, the engineered chimeric receptor is encoded by a sequence that is at least 95% identical in sequence to SEQ ID NO: 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19, 21. In some embodiments, the engineered chimeric receptor has an amino acid sequence that is at least 95% identical in sequence to SEQ ID NO: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, or 28.

[0020] Also provided herein is the use of the engineered NK cells disclosed herein for the preparation of a medicament for the treatment of cancer and / or for the treatment of cancer.

[0021] Also provided is a method of treating cancer in a subject in need thereof, comprising administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of an engineered NK as disclosed herein. [Brief explanation of the drawings]

[0022] The following figure descriptions relate to experiments and results that represent non-limiting embodiments of the invention disclosed herein.

[0023] 1A and 1B show non-limiting examples of expansion protocols used to enhance NK cell expansion according to embodiments disclosed herein.

[0024] FIG. 2 shows data comparing the fold expansion of NK cells using various expansion methodologies, including non-limiting embodiments of those disclosed herein.

[0025] Figures 3A-3B show data on the proliferation of NK cells under various conditions from four different donors. Figure 3A shows flow cytometry data measuring the expression of NKG2D on the surface of NK cells when grown on feeder cells alone (top row) or with cytokine supplementation (bottom row). Figure 3B measures the mean fluorescence intensity representing transduction with an NKG2D (NKX101) chimeric receptor construct under various conditions.

[0026] FIG. 4 shows data relating to NK cell cytotoxicity at various time points after expansion under conditions using feeder cells alone or with cytokine supplementation.

[0027] 5A-5B show data relating to the expression of specific markers indicative of a memory phenotype by NK cells.

[0028] FIG. 6 shows in vivo data relating to the antitumor activity of NK cells expanded with or without the indicated cytokine stimulation during expansion.

[0029] Figures 7A-7B show NK cell proliferation under various conditions. Figure 7A shows various concentrations of IL12 / 18 that are deemed supersaturating, saturated, or subsaturating. Figure 7B shows NK cell proliferation data under various culture conditions.

[0030] FIG. 8 shows data on the release of interferon gamma by NK cells cultured with varying concentrations of IL12 and / or IL18 in the medium.

[0031] Figures 9A-9H relate to the assessment of NK cell proliferation after 7 days of culture under the indicated conditions. Figure 9A shows summary data for each culture group. Figure 9B provides statistical comparisons between groups. Figure 9C shows fold expansion data (day 7) for a specific titration data set containing various concentrations of IL12, including IL18 at 4 ng / ml. Figure 9D shows similar data at 20 ng / mL IL18. Figure 9E shows the viability of engineered NK cells at day 7 of culture using 20 ng / mL IL18, 40 IU / mL IL2, and the indicated concentrations of IL12. Figure 9F shows the viability of engineered NK cells at day 8 of culture using 20 ng / mL IL18, 400 IU / mL IL2, and the indicated concentrations of IL12. Figure 9G shows the viability of engineered NK cells at day 7 of culture using 4 ng / mL IL18, 40 IU / mL IL2, and the indicated concentrations of IL12. FIG. 9H shows the viability of engineered NK cells on day 8 of culture with 4 ng / mL IL18, 400 IU / mL IL2, and the indicated concentrations of IL12.

[0032] Figures 10A-10B relate to the evaluation of NK cell cytotoxicity. Figure 10A shows summary data regarding NK cell cytotoxicity in each culture group after 8 days of culture. Figure 10 provides a statistical comparison of cytotoxicity.

[0033] Figures 11A-11B relate to the evaluation of NK cell cytotoxicity. Figure 11A shows summary data regarding NK cell cytotoxicity in each culture group after 15 days of culture. Figure 11B provides a statistical comparison of cytotoxicity.

[0034] FIG. 12 shows expression data for NK cells transduced with chimeric receptor constructs and cultured in various conditions from two donors.

[0035] FIG. 13 shows expression data for NK cells transduced with chimeric receptor constructs and cultured in various conditions from two additional donors.

[0036] Figures 14A-14B show cytotoxicity data. Figure 14A shows summary data on the cytotoxicity of NK cells transduced with chimeric receptors targeting NKG2D ligands and cultured under the indicated conditions. Figure 14B shows statistical comparisons of groups.

[0037] Figures 15A-15D relate to the cytotoxic effects of NK cells transduced with NKG2D-targeting chimeric receptors after culture under the indicated conditions. Figures 15A and 15B show data on the cytotoxicity of NK cells from two different donors 13 days after transduction with either a vector encoding GFP or a vector encoding a chimeric receptor targeting an NKG2D ligand. Figures 15C and 15D show the corresponding cytotoxicity data from the same two donors 21 days after transduction.

[0038] Figures 16A-16B show data regarding NK cell phenotype. Figure 16A shows data regarding expression of markers associated with a memory-like phenotype by NK cells over time in the indicated culture conditions. Figure 16B shows flow cytometry data showing the progression of marker expression over time in culture.

[0039] Figures 17A-17D show summary expression data related to selected markers by NK cells in various culture conditions: Figure 17A shows expression data related to the CD62 ligand, Figure 17B shows expression of NKG2C, Figure 17C shows expression of CD57, and Figure 17D shows expression of both CD62L and NKG2C.

[0040] FIG. 18 shows the cytotoxicity data of NK cells expressing either GFP and / or NKG2D-ligand directed chimeric receptors 21 days post-transduction.

[0041] FIG. 19 shows cell viability and proliferation data for NK cells grown under various culture conditions.

[0042] Figure 20 shows expression data (based on Flag tags) for NK cells transduced with anti-CD19 CAR and cultured using the indicated conditions. The data was collected on day 15 of expansion.

[0043] Figure 21 shows expression data (based on Flag tag) for NK cells transduced with anti-CD19 CAR and cultured using the indicated conditions. The data was collected on day 22 of expansion.

[0044] Figures 22A-22C show data regarding the cytotoxicity of NK cells expressing anti-CD19 CAR. NK cells were expanded using the conditions indicated and challenged with Nalm6 cells using the E:T ratio (average of three donors) shown in Figure 22A. Figure 22B shows the summary cytotoxicity data. Figure 22C shows the cytotoxicity data as a function of effector to target ratio.

[0045] FIG. 23 shows a schematic of the experimental setup for evaluating the cytotoxicity of NK cells expressing chimeric receptors targeting NKG2D ligands in a hepatocellular carcinoma xenograft model.

[0046] FIG. 24 shows a summary of tumor burden over time in mice under the indicated treatments.

[0047] FIG. 25 shows a schematic experimental setup for assessing the influence of expansion culture conditions on NK cell cytotoxicity in vivo.

[0048] Figures 26A-26F show cytotoxicity, survival data, data regarding NK cell persistence, and data regarding CAR expression in fresh or cryopreserved NK cells. Figure 26A shows data related to the cytotoxicity of NK cells expanded under the indicated conditions against Nalm6 cells in a xenograft model. Figure 26B shows survival curves for mice receiving the indicated treatments. Figure 26C shows data related to the detection of human NK cells in mouse blood at day 18 post-injection, separated based on expansion culture conditions. Figure 26D shows data related to the detection of CAR-positive NK cells in mouse blood at day 18 post-injection, separated based on expansion culture conditions. Figure 26E shows expression data related to the percentage of NK cells (either fresh or cryopreserved) expressing non-limiting embodiments of an anti-CD19 CAR, with or without additional stimulatory molecules, on day 15 of expansion. Figure 26F shows expression data relating to the percentage of NK cells (either fresh or cryopreserved) expressing non-limiting embodiments of anti-CD19 CARs in the presence or absence of additional stimulatory molecules on day 22 of expansion.

[0049] Figures 27A-27C relate to the in vivo efficacy of various CD19-directed CARs according to embodiments disclosed herein. Figure 27A shows a schematic of the experimental protocol for evaluating the efficacy of humanized NK cells expressing various CD19-directed CAR constructs in vivo. The various experimental groups tested are as indicated. For cells labeled "IL12 / IL18," cells were grown in the presence of soluble IL12 and / or IL18 according to embodiments disclosed herein. Figures 27B and 27C show bioluminescence data from animals administered Nalm6 tumor cells and treated with the indicated constructs.

[0050] Figures 28A-28J show graphical depictions of the bioluminescence data from Figures 27B-27C. Figure 28A shows bioluminescence (as photons / second flux) from animals that received untransduced NK cells. Figure 28B shows the flux measured in animals that received PBS as vehicle. Figure 28C shows the flux measured in animals that received pre-frozen NK cells expressing the NK19 NF2 CAR (as a non-limiting example of a CAR). Figure 28D shows the flux measured in animals that received pre-frozen NK cells expressing the NK19 NF2 CAR (as a non-limiting example of a CAR) that were expanded using IL12 and / or IL18. Figures 28E and 28F show the flux measured in animals that received fresh NK cells expressing the NK19 NF2 CAR (as a non-limiting example of a CAR). Figures 28G and 28H show the flux measured in animals that previously received fresh NK cells expressing the NK19 NF2 CAR (as a non-limiting example of a CAR) expanded with IL12 and / or IL18. Figure 28I shows a line graph representing the bioluminescence measured in various groups over the first 30 days after tumor inoculation. Figure 28J shows a line graph representing the bioluminescence measured in various groups over the first 56 days after tumor inoculation.

[0051] FIG. 29 shows data on the weight of mice over time when receiving the indicated treatments.

[0052] Figures 30A-30C show data relating to characterizing NK cells engineered to express a CAR (as disclosed herein) and expanded in the presence or absence of one or more stimulatory cytokines. Figure 30A shows data regarding the percentage of NK cells expressing a CAR in the blood of animals over time. Figure 30B shows data regarding the percentage of NK cells expressing a CAR in the blood of animals over 50 days. Figure 30C shows data regarding the percentage of NK cells expressing a CAR over time and based on the number of live cells tested.

[0053] Figures 31A-31C show data from three different mice (31A, 31B, and 31C, respectively) regarding the expression of anti-CD19 CAR and characterization of which cells express the CAR.

[0054] Figures 32A-32C show data from three different mice (32A, 32B, and 32C, respectively) regarding the expression of anti-CD19 CAR and characterization of which cells express the CAR.

[0055] Figures 33A-33C show summary expression data from blood samples collected 4 days after in vivo administration (protocol of Figure 27A). Figure 33A shows CD3 expression data from whole blood samples of the indicated experimental groups. - CD56 + Figure 33B shows the percentage of NK cells expressing specific anti-CD19 CARs for each experimental group. Figure 33C shows data on the number of GFP-positive tumor cells detected for each experimental group.

[0056] Figures 34A-34C show summary expression data from blood samples collected 12 days after in vivo administration (protocol of Figure 27A). Figure 34A shows CD3 expression data from whole blood samples of the indicated experimental groups. - CD56 + Figure 34B shows the percentage of NK cells expressing specific anti-CD19 CARs for each experimental group. Figure 34C shows data on the number of GFP-positive tumor cells detected for each experimental group.

[0057] Figures 35A-35E show summary expression data from blood samples collected 18 days after in vivo administration (protocol of Figure 27A). Figure 35A shows CD3 expression data from whole blood samples of the indicated experimental groups. - CD56 +Figure 35B shows the percentage of CD19-positive tumor cells for each experimental group, as measured using a phycoerythrin (PE)-conjugated antibody. Figure 35C shows data regarding the number of GFP-positive tumor cells detected for each experimental group. Figure 35D shows the percentage of NK cells expressing a specific anti-CD19 CAR for each experimental group, as measured using an anti-CD19 FC antibody. Figure 35E shows the percentage of NK cells in each treatment group that express CD19 CAR.

[0058] Figure 36 shows data collected over a four-week period regarding the half-life of NK cells expressing an anti-CD19 CAR for each of two doses of NK cells, as measured by NK cell count per 10,000 white blood cells. The two doses were (i) 2 million NK cells expressing an anti-CD19 CAR, and (ii) 5 million NK cells expressing an anti-CD19 CAR. These data were collected after the third administration of NK cells.

[0059] Figure 37 shows data collected on the half-life of cryopreserved NK cells engineered to express a CAR that targets an NKG2D ligand and expanded without additional stimulatory cytokines.

[0060] Figures 38A-38D show comparative dose-response cytotoxicity data of various CD19-targeted CARs (or untransduced NK cells) against tumor cell lines. Figure 38A shows cytotoxicity against highly CD19-expressing Nalm6 tumor cells after 24 hours. Figure 38B shows cytotoxicity against Nalm6 after 72 hours. Figure 38C shows cytotoxicity against Reh tumor cells, which express lower levels of CD19 than Nalm6 cells, after 24 hours. Figure 38D shows cytotoxicity against Reh cells after 72 hours.

[0061] Figures 39A-39B show data regarding the cytotoxicity of NK cells (39A) or NK cells expressing a non-limiting embodiment of CD19-CAR (39A) in the presence and absence of dexamethasone.

[0062] Figures 40A-40B show data (different scales between 40A and 40B) relating to the lifespan (e.g., half-life) of CAR-expressing NK (data shown is a non-limiting embodiment of a CAR, here a CD19-targeted CAR) cells in the bloodstream of an animal over time.

[0063] Figures 41A-41B relate to NK cell proliferation data over time where NK cells obtained from either umbilical cord blood (CB) or peripheral blood (PB) were pulsed with feeder cells at a 1:10 ratio at multiple time points during the expansion process, along with supplementing the media with IL2. Figure 41A shows a line graph of NK cell proliferation over time. Figure 41B shows the schematic proliferation data.

[0064] Figures 42A-42B relate to NK cell proliferation data over time where NK cells obtained from either umbilical cord blood (CB) or peripheral blood (PB) were pulsed with feeder cells at a 1:10 ratio at multiple time points during the expansion process, along with supplementing the media with both IL2 and IL12. Figure 42A shows a line graph of NK cell proliferation over time. Figure 42B shows the schematic proliferation data.

[0065] Figures 43A-43B relate to NK cell proliferation data over time where NK cells obtained from either umbilical cord blood (CB) or peripheral blood (PB) were pulsed with feeder cells at a 1:10 ratio at multiple time points during the expansion process, along with supplementing the media with both IL2 and IL18. Figure 43A shows a line graph of NK cell proliferation over time. Figure 43B shows the schematic proliferation data.

[0066] Figures 44A-44B relate to NK cell proliferation data over time where NK cells obtained from either umbilical cord blood (CB) or peripheral blood (PB) were pulsed with feeder cells at a 1:10 ratio at multiple time points during the expansion process, along with supplementing the media with both IL2 and a combination of IL12 and IL18. Figure 44A shows a line graph of NK cell proliferation over time. Figure 44B shows the schematic proliferation data.

[0067] Figures 45A-45E show the expansion of CD3-positive cells as a result of multiple pulses of feeder cells and the indicated cytokine conditions used to supplement the medium. Asterisks in the figures indicate when NK cells were replated on fresh feeder cells with fresh medium (including supplemented medium components, where indicated). Figure 45A shows data when the medium was supplemented with a high concentration of IL2 (400 units / mL). Figure 45B shows data related to supplementing the medium with IL12 (and 40 units / mL IL2). Figure 45C shows data related to supplementing the medium with IL18 (and 40 units / mL IL2). Figure 45D shows data related to supplementing the medium with both IL12 and IL18 (and 40 units / mL IL2). Figure 45E shows data related to control expansion (pulsing with new feeder cells and 40 units / mL IL2, but no cytokines added).

[0068] Figures 46A-46J relate to the expression of the activating NKG2C receptor. Asterisks in the figures indicate when NK cells were replated on fresh feeder cells with fresh medium (including supplemented medium components, where indicated). Figure 46A shows data presented as the percentage of NK cells positive for NKG2C expression, along with data when the medium was supplemented with a high concentration of IL2 (400 units / mL). Figure 46B shows data presented as the overall mean fluorescence intensity (MFI), representing NKG2C expression, along with data when the medium was supplemented with a high concentration of IL2 (400 units / mL). Figure 46C shows data presented as the percentage of NK cells positive for NKG2C expression, along with data related to supplementing the medium with IL12 (and 40 units / mL IL2). Figure 46D shows data presented as the overall MFI, representing NKG2C expression, along with data related to supplementing the medium with IL12 (and 40 units / mL IL2). Figure 46E shows data relating to supplementing the medium with IL18 (and 40 units / mL IL2), with the data presented as the percentage of NK cells positive for NKG2C expression. Figure 46F shows data relating to supplementing the medium with IL18 (and 40 units / mL IL2), with the data presented as an overall MFI representing NKG2C expression. Figure 46G shows data relating to supplementing the medium with both IL12 and IL18 (and 40 units / mL IL2), with the data presented as the percentage of NK cells positive for NKG2C expression. Figure 46H shows data relating to supplementing the medium with both IL12 and IL18 (and 40 units / mL IL2), with the data presented as an overall MFI representing NKG2C expression. FIG. 45I shows data presented as the percentage of NK cells positive for NKG2C expression, along with data relating to control proliferation (pulsed with fresh feeder cells and 40 units / mL IL2, but no added cytokines).FIG. 45J shows data presented as overall MFI representing NKG2C expression, along with data relating to control proliferation (pulsed with fresh feeder cells and 40 units / mL IL2, but no added cytokines).

[0069] Figures 47A-47B show the increase in activation (47A) and inhibitory (47B) markers on NK cells expanded with two feeder pulses on days 0 and 7 ("2X") or three feeder pulses on days 0, 7, and 14 ("3X") compared to an expansion method with a single feeder stimulation on day 0 ("SOP"). "Pure NK" is a group in which the initial population of cells cultured with feeder cells was purified. "PBM" is a group in which the initial population of cells cultured with feeder cells was peripheral blood mononuclear cells rather than purified NK cells.

[0070] Figures 48A-48B relate to further evaluation of the expression of activating (48A) or inhibitory (48B) markers at day 0 (circles) or day 7 (squares).

[0071] Detailed Description While cancer immunotherapy, or cell therapy for other diseases, has made great advances in the ability to engineer cells to express constructs of interest, there remains a need for clinically relevant numbers of these cells for administration to patients. This is particularly important when the underlying native immune cells that are engineered and subsequently administered are less prevalent than other immune cell types. This necessitates either starting with large amounts of starting material, which may be impractical, or developing more efficient methods and compositions for (possibly preferentially) expanding immune cells of interest, such as NK cells. Thus, provided herein, in some embodiments, are methods and compositions that advantageously enable not only enhanced expansion of NK cells (or other immune cells), but also enhanced cytotoxicity of those cells.

[0072] In some embodiments, populations of expanded and activated NK cells are provided that result from co-culturing the modified "feeder" cells disclosed herein with a starting population of immune cells and supplementing the co-culture with various cytokines at specific time points during expansion.

[0073] Cells for use in immune cell expansion In some embodiments, cell lines are used in co-culture with a population of immune cells to be expanded. Such cell lines are referred to herein as "stimulator cells" and also as "feeder cells." In some embodiments, the entire population of immune cells is expanded, and in some embodiments, selected immune cell subpopulations are expanded. For example, in some embodiments, NK cells are expanded relative to other immune cell subpopulations (such as T cells). In other embodiments, both NK cells and T cells are expanded. In some embodiments, the feeder cells themselves are genetically modified. In some embodiments, the feeder cells do not express MHCI molecules that have an inhibitory effect on NK cells. In some embodiments, the feeder cells need not completely lack MHCI expression, but may express MHCI molecules at a lower level than wild-type cells. For example, in some embodiments, if wild-type cells express MHC at a level of X, the cell line used may express MHC at a level of less than 95% of X, less than 90% of X, less than 85% of X, less than 80% of X, less than 70% of X, less than 50% of X, less than 25% of X, and any expression level therebetween (and inclusive) listed. In some embodiments, the stimulator cells are immortalized, e.g., cancer cell lines. However, in some embodiments, the stimulator cells are primary cells.

[0074] Depending on the embodiment, various cell types may be used as feeder cells, including, but not limited to, K562 cells, certain Wilms' tumor cell lines (e.g., Wilms' tumor cell line HFWT), endometrial tumor cells (e.g., HHUA), melanoma cells (e.g., HMV-II), hepatoblastoma cells (e.g., HuH-6), small cell lung cancer cells (e.g., Lu-130 and Lu-134-A), neuroblastoma cells (e.g., NB19 and NB69), embryonal carcinoma testis cells (e.g., NEC14), cervical cancer cells (TCO-2), neuroblastoma cells (e.g., TNB1), 721.221 EBV-transformed B cell line, etc.

[0075] In additional embodiments, the feeder cells not only have reduced (or absent) MHCII expression, but also have reduced (or absent) MHC1 expression. In some embodiments, other cell lines that may initially express MHC class I molecules may be used in conjunction with genetic modification of those cells to reduce or knock out MHC1 expression. Genetic modification can be achieved by using gene editing techniques (e.g., RNA editing with CRISPR / Cas systems, adenosine deaminases acting on RNA (ADARs), zinc fingers, TALENS, etc.), inhibitory RNA (e.g., siRNA), or other molecular methods to disrupt and / or reduce the expression of MHC1 molecules on the cell surface.

[0076] As discussed in more detail below, in some embodiments, feeder cells are engineered to express specific stimulatory molecules (e.g., interleukins, CD3, 4-1BBL, etc.) to enhance immune cell proliferation and activation. Engineered feeder cells are disclosed, for example, in International Patent Application PCT / SG2018 / 050138, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. In some embodiments, stimulatory molecules such as interleukins 12, 18, and / or 21 are added separately to the co-culture medium, for example, at defined times and in specific amounts, to result in enhanced proliferation of desired subpopulations of immune cells.

[0077] stimulating molecule As briefly discussed above, certain molecules enhance the proliferation of immune cells such as NK cells or T cells, including engineered NK cells or T cells. Depending on the embodiment, one or more stimulatory molecules can be expressed on the surface of feeder cells used to expand the immune population. For example, in some embodiments, a population of K562 feeder cells is engineered to express 4-1BBL and / or membrane-bound interleukin-15 (mbIL15). Further embodiments relate to additional membrane-bound interleukins or stimulatory agents. Examples of such additional membrane-bound stimulatory molecules can be found in International Patent Application PCT / SG2018 / 050138, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

[0078] In some embodiments, the methods disclosed herein involve the addition of one or more stimulatory molecules to the culture medium in which engineered feeder cells and engineered NK cells are co-cultured. In some embodiments, one or more interleukins are added. For example, in some embodiments, IL2 is added to the culture medium. In some embodiments, IL12 is added to the culture medium. In some embodiments, IL18 is added to the culture medium. In some embodiments, IL21 is added to the culture medium. In some embodiments, a combination of two or more of IL2, IL12, IL18, and / or IL21 is added to the culture medium. In some embodiments, rather than using feeder cells with mbIL15, soluble IL15 is added to the culture medium (alone or in combination with any of IL2, IL12, IL18, and IL21).

[0079] In some embodiments, the medium comprises one or more vitamins, inorganic salts, and / or amino acids. In some embodiments, the medium comprises one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, or all of glycine, L-arginine, L-asparagine, L-aspartic acid, L-cystine (e.g., L-cystine 2HCl), L-glutamic acid, L-glutamine, L-histidine, L-hydroxyproline, L-isoleucine, L-leucine, L-lysine hydrochloride, L-methionine, L-phenylalanine, L-proline, L-serine, L-threonine, L-tryptophan, L-tyrosine (such as L-tyrosine disodium salt dehydrate), and L-valine. In some embodiments, the medium comprises one, two, three, four, or more of biotin, choline chloride, D-calcium pantothenate, folic acid, i-inositol, niacinamide, para-aminobenzoic acid, pyridoxine hydrochloride, riboflavin, thiamine hydrochloride, and vitamin B. In some embodiments, the medium comprises one, two, three, four, or more of calcium nitrate (Ca(NO) 4H0), magnesium sulfate (MgSO) (e.g., magnesium sulfate (MgSO) (anhydrous)), potassium chloride (KCl), sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO), sodium chloride (NaCl), and dibasic sodium phosphate (NaHPO) (e.g., dibasic sodium phosphate (NaHPO) anhydrous).

[0080] In some embodiments, the medium further comprises D-glucose and / or glutathione (optionally reduced glutathione). In some embodiments, the medium further comprises serum (e.g., fetal bovine serum) in an amount ranging from about 1% to about 20%. In some embodiments, the serum is heat-inactivated. In some embodiments, the medium is serum-free. In some embodiments, the medium is xeno-free.

[0081] Depending on the embodiment, IL2 is used to supplement the culture medium and enhance proliferation or other characteristics of NK cells. In some embodiments, the concentration of IL2 used is, for example, about 1 IU / mL to about 5 IU / mL (e.g., 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5), about 5 IU / mL to about 10 IU / mL (e.g., 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10), about 10 IU / mL to about 20 IU / mL (e.g., about 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, and 20), about 20 IU / mL to about 30 IU / mL (e.g., about 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, and 30), about 30 IU / mL to about 40 IU / mL (e.g., 30, 32, 34, 36, 38, and 40), about 40 to about 50 IU / mL (e.g., 40, 42, 44, 46, 48, 50), about 50 IU / mL to about 75 IU / mL (e.g., 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, and 75), about 75 IU / mL to about 100 IU / mL (e.g., 75 , 80, 85, 90, 95, and 100), about 100 IU / mL to about 200 IU / mL (e.g., 100, 125, 150, 275, and 200), about 200 IU / mL to about 300 IU / mL (e.g., 200, 225, 250, 275, and 300), about 300 IU / mL to about 400 IU / mL (e.g., 300, 325, 350, 375, and 400), about 400 IU / mL The preferred concentration of IL2 is from about 500 IU / mL to about 500 IU / mL (e.g., 400, 425, 450, 475, and 500), from about 500 IU / mL to about 750 IU / mL (e.g., 500, 550, 600, 650, 700, and 750), or from about 750 IU / mL to about 1000 IU / mL (e.g., 750, 800, 850, 900, 950, and 1000), and any concentration therebetween, including the endpoints. In some embodiments, IL2 may be added at multiple time points during culture. In some such embodiments, the concentration of IL2 used may vary between selected time points.

[0082] The terms "unit" and "international unit (IU)," as used herein and conventionally understood in the art, refer to a standardized amount or measure of a substance, molecule, or compound, determined by measuring an activity, such as biological activity. For purposes of this disclosure, the terms "unit" and "IU" are interchangeable. As generally understood, measuring by unit or IU may or may not be advantageous compared to other conventional modes of quantification, such as mass or volume, because it allows, for example, correlation of the same substance between different production processes or batches. As applied to IL2 as used herein, the definition of unit or IU of IL2 is standardized according to the WHO international standard for IL2 under NIBSC Code 86 / 500. Those skilled in the art will understand that disclosure of IL2 concentrations as measured in units / mL or IU / mL should be transferable without undue experimentation, regardless of the source of IL2 used, as long as it is produced according to the NIBSC standard.

[0083] For purposes of the disclosure herein, the IL2 used has a concentration of 40 IU / mL, which corresponds to 2.3 ng / mL (i.e., 1 IU / mL corresponds to 57.5 pg / mL). Therefore, any concentrations of IL2 expressed in IU / mL or units / mL may be interpreted in terms of their mass concentration according to this equivalence. It is understood that, when a substitute is used, one skilled in the art can determine the corresponding mass concentration equivalent of the IL2 product measured in IU / mL.

[0084] Depending on the embodiment, IL2 is used to supplement the culture medium and enhance proliferation or other characteristics of NK cells. In some embodiments, the concentration of IL2 used is, for example, about 55 pg / mL to about 500 pg / mL (e.g., 55, 60, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500 pg / mL), about 500 pg / mL to about 1000 pg / mL (e.g., 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, 1000 pg / mL), about 1 ng / mL to about 10 ng / mL (e.g., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 ng / mL), or about 1 ng / mL to about 10 ng / mL (e.g., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 ng / mL). mL), or about 10 ng / mL to about 60 ng / mL (e.g., 57.5 pg / mL to about 57.5 ng / mL (or 55 pg / mL to about 60 ng / mL), including 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60 ng / mL, and any concentration therebetween, including the endpoints. In some such embodiments, the concentration of IL2 used may vary between selected time points.

[0085] Depending on the embodiment, IL12A and / or IL12B are used to supplement the culture medium to enhance proliferation or other characteristics of NK cells. In some embodiments, the concentration of IL12 (either IL12A or IL12B) used is, for example, about 0.01 ng / mL to about 0.05 ng / mL (e.g., 0.01, 0.02, 0.03, 0.04, and 0.05), about 0.05 ng / mL to about 0.1 ng / mL (e.g., 0.05, 0.06, 0.07, 0.08, 0.09, and 0.1), about 0.1 ng / mL to about 0.5 ng / mL (e.g., 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, and 0.5), about 0.5 ng / mL to about 1.0 ng / mL (e.g., 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, and 1.0), about 1.0 ng / mL to about 2.0 ng / mL (e.g., 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, and 2.0), about 2.0 ng / mL to about 5.0 ng / mL (e.g., 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, and 5.0), about 5.0 ng / mL to about 10.0 ng / mL (e.g., 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0, 9.0, and 10.0), about 10.0 ng / mL to about 15.0 ng / mL (e.g., 10.0, 11.0, 12.0, 13.0, 14.0, and 15.0), about 15.0 ng / mL to about 20.0 ng / mL (e.g., 15.0, 16.0, 17.0, 18.0, 19.0, and 20.0), about 20.0 ng / mL to about 25.0 ng / mL (e.g., 20.0, 21.0, 22.0, 23.0, 24.0, and 25.0), about 25.0 ng / mL to about 30.0 ng / mL (e.g., 25.0, 26.0, 27.0, 28.0, 29.0, and 30.0), The range is from about 0.01 ng / mL to 100 ng / mL, including about 30.0 ng / mL to about 50.0 ng / mL (e.g., 30.0, 35.0, 40.0, 45.0, and 50.0), about 50.0 ng / mL to about 75.0 ng / mL (e.g., 50.0, 55.0, 60.0, 65.0, 70.0, and 75.0), about 75.0 ng / mL to about 100.0 ng / mL (e.g., 75.0, 80.0, 85.0, 90.0, 95.0, and 100.0), and any concentration therebetween, including the endpoints.In some embodiments, the concentration of IL12 is between about 0.01 ng / mL and about 8 ng / mL, including any concentration therebetween, including the endpoints.

[0086] In some embodiments, a mixture of IL12A and IL12B is used. In some embodiments, a specific ratio of IL12A:IL12B is used, for example, 1:10, 1:50, 1:100, 1:150, 1:200, 1:250:, 1:500, 1:1000, 1:10,000, 10,000:1, 1000:1, 500:1, 250:1, 150:1, 100:1, 10:1, and any ratio therebetween, including the endpoints.

[0087] In some embodiments, interleukin 18 (IL18) is used to enhance proliferation or other characteristics of NK cells. In some embodiments, the concentration of IL18 used is, for example, about 0.01 ng / mL to about 0.05 ng / mL (e.g., 0.01, 0.02, 0.03, 0.04, and 0.05), about 0.05 ng / mL to about 0.1 ng / mL (e.g., 0.05, 0.06, 0.07, 0.08, 0.09, and 0.1), about 0.1 ng / mL to about 0.5 ng / mL (e.g., 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, and 0.5), about 0.5 ng / mL to about 1.0 ng / mL (e.g., 0. 1.0 ng / mL to about 2.0 ng / mL (e.g., 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, and 2.0), about 2.0 ng / mL to about 5.0 ng / mL (e.g., 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, and 5.0), about 5.0 ng / mL to about 10.0 ng / mL (e.g., 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0, 9.0, and 10.0), about 10.0 ng / mL to about 15.0 ng / mL (e.g., 10 .0, 11.0, 12.0, 13.0, 14.0 and 15.0), about 15.0 ng / mL to about 20.0 ng / mL (e.g., 15.0, 16.0, 17.0, 18.0, 19.0 and 20.0), about 20.0 ng / mL to about 25.0 ng / mL (e.g., 20.0, 21.0, 22.0, 23.0, 24.0 and 25.0), about 25.0 ng / mL to about 30.0 ng / mL (e.g., 25.0, 26.0, 27.0, 28.0, 29.0 and 30.0), about 30.0 ng / mL The range of concentrations is from about 0.01 ng / mL to about 100 ng / mL, including from about 0.01 ng / mL to about 50.0 ng / mL (e.g., 30.0, 35.0, 40.0, 45.0, and 50.0), from about 50.0 ng / mL to about 75.0 ng / mL (e.g., 50.0, 55.0, 60.0, 65.0, 70.0, and 75.0), from about 75.0 ng / mL to about 100.0 ng / mL (e.g., 75.0, 80.0, 85.0, 90.0, 95.0, and 100.0), and any concentration therebetween, including the endpoints.

[0088] In some embodiments, interleukin 21 (IL21) is used to enhance proliferation or other characteristics of NK cells. In some embodiments, the concentration of IL21 used is, for example, about 0.01 ng / mL to about 0.05 ng / mL (e.g., 0.01, 0.02, 0.03, 0.04, and 0.05), about 0.05 ng / mL to about 0.1 ng / mL (e.g., 0.05, 0.06, 0.07, 0.08, 0.09, and 0.1), about 0.1 ng / mL to about 0.5 ng / mL (e.g., 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, and 0.5), about 0.5 ng / mL to about 1.0 ng / mL (e.g., 0. 1.0 ng / mL to about 2.0 ng / mL (e.g., 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, and 2.0), about 2.0 ng / mL to about 5.0 ng / mL (e.g., 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, and 5.0), about 5.0 ng / mL to about 10.0 ng / mL (e.g., 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0, 9.0, and 10.0), about 10.0 ng / mL to about 15.0 ng / mL (e.g., 10 .0, 11.0, 12.0, 13.0, 14.0 and 15.0), about 15.0 ng / mL to about 20.0 ng / mL (e.g., 15.0, 16.0, 17.0, 18.0, 19.0 and 20.0), about 20.0 ng / mL to about 25.0 ng / mL (e.g., 20.0, 21.0, 22.0, 23.0, 24.0 and 25.0), about 25.0 ng / mL to about 30.0 ng / mL (e.g., 25.0, 26.0, 27.0, 28.0, 29.0 and 30.0), about 30.0 ng / mL The range of concentrations is from about 0.01 ng / mL to about 100 ng / mL, including from about 0.01 ng / mL to about 50.0 ng / mL (e.g., 30.0, 35.0, 40.0, 45.0, and 50.0), from about 50.0 ng / mL to about 75.0 ng / mL (e.g., 50.0, 55.0, 60.0, 65.0, 70.0, and 75.0), from about 75.0 ng / mL to about 100.0 ng / mL (e.g., 75.0, 80.0, 85.0, 90.0, 95.0, and 100.0), and any concentration therebetween, including the endpoints.

[0089] In some embodiments, interleukin 15 (IL15) is used in a soluble form (instead of, or in addition to, mbIL15 on feeder cells) to enhance proliferation or other characteristics of NK cells. In some embodiments, the concentration of IL15 used is, for example, about 0.01 ng / mL to about 0.05 ng / mL (e.g., 0.01, 0.02, 0.03, 0.04, and 0.05), about 0.05 ng / mL to about 0.1 ng / mL (e.g., 0.05, 0.06, 0.07, 0.08, 0.09, and 0.1), about 0.1 ng / mL to about 0.5 ng / mL (e.g., 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, and 0.5), about 0.5 ng / mL to about 1.0 ng / mL (e.g., 0. 1.0 ng / mL to about 2.0 ng / mL (e.g., 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, and 2.0), about 2.0 ng / mL to about 5.0 ng / mL (e.g., 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, and 5.0), about 5.0 ng / mL to about 10.0 ng / mL (e.g., 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0, 9.0, and 10.0), about 10.0 ng / mL to about 15.0 ng / mL (e.g., 10 .0, 11.0, 12.0, 13.0, 14.0 and 15.0), about 15.0 ng / mL to about 20.0 ng / mL (e.g., 15.0, 16.0, 17.0, 18.0, 19.0 and 20.0), about 20.0 ng / mL to about 25.0 ng / mL (e.g., 20.0, 21.0, 22.0, 23.0, 24.0 and 25.0), about 25.0 ng / mL to about 30.0 ng / mL (e.g., 25.0, 26.0, 27.0, 28.0, 29.0 and 30.0), about 30.0 ng / mL The range of concentrations is from about 0.01 ng / mL to about 100 ng / mL, including from about 0.01 ng / mL to about 50.0 ng / mL (e.g., 30.0, 35.0, 40.0, 45.0, and 50.0), from about 50.0 ng / mL to about 75.0 ng / mL (e.g., 50.0, 55.0, 60.0, 65.0, 70.0, and 75.0), from about 75.0 ng / mL to about 100.0 ng / mL (e.g., 75.0, 80.0, 85.0, 90.0, 95.0, and 100.0), and any concentration therebetween, including the endpoints.

[0090] In some embodiments, interleukin 22 (IL22) is used to enhance NK cell proliferation. In some embodiments, the concentration of IL22 used is, for example, about 0.01 ng / mL to about 0.05 ng / mL (e.g., 0.01, 0.02, 0.03, 0.04, and 0.05), about 0.05 ng / mL to about 0.1 ng / mL (e.g., 0.05, 0.06, 0.07, 0.08, 0.09, and 0.1), about 0.1 ng / mL to about 0.5 ng / mL (e.g., 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, and 0.5), about 0.5 ng / mL to about 1.0 ng / mL (e.g., 0. 1.0 ng / mL to about 2.0 ng / mL (e.g., 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, and 2.0), about 2.0 ng / mL to about 5.0 ng / mL (e.g., 2.0, 3.0, 4.0, and 5.0), about 5.0 ng / mL to about 10.0 ng / mL (e.g., 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0, 9.0, and 10.0), about 10.0 ng / mL to about 15.0 ng / mL (e.g., 10 .0, 11.0, 12.0, 13.0, 14.0 and 15.0), about 15.0 ng / mL to about 20.0 ng / mL (e.g., 15.0, 16.0, 17.0, 18.0, 19.0 and 20.0), about 20.0 ng / mL to about 25.0 ng / mL (e.g., 20.0, 21.0, 22.0, 23.0, 24.0 and 25.0), about 25.0 ng / mL to about 30.0 ng / mL (e.g., 25.0, 26.0, 27.0, 28.0, 29.0 and 30.0), about 30.0 ng / mL The range of concentrations is from about 0.01 ng / mL to about 100 ng / mL, including from about 0.01 ng / mL to about 50.0 ng / mL (e.g., 30.0, 35.0, 40.0, 45.0, and 50.0), from about 50.0 ng / mL to about 75.0 ng / mL (e.g., 50.0, 55.0, 60.0, 65.0, 70.0, and 75.0), from about 75.0 ng / mL to about 100.0 ng / mL (e.g., 75.0, 80.0, 85.0, 90.0, 95.0, and 100.0), and any concentration therebetween, including the endpoints.

[0091] When two stimulating agents are used, the relative ratio between the two can be 1:10, 1:20, 1:50, 1:100, 1:150, 1:200, 1:250, 1:500, 1:750, 1:1,000, 1:10,000, 1:50,000, 1:100,000, 100,000:1, 50,000:1, 10,000:1, 1,000:1, 750:1, 500:1, 250:1, 200:1, 150:1, 100:1, 50:1, 20:1, 10:1 ratios, and any ratio range between those listed, including the endpoints. Similarly, when three or more agents are used, the ratio between the additional agents and the other agents can be any of the ratios described above.

[0092] As discussed in more detail below, depending on the embodiment, stimulatory molecules can be added at specific points during the expansion process or can be added so that they are present as a component of the medium throughout the co-culture process.

[0093] Methods for co-culture and immune cell expansion In some embodiments, NK cells isolated from peripheral blood donor samples are co-cultured with K562 cells modified to express 4-1BBL and mbIL15. While other approaches involve the expression of other membrane-bound cytokines, generating feeder cells containing multiple stimulatory molecules can be challenging (e.g., to achieve desired levels of expression of various stimulatory molecules, expression at the appropriate time during proliferation, etc.). Accordingly, some embodiments disclosed herein relate to supplementing the culture medium with specific concentrations of various stimulatory agents at specific times. In some embodiments, feeder cells are seeded into culture vessels and allowed to reach near confluence. In some embodiments, immune cells are then cultured at a density of approximately 0.5 x 10 cells, including any density between those listed, including the endpoint. 6 cells / cm 2 to about 5 × 10 6 cells / cm 2 The culture may be added at a desired concentration ranging from 0.1 to 1.0.

[0094] In some embodiments, immune cells are isolated from a peripheral blood sample. In some embodiments, the immune cells may then be expanded together or a subpopulation of isolated cells, such as NK cells, may be used. In some embodiments, umbilical cord blood or other blood sources are used as the source of immune cells. Some embodiments use specific populations or subpopulations of immune cells. In some embodiments, the populations or subpopulations are purified before expansion in culture. For example, in some embodiments, purified NK cells are used for expansion. In other embodiments, mononuclear cells (e.g., peripheral blood mononuclear cells or umbilical cord blood mononuclear cells) are the cells used for expansion.

[0095] The NK cells are then seeded with feeder cells, optionally one or more cytokines (in the media or as an exogenous supplement), and cultured for a first period of time, e.g., about 6 hours, about 12 hours, about 18 hours, about 24 hours, about 2 days, about 3 days, about 4 days, about 5 days, about 6 days, about 7 days, about 8 days, about 9 days, about 10 days, about 11 days, about 12 days, about 13 days, about 14 days, or any time in between, including the end point.

[0096] As discussed in more detail in the Examples (see, e.g., Example 4), expanded cells are "pulsed" with fresh medium and feeder cells, and optionally, one or more of the stimulatory cytokines used to supplement the medium. For example, in some embodiments, expanding cells are harvested and reseeded into a culture vessel with a new "batch" of feeder cells. Expanding cells are added to a new culture vessel / feeder cells containing fresh medium. In some embodiments, the medium added to the co-culture is also fresh, optionally including supplementing the medium with any of the stimulatory cytokines originally present in the expansion medium (e.g., day 0 of expansion). As discussed herein, the concentration of stimulatory cytokines added to the medium can be the same as in the previous expansion phase or, optionally, a different concentration (higher or lower). In some embodiments, expanding cells are pulsed at least one additional time during expansion. In some embodiments, expanding cells are pulsed two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, or more times.

[0097] In some embodiments, the duration between the first and second pulses is about 5 to 7 days. In some embodiments, the duration between a given first pulse and a given second pulse is about 2 days, about 3 days, about 4 days, about 5 days, about 6 days, about 7 days, about 8 days, about 9 days, about 10 days, about 11 days, about 12 days, about 13 days, or about 14 days (or any time between the listed times, including the endpoints). Depending on the embodiment, the period between pulses is relatively constant; for example, if the time between day 0 of expansion and the first pulse is about 5 to about 7 days, the period from the first pulse to the second pulse is about 5 to about 7 days. However, in some embodiments, the time may be adjusted, for example, for convenience or until a change in the health of the expanding cells is observed. In some embodiments, pulse expansion allows the expanded cells (such as NK cells) to continue expanding and achieve at least a 20,000-fold expansion from the initial cell count. In some embodiments, there is at least about a 50,000-fold expansion, at least about a 100,000-fold expansion, at least about a 150,000-fold expansion, at least about a 200,000-fold expansion, at least about a 250,000-fold expansion, at least about a 300,000-fold expansion, at least about a 350,000-fold expansion, at least about a 400,000-fold expansion, at least about a 450,000-fold expansion, at least about a 500,000-fold expansion, at least about a 600,000-fold expansion, at least about a 700,000-fold expansion, at least about a 800,000-fold expansion, at least about a 900,000-fold expansion, at least about a 1000,000-fold expansion, at least about a 1500,000-fold expansion, at least about a 2500,000-fold expansion, at least about a 3000,000-fold expansion, at least about a 3500,000-fold expansion, at least about a 4000,000-fold expansion, at least about a 4500,000-fold expansion, at least about a 5 ...5000,000-fold expansion, at least about a 1500, Greater expansion is achieved, such as at least about 750,000-fold expansion, at least about 1,000,000-fold expansion, at least about 1,250,000-fold expansion, at least about 1,500,000-fold expansion, at least about 1,750,000-fold expansion, at least about 2,000,000-fold expansion, about 2,500,000-fold expansion, or about 3,000,000-fold expansion, or any degree of expansion in between, including the endpoints listed above. In some embodiments, expansion of greater than about 4,000,000-fold or about 5,000,000-fold is achieved.

[0098] In some embodiments, the ratio of the number of expanded cells at the end of expansion to the number of expanded immune cells at the start of expansion is about 1:25,000; about 1:50,000, about 1:100,000, about 1:200,000, about 1:500,000, about 1:1,000,000, about 1:1,500,000, about 1:2,000,000, about 1:2,500,000, or about 1:3,000,000, or any ratio therebetween, including the endpoints.

[0099] The degree of expansion may be adjusted in some embodiments by adjusting the ratio of the number of feeder cells to the starting number of expanded cells. For example, in some embodiments, a ratio of 1:1 is used, but in additional embodiments, the ratio can be about 1:2, 1:5, 1:10, 1:20, 1:50, 1:100, 1:1,000, 1:10,000, 1:50,000, 1:100,000, 100,000:1, 50,000:1, 10,000:1, 1,000:1, 100:1, 50:1, 20:1, 10:1, 5:1, 2:1, and any ratio range therebetween, including the endpoint. In some embodiments, the initial ratio of expansion is maintained at the same approximate ratio for each subsequent pulse. However, in some embodiments, the ratio is altered over time, for example to adjust the growth rate of the cells, whether a faster or slower growth rate is desired.

[0100] In some embodiments, after a first period of expansion, the expanded cells (e.g., NK cells) are transduced with an engineered construct, such as a chimeric antigen receptor. Any type of chimeric antigen receptor can be expressed in engineered cells, such as NK cells, including those described in International PCT Application Nos. PCT / US2018 / 024650, PCT / IB2019 / 000141, PCT / IB2019 / 000181, and / or PCT / US2020 / 020824, PCT / US2020 / 035752, U.S. Provisional Application Nos. 62 / 924967, 62 / 960285, and / or 63 / 038645, each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

[0101] After viral transduction, the engineered cells are cultured for a second period, such as about 6 hours, about 12 hours, about 18 hours, about 24 hours, about 2 days, about 3 days, about 4 days, about 5 days, about 6 days, about 7 days, about 8 days, about 9 days, about 10 days, about 11 days, about 12 days, about 13 days, about 14 days, or any time between the listed periods, including the end point. Note that the specific data presented herein relates to viral expression of chimeric receptor complexes expressing NKG2D ligand binding domains (e.g., NKX101) or CD19 (e.g., NK19-1 or NKX101). However, any suitable chimeric receptor or chimeric antigen receptor may be used.

[0102] Supplementation of the medium with one or more stimulating agents, such as IL12 and / or IL18, can occur at any time during the culture process. For example, one or more stimulating agents can be added at the beginning of the culture, e.g., at time zero (e.g., at the beginning of the culture). One or more agents can be added a second, third, fourth, fifth, or more times. Subsequent additions may or may not be at the same concentration as the previous addition. The interval between multiple additions can vary, for example, at time intervals of about 12 hours, about 24 hours, about 36 hours, about 48 hours, about 72 hours, or more, and any time therebetween, including the end point.

[0103] When multiple additions of stimulating agent are used, the concentration of the first supplemental addition can be the same or different from that of the second (and / or any supplemental additions). For example, in some embodiments, the addition of stimulating agent over multiple time points can increase, decrease, remain constant, or vary over multiple unequal concentrations.

[0104] In some embodiments, a specific ratio of expanded cells to feeder cells is used. For example, in some embodiments, a feeder cell:"target" cell ratio of about 5:1 is used. In some embodiments, a 1:1 ratio is used, while in additional embodiments, the ratio can be about 1:10, 1:20, 1:50, 1:100, 1:1,000, 1:10,000, 1:50,000, 1:100,000, 100,000:1, 50,000:1, 10,000:1, 1,000:1, 100:1, 50:1, 20:1, 10:1, and any ratio range therebetween, inclusive, can be used.

[0105] Example The materials and methods disclosed in the examples are non-limiting examples of materials and methods (including reagents and conditions) applicable to the various embodiments provided in this application.

[0106] Example 1 - Initial evaluation of growth conditions Figure 1A shows a non-limiting example of an expansion process. In this example, stimulatory cytokines were added on day 0 and again on day 4 at the same dose, which was used in certain embodiments discussed herein. Figure 1B depicts a non-limiting embodiment of a single-dose process used in certain embodiments discussed herein.

[0107] Figure 2 shows data on fold expansion of NK cells using various methods. The leftmost data set shows NK cell expansion using only K562 (mbIL15 and 4-1BBL-expressing) feeder cells, while each of the three data sets on the right shows the increased fold expansion when the medium was supplemented with various concentrations of IL12 and IL18. The presence of any amount of supplemental IL12 and IL18 significantly increased NK cell expansion, thereby demonstrating that additional stimulatory agents can enhance NK cell proliferation.

[0108] Figure 3A shows flow cytometry data relating to NKG2D expression in NK cells from four different donors grown in either K562 cells alone (top) or supplemented with IL12 / 18. Greater NKG2D expression is indicated by the increased height of the right-shifted curve (associated with cells transduced with NKX101). The NKX101 designation refers to engineered NK cells expressing a truncated NKG2D extracellular domain capable of binding to a ligand of the NKG2D receptor. In some embodiments, the truncated NKG2D domain is linked to a CD8 alpha hinge and CD8 alpha TM domain. In some embodiments, the truncated NKG2D domain is linked to an OX40 costimulatory domain and a CD3 zeta signaling domain. In some embodiments, the construct further comprises membrane-bound IL15. In some embodiments, NKX101 has the nucleotide sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1 or the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 2. Figure 3A further supports the enhanced expression of NKG2D, showing that the greater mean fluorescence intensity (MFI) obtained with additional soluble IL12 / 18 indicates greater NKG2D expression on specific cells. Thus, supplementing feeder cells with soluble IL12 / 18 not only enhances NK cell proliferation, but also improves chimeric receptor expression by these NK cells. This is an unexpected advantage, as increased numbers of NK cells often result in the expression of receptors that target unwanted cells, such as tumors.

[0109] Other receptors may be used to target NK cells to tumors. For example, in some embodiments, the receptor is a chimeric antigen receptor that targets CD19 on tumor cells. In some embodiments, the anti-CD19 CAR comprises an scFv (e.g., FMC63scFv or a variant thereof) that binds to CD19 linked to an OX40 costimulatory domain and a CD3 zeta signaling domain. In some embodiments, the nucleic acid sequence encoding the CAR further encodes IL15. In some embodiments, the IL15 is configured to be expressed by host cells (e.g., NK cells or T cells) in a membrane-bound form. In some embodiments, the CAR is encoded by a nucleotide sequence having at least 95%, 97%, 98%, 99% or more sequence identity to the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19, 21, 23, 25, or 27. In some embodiments, the CAR has an amino acid sequence having at least 95%, 97%, 98%, 99% or more sequence identity to the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, or 28. In some embodiments, the CAR uses a humanized anti-CD19 binding agent.

[0110] Figure 4 shows data demonstrating that the use of supplemental soluble IL12 / 18 when expanding NK cells indeed results in enhanced cytotoxicity of these expanded NK cells. Figure 4 shows data from two different donors at two time points, 14 and 21 days after viral transduction. The culture conditions used for NK cell expansion were either soluble IL12 / 18 (dashed line) or K562 (expressing 4-1BBL and mbIL15) alone (solid line). GFP-transduced cells were used as a control - the NKX101 curve is indicated by the arrow in Figure 4. As the data show, compared to expansion in K562 cells alone, the use of IL12 / 18 enhances NK cell cytotoxicity at 21 days after transduction (lower panel). Although in this particular experiment the effect at day 14 was limited, in some embodiments, enhanced cytotoxicity is achieved at earlier time points such as 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, or 23 days after viral transduction, likely depending on the donor and / or the specific IL concentration. It is unexpected that the use of soluble interleukins during the expansion process, regardless of time, can significantly enhance the cytotoxicity of expanded cells.

[0111] In some embodiments, the increased cytotoxicity of engineered NK cells is at least partially attributable to the cells shifting toward a specific phenotype. Figures 5A and 5B show data relating to specific markers associated with NK cell memory over time. Figure 5A shows the expression of CD57, NKG2C, and CD62L in NK cells expanded on feeder cells alone, while Figure 5B shows the use of feeder cells and soluble IL12 / 18. NKG2C expression was elevated in NK cells expanded with IL12 / 18 at day 21. NKG2C is a marker of cytokine-induced NK cell memory. Increased CD67L expression was also observed at later time points in NK cells expanded with soluble IL12 / 18. CD67L is associated with increased lymphocyte extravasation (evidence of increased cellular activity). Together, these data suggest that the use of soluble interleukins during NK cell expansion has the potential to initiate various signaling pathways associated with NK cell antigen memory and enhance cytotoxicity against cells bearing those antigens.

[0112] Figure 6 shows in vivo data on the antitumor effect of NKX101-expressing NK cells when K562 cells alone are used to expand basal NK cells compared to when the growth medium is replaced with soluble IL12 / 18. In the animal model, 4x10 cells were cultured at day 0. 6 Mice were administered (intraperitoneally) 3 x 10 SNU499 hepatocellular carcinoma cells, followed by 3 x 10 NKX101-expressing 6NK cells were expanded with or without IL12 / 18 (or control) supplementing the growth medium. As shown in the left panel, control mice had significant tumor burden on day 7, with tumor signal present and slightly increasing on days 14 and 21 in some mice. In vivo bioluminescence imaging (BLI) is shown below the images. The right panel shows an experiment performed with NKX101-expressing NK cells. As shown in the image, tumor burden was present on day 7 but was barely detectable by day 14 and remained so through day 21. The middle panel shows an image of an experiment with NKX101-expressing NK cells expanded using soluble IL12 / 18. Due to the high potency of NKX101, it may be difficult to detect an improvement with IL12 / 18, but the effect on tumor burden was at least as effective as that of NKX101 cells ("standard" expansion). Nevertheless, according to several embodiments disclosed herein, supplementing NK cell expansion medium with soluble IL12 / 18 not only enhances proliferation but also enhances chimeric receptor expression and enhances cytotoxicity.

[0113] Example 2 - Further evaluation of growth and efficacy As described above, in some embodiments disclosed herein, one or more soluble stimulatory factors are used to enhance the proliferation and / or cytotoxicity of engineered immune cells, such as NK cells, T cells, or a combination thereof. The experiments performed for this example were conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of various concentrations of selected stimulatory factor molecules in comparison to an established proliferation system. While other stimulatory agents may be used depending on the embodiment, in this example, soluble interleukin-12 and soluble interleukin-18 were used. These cytokines were added (at various concentrations, as described below), and the resulting expanded cells were compared to cells expanded using K562 cells modified to express membrane-bound interleukin-15 and 4-1BBL (as described in detail in U.S. Patent Nos. 7,435,596 and 8,026,097, the entire contents of each of which are incorporated herein by reference). The expanded cells were evaluated for proliferation, cytokine secretion, cytotoxicity, and phenotype.

[0114] Experiments were conducted using NK cells from multiple donors expanded using a variety of conditions. One group of NK cells was expanded on mbIL15-expressing feeder cells (K562 / 4-1BBL / mbIL15). Another group of NK cells was expanded on mbIL15-expressing cells that had been further modified to express IL12 and IL18 on their surface. Various culture conditions were used across other groups, and proliferation assays were performed to determine the effects of various concentrations of stimulatory cytokines. For example, one group of cells was exposed to a fixed concentration of IL12 (5 ng / mL) and various concentrations of IL18. An additional group was exposed to another fixed concentration of IL12 (2.5 ng / mL) and various concentrations of IL18. Note that cultures exposed to soluble forms of IL12 and IL18 were exposed to doses of IL12 / IL18 on day 0 (and again on day 4) of culture. As described above, soluble cytokines were added on days 0 and 4 for the experiments that generated the data shown in Figures 2-18 and Figures 23-24. In other experiments, exposure to soluble cytokines was utilized on day 0 only.

[0115] Figure 7A is a schematic table of the various culture conditions used for NK cell proliferation. Figure 7B shows data on cell counts after 72 hours of exposure to the various conditions. As can be seen from the bottom trace, the addition of IL18 alone at any concentration had limited effect on NK cell proliferation. In contrast, the addition of IL12 alone increased NK cell proliferation in a dose-dependent manner. Combining various concentrations of IL12 (either 2.5 ng / mL or 5 ng / mL) further enhanced NK cell proliferation, suggesting a synergistic interaction between these two interleukins. Data for both IL12 at 2.5 ng / mL and 5 ng / mL indicate robust NK cell proliferation, with near-maximal levels achieved when IL18 was present at concentrations between approximately 0.1 and approximately 1 ng / mL. The addition of high concentrations of IL18 was also able to actively enhance NK cell proliferation; the highest concentration, 50 ng / mL, of IL18 combined with 5 ng / mL of IL12, slightly enhanced proliferation compared to 2.5 ng / mL of IL12. Data for proliferation with supersaturating concentrations of IL12 or IL18 are off scale and are not shown.

[0116] Figure 8 shows data related to IFNγ concentrations after 72 hours of culture with varying concentrations of either IL12 or IL18. Data plots represent IFNγ concentrations (measured by absorbance in an ELISA assay) against increasing concentrations of the selected interleukin. Similar to the proliferation data, the addition of IL12 resulted in greater IFNγ production compared to the addition of IL18. However, the addition of increasing concentrations of IL18 increased IFNγ production. IL12, on the other hand, increased IFNγ production by NK cells at almost all concentrations tested. Similar to proliferation, the combination of any concentration of IL12 with IL18 at approximately 1 ng / mL (or higher) enhanced IFNγ production. The combination of IL12 (at either concentration) with IL18 at concentrations below approximately 0.5 ng / mL resulted in IFNγ production similar to that achieved with IL12 alone. On the other hand, the inclusion of IL18 at approximately 1 ng / mL or higher resulted in significantly enhanced IFNγ production, again demonstrating synergistic stimulation of NK cells.

[0117] Figures 9A-9B show data on the proliferation of NK cells (untransduced) after 7 days of growth in the indicated culture conditions. The first group was expanded using saturating concentrations of both IL12 (20 ng / mL) and IL18 (25 ng / mL). The second group was expanded using saturating concentrations of IL12 (20 ng / mL) and a subsaturating concentration of IL18 (0.05 ng / mL). The third group was expanded using feeder cells engineered to express membrane-bound forms of IL15, IL12, and IL18 (further details of this feeder cell line can be found in International Patent Application No. PCT / SG2018 / 0501387, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety). As a control, the fourth group was expanded on an established feeder cell line (K562 cells expressing mbIL15 and 4-1BBL). Figure 9A shows the calculated proliferation data, and Figure 9B shows the statistical analysis. Figures 9C and 9D display specific titration curves and data for NK cell proliferation. Figure 9C shows data for varying concentrations of IL12 while holding IL18 constant at 4 ng / mL. Figure 9D shows similar data with varying IL12 and IL18 at 20 ng / mL. Collectively, these data demonstrate that the addition of IL12 and IL18 significantly enhances NK cell proliferation, both in soluble form and membrane bound to feeder cells (e.g., K562 cells expressing mbIL15). Interestingly, IL12 appears to be the primary driver of proliferation, even at low concentrations, with its activity enhanced by the inclusion of IL18 (see, e.g., similar proliferation numbers for saturating and subsaturating concentrations of IL18). These data demonstrate that the combination of IL12 and IL18 potently enhances NK cell proliferation.

[0118] Figures 10A-10B show cytotoxicity data for untransduced NK cells after 8 days of expansion under the indicated conditions (and supplemented with IL2 medium at 40 IU / mL). Target cells were Reh acute lymphocytic leukemia (non-T; non-B) cells at a 1:1 effector-target ratio. Regardless of culture conditions, all cells exhibited cytotoxicity ranging from approximately 40% to approximately 65%. Cells grown on mbIL15-expressing feeder cells without IL12 or IL18 exhibited the highest degree of cytotoxicity, significantly higher than either group cultured with soluble IL12 / IL18. The use of feeder cells containing membrane-bound IL12 and IL18 exhibited a higher degree of cytotoxicity than feeder cells containing soluble cytokines.

[0119] Figures 11A-11B show cytotoxicity data for untransduced NK cells on day 15 of culture (400 IU / mL IL2 concentration) against Reh cells at a 1:1 effector-target ratio. These data demonstrate not only a higher degree of cytotoxicity across tested groups, but also limited differences between groups. In other words, all groups demonstrate increased cytotoxicity without significant differences between culture conditions. According to some embodiments, the use of IL12 and IL18 induces a pathway or signaling cascade that affects proliferation in the early part of the culture. In some embodiments, the pathway or cascade (or pathway / cascade) has a delayed effect on enhanced cytotoxicity. In some embodiments, the use of specific stimulatory factors induces a phenotypic change in NK cells, such as a memory-like phenotype, priming the NK cells to exert a cytotoxic effect against target cells. In some embodiments, the induction of that phenotypic change can take 1-2, 3-4, 5-6, 7-8, or more days to be recognized, depending on the NK cell characteristics being evaluated.

[0120] While the above experiments were performed with untransduced NK cells, the inclusion of IL12 and IL18 at various concentrations demonstrated the ability to enhance NK cell proliferation and cytotoxicity. Further experiments were performed using NK cells transduced with chimeric receptors (compared to GFP-transduced or non-transduced (NT) NK cells). As a non-limiting example, the chimeric receptor used contains a CD8α hinge and CD8α TM domain, an OX40 costimulatory domain, a CD3zeta signaling domain, and a truncated NKG2D domain linked to membrane-bound IL15. Figure 12 shows flow cytometry data assessing the expression of chimeric receptors on NK cells from various donors cultured under various conditions (denoted as 45_4). The left column of Figure 12 shows data for NK cells cultured on mbIL15-expressing feeder cells from two donors (227 on top, 732 on bottom). The curve identified as "45_4" shows greater expression of NKG2D (as expected for cells transduced with an NKG2D-containing chimeric receptor). The right column shows expression results for NK cells cultured on mbIL15-expressing feeder cells. Soluble IL12 and soluble IL18 were added to the medium at 20 ng / mL and 25 ng / mL, respectively, on day 0. Figure 13 shows the corresponding data for two additional donors. As can be seen from the MFI data in both Figures 12 and 13, the use of IL12 and IL18 resulted in enhanced NKG2D expression, further supporting previous data that certain stimulatory factors can potently drive NK cell proliferation. These data also confirm that the use of stimulatory molecules such as IL12 and IL18 is compatible with transduced NK cells.

[0121] Having confirmed that stimulatory cytokines enhance the proliferation of transduced NK cells, cytotoxicity was assessed. Figures 14A and 14B show data on the cytotoxicity of NK cells transduced with the indicated constructs and expanded using the indicated culture conditions. The groups are as follows: GFP-transduced NK cells grown on mbIL-15-expressing feeder cells; GFP-transduced NK cells grown on mbIL-15-expressing feeder cells and exposed to IL12 and IL18; NKX101-transduced NK cells grown on mbIL-15-expressing feeder cells; and NKX101-transduced NK cells grown on mbIL-15-expressing feeder cells and exposed to IL12 and IL18. Target cells were Reh cells at a 1:1 E:T ratio. Cytotoxicity was assessed on day 13 after expansion using cells from four different donors. As shown, both GFP- and NKX101-transduced NK cells exhibited cytotoxicity, with NKX101-expressing cells exhibiting greater efficacy against target cells. No significant differences were detected based on the growth culture conditions used (see 14B).

[0122] Figures 15A-15B show additional cytotoxicity data from two donors in which different E:T ratios were tested. These data demonstrate a pattern consistent with that shown in Figure 14. Figure 15A shows data from the four culture conditions for the first donor, and Figure 15B shows the corresponding data for the second donor. Note that donor 543 (Figure 15A) was cytomegalovirus-negative, while donor 224 (Figure 15B) was CMV-positive. CMV-positive individuals possess a subpopulation of NK cells with a memory-like phenotype, which means they are characterized by a more rapid response to target cells. Data in Figures 15A-15B were collected 13 days after expansion. These curves are similar to those above, indicating that the presence or absence of IL12 / IL18 has limited effect on NK cell cytotoxicity at this relatively early time point. Figures 15C and 15D show data from the same donor / condition, but at 21 days after expansion. Notably, the use of IL12 / IL18 enhances cytotoxicity against target cells at most E:T ratios tested. These data are consistent with those discussed above for untransduced NK cells, in that there is a delay in the induction of enhanced cytotoxicity, although it is detectable at later time points. As mentioned previously, this effect may be due to the time required to induce phenotypic changes in NK cells.

[0123] Figures 16A-16B illustrate the phenotypic evaluation of NK cells cultured under different conditions over time. Figure 16A shows the expression levels of NKG2C and CD62L (L-selectin) over 5 weeks of culture under the indicated conditions. When mbIL15-expressing feeder cells were used, the expression levels of CD62L or NKG2C did not change significantly over 5 weeks of culture. In contrast, however, using these feeder cells and supplementing the medium with IL12 and IL18 on day 0 had a significant effect on the expression of both NKG2C and CD62L. CD62L was initially present on approximately 50% of NK cells after 1 week of culture. This increased after 1 week, but CD62L expression subsequently declined significantly, with only limited detection possible by 4 weeks of culture. In contrast, NKG2C expression increased slightly after 1 week of culture, and NKG2C expression increased in NK cells, with over 40% of cells expressing NKG2C after 5 weeks. Thus, at 5 weeks, the cultures can be characterized as having elevated NKG2C expression compared to NK cells expanded without stimulatory cytokines, and reduced or equivalent CD62L expression compared to NK cells expanded without stimulatory cytokines. Figure 16B shows further data supporting the development of an altered memory-like phenotype by NK cells. Figure 16B shows expression data from FACS analysis of donor NK cells at days 14 (top row) and 21 (bottom row) cultured with mbIL15-expressing cells (left column) or mbIL15-expressing cells supplemented with IL12 and IL18 on day 0 (right column). CD57 expression is also shown, and the relatively low percentage of cells expressing CD57 confirms the tendency for NK cells to lose expression of this marker when cultured (fresh NK cells have higher CD57 expression). As seen in the mbIL15 column, NKG2C expression (x-axis) was not significantly altered. In contrast (as indicated by arrows), the percentage of cells expressing NKG2C increases by 40% after initial exposure to soluble IL12 and soluble IL18 followed by an additional week of culture.

[0124] Figures 17A-17D show summary data related to marker expression in NK cells after 14 days of culture under the indicated conditions. As shown in Figure 17A, at this time point, CD62L is enhanced by the use of IL12 and IL18, whether in soluble or membrane-bound form. As explained above, this expression decreases with increasing culture time. Figure 17B shows enhanced NKG2D expression when IL12 and IL18 are introduced into the culture medium on day 1. As with other data, it is noteworthy that when IL18 concentrations are varied, the effects on NK cell phenotype (such as proliferation and cytotoxicity) are roughly equivalent (e.g., effects are seen at saturating or subsaturating concentrations of IL18). CD57 expression levels were relatively low under all conditions, reflecting the use of cultured (rather than freshly isolated) cells, as shown in Figure 17D. Figure 17D shows double-positive marker expression of CD62L and NKG2C, which was enhanced by the presence of IL12 and IL18 in the culture. These data reflect a phenotypic shift of NK cells cultured with IL12 and IL18 (either soluble or membrane-bound) toward a more potent memory-like phenotype that, in some embodiments, confers enhanced proliferative capacity and / or enhanced cytotoxicity on NK cells, particularly those engineered to express chimeric receptors, making them a more potent cancer immunotherapy product.

[0125] Figure 18 shows that the use of IL12 and IL18 enhances the cytotoxicity of engineered NK cells even at later time points (cytotoxicity at 21 days after expansion is shown). Notably, the two dots in the middle of the figure represent NKX101-transduced NK cells, which exhibit the greatest cytotoxic effect of any group. Importantly, NKX101-transduced NK cells cultured with soluble IL12 and IL18 on mbIL15-expressing feeder cells exhibit the highest degree of cytotoxicity against target cells (as a non-limiting example, the targets here were Reh leukemia cells). Thus, according to some embodiments, the use of soluble stimulatory factors such as IL12, IL18, and IL21 in the culture of NK cells provides unexpectedly improved cell proliferation (which is highly relevant for producing clinically relevant cell numbers) as well as unexpectedly enhanced cytotoxicity against target cells.

[0126] Example 3 - Growth, cryopreservation and cytotoxicity assessment As disclosed herein, in some embodiments, expanded engineered NK cells are used in an autologous scenario. In some embodiments, an allogeneic approach is used. In some embodiments, NK cells are designed to be "off the shelf," which refers to an existing population of expanded and engineered NK cells that are then stored for administration to patients. In some embodiments, storage is by cryopreservation. As with freeze-thaw cycles, cell viability and activity can be an issue. Figure 19 shows data on the characteristics of NK cells from three different donors cultured on mbIL15-expressing feeder cells or mbIL15-expressing feeder cells supplemented with soluble IL12 / 18 at the initiation of culture. The bottom three rows of the table show the positive effect of soluble IL12 and 18 on NK cells during culture. After 6 days of expansion, NK cell viability in IL12 / 18 medium was slightly higher, but the total cell number, and therefore fold expansion, was significantly higher when IL12 / 18 was used.

[0127] Based on this data, cells were transduced with an anti-CD19 chimeric antigen receptor and cultured in the presence or absence of soluble IL12 and 18 (using mbIL15-expressing feeder cells). A portion of the cells was cryopreserved and compared with corresponding fresh cells. Using FACS, NK cells were assessed for expression of FLAG (the tag in the NK19-1 construct; however, it should be understood that the corresponding untagged construct is provided herein). As shown in Figure 20, NK cells from three donors maintain expression of the CD19 CAR in both fresh and cryopreserved cells. The presence of IL12 / 18 appears to have limited effect on CAR expression. Figure 21 shows cells from the same donor on day 22 of expansion. Interestingly, the percentage of cells expressing the anti-CD19 CAR decreased on day 14 compared to day 21. Expression of the construct on day 21 was nearly identical to fresh (e.g., untrapped) NK cells (compare rows 3-4 with rows 7-8). These data indicate that NK cells cultured according to the methods disclosed herein are a robust population of cells that may survive cryopreservation, maintain viability, and maintain significant expression levels of cytotoxicity-inducing constructs.

[0128] Further analysis of the effects of cryopreservation on NK cells was performed. The Nalm6-nuclearRed cell line was used as target cells and targeted by an NK cell line expressing an anti-CD19 CAR. As a non-limiting example, the CAR encoded by SEQ ID NO: 1 was used in this experiment. The results of the assay are provided in Figures 22A-22B. Figure 22A shows cell count curves (average of three donors) over the assay time. As shown, untransduced NK cells and Nalm6 cells alone show a similar increase in Nalm6 target cells. Untransduced NK cells grown with soluble IL12 / 18 showed a slight cytotoxic effect (a downward shift in cell count per well curve; in particular, cells cryopreserved at day 14 in culture showed a significant cytotoxic effect on Nalm6 cells, limiting their growth). Importantly, day 14 cryopreserved cells grown in culture with soluble IL12 / 18 completely restricted the proliferation of Nalm6 cells. In some embodiments, cells expanded for extended periods (either fresh or cryopreserved) also significantly reduced tumor growth. Schematic data for day 14 is shown in Figure 22B. As with untransduced NK cells, expansion of NK cells with the addition of soluble IL12 / 18 on day 0 of culture significantly increased the cytotoxicity of the NK cells against target tumor cells. Similar data is shown for CAR-expressing NK cells. Even in the presence of a CAR that confers nearly 80% cytotoxicity against target cells, culturing CAR-expressing NK cells with soluble IL12 / 18 significantly enhanced cytotoxicity. Figure 22C shows additional cytotoxicity data for NK cells cultured with or without IL12 / 18 in the medium during expansion at various E:T ratios. As shown, cells engineered to express non-limiting embodiments of an anti-CD19 CAR exhibit enhanced cytotoxicity at nearly all E:T ratios. As disclosed herein, as the number of target cells increases, the cytotoxicity of NK cells expanded using IL12 and IL18 exhibits a greater cytotoxic effect compared to cells expanded on feeder cells alone. Collectively, these data provide evidence that the use of IL12 / IL18 in the culture medium results in enhanced NK cell proliferation and enhanced cytotoxicity.Furthermore, these data provide important additional evidence that the activity of the cells is maintained even after they have been cryopreserved. The data demonstrate that, according to some embodiments, an engineered NK cell product "from the freezer" has been generated with robust anti-tumor efficacy.

[0129] Figure 23 shows a schematic diagram of an in vivo experiment in which donor mice were injected with hepatocellular carcinoma cells and administered NK cells expanded using various culture conditions. Tumor burden was then monitored using bioluminescence. The administered cells were either untransduced NK cells expanded in medium supplemented with soluble IL12 / IL18 on day 1, NKX101-expressing NK cells expanded with IL2, or NKX101-expressing NK cells expanded in medium supplemented with soluble IL12 / IL18 on day 1. All cells were grown on mbIL15-expressing feeder cells. Figure 24 shows the results of a time-course analysis of tumor burden. Control animals, as well as animals receiving untransduced NK cells, showed moderate tumor growth over time. In contrast, animals receiving NKX101-expressing NK cells and grown with IL12 / IL18 or IL2 showed significantly greater antitumor efficacy. Tumor burden decreased in both groups but only increased slightly in the IL2 group from days 14 to 21. These data further support the use of stimulatory cytokines such as IL12, IL18, or IL21 in the growth medium to enhance the cytotoxicity of cultured NK cells.

[0130] Figure 25 shows a similar experimental setup, this time with Nalm6 cell xenografts and treatment with NK cells expressing an anti-CD19 CAR. Figure 26A shows the resulting bioluminescence data. As in the previous experiment, control animals and animals receiving untransduced NK cells showed a rapid increase in tumor burden, which decreased toward later time points. Animals receiving NK cells expressing NK19-1 (anti-CD19 CAR) showed effective tumor growth delay, limiting significant increases until later time points. Cells expressing NK19-1 and expanded with IL12 / 18 showed remarkable control of tumor growth, limiting increases until the later stages of the experiment, even after which they had significantly lower overall tumor burdens compared to the other groups. Further data on survival are shown in Figure 26B. Mice receiving PB (control) or NTNK cells showed a rapid decline in survival at approximately 30 days. Animals receiving NK19-1 survived longer than these groups, with NK19-1IL12 / 18 animals surviving 80% of the time, despite no survivors in all other groups. Figures 26C and 26D show data on the persistence of NK cells in vivo when cultured in medium supplemented with IL12 / 18. Figure 26C shows the levels of human CD56 in the peripheral blood of all mice. +Figure 26D shows the percentage of anti-CD19 CAR-positive NK cells (a marker for NK cells) 18 days after injection. As shown, NK cell expansion using soluble IL12 / 18 significantly enhances the percentage of human NK cells in mouse blood, even 18 days after administration. This demonstrates the improved persistence conferred to NK cells by the use of stimulatory cytokines during expansion. Similarly, while NK cells are not the only cells that generally persist in vivo, CAR-expressing cells also show improved persistence with the use of soluble IL12 / 18 (or other stimulatory molecules). Figure 26D shows the percentage of anti-CD19 CAR-positive NK cells (out of total mouse peripheral blood cell counts) 18 days after injection in xenograft recipient mice. Similar to the previous figure, these data demonstrate that genetically engineered immune cells, such as NK cells expressing chimeric antigen receptors, exhibit enhanced in vivo persistence when expanded using at least one stimulatory cytokine. Additional experiments were performed to evaluate the effect of cytokines used in expansion cultures and cryopreservation (or lack thereof) on CAR expression by NK cells. Figure 26E shows that at day 15 of culture, expression of a non-limiting embodiment of the anti-CD19 CAR remains unchanged when cytokines are used in the expansion culture. That is, the enhanced effect demonstrated herein based on expansion cultures using one or more additional stimulatory molecules is not offset by reduced CAR expression. Furthermore, cryopreservation of NK cells does not adversely affect CAR expression by engineered NK cells. Figure 26F confirms that CAR expression does not erode after additional time in culture. These data again support enhanced cytotoxicity, persistence, and stable CAR expression by NK cells expanded under the influence of stimulatory cytokines such as IL12 and IL18. Similarly, cryopreservation of engineered NK cells does not significantly adversely affect these beneficial properties.

[0131] Example 4 - Additional experiments to assess the effects of cryopreservation and expansion on cytotoxicity, NK cell characteristics, and NK cell survival Additional experiments were performed to determine whether the cryopreservation and subsequent thawing process adversely affected engineered NK cells, such as by reducing their viability, persistence, or cytotoxicity. Figure 27A shows the schematic experimental protocol used, as well as the experimental groups and other conditions used. As noted above, for the treatment group labeled "IL12 / IL18," cells were expanded in the presence of soluble IL12 and / or IL18 according to embodiments described herein. Treatment groups included fresh, untransduced NK cells (G1) and PBS (G2) as controls. Experimental groups included cryopreserved and thawed NK cells engineered to express non-limiting embodiments of an anti-CD19 CAR and expanded without (G3) and with (G4) additional stimulatory cytokines, and fresh NK cells engineered to express non-limiting embodiments of an anti-CD19 CAR and expanded without (G5, G6) and with (G7, G8) additional stimulatory cytokines. Blood samples and imaging were performed at the time points indicated in Figure 27A.

[0132] Figures 27B and 27C show in vivo bioluminescence imaging from the indicated experimental groups. Figures 28A-28H show line graphs reflecting bioluminescence intensity over time. These data are summarized in Figure 28I, which shows the first 30 days after treatment, and Figure 28J, which shows data from 56 days. Figure 28I shows a clear difference between NK cells expressing the CD19 CAR and the two control groups, but each of the experimental groups shows limited, undetectable increases in BLI measured over the first 30 days of the experiment (increased BLI indicates increased tumor growth), indicating control of tumor growth. Figure 28J shows data from 56 days, demonstrating greater separation between the experimental groups expressing various CAR constructs and treated under the indicated conditions in inhibiting tumor cell proliferation. Control groups (G1 and G2) showed a significant increase in tumor growth, and the experiment for these groups was terminated at 30 days. The group (G5) that received fresh NK cells expressing anti-CD19 CAR and expanded without soluble interleukin showed a sharp increase in BLI between days 30 and 56. Another experimental replicate of this group (G6) demonstrated a more pronounced ability to inhibit tumor growth. The group that received frozen NK cells expressing anti-CD19 CAR and expanded without soluble interleukin (G3) also showed an increase in BLI between days 30 and 56, but not as much as that detected with fresh cells. Experimental groups that received anti-CD19 CAR-expressing NK cells expanded with additional stimulatory factors during expansion (according to embodiments disclosed herein), whether fresh or frozen, demonstrated the most robust prevention of tumor growth. Notably, groups 4 and 8, both of which contained cryopreserved NK cells, demonstrated the greatest inhibition of tumor growth. Combined with data collected when fresh engineered NK cells are administered, these data indicate that, according to some embodiments, engineered NK cells expressing an anti-CD19 CAR are effective not only when prepared and administered fresh, but also when prepared, frozen, and then thawed and administered (e.g., as in certain allogeneic embodiments).

[0133] Figure 29 shows a line graph of the body weight of mice treated with the indicated constructs over the 56-day experiment. Weight loss correlates with increased tumor growth; for example, tumor progression leads to a decline in the health of the mice and a corresponding loss in body weight (e.g., wasting). As shown, the control group shows a significant loss in body weight by day 30, while all but one of the experimental groups gain weight for the majority of the experiment. Similar to the bioluminescence data above, there is a notable trend that many of the fresh and frozen preparations show substantially similar effects on body weight. According to some embodiments, engineered NK cells expressing an anti-CD19 CAR are effective even when not freshly prepared and administered. Furthermore, according to some embodiments, engineered NK cells expressing an anti-CD19 CAR are effective even when not prepared, frozen, thawed, and administered (e.g., as in allogeneic cases).

[0134] Additional data were collected to characterize the characteristics of NK cells expanded with or without one or more additional stimulatory factors. Figure 30A shows data regarding the longevity (e.g., persistence) of NK cells in culture. These data show the percentage of engineered NK cells (based on activating chimeric receptor (ACR) positivity) versus engineered NK cells (based on CD56 positivity). These data indicate that NK cells expanded with or without additional stimulatory factors, such as IL12 and / or IL18, during expansion exhibited a similar persistence profile in vivo, with such engineered NK cells present in the blood at relatively constant levels (approximately 5-10%) for approximately 7 days. Again, the percentage of NK cells present in the animals' blood, as measured by expression of the engineered CAR and detection of CD56 positivity, was measured over a period of approximately 50 days, and the data are shown in Figure 30B. In contrast to the similar profile over a 7-day period, NK cells expanded without one or more additional stimulatory factors began to decline in number after approximately 25-30 days. These cells continued to decline slowly in number until approximately 48 days, when cell numbers approached zero. Starting at the same time point, approximately 25-30 days, engineered NK cells expanded with additional stimulatory factors (e.g., according to some embodiments, IL12 and / or IL18) remained present in the blood at approximately 10% for 45 days. Over the last 3 days, this decreased slightly (to approximately 5-7%). These data are strong indicators that the use of one or more additional stimulatory molecules, such as IL12, IL18, and / or IL21, enhances the in vivo persistence of engineered NK cells compared to NK cells cultured / expanded without such stimulatory molecules. Figure 30C presents the persistence data differently, based on counting the number of engineered CAR-expressing NK cells per 10,000 counted viable cells. These data reflect the general trend shown in Figure 30B, i.e., cells expanded using one or more stimulatory molecules (e.g., soluble IL12 and / or soluble IL18) remain in the blood in greater numbers for extended periods of time compared to engineered NK cells expanded without such stimulatory molecules.In some embodiments, the methods disclosed herein are particularly advantageous in that they avoid cytokine toxicity common to certain cytokine-based expansion methods. In some methods, high concentrations of soluble cytokines are used to enhance cell proliferation, but the cells grow accustomed to those concentrations and exhibit signs of withdrawal (e.g., apoptosis, reduced viability, or other functional impairment) when exposed to an environment without artificial conditions, such as upon administration to a patient. The lack of need for continuous high cytokine concentrations exhibited by engineered NK cells expanded according to the methods disclosed herein contributes, at least in part, to the cells' longer lifespan (and active lifespan) in vivo.

[0135] Figures 31A-31C show additional data characterizing engineered NK cells produced according to embodiments disclosed herein. These data are collected from the blood of three mice (day 51 post-administration) that received fresh (non-cryopreserved) engineered NK cells expressing an anti-CD19 CAR and expanded using soluble IL12 and soluble IL18 according to some embodiments disclosed herein. The data show the percentage of cells from the whole blood samples that are CD56 positive (indicative of NK cells) and CD19-Fc positive (indicative of cells expressing the engineered anti-CD19 CAR). As shown in Figures 31A, 31B, and 31C, respectively, the percentage of double-positive cells (boxed area in the upper right corner) ranges from about 4.75% to about 6.7%. Figures 32A-32C show analysis of whole blood from the same mice as Figure 31, but identify cells that are CD19-Fc positive (indicating cells expressing the engineered anti-CD19 CAR) and CD3 positive (indicating T cells). These data show that the majority of cells expressing the anti-CD19 CAR are CD3 negative, meaning they are not T cells. According to some embodiments, certain NK cell production methods include removing T cells from the initial donor whole blood sample, although a nominal number of T cells may remain. However, in some embodiments, in accordance with the data shown in Figures 31A-32C, the majority of engineered cells expressing the anti-CD19 CAR exhibit characteristics of NK cells (CD56 positive) and not T cells (CD3 negative).

[0136] Figures 33, 34, and 35 relate to data further characterizing cells from whole blood of animals at various time points after tumor inoculation. Figure 33 relates to data from day 4 post-administration, Figure 34 relates to data from day 12 post-tumor inoculation, and Figure 35 relates to data from day 18 post-tumor inoculation. These data relate to cells from whole blood of animals treated as controls and receiving either non-transduced NK cells (NTNK) or PBS, or from other groups receiving engineered NK cells expanded with IL2 in culture or IL12 / 18 in culture, along with fresh and frozen treatment groups for each condition. Figure 33A shows the percentage of NK cells (CD56-pos / CD3-neg) from whole blood of animals on day 4. Each treatment group was relatively similar in this regard, with approximately 3-5% of the cells in the whole blood being engineered NK cells. Figure 33B shows data regarding the percentage of cells specifically expressing non-limiting embodiments of the anti-CD19 CAR. Similar to Figure 33A, the percentage of anti-CD19 CAR-expressing cells in each treatment group ranged from approximately 3% to 5%. Figure 33C shows data regarding the percentage of GFP-positive tumor cells present in the blood on day 4 post-injection. Consistent with the BLI imaging shown in the previous figure, there were few detectable tumor cells in any of the treatment groups. The low signal detected may reflect the migration of GFP+ tumor cells from the circulation to various tissues (making them potentially detectable by BLI imaging, but not in the blood sample itself). Figures 34A-34C show the corresponding data 12 days after tumor inoculation. As was the case at the earlier time points, each treatment group had approximately 3% to 5% of the blood cells in the sample as NK cells (Figure 34A). Figure 34B shows the percentage of cells positive for the anti-CD19 CAR construct. Expression levels at this time point were similar across treatment groups, but each experimental group was present at significantly higher levels than the control group. Also, at day 12, the percentage of CAR cells (e.g., NK cells) expressing anti-CD19 was slightly higher (approximately 7-9% of blood cells), suggesting increased persistence of the engineered cells in the circulation. Figure 34C shows the number of tumor cells in whole blood.Interestingly, all groups show little to no GFP expression, despite BLI imaging showing increased luminescence, especially in the control group. Again, these data may reflect the physiological "retention" of certain floating tumor cells.

[0137] Figure 35A shows the percentage of NK cells (based on CD56 positivity) at 18 days post-tumor inoculation. All experimental groups show significantly higher percentages of cells in whole blood compared to the control group, ranging from approximately 15% to approximately 25%. This increased percentage coincides with the time window of NK cell expansion, as shown in Figures 30B and 30C. While not statistically different in this particular experiment, these data indicate that NK cells expanded in IL12 / IL18 medium and cryopreserved are the most prolific among the experimental groups. According to some embodiments, feeder cell plus cytokine-based expansion, coupled with cryopreservation, results in more robust NK cells that can survive under more normal cytokine conditions (e.g., without cytokine toxicity) and may persist in a healthy state for longer periods. Figures 35B and 35C show two measurements of tumor burden at day 18. Figure 35B shows the percentage of cells in the blood that are positive for CD19 (the target of the engineered CAR in this non-limiting embodiment), as measured using an anti-CD19 PE-conjugated antibody. These data show a trend toward increased tumor burden in the control group, in contrast to the ability of the engineered NK cells in the treatment group to limit tumor growth. Figure 35C shows similar data but by detection of GFP signal (e.g., ~BLI). These data differ from those in Figure 35B due to the sensitivity of PE versus GFP-based detection, but show a similar trend. Experimental NK cells demonstrate a greater ability to prevent tumor cell growth compared to controls. Figure 35D relates to data regarding the number of NK cells expressing engineered anti-CD19 (e.g., CD56 and CD19Fc positive). Similar to the data in Figure 35A, these data indicate that the increased percentage of NK cells in the blood samples are NK cells expressing the engineered anti-CD19 CAR, reflecting their improved persistence. Figure 35E shows data confirming that nearly the entire population of NK cells in each experimental group positive for the CAR are NK cells engineered to express the anti-CD19 CAR disclosed herein.

[0138] To further investigate the persistence of engineered NK cells expanded according to embodiments disclosed herein, mice were administered two doses of engineered NK cells expanded using soluble cytokines disclosed herein, and cell counts were followed for an additional four weeks (administration protocol per Figure 27A). Figure 36 shows box plots of these data. Briefly, the X-axis of the box plot represents time in two formats: i) time after the third dose, or ii) total time from tumor inoculation (shown in parentheses). The Y-axis represents the number of anti-CD19 CAR-expressing NK cells (per 10,000 white blood cells). The box plot for the 2 million NK cell dose is the bottom trace of the box (indicated by the dashed arrow), and the 5 million cell dose is the top trace (indicated by the solid arrow). These data indicate that the half-life of engineered NK cells expanded in conditions where one or more stimulatory molecules (such as IL12 and / or IL18) are used (in conjunction with feeder cells as described in several embodiments herein) is extended compared to engineered NK cells expanded in conditions with feeder cells alone. The half-life of a 2 million engineered NK cell dose is ∼15 days. Based on one or more variances in clearance and / or volume of distribution, the half-life of a 5 million engineered NK cell dose is ∼18 days. This is in contrast to another engineered NK cell dose expanded without one or more additional stimulatory molecules, shown in Figure 37, which shows a half-life of approximately 5 days for a dose of 5 million cells. Thus, according to several embodiments disclosed herein, expansion of engineered NK cells using one or more additional cytokines in conjunction with a feeder cell system allows for increased proliferation of NK cells and confers enhanced persistence and / or cytotoxicity to those cells.

[0139] Example 5 - Multipulsed feeder cells and enhanced NK cell proliferation While the embodiments disclosed herein result in robust expansion of NK cells, additional embodiments were evaluated to determine whether a greater degree of expansion could be achieved while maintaining the advantageous characteristics conferred to the expanded NK cells and / or minimizing adverse effects or cell characteristics. NK cells were seeded at a 1:10 ratio with feeder cells in medium supplemented with 40 units / mL of IL2 (K562 cells expressing membrane-bound IL15 and 4-1BB ligand were used as non-limiting examples of feeder cells). NK cells were obtained from umbilical cord blood or peripheral blood. NK cells were cultured for approximately 3 weeks, starting on day 0, and pulsed again with fresh feeder cells and medium on days 7 and 14. Expanded cells were counted on days 7, 14, 22, and 29. The expansion results are shown graphically in Figure 41A and summarized numerically in Figure 41B. Each expanded sample reached a peak cell number on day 22 and maintained approximately the same number through day 29. These data indicate that cell expansion ranges from approximately 100,000-fold to over 1 million-fold (for NK cells from peripheral blood).

[0140] As discussed herein, in some embodiments, the media is supplemented with one or more of IL12 or IL18. Further information regarding such embodiments is disclosed in International PCT Patent Application No. PCT / US2020 / 044033, filed July 29, 2020, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. To examine these effects when used in a multiple-pulse expansion format, NK cells from either umbilical cord blood or peripheral blood were pulsed on days 0, 7, and 14 with 40 IU / mL IL2 and 20 μg / mL IL12 added to the media and counted on days 7, 14, 22, and 29. The expansion results are shown graphically in Figure 42A and summarized numerically in Figure 42B. Interestingly, cell expansion peaked on day 22 in some samples, but on day 29 in peripheral blood from one donor. These data indicate that IL12 can enhance the expansion of NK cells, particularly from peripheral blood.

[0141] Similarly, the effect of IL18 was investigated by supplementing the medium with 0.05 ng / mL IL18 (and 40 IU / mL IL2). The proliferation results are shown graphically in Figure 43A and summarized numerically in Figure 43B. These data indicate that IL18 can enhance substantial cell proliferation for both cord blood and peripheral blood-derived NK cells. One donor showed a >20 million-fold increase in NK cells following initial NK cell pulsing on days 7 and 14 (and at the initiation of culture).

[0142] Figures 44A and 44B show the results of pulsing cord blood- or peripheral blood-derived NK cells with fresh feeder cells and medium supplemented with both IL12 (20 ng / mL) and IL18 (0.05 ng / mL) (and 40 IU / mL of IL2). NK cells were pulsed on days 7 and 14 (and at the initiation of culture) and counted on days 7, 14, 22, and 29. Interestingly, these data show that in a three-pulse approach, the combination of medium supplemented with IL12 and IL18 resulted in reduced cell proliferation, possibly suggesting that the cells were overstimulated or driven to proliferation exhaustion by the repeated presentation of IL12, IL18, and IL2. This is in contrast to data presented in International PCT Patent Application No. PCT / US2020 / 044033, filed July 29, 2020, which discloses, according to some embodiments, that the addition of soluble IL12 and IL18 (but not in a three-pulse manner as in this particular experiment) enhances robust NK cell proliferation.

[0143] To further characterize the effects of multiple pulses of feeder cells and stimulatory cytokines on the proliferation of immune cells, here NK cells, additional data were collected to assess the expansion of the CD3-positive subpopulation of cells. According to some embodiments, NK cells are purified (e.g., to remove T cells and other non-NK cells), but some small residual T cell subpopulation remains. Alternatively, according to some embodiments, NK cells are not purified prior to expansion. Thus, under certain conditions, T cell subpopulations may arise from the expansion of cells collected from the donor. This is assessed in Figures 45A-45E. Figure 45A shows limited expansion of the CD3-positive population when a starting population of blood cells (NK cells, as opposed to CBMCs or PBMCs, where the starting material in Figures 45B-E) is expanded in high concentrations of IL2 (data shown as the percentage of cells that are CD3-positive). In contrast, Figure 45B shows that the use of IL12 in a three-pulse expansion setting results in a greater degree of expansion of CD3-positive cells over time. As shown in Figure 45C, the use of IL18 during three-pulse expansion did not increase the proliferation of CD3-positive cells. When IL12 and IL18 were used in combination, the CD3-positive subpopulation similarly increased (see Figure 45D), indicating that the presence of IL12, even in combination with IL18, can lead to the expansion of a CD3-positive subpopulation of cells, at least under certain conditions (if such cells are present in the starting population of cells being expanded). Figure 45E shows limited CD3-positive expansion under control conditions. Thus, in some embodiments, IL12 is used at a concentration that does not lead to the expansion of a CD3-positive subpopulation, and / or IL12 is not introduced into the medium used in a given pulse at the same concentration as IL2 used in the previous pulse. In some embodiments, IL12 is included in the medium for fewer than the total number of pulses used during expansion, such as every other pulse, every third pulse, etc. In some embodiments, IL12 is present at less than about 20 ng / mL, e.g., about 15 ng / mL, about 12 ng / mL, about 15 ng / mL, about 15 ng / mL, about 15 ng / mL, about 15 ng / mL, or any concentration in between those listed.In some embodiments, even when IL12 is used, a concentration of IL18 that offsets CD3-positive cell expansion is used, e.g., about 0.07 ng / mL, about 0.10 ng / ml, about 0.12 ng / ml, about 0.15 ng / ml, about 0.2 ng / ml or more. In some embodiments, despite the expansion of CD3-positive cells, the overall expansion of the CD3-positive subset is offset by NK cell expansion (e.g., CD56) such that the percentage of CD3-positive cells becomes negligible in the resulting overall expanded population. + / CD3 - In some embodiments, if CD3-positive cells are detected after expansion, they are removed, for example, by solid phase affinity (e.g., sepharose beads or another solid support bearing anti-CD3 antibodies).

[0144] Additional data were collected regarding the degree of expression of the activating NKG2C receptor on NK cells expanded under various conditions. Figure 46A shows the percentage of NK cells expressing NKG2C over time when expanded in high IL2, while Figure 46B shows the same cells, but the data are expressed in terms of overall MFI (which accounts for cells expressing a higher degree of NKG2C, as demonstrated by the % positive data). The use of IL12 in the culture medium with three pulses resulted in a time-dependent increase in NKG2C expression for approximately 22 days (46C), after which overall expression by a given cell line decreased (46D). IL18 in the culture medium resulted in a similar NKG2C expression profile, but with slightly improved stability of expression over time (Figures 46E and 46F). The use of IL12 and IL18 in combination with three-pulse expansion resulted in a steady increase in NKG2C expression over time, with the percentage of cells expressing NKG2C reaching levels similar to those achieved with either cytokine individually. However, the combination did not result in the general decrease from days 14 to 22 that the cytokines caused individually. Furthermore, the use of IL12 and IL18 together enhanced the "density" of NKG2C expression, as measured by MFI (Figure 46H). Control NKG2C data are shown in Figures 46I and 46J).

[0145] Further characterization data was collected regarding the expression of various markers (e.g., activation or inhibitory markers) by NK cells expanded under various conditions. Figure 47A shows data indicating that a multi-pulse expansion protocol results in an increased percentage of NK cells expressing activation markers, such as the natural cytotoxicity receptors NKp46 and NKp44, the NKG2C receptor, and increased expression of the glucocorticoid-induced tumor necrosis factor receptor (GITR). Interestingly, as shown in Figure 47B, two markers of inhibition, the checkpoint receptors TIGIT and TIM3 (protein domains involved in T cell tolerance), were also increased.

[0146] Figures 48A-48B relate to further evaluation of the expression of activation (48A) or inhibitory (48B) markers on day 0 (circles) or day 7 (squares). Figure 48A shows that, as noted above, the natural cytotoxicity receptors NKp44 and NKp46 are expressed by more NK cells on day 7 of pulsed culture compared to day 0 (pulse 1). Other activation markers, such as 2B4 expression, CD25 expression, and DNAM-1 expression, remain consistently elevated throughout culture, with approximately 75% or more of the NK cells expressing these markers. Figure 48B shows additional data showing that TIGIT and TIM3 expression modestly increase over time when using a pulsed culture approach. However, in some embodiments, multiple pulses used during expansion allow for the production of clinically relevant NK cells that express characteristics of activated NK cells, thereby enabling their use in cancer immunotherapy.

[0147] It is contemplated that various combinations or subcombinations of the specific features and aspects of the embodiments disclosed above may be made and still fall within the scope of one or more of the present inventions. Furthermore, any specific feature, aspect, method, property, characteristic, quality, attribute, element, etc. disclosed herein in connection with an embodiment may be used with all other embodiments described herein. It is therefore understood that various features and aspects of the disclosed embodiments may be combined with or substituted for one another to form varying modes of the disclosed invention. Therefore, it is intended that the scope of the invention disclosed herein should not be limited to the specific embodiments disclosed above. Furthermore, the invention is susceptible to various modifications and alternative forms, specific examples of which have been shown in the drawings and are described in detail herein. However, the invention should not be limited to the specific forms or methods disclosed; on the contrary, the invention is intended to cover all modifications, equivalents, and alternatives within the spirit and scope of the various described embodiments and the appended claims. Any method disclosed herein need not be performed in the order recited. The methods disclosed herein include specific acts performed by a practitioner, but they may also include, explicitly or implicitly, third-party instructions regarding those acts. For example, an act such as "administering a population of expanded NK cells" includes "directing the administration of the expanded population of NK cells." Furthermore, when features or aspects of the present disclosure are described in terms of a Markush group, one of skill in the art will understand that the present disclosure is also described thereby in terms of any individual member or subgroup of members of the Markush group.

[0148] Ranges disclosed herein also encompass any and all overlaps, subranges, and combinations thereof. Words such as "up to," "at least," "greater than," "less than," "between," and the like, include the recited numbers. Numbers preceded by terms such as "about" or "approximately" include the recited numbers. For example, "90%" includes "90%." In some embodiments, a sequence having at least 95% sequence identity to a reference sequence includes sequences that are 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100% identical to the reference sequence. Furthermore, when a sequence is disclosed as "comprising" a nucleotide or amino acid sequence, such reference is also intended to include that the sequence "comprises," "consists of," or "consists essentially of" the recited sequence, unless otherwise specified.

[0149] Articles such as "a," "an," and "the" may mean one or more unless indicated to the contrary or clear from the context. As used in this specification and claims, the term "and / or" should be understood to mean "either or both" of the elements so conjoined. Multiple elements listed with "and / or" should be construed in the same manner, i.e., "one or more" of the elements so conjoined. Other elements may optionally be present other than the elements specifically identified by the "and / or" phrase. As used in this specification and claims, "or" should be understood to have the same meaning as "and / or" as defined above. For example, when used in a list of elements, "or" or "and / or" should be construed to be inclusive, i.e., including at least one, but optionally more than one, element of the list, and optionally additional unlisted elements. Only terms clearly indicating the contrary, such as "only one of" or "exactly one of," will refer to the inclusion of exactly one element of a number or list of elements. Thus, a claim including "or" between one or more members of a group is deemed satisfied if one, more than one, or all of the group members are present in, utilized in, or relevant to a given product or process, unless indicated to the contrary. Embodiments are provided in which exactly one member of the group is present in, utilized in, or relevant to a given product or process. Embodiments are provided in which two or more, or all of the group members are present in, utilized in, or relevant to a given product or process. Any one or more claims may be amended to explicitly exclude any embodiment, aspect, feature, element, or characteristic, or any combination thereof. Any one or more claims may be amended to exclude any agent, composition, amount, dose, route of administration, cell type, target, cell marker, antigen, targeting moiety, or combination thereof.

[0150] In some embodiments, amino acid sequences corresponding to any of the nucleic acids disclosed herein are provided, while accounting for the degeneracy of the nucleic acid code. Additionally, sequences (nucleic acid or amino acid) that differ from the sequences explicitly disclosed herein, but have functional similarity or equivalence, are also considered within the scope of the present disclosure. The foregoing includes mutations, truncations, substitutions, or other types of modifications.

[0151] The titles or subheadings used herein are for organizational purposes only and should not be used to limit the scope of the embodiments disclosed herein.

Claims

1. 1. A method for enhancing natural killer (NK) cell proliferation, the method comprising: (a) performing a first co-culture of a population of NK cells with a first population of feeder cells in a medium; wherein the first population of feeder cells comprises cells engineered to express 4-1BBL and membrane-bound interleukin-15 (mbIL15); wherein the population of NK cells in the first co-culture contains fewer cells than the first population of feeder cells; wherein the medium in the first co-culture contains interleukin 2 (IL2), and one of interleukin 12 (IL12) and interleukin 18 (IL18); and Here, the first co-culture produces an expanded population of NK cells; (b) separating at least a portion of the expanded population of NK cells produced in (a) from the first population of feeder cells; (c) secondly co-culturing in fresh medium at least a portion of the expanded population of NK cells produced in (a) with a second population of feeder cells, wherein the second population of feeder cells comprises cells engineered to express 4-1BBL and membrane-bound interleukin-15 (mbIL15); wherein the population of NK cells in the second co-culture contains fewer cells than the population of feeder cells; wherein the medium in the second co-culture comprises interleukin 2 (IL2), and one of interleukin 12 (IL12) and interleukin 18 (IL18); and where a second co-culture produces a further expanded population of NK cells; and (d) repeating steps (b) and (c) one or more times to result in further expansion of the expanded population of NK cells. resulting in at least a 100,000-fold to 5,000,000-fold expansion of NK cells.

2. 10. The method of claim 1, wherein the IL2 present in the medium used in one or more of the co-culture steps is at a concentration of about 10 units / mL to about 100 units / mL.

3. 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the IL2 present in the medium used in one or more of the co-culture steps is at a concentration of less than about 50 units / mL.

4. 4. The method of claim 1, wherein IL12, if present in the medium used in one or more co-culture steps, is at a concentration of about 10 ng / mL to about 100 ng / mL.

5. 5. The method of claim 1, wherein IL12, if present in the medium used in one or more co-culture steps, is at a concentration of less than about 30 ng / mL.

6. 6. The method of claim 1, wherein IL18, if present in the medium used in one or more co-culture steps, is at a concentration of about 0.01 ng / mL to about 30 ng / mL.

7. 7. The method of any one of claims 1 to 6, wherein IL18, if present in the medium used in one or more co-culture steps, is at a concentration of less than about 10 ng / mL.

8. The method according to any one of claims 1 to 7, wherein the ratio of NK cells to feeder cells in one or more co-culture steps is from about 1:2 to about 1:

20.

9. The method according to any one of claims 1 to 8, wherein the expanded NK cells are separated from the feeder cells by fluorescence activated cell sorting (FACS).

10. The method of any one of claims 1 to 9, wherein the population of feeder cells comprises K562 cells that express both 4-1BBL and mbIL15.

11. The method of any one of claims 1 to 10, wherein one or more co-culture steps increase the expression of markers of NK cell activation.

12. The method of any one of claims 1 to 11, wherein one or more co-culture steps increase the cytotoxicity of the expanded NK cells.

13. The method of any one of claims 1 to 12, wherein one or more co-culture steps increase the persistence of the expanded NK cells.

14. The method according to any one of claims 1 to 13, wherein the first co-culture is carried out for about 7 days.

15. The method according to any one of claims 1 to 14, wherein the co-cultivation is repeated at least three times.

16. The method of any one of claims 1 to 15, further comprising contacting the NK cells with a vector encoding a chimeric antigen receptor (CAR).

17. 17. The method of claim 16, wherein the CAR is configured to target one or more of CD19, CD123, CD70, BCMA, or a ligand of natural killer receptor group D (NKG2D).

18. 18. The method of claim 16 or claim 17, wherein the NK cells are contacted with a vector encoding a CAR prior to the second co-culture.

19. 20. The method of claim 18, wherein the second co-culture is for between about 6 hours and about 14 days.

20. A method according to any one of claims 1 to 19, wherein in (d), steps (b) and (c) are repeated once.

21. The method of claim 1, wherein the population of NK cells is derived from peripheral blood.

22. A population of engineered natural killer (NK) cells comprising an engineered chimeric receptor configured to bind to a marker on a target cancer cell and, upon binding, induce the NK cell to exert a cytotoxic effect against the target cancer cell, Here, NK cells are: a) performing a first co-culture of a population of NK cells with a first population of feeder cells in a culture medium; wherein the first population of feeder cells comprises cells engineered to express 4-1BBL and membrane-bound interleukin-15 (mbIL15); wherein the population of NK cells in the first co-culture contains fewer cells than the first population of feeder cells; wherein the medium in the first co-culture contains interleukin 2 (IL2), and one of interleukin 12 (IL12) and interleukin 18 (IL18); and Here, the first co-culture produces an expanded population of NK cells; (b) separating at least a portion of the expanded population of NK cells produced in (a) from the first population of feeder cells; (c) secondly co-culturing in fresh medium at least a portion of the expanded population of NK cells produced in (a) with a second population of feeder cells, wherein the second population of feeder cells comprises cells engineered to express 4-1BBL and membrane-bound interleukin-15 (mbIL15); wherein the population of NK cells in the second co-culture contains fewer cells than the population of feeder cells; wherein the medium in the second co-culture comprises interleukin 2 (IL2), and one of interleukin 12 (IL12) and interleukin 18 (IL18); and where a second co-culture produces a further expanded population of NK cells; and (d) repeating steps (b) and (c) one or more times to result in further expansion of the expanded population of NK cells. wherein the population is NK cells expanded by a method comprising:

23. 23. The population of engineered NK cells of claim 22, wherein IL2 is present in the medium used in one or more co-culture steps at a concentration of about 10 units / mL to about 100 units / mL.

24. 24. The population of engineered NK cells of claim 22 or 23, wherein IL2 is present in the medium used in one or more co-culture steps at a concentration of less than about 50 units / mL.

25. 25. The population of engineered NK cells of any one of claims 22-24, wherein IL12, if present in the medium used in one or more co-culture steps, is at a concentration of about 10 ng / mL to about 100 ng / mL.

26. 26. The population of engineered NK cells of any one of claims 22-25, wherein IL12, if present in the medium used in one or more co-culture steps, is at a concentration of less than about 30 ng / mL.

27. 27. The population of engineered NK cells of any one of claims 22-26, wherein IL18, if present in the medium used in one or more co-culture steps, is at a concentration of about 0.01 ng / mL to about 30 ng / mL.

28. 28. The population of engineered NK cells of any one of claims 22-27, wherein IL18, if present in the medium used in one or more co-culture steps, is at a concentration of less than about 10 ng / mL.

29. 29. The population of engineered NK cells of any one of claims 22 to 28, wherein the ratio of NK cells to feeder cells in the first co-culture is from about 1:2 to about 1:

20.

30. 30. The population of engineered NK cells of claim 29, wherein the feeder cells are K562 cells that express both 4-1BBL and mbIL15.

31. 31. The population of engineered NK cells of any one of claims 22 to 30, wherein the first co-culture is carried out for about 7 days.

32. 32. The population of engineered NK cells of any one of claims 22-31, wherein the chimeric receptor is a chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) configured to target one or more of CD19, CD123, CD70, BCMA, or a ligand of natural killer receptor group D (NKG2D).

33. The population of engineered NK cells described in any one of claims 22 to 32, wherein in (d), steps (b) and (c) are repeated once.

34. The population of engineered NK cells of any one of claims 22 to 33, wherein the population of NK cells is derived from peripheral blood.

35. A population of engineered NK cells according to any one of claims 22 to 34 for use in the treatment of disease.

36. 36. The population of engineered NK cells of claim 35, wherein the disease is cancer.

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