Method and device for fabricating an integrated tandem solar module

Abstract

The present disclosure may provide methods and devices for tandem perovskite solar modules. A perovskite solar module may include multiple perovskite solar cells configured to match the voltage output of another solar module. The present disclosure may also provide mixed-composition perovskite layers. Solar cells fabricated using mixed-composition perovskite layers may exhibit improved performance and stability.

Description

[Technical Field]

[0001] cross reference This application is a U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 081,747, U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 081,750, U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 081,753, U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 081,758, filed on September 22, 2020, and U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 081,758, filed on September 22, 2020. National Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 081,756, US Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 081,755 filed on September 22, 2020, US Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 081,752 filed on September 22, 2020, US Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 090,636 filed on October 12, 2020, US Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 090,642 filed on October 12, 2020, 2 U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 090,643 filed on October 12, 2020, U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 126,481 filed on December 16, 2020, U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 126,483 filed on December 16, 2020, U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 159,277 filed on March 10, 2021, U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 159,277 filed on April 19, 2021 Claiming the benefits of U.S. Patent Application No. 63 / 176,845, U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 196,585 filed on June 3, 2021, U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 196,601 filed on June 3, 2021, and U.S. Patent Application No. 16 / 953,247 filed on November 19, 2020, each of these patent applications in its entirety is incorporated herein by reference. [Background technology]

[0002] Solar cells are electrical devices that convert light into electricity. Silicon solar cells can potentially convert light with wavelengths greater than approximately 300 nanometers ("nm") and less than approximately 1100 nm into electricity. However, the conversion efficiency of silicon solar cells can gradually decrease as the wavelength of light decreases below 1100 nm. Furthermore, silicon solar cells may be unable to convert wavelengths of light greater than approximately 1100 nm into electricity because these wavelengths lack the energy required to overcome the silicon band gap.

[0003] A tandem solar cell can have two separate solar cells stacked on top of each other. The lower cell may be a silicon solar cell, and the upper cell may be made from a different material. The upper cell may have a larger bandgap than the silicon solar cell. Therefore, the upper cell may be able to efficiently convert shorter wavelengths of light into electricity. The upper cell may be transparent to longer wavelengths of light, which allows the silicon solar cell below to absorb these longer wavelengths and convert them into electricity.

[0004] Optical losses at the interface between the upper and lower cells, and recombination losses in either the upper or lower cell layer, can result in cells with lower efficiency. Additionally, tandem solar cells can be difficult to manufacture. [Overview of the Initiative] [Means for solving the problem]

[0005] This disclosure describes a tandem silicon-perovskite solar module and a method for manufacturing the same. A tandem silicon-perovskite solar module as described herein may have a lower silicon solar cell and an upper perovskite solar cell. The perovskite solar cell may have a larger band gap than the silicon solar cell. For example, the perovskite solar cell may have a band gap of about 1.7 electron volts ("eV"), while the silicon solar cell may have a band gap of about 1.1 eV. Thus, the perovskite solar cell may be able to efficiently convert shorter wavelengths of light into electricity. The perovskite solar cell may be transparent to longer wavelengths of light, which allows the underlying silicon solar cell to absorb and convert such longer wavelengths into electricity. Together, the perovskite solar cell and the silicon solar cell can efficiently convert a broader spectrum of light into electricity for a single solar cell (i.e., thermal losses may be lower in a tandem cell than in a single-cell solar module, resulting in greater and complete spectral efficiency). The addition of perovskite solar cells can improve the resulting solar module by reducing costs, increasing performance per unit weight of the module, and improving the overall performance of the module.

[0006] Silicon solar cells can be monocrystalline or polycrystalline. Silicon solar cells can be components of conventional solar panels. Solar panels may have a backing sheet on which the silicon solar cells are placed. Encapsulation material may cover the top of the silicon solar cells to prevent exposure to dust and moisture. Solar panels may have an upper glass sheet that provides additional protection for the silicon solar cells.

[0007] Perovskite solar cells can be deposited on the underside of an upper glass sheet. This differs from the conventional tandem solar module structure in which the perovskite cells are simply placed on top of the silicon wafer. By depositing perovskite solar cells on the underside of an upper glass sheet, manufacturers can integrate perovskite solar cells into their conventional silicon solar panels without further equipment installation or process modifications. Alternatively, such manufacturers can simply substitute the conventional glass sheet with a perovskite glass sheet. This disclosure may also refer to the perovskite glass sheet as “activated glass”.

[0008] A perovskite solar cell may have a first transparent conductive oxide ("TCO") layer deposited on an upper glass sheet, a hole transport layer ("HTL") deposited on the first TCO layer, a perovskite layer deposited on the HTL, an electron transport layer ("ETL") deposited on the perovskite layer, and a second TCO layer deposited on the ETL. The first and second TCO layers can serve as terminals for the perovskite solar cell. The ETL and HTL can facilitate electron and hole transport, respectively, while inhibiting hole and electron transport, respectively. The perovskite layer can absorb light to generate charge carriers, which results in a flow of voltage and current across the terminals of the perovskite solar cell.

[0009] Perovskite solar cells and silicon solar cells are electrically insulated from each other, and each cell may have its own terminals. That is, a tandem solar module can be a four-terminal module. Perovskite solar cells and silicon solar cells can be connected in series or parallel by connecting their terminals using an appropriate method. In a series connection, the currents of the perovskite and silicon solar cells can be matched. In a parallel connection, the voltages of the perovskite and silicon solar cells can be matched.

[0010] This disclosure also describes a method for producing the activated glass described above. The activated glass may comprise a perovskite layer formed by individually applying perovskite precursors and subsequently annealing the precursors. A metallic lead layer may be deposited, followed by an inorganic halide layer (e.g., methylammonium iodide / formamidinium iodide), followed by a halide (e.g., iodine). By applying various precursors in this manner, the same deposition equipment can be used for multiple layers, reducing complexity and cost, and enabling the use of a large-capacity manufacturing process. Furthermore, the various ratios of precursors can be strictly controlled to result in higher quality films. In addition, various different precursors for each layer may be deposited to improve film quality. For example, lead acetate may be applied to the lead layer to improve the integration of organic halides and halides into the lead layer. Similarly, different halides may be introduced to improve grain growth and other film properties. Perovskite precursors can be applied by a variety of techniques, including ultrasonic atomization, blade coating, slot die coating, and physical vapor deposition. When ultrasonic atomization is combined with multiple "showerhead" type nozzles, it can provide uniform and controlled application of the precursor, which can further produce high-quality films with virtually no defects.

[0011] This disclosure also provides a method for depositing first and second TCO layers onto a perovskite solar cell. The TCO layers can be deposited onto the perovskite solar cell via physical vapor deposition (PVD). The PVD of the TCO layers can be carried out in an in-line manufacturing process. The in-line manufacturing process may comprise multiple processing chambers on which a selected target material is deposited onto the perovskite solar cell. The multiple processing chambers may comprise a single conveyor belt for transporting the perovskite solar cell through the multiple processing chambers. The in-line manufacturing process can limit the exposure of the perovskite solar cell to the deposition process and direct exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation, ultimately reducing the number of ETL and defects formed in the perovskite layer due to the TCO deposition process.

[0012] This disclosure also provides a method for connecting layers of a tandem solar module. The silicon and perovskite layers of the tandem module can be connected in different ways depending on the type of silicon solar cell. Different connection methods can provide optimal performance for various types of silicon solar cells. This disclosure also provides a method for preparing a tandem solar module in which the voltage output of the upper perovskite module is matched to the voltage output of the lower silicon module. The method may include laser scribing the perovskite layer to form the perovskite solar cell. Laser scribing may differ for different lower solar modules because differences in the voltage output of various lower modules may be observed in the power generation of the perovskite solar cell. This level of control can improve efficiency by more closely matching the voltages between modules to reduce wasted voltage. Also, a wider range of lower modules can be used due to the flexibility provided by the size of special perovskite solar cells.

[0013] In one embodiment, the disclosure provides a device comprising a silicon solar cell having a first bandgap, a glass sheet covering the silicon solar cell, the glass sheet having an upper and lower surface, and a perovskite solar cell having a second bandgap, the perovskite solar cell deposited on the lower surface of the glass sheet. In some embodiments, the silicon solar cell is electrically insulated from the perovskite solar cell. In some embodiments, the silicon solar cell has two terminals, and the perovskite solar cell has two terminals. In some embodiments, the perovskite solar cell comprises a photoactive perovskite layer, the photoactive perovskite layer comprising CH3NH3PbX3 or H2NCHNH2PbX3. In some embodiments, X comprises iodide, bromide, chloride, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the perovskite solar cell comprises a first transparent conductive oxide (TCO) layer and a second TCO layer. In some embodiments, the first TCO layer and the second TCO layer are terminals of the perovskite solar cell. In some embodiments, the first TCO layer and the second TCO layer contain indium oxide. In some embodiments, the perovskite solar cell comprises an electron transport layer (ETL) containing phenyl-C61-methyl butyrate. In some embodiments, the perovskite solar cell comprises a hole transport layer (HTL) containing nickel oxide. In some embodiments, the device further comprises a plurality of silicon solar cells, including silicon solar cells, and a plurality of perovskite solar cells, including perovskite solar cells, wherein the plurality of perovskite solar cells are laser-scribed on an upper glass sheet to match the plurality of perovskite solar cells with the plurality of silicon solar cells in voltage or current. In some embodiments, the upper glass sheet has a surface area substantially corresponding to the surface area of ​​a solar panel with 60 or 72 cells. In some embodiments, the upper surface of the upper glass sheet is provided with an anti-reflective coating. In some embodiments, the upper surface of the upper glass sheet contains polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS).In some embodiments, the PDMS includes 1:10 alumina PDMS, textured 1:50 alumina PDMS, or textured PDMS. In some embodiments, the lower surface of the upper glass sheet has a textured surface. In some embodiments, the device further comprises an encapsulant disposed between the silicon solar cell and the perovskite solar cell. In some embodiments, the encapsulant is selected from the group consisting of ethylene vinyl acetate ("EVA"), thermoplastic polyolefin ("TPO"), PDMS, silicone, and paraffin. In some embodiments, the silicon solar cell and the perovskite solar cell are electrically connected in parallel. In some embodiments, the silicon solar cell and the perovskite solar cell are electrically connected in series. In some embodiments, the second bandgap is between about 1.5 electron volts (eV) and about 1.9 electron volts (eV). In some embodiments, it has a power conversion efficiency of at least about 30%. In some embodiments, the silicon solar cell is selected from the group consisting of a single crystal solar cell, a polycrystalline solar cell, a passivated emitter rear contact (PERC) solar cell, an interdigitated back contact cell (IBC), and a heterojunction with intrinsic thin film (HIT) solar cell.

[0014] In other embodiments, the disclosure provides a device comprising a silicon solar cell having a first bandgap and a perovskite solar cell having a second bandgap, wherein the perovskite solar cell is positioned adjacent to the silicon cell and has a power conversion efficiency of at least about 26%. In some embodiments, the silicon solar cell is electrically isolated from the perovskite solar cell. In some embodiments, the silicon solar cell has two terminals and the perovskite solar cell has two terminals. In some embodiments, the perovskite solar cell comprises a photoactive perovskite layer, the photoactive perovskite layer comprising CH3NH3PbX3 or H2NCHNH2PbX3. In some embodiments, X comprises iodide, bromide, chloride, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the perovskite solar cell comprises a first transparent conductive oxide (TCO) layer and a second TCO layer. In some embodiments, the first TCO layer and the second TCO layer are terminals of the perovskite solar cell. In some embodiments, the first TCO layer and the second TCO layer comprise indium oxide, indium tin oxide, or zinc aluminum oxide. In some embodiments, the perovskite solar cell comprises an electron transport layer (ETL) comprising phenyl-C61-methyl butyrate or C60. In some embodiments, the perovskite solar cell comprises a hole transport layer (HTL) comprising nickel oxide. In some embodiments, the device further comprises an encapsulation material placed between the silicon solar cell and the perovskite solar cell. In some embodiments, the encapsulation material is selected from the group consisting of ethylene vinyl acetate ("EVA"), thermoplastic polyolefin ("TPO"), PDMS, silicone, and paraffin. In some embodiments, the silicon solar cell and the perovskite solar cell are electrically connected in parallel. In some embodiments, the silicon solar cell and the perovskite solar cell are electrically connected in series. In some embodiments, the second band gap is between approximately 1.5 electron volts (eV) and approximately 1.9 electron volts (eV).In some embodiments, the silicon solar cell is selected from the group consisting of a single crystal solar cell, a polycrystalline solar cell, a passivated emitter rear contact (PERC) solar cell, an interdigitated back contact cell (IBC), and a heterojunction with intrinsic thin film (HIT) solar cell.

[0015] In other aspects, the present disclosure is a method for forming a transparent conductive layer of a solar cell, comprising: (a) depositing a buffer layer of the transparent conductive layer in the solar cell using a deposition energy of up to 0.6 watts per square centimeter (W / cm 2 ), and (b) depositing a bulk layer of the transparent conductive layer on the buffer layer using a deposition energy of up to 1 W / cm 2 . Some embodiments include physical vapor deposition processes for (a) and (b). In some embodiments, the buffer layer is at least 5 nanometers thick. In some embodiments, the method further includes depositing a silver layer on the solar cell prior to (a). In some embodiments, the silver layer is at most about 10 angstroms thick. In some embodiments, the method further includes annealing the transparent conductive layer.

[0016] In other embodiments, the Disclosure provides a method for forming a perovskite layer of a solar cell, comprising the steps of (a) depositing a metallic lead (Pb) layer on the upper glass of the solar cell via physical vapor deposition; (b) applying a layer of methylammonium iodide (MAI) or formamidinium iodide (FAI) to the metallic Pb layer via ultrasonic atomization; and (c) exposing the MAI or FAI layer to iodine gas by translating a dispensing unit across the MAI or FAI layer, the dispensing unit comprising a plurality of nozzles configured to provide iodine gas. In some embodiments, the method further comprises the step of applying a Pb salt to the metallic lead layer prior to (b). In some embodiments, the lead salt comprises one or more salts selected from the group consisting of lead(II) acetate, lead(II) chloride, lead(II) bromide, and lead(II) iodide. In some embodiments, the MAI or FAI layer comprises a methylammonium chloride (MACI) additive. In some embodiments, the method further includes the step of applying a phenylethylammonium iodide (PEAI) solution to a layer of MAI or FAI. In some embodiments, (a) to (c) are carried out in a chamber that does not react with iodine gas. In some embodiments, the chamber is made of glass. In some embodiments, the chamber is made of titanium. In some embodiments, the method further includes the step of performing one or more annealing operations to form a perovskite layer from the metallic Pb layer, the MAI or FAI layer, and iodine. In some embodiments, the plurality of nozzles comprises one or more showerhead nozzles.

[0017] In other embodiments, the Disclosure provides a method for forming a perovskite layer of a solar cell, comprising the steps of (a) using an ultrasonic dispensing unit equipped with multiple nozzles to apply a lead halide layer comprising lead iodide, lead bromide, and lead chloride to the solar cell, and (b) using an ultrasonic dispensing unit to apply a methylammonium halide layer to the lead halide layer. In some embodiments, the lead halide layer contains more lead chloride by weight than lead bromide.

[0018] In other embodiments, the Disclosure provides a method comprising: (a) providing a silicon solar module with a first voltage output, wherein the silicon solar module comprises an upper glass panel; (b) forming a perovskite layer on the upper glass panel; (c) fabricating one or more perovskite solar cells from the perovskite layer, wherein the one or more perovskite solar cells generate a voltage substantially matched to the voltage output of the silicon solar module; and (d) electrically connecting the silicon solar module to the one or more perovskite solar cells.

[0019] In some embodiments, the fabrication step includes the use of a laser scribe to define one or more perovskite solar cells. In some embodiments, one or more perovskite solar cells are multiple perovskite solar cells. In some embodiments, the multiple perovskite solar cells are connected in series. In some embodiments, the method further includes the step of applying multiple contacts to one or more perovskite solar cells in order to electrically connect them. In some embodiments, the method further includes the step of applying an encapsulation material to one or more perovskite solar cells. In some embodiments, the encapsulation material is a thermoplastic polyolefin. In some embodiments, the thermoplastic polyolefin is ethyl vinyl acetate. In some embodiments, the method further includes the step of applying an edge seal to the one or more perovskite solar cells.

[0020] In another embodiment, the Disclosure provides a tandem solar module. The tandem solar module comprises a silicon solar panel having (i) a plurality of silicon solar cells connected in series, and (ii) an upper glass sheet, wherein the plurality of silicon solar cells are connected in series and combined to have a first open-circuit voltage; a perovskite solar panel disposed below the upper glass sheet of the silicon solar panel, wherein the perovskite solar panel comprises a plurality of divisions, each of the plurality of divisions comprising a plurality of laser-scribed strips of perovskite, the plurality of laser-scribed strips of perovskite within the division being connected in series to produce a second open-circuit voltage which is substantially the same as the first open-circuit voltage; and an interconnector that connects the plurality of silicon solar cells and the plurality of divisions of the plurality of perovskite solar panels in parallel.

[0021] In some embodiments, the divisions include approximately 10 to 200 divisions. In some embodiments, the silicon solar panel is an upper-contact solar panel, an integrated back-contact solar panel, or a roof panel. In some embodiments, the silicon solar panel and the perovskite solar panel are connected to the same junction box. In some embodiments, the silicon solar panel and the perovskite solar panel have substantially similar areas. In some embodiments, multiple laser-scribed strips of perovskite are connected via a P1 / P2 / P3 scheme.

[0022] In other aspects, this disclosure is MA n1 FA n2 Cs n3 A perovskite layer having the composition PbX3, where MA is methylammonium, FA is formamidinium, n1, n2, and n3 are each greater than 0 and less than 1, and n1+n2+n3=1, is provided, and a perovskite solar cell comprising the perovskite layer retains at least about 80% solar conversion efficiency after 300 hours of irradiation under one-sun conditions in an air atmosphere between 25°C and 100°C.

[0023] In some embodiments, X is selected from the group consisting of fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine. In some embodiments, X is a combination of two or more of fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine. In some embodiments, n1 is from about 0.001 to about 0.05. In some embodiments, n3 is from about 0.001 to about 0.15. In some embodiments, the solar conversion efficiency is at least about 90% of the initial conversion efficiency value after 300 hours of irradiation under certain solar conditions. In some embodiments, the solar conversion efficiency is at least about 95% of the initial conversion efficiency value after 300 hours of irradiation under certain solar conditions. In some embodiments, the perovskite layer does not contain additional additives.

[0024] In other aspects, the present disclosure includes the steps of: (a) providing a substrate; (b) applying a perovskite precursor to the substrate; and (c) annealing the perovskite precursor to form a perovskite layer, wherein the perovskite layer has a composition of MA n1 FA n2 Cs n3 PbX3, where n1, n2, and n3 are each greater than 0 and less than 1, and n1 + n2 + n3 = 1, and the perovskite solar cell comprising the perovskite layer retains at least about 80% of its sunlight conversion efficiency after 300 hours of irradiation under certain solar conditions when the temperature is higher than 25 °C and lower than 100 °C; and (d) subjecting the perovskite layer to an encapsulation lamination process at a temperature of at least about 120 °C.

[0025] In some embodiments, the perovskite solar cell retains at least about 80% of its initial conversion efficiency value after the encapsulation lamination process. In some embodiments, the perovskite solar cell retains at least about 97% of its initial conversion efficiency value after the encapsulation lamination process. In some embodiments, the step of applying the perovskite precursor is via an ultrasonic spray process. In some embodiments, the annealing process includes heating the perovskite layer to a temperature of at least about 40 - 120 °C.

[0026] In other aspects, the present disclosure provides a perovskite layer having a composition of MA n1 FA n2 Cs n3 PbX3, where MA is methylammonium, FA is formamidinium, n1 is from about 0.01 to 0.03, n2 is from about 0.82 to 0.94, n3 is from about 0.05 to 0.15, and n1 + n2 + n3 = 1.

[0027] In some embodiments, X is selected from the group consisting of fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine. In some embodiments, X is a combination of two or more of fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine. In some embodiments, the perovskite solar cell does not contain additional additives.

[0028] Other aspects of this disclosure provide methods for fabricating and manufacturing the devices and components described above and elsewhere in this disclosure.

[0029] Additional aspects and advantages of the present disclosure will be readily apparent to those skilled in the art from the following detailed description, which illustrates and describes only exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure. As will be understood, other different embodiments are possible, and some of their details can be modified in various obvious ways without departing from the present disclosure. Accordingly, the drawings and descriptions are to be construed as illustrative and not as restrictive.

[0030] Embedding by reference All publications, patents, and patent applications referenced herein are incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each individual publication, patent, and patent application were explicitly and individually directed to be incorporated by reference. To the extent that any publication, patent, or patent application incorporated by reference conflicts with any disclosure contained herein, this specification is intended to take precedence and / or be superior to such conflicting material.

[0031] Novel features of the present invention are described in detail in the appended claims. A better understanding of the features and advantages of the present invention can be obtained by referring to the following detailed description of exemplary embodiments in which the principles of the present invention are utilized, and to the appended drawings (hereinafter referred to as "Figures"). [Brief explanation of the drawing]

[0032] [Figure 1] This is a schematic diagram of a tandem, four-terminal silicon-perovskite solar cell according to an embodiment. [Figure 2] This is a schematic diagram of the morphology of the perovskite layer of a solar cell according to an embodiment. [Figure 3] This is a flowchart of the fabrication process for forming a perovskite photovoltaic material according to the embodiments of this disclosure. [Figure 4] This is a flowchart of operation 310 in Figure 3 according to the embodiment. [Figure 5] This is a flowchart of operation 340 in Figure 3 according to the embodiment. [Figure 6] This is a flowchart of operation 350 in Figure 3 according to the embodiment. [Figure 7] This is a flowchart of the operation 360 shown in Figure 3 according to the embodiment. [Figure 8] This is a schematic diagram of a perovskite precursor deposition chamber according to an embodiment. [Figure 9] This is a schematic diagram of a shower head design for a spray nozzle according to an embodiment. [Figure 10] This is a schematic diagram of the integrated fabrication flow for perovskite photovoltaic material according to the embodiment. [Figure 11] This diagram shows the transmission of light at various wavelengths through a perovskite solar cell according to an embodiment. [Figure 12] This is a diagram of a computer system programmed or configured to carry out the methods provided herein. [Figure 13] This is a flowchart illustrating the fabrication process for forming a perovskite layer according to the embodiment. [Figure 14] This is a diagram of a horizontal inline manufacturing system according to an embodiment. [Figure 15] This graph shows the current-voltage performance of solar modules manufactured with and without an ultrathin layer of silver, according to the embodiment. [Figure 16] This figure illustrates examples of different electrical network connections for different types of silicon-perovskite hybrid solar modules according to several embodiments. [Figure 17] This figure illustrates examples of different electrical network connections for different types of silicon-perovskite hybrid solar modules according to several embodiments. [Figure 18] This figure illustrates examples of different electrical network connections for different types of silicon-perovskite hybrid solar modules according to several embodiments. [Figure 19] This figure illustrates examples of different electrical network connections for different types of silicon-perovskite hybrid solar modules according to several embodiments. [Figure 20] This is a flowchart of the process for manufacturing a tandem solar module according to several embodiments. [Figure 21] This graph shows the efficiency of three perovskite solar cells during a reliability test at 85°C and 85% relative humidity according to the embodiment. [Figure 22A] This figure shows an example of efficiency degradation of a perovskite solar cell during a thermal stress test in the dark, according to an embodiment. [Figure 22B] This figure shows an example of efficiency degradation of a perovskite solar cell during a thermal stress test under 1-sun illumination at the maximum power point, according to an embodiment. [Figure 23A] This is a graph showing the open-circuit, short-circuit, and maximum power point efficiencies for various temperatures for a perovskite solar cell according to an embodiment. [Figure 23B] This is a graph showing the open-circuit, short-circuit, and maximum power point efficiencies for various temperatures for a perovskite solar cell according to an embodiment. [Figure 23C] This is a graph showing the open-circuit, short-circuit, and maximum power point efficiencies for various temperatures for a perovskite solar cell according to an embodiment. [Figure 24A] This figure shows examples of openings for producing a perovskite layer, including the use of an antisolvent, according to several embodiments. [Figure 24B]This figure shows an example of an opening for producing a perovskite layer without the use of a reverse solvent, according to several embodiments. [Figure 25] This is a histogram of examples of the efficiencies of various perovskite layers produced by the methods and systems described herein, according to embodiments. [Figure 26] This is a schematic diagram of an example solar module package according to an embodiment. [Figure 27] This is a schematic wiring diagram of an example module package according to an embodiment. [Modes for carrying out the invention]

[0033] Various embodiments of the present invention are illustrated and described herein, but it will be apparent to those skilled in the art that such embodiments are provided only as examples. Numerous variations, modifications, and substitutions may be conceived by those skilled in the art without departing from the present invention. It should be understood that various alternatives to the embodiments of the present invention described herein may be used.

[0034] When the terms "at least," "greater than," or "greater than or equal to" are attached to the first or last number in a series of two or more numbers, those terms apply to each individual number in the series. For example, 1, 2, or 3 or more corresponds to 1 or more, 2 or more, or 3 or more.

[0035] When the terms “slightly,” “less than,” or “less than” are attached to the first or last number in a series of two or more numbers, those terms apply to each individual number in the series. For example, 3, 2, or 1 less than or equal to 3, 2 or less, or 1 or less.

[0036] The term "solar cell" as used herein generally refers to a device that uses the photovoltaic effect to generate electricity from light.

[0037] The term "tandem" as used herein refers to a solar module consisting of two solar cells stacked on top of each other.

[0038] The term "four-terminal" as used herein refers to a tandem solar module in which the upper and lower solar cells each have two accessible terminals.

[0039] The term “perovskite” as used herein generally refers to materials with a crystalline structure similar to that of calcium titanium oxide, and those suitable for use in perovskite solar cells. The rough chemical formula for perovskite materials is ABX3. Examples of perovskite materials are methylammonium lead trihalide (i.e., CH3NH3PbX3, where X is a halogen ion such as iodide, bromide, or chloride) and formamidinium lead trihalide (i.e., H2NCHNH2PbX3, where X is a halogen ion such as iodide, bromide, or chloride).

[0040] The term “single-crystal silicon” as used herein refers to silicon with a crystalline structure that is homogeneous throughout the material. The orientation, lattice parameters, and electronic properties of single-crystal silicon may be constant throughout the material. Single-crystal silicon can be doped with phosphorus or boron, for example, to make the silicon n-type or p-type.

[0041] The term "polycrystalline silicon" as used herein generally refers to silicon with an irregular particle structure.

[0042] The term “passivated emitter back-contact (PERC) solar cell,” as used herein, generally refers to a solar cell with an additional dielectric layer on the back side. This dielectric layer can act to reflect unabsorbed light back to the solar cell for a second absorption attempt, thereby additionally passivating the back side of the solar cell and increasing the efficiency of the solar cell.

[0043] The term “heterojunction (HIT) solar cell with intrinsic thin-film solar cell” as used herein generally refers to a solar cell consisting of a single-crystal silicon wafer surrounded by an ultrathin amorphous silicon layer. One amorphous silicon layer may be n-type doped, and the other may be p-type doped.

[0044] The term “interdigital back-contact cell (IBC)” as used herein generally refers to a solar cell having two or more electrical contacts located on the back side of the solar cell (e.g., the side opposite to the incident light). The two or more electrical contacts may be located adjacent to alternately n-type and p-type doped regions of the solar cell. The IBC may comprise a high-quality absorber material configured to allow carrier transport over long distances.

[0045] The terms “bandgap” and “band gap” as used herein generally refer to the energy difference between the top of the valence band and the bottom of the conduction band in a material.

[0046] The term “electron transport layer” (“ETL”) as used herein refers to a layer of material in a solar cell that facilitates electron transport and suppresses hole transport. Electrons can be the majority carriers in the ETL, while holes can be the minority carriers. The ETL can be made up of one or more n-type layers. One or more n-type layers may comprise an n-type exciton-interrupting layer. The n-type exciton-interrupting layer may have a wider band gap than the photoactive layer of the solar cell (e.g., a perovskite layer), but may have a conduction band that closely matches the conduction layer of the photoactive layer. This allows electrons to pass easily from the photoactive layer to the ETL.

[0047] The n-type layer may be a metal oxide, metal sulfide, metal selenide, metal telluride, amorphous silicon, n-type group IV semiconductor (e.g., germanium), n-type group III-V semiconductor (e.g., gallium arsenide), n-type group II-VI semiconductor (e.g., cadmium selenide), n-type group I-VII semiconductor (e.g., cuprous chloride), n-type group IV-VI semiconductor (e.g., lead selenide), n-type group V-VI semiconductor (e.g., bismuth telluride), or n-type group II-V semiconductor (e.g., cadmium arsenide), any of which may or may not be doped (e.g., with phosphorus, arsenic, or antimony). The metal oxide may be an oxide of titanium, tin, zinc, niobium, tantalum, tungsten, indium, gallium, neodymium, palladium, or cadmium, or an oxide of a mixture of two or more such metals. Metallic sulfides may be sulfides of cadmium, tin, copper, or zinc, or sulfides of two or more mixtures of such metals. Metallic selenides may be selenides of cadmium, zinc, indium, or gallium, or selenides of two or more mixtures of such metals. Metallic tellurides may be tellurides of cadmium, zinc, cadmium, or tin, or tellurides of two or more mixtures of the aforementioned metals. Other n-type materials, including organic and polymeric electron transport materials and electrolytes, may be used as substitutes. Suitable examples, but are not limited to, fullerenes or fullerene derivatives (e.g., phenyl-C61-methyl butyrate, C60, etc.), or organic electron transport materials including perylene or its derivatives.

[0048] The term “Hole Transport Layer” (“HTL”) as used herein refers to a layer of material in a solar cell that facilitates hole transport and inhibits electron transport. Holes can be the majority carriers in an HTL, while electrons can be the minority carriers. An HTL can be made up of one or more p-type layers. One or more p-type layers may comprise a p-type exciton-interrupting layer. The p-type exciton-interrupting layer may have a valence band that closely matches the valence band of the solar cell’s photoactive layer (e.g., a perovskite layer). This allows holes to easily pass from the photoactive layer to the HTL.

[0049] The p-type layer can be made from molecular hole transporters, polymer hole transporters, or copolymer hole transporters. For example, the p-type layer may be one or more of the following: nickel oxide, thiophenyl, phenelenyl, dithiazolyl, benzothiazolyl, diketopyrrolopyrrolyl, ethoxydithiophenyl, amino, triphenylamino, carbozolyl, ethylenedioxythiophenyl, dioxythiophenyl, or fluorenyl. In addition or as a substitute, the p-types are spiro-OMeTAD(2,2',7,7'-tetrakis-(N,N-di-p-methoxyphenylamine)-9,9'-spirobifluorene)), P3HT(poly(3-hexylthiophene)), PCPDTBT(poly[2,1,3-benzothiadiazole-4,7-diyl[[4,4-bis(2-ethylhexyl)-4H-cyclopenta[2,1-b:3,4-b']dithiophene-2,6-diyl]]), PVK(poly(N-vinylcarbazole)), poly(3-hexylthiophene), poly[N,N-diphenyl-4-methoxyphenylamine May contain n-4',4''-diyl, sexithiophene, 9,10-bis(phenylethynyl)anthracene, 5,12-bis(phenylethynyl)naphthacene, diindenoperylene, 9,10-diphenylanthracene, PEDOT-TMA, PEDOT:PSS, perfluoropentacene, perylene, poly(p-phenylene oxide), poly(p-phenylene sulfide), quinacridone, rubren, 4-(dimethylamino)benzaldehyde diphenylhydrazone, 4-(dibenzylamino)benzaldehyde-N,N diphenylhydrazone, or phthalocyanine.

[0050] While this disclosure describes silicon-perovskite tandem solar modules, the methods and devices described herein can be used with any combination of solar cells and perovskite layers. For example, a tandem solar module may be a tandem CdTe-perovskite solar module. In another example, a tandem solar module may be a dye-sensitized solar cell-perovskite solar cell module.

[0051] Figure 1 is a schematic diagram of a tandem, four-terminal silicon-perovskite solar cell 100 according to an embodiment of the present disclosure. The solar cell 100 may include an upper glass sheet 105, a first TCO layer 110, an HTL 115, a perovskite layer 120, an ETL 125, a second TCO layer 130, an encapsulating material 135, a silicon solar cell 140, and a back sheet 145.

[0052] The upper glass sheet 105 can protect the layer beneath the solar cell 100 from dust and moisture. The upper glass sheet 105 and the solar cell 100 as a whole may have shape factors corresponding to conventional silicon solar panels. For example, the upper glass sheet 105 may have shape factors corresponding to silicon solar panels with 32, 36, 48, 60, 72, 96, or 144 cells. The upper glass sheet 105 may have a thickness of at least about 2.0 mm, about 2.5 mm, about 3.0 mm, about 3.5 mm, about 4.0 mm, about 4.5 mm, about 5.0 mm, or greater. The upper glass sheet 105 may have a maximum thickness of about 5.0 mm, about 4.5 mm, about 4.0 mm, about 3.5 mm, about 3.0 mm, about 2.5 mm, about 2.0 mm, or less. The upper glass sheet 105 may be transparent to allow light to access the solar cell below. In some cases, the top surface of the upper glass sheet 105 may be covered with polydimethylsiloxane ("PDMS") (e.g., 1:10 alumina PDMS, textured 1:50 alumina PDMS, or textured PDMS) which may improve light capture and refractive index matching. In some cases, the top surface of the upper glass sheet 105 may be covered with an anti-reflective coating. In some cases, the bottom surface of the upper glass sheet 105 may be textured to allow more light scattering to be returned to the perovskite layer 120.

[0053] The first TCO layer 110, HTL 115, perovskite layer 120, ETL 125, and second TCO layer 130 can work together to form a perovskite solar cell. The perovskite solar cell can be placed on the underside of the upper glass sheet 105 through a fabrication method described with reference to Figures 3 to 10. The perovskite solar cell may have a larger band gap than the silicon solar cell 140. For example, perovskite solar cells have values ​​of 1.30, 1.31, 1.32, 1.33, 1.34, 1.35, 1.36, 1.37, 1.38, 1.39, 1.40, 1.41, 1.42, 1.43, 1.44, 1.45, 1.46, 1.47, 1.48, 1.49, 1.50, 1.51, 1.52, 1.53, 1.54, 1.55, 1.56, 1.57, 1.58, 1.59, 1.60, 1.61, 1.62, 1.63, 1.64, 1.65, 1.66, 1.67, 1.68, 1.69, 1.70, 1.71, They may have band gaps of 1.72, 1.73, 1.74, 1.75, 1.76, 1.77, 1.78, 1.79, 1.80, 1.81, 1.82, 1.83, 1.84, 1.85, 1.86, 1.87, 1.88, 1.89, 1.90, 1.91, 1.92, 1.93, 1.94, 1.95, 1.96, 1.97, 1.98, 1.99, 2.00, 2.01, 2.02, 2.03, 2.04, 2.05, 2.06, 2.07, 2.08, 2.09, 2.10, or greater electron volts ("eV"). In contrast, silicon solar cells may have a band gap of approximately 1.1 eV. Therefore, perovskite solar cells may be able to efficiently convert shorter wavelengths of light into electricity. Perovskite solar cells can be transparent to longer wavelengths of light, allowing the underlying silicon solar cell to absorb and convert these longer wavelengths into electricity. Together, perovskite and silicon solar cells can efficiently convert a broader spectrum of light into electricity for a single solar cell.

[0054] The first TCO layer 110 can be directly deposited onto the upper glass sheet 105. Direct deposition of the first TCO layer 110 onto the upper glass sheet 105 can prevent damage to the HTL 115 and the perovskite layer 120. The first TCO layer 110 can be used as the positive terminal or cathode of the perovskite solar cell. The first TCO layer 110 may have a thickness of at least about 100 nanometers (nm), about 200 nm, about 300 nm, about 400 nm, about 500 nm, about 600 nm, about 700 nm, about 800 nm, about 900 nm, about 1 micron, or greater. The first TCO layer 110 may have a maximum thickness of approximately 1 micron, approximately 900 nm, approximately 800 nm, approximately 700 nm, approximately 600 nm, approximately 500 nm, approximately 400 nm, approximately 300 nm, approximately 200 nm, approximately 100 nm, or less. The first TCO layer 110 may be made from indium tin oxide (ITO). The first TCO layer 110 may be made from doped ITO. The TCO layer may have a resistance of at least approximately 1, approximately 2, approximately 3, approximately 4, approximately 5, approximately 6, approximately 7, approximately 8, approximately 9, approximately 10, approximately 11, approximately 12, approximately 13, approximately 14, approximately 15, approximately 16, approximately 17, approximately 18, approximately 19, approximately 20, approximately 21, approximately 22, approximately 23, approximately 24, approximately 25, or greater ohms / square meter. The TCO layer may have a resistance of up to approximately 25, 24, 23, 22, 21, 20, 19, 18, 17, 16, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, or less ohms / square meter.

[0055] HTL115 can be placed in the TCO layer 110. HTL115 can facilitate hole transport from the perovskite layer 120 to the first TCO layer 110 without compromising transparency and conductivity. In contrast, HTL115 can suppress electron transport. In some embodiments, HTL115 is made from one or more nickel oxide layers. In other embodiments, HTL115 is made from other suitable p-type materials described herein. HTL115 may have thicknesses of at least about 5 nm, about 10 nm, about 20 nm, about 50 nm, about 100 nm, about 200 nm, about 300 nm, about 400 nm, about 500 nm, about 600 nm, about 700 nm, about 800 nm, about 900 nm, about 1 micron, or greater. HTL115 can have a maximum thickness of approximately 1 micron, 900 nm, 800 nm, 700 nm, 600 nm, 500 nm, 400 nm, 300 nm, 200 nm, 100 nm, 50 nm, 20 nm, 10 nm, 5 nm, or less.

[0056] The perovskite layer 120 may be placed in the HTL115. The perovskite layer 120 may be the photoactive layer of the perovskite solar cell. That is, the perovskite layer 120 can absorb light and generate holes and electrons, which then diffuse to the HTL115 and ETL125, respectively. In some embodiments, the perovskite layer 120 is made from methylammonium lead triiodide, methylammonium lead tribromide, methylammonium lead trichloride, or any combination thereof. In other embodiments, the perovskite layer 120 is made from formamidinium lead triiodide, formamidinium lead tribromide, formamidinium lead trichloride, or any combination thereof. In other embodiments, the perovskite layer 120 is made from cesium lead triiodide, cesium lead tribromide, cesium lead trichloride, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the perovskite layer may be a triple-cationic perovskite material containing formamidinium cations, methylammonium cations, and cesium cations in different proportions. Incorporating cesium into the perovskite lattice provides improved thermodynamic stability. The band gap of the perovskite layer 120 can be adjusted by adjusting the content of the halide methylammonium lead trihalide or formamidinium lead trihalide. The perovskite layer 120 may have thicknesses of at least about 250 nm, about 300 nm, about 400 nm, about 500 nm, about 600 nm, about 700 nm, about 800 nm, about 900 nm, about 1 micron, about 1.25 micron, about 1.5 micron, about 1.75 micron, about 2 micron, or greater. The perovskite layer 120 may have a maximum thickness of approximately 2 microns, 1.75 microns, 1.5 microns, 1.25 microns, 1 micron, 900 nm, 800 nm, 700 nm, 600 nm, 500 nm, 400 nm, 300 nm, 250 nm, or less.

[0057] ETL125 can be placed in the perovskite layer 120. ETL125 can facilitate electron transport from the perovskite layer 120 to the second TCO layer 130 without compromising transparency and conductivity. In contrast, ETL125 can suppress hole transport. In some embodiments, ETL125 is made from phenyl-C61-methyl butyrate ("PCBM"). In other embodiments, ETL125 is made from other suitable n-type materials described herein (e.g., C60). ETL125 may have thicknesses of at least about 10 nm, about 20 nm, about 30 nm, about 40 nm, about 50 nm, about 60 nm, about 70 nm, about 80 nm, about 90 nm, about 100 nm, about 200 nm, about 300 nm, about 400 nm, about 500 nm, or greater. ETL125 can have thicknesses of up to approximately 500 nm, 400 nm, 300 nm, 200 nm, 100 nm, 90 nm, 80 nm, 70 nm, 60 nm, 50 nm, 40 nm, 30 nm, 20 nm, 10 nm, or less. The interface between the ETL and the perovskite layer may be important for the performance of the perovskite layer. The surface of the perovskite layer may be hydrophilic to allow good coverage of hydrophilic ETL (e.g., PCBM). The combination of environmental factors (e.g., low humidity less than 15%, low temperature of 18-24°C) and solvent compatibility may affect the quality of the perovskite layer-ETL connection.

[0058] The second TCO layer 130 may be placed on the ETL 125. The second TCO layer 130 may be used as the negative terminal or anode of the perovskite solar cell. The second TCO layer 130 may have a thickness of at least about 100 nm, about 200 nm, about 300 nm, about 400 nm, about 500 nm, about 600 nm, about 700 nm, about 800 nm, about 900 nm, about 1 micron, or greater. The second TCO layer 130 may have a thickness of up to about 1 micron, about 900 nm, about 800 nm, about 700 nm, about 600 nm, about 500 nm, about 400 nm, about 300 nm, about 200 nm, about 100 nm, or less. The second TCO layer 130 may be made from indium oxide (ITO). The second TCO layer 130 may be made from doped ITO.

[0059] The encapsulating material 135 can be placed between the second TCO layer 130 of the perovskite solar cell and the silicon solar cell 140. The encapsulating material 135 can prevent the perovskite solar cell and the silicon solar cell 140 from being exposed to dust and moisture. The encapsulating material 135 can electrically insulate the perovskite solar cell from the silicon solar cell 140. The encapsulating material 135 may have a high refractive index (e.g., a refractive index greater than 1.4) that matches the refractive index of the TCO layer 130 and the upper silicon nitride of the perovskite solar cell, or the refractive index of the TCO layer of the silicon solar cell 140. Therefore, a material with a high refractive index can reduce transmission loss between the TCO layer 130, the encapsulating material 135, and the silicon solar cell 140, resulting in an improved current density of the solar cell 100. The use of a material with a high refractive index can also improve light capture. Materials with a high refractive index may include ethylene vinyl acetate ("EVA"), thermoplastic polyolefin ("TPO"), PDMS, silicone, and paraffin. Example 1 and Figure 9, described below, illustrate the improvements achieved by using a specific high refractive index material in the encapsulation material 135. The encapsulation material may be a TCO layer. For example, the TCO layer can cover the perovskite layer to protect it from external conditions (e.g., water, oxygen, etc.). In this example, the reliability of an integrated tandem module can be improved through the use of a TCO layer as the encapsulation material. The encapsulation material may include ethylene vinyl acetate ("EVA"), thermoplastic polyolefin ("TPO"), PDMS, silicone, and paraffin. The encapsulation layer can isolate both the perovskite solar cell and the silicon solar cell from the surrounding environment. For example, the encapsulation material can encapsulate both the perovskite layer and the silicon layer simultaneously. The encapsulation layer may be configured to prevent the volatilization of one or more components of the perovskite layer. For example, the encapsulating material can minimize the loss of organic cations (e.g., methylammonium, formamidinium, etc.) due to heating of the perovskite layer.In other examples, encapsulants can reduce the leaching of chemical species such as lead iodide or other lead halides from the perovskite layer, which can lead to a deterioration in the reliability of integrated tandem modules. Encapsulations can be treated to have sufficient crosslinking to protect the perovskite layer from water, oxygen, volatilization of organic compounds in the perovskite layer, or combinations thereof. Encapsulations may have a crosslinking rate of at least about 50%, about 60%, about 70%, about 80%, about 90%, about 95%, or greater. Encapsulations may have a crosslinking rate of up to about 95%, about 90%, about 80%, about 70%, about 60%, about 50%, or less.

[0060] Generally, the silicon solar cell 140 may be a p-type silicon solar cell in which a p-type substrate is covered by a thin n-type layer ("emitter"), or an n-type silicon solar cell in which an n-type substrate is covered by a thin p-type emitter. The silicon solar cell 140 may be a monocrystalline silicon solar cell, a polycrystalline silicon solar cell, a PERC silicon solar cell, a HIT silicon solar cell, an interdigital back-contact cell (IBC), etc.

[0061] The silicon solar cell 140 may have a back sheet 145. The back sheet 145 can seal the solar cell 100 to prevent moisture from entering. In some cases, the back sheet 145 may be a glass sheet with an upper and lower surface. The upper surface of the glass sheet may have a highly reflective coating or textured surface to further increase light capture or scattering of light back to the silicon solar cell 140 and the perovskite layer 120. The glass sheet may be transparent. The glass sheet may be substantially transparent. The transparency of the glass sheet can facilitate the operation of both sides of the solar cell. For example, the solar cell may be configured to absorb light from both sides of the solar cell.

[0062] The perovskite solar cells and silicon solar cells 140 are electrically isolated from each other, and each cell may have its own terminals. That is, a tandem solar module can be a four-terminal module. The perovskite solar cells and silicon solar cells 140 can be connected in series or parallel by connecting their terminals using an appropriate method. In the case of a series connection, the perovskite solar cells and silicon solar cells can be current-matched. In the case of a parallel connection, the perovskite solar cells and silicon solar cells can be voltage-matched. Laser scribing can be used to achieve current matching or voltage matching by connecting individually scribed perovskite solar cells in series or parallel to achieve a desired voltage or current. Parallel or series connections between perovskite solar cells and silicon solar cells can be made via busbars / electrodes before module stacking. This allows for quick and easy introduction into any existing silicon manufacturing process.

[0063] Solar cell 100 may have a power conversion efficiency of at least about 25%, about 26%, about 27%, about 28%, about 29%, about 30%, or greater.

[0064] Figure 2 schematically illustrates how the perovskite layer 120 in Figure 1 may be formed. A metallic lead layer can be deposited on the HTL via physical vapor deposition. Next, methylammonium iodide (MAI) or formamidinium iodide (FAI) can be applied to the metallic Pb layer. Finally, the MAI or FAI can be exposed to iodine gas to form the perovskite layer 120, which may be methylammonium lead triiodide or formamidinium lead triiodide. This or other fabrication steps will be described in more detail in subsequent figures.

[0065] TCO creation The first TCO layer 110 and the second TCO layer 130 can serve as electrical contacts for the perovskite solar cell while maintaining the translucency of the perovskite solar cell so that the underlying silicon solar cell 140 can still absorb light. A physical deposition (PVD) process may be used to fabricate the first TCO layer 110 and the second TCO layer 130. The PVD process may be adjusted so that the resulting TCO layers are transparent to light (for example, light with wavelengths from 300 nanometers ("nm") to 1200 nm for the second TCO layer). For example, the argon pressure and the deposition power of the PVD process may be adjusted accordingly. For example, the argon pressure can be from about 1 millitorre to about 5 millitorre, and the deposition power can be from about 20 watts to about 100 watts. The thicknesses of the first TCO layer 110 and the second TCO layer 130 may also be set to achieve such transparency. This transparency allows the underlying silicon solar cell 140 to absorb as much light as possible that was not absorbed by the perovskite layer 120, which typically absorbs light with wavelengths between 300 nm and 700 nm.

[0066] When fabricating the second TCO layer 130, the PVD process may tend to create defects between the ETL 125 and the perovskite layer 120 due to ultraviolet light and argon / oxygen ions generated by the plasma during the process. Such defects can degrade the performance of the perovskite layer 120 as an absorber of electron-hole pairs. For example, the perovskite layer 120 may exhibit a lower open-circuit voltage and a lower fill factor as a result of such defects. Minimizing the creation of such defects may be beneficial.

[0067] In one embodiment, the damage described above can be minimized by first creating a buffer layer of TCO on the ETL125 through a low-power PVD process. The power during the low-power PVD process is at most about 0.60, 0.55, 0.50, 0.45, 0.40, 0.35, 0.30, 0.25, 0.20, 0.15, 0.10, 0.05, or smaller values ​​per square centimeter ("W / cm²"). 2 The buffer layer may be at least about 5 nm, about 10 nm, about 15 nm, about 20 nm, about 25 nm, about 30 nm, about 35 nm, about 40 nm, about 45 nm, about 50 nm, about 55 nm, about 60 nm, about 65 nm, or greater in thickness. The buffer layer may be at most about 65 nm, about 60 nm, about 55 nm, about 50 nm, about 45 nm, about 40 nm, about 35 nm, about 30 nm, about 25 nm, about 20 nm, about 15 nm, about 10 nm, about 5 nm, or less in thickness. Ultraviolet damage is typically produced by high-power ions that penetrate deeply into the bulk of ETL125 and perovskite layer 120, breaking or damaging molecular bonds and resulting in deterioration of both open-circuit voltage and series resistance. Using low-power PVD to create a buffer layer can prevent high-energy ions from reaching the ETL125 and perovskite layer 120 in subsequent process steps.

[0068] The bulk layer of TCO can have values ​​of up to 1.00, 0.95, 0.90, 0.85, 0.80, 0.75, 0.70, 0.65, 0.60, 0.55, 0.50, 0.45, or smaller values ​​per cm². 2 In terms of deposition energy, it can be deposited in the buffer layer of TCO.

[0069] In some cases, an ultrathin film of silver may be deposited on the interface between ETL125 and the second TCO layer 130 by evaporation, sputtering, or atomic layer deposition. The ultrathin film of silver may have a thickness in angstroms of up to approximately 20, 19, 18, 17, 16, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or 1. The ultrathin film of silver can act as a barrier to ultraviolet light or plasma during the PVD of the second TCO layer 130. In some cases, post-annealing may be performed on the second TCO layer to partially repair some of the damage caused by ultraviolet light or plasma after the PVD process. Post-annealing may be performed at 100–140°C for 2–4 minutes.

[0070] The bulk layer of TCO can have values ​​of up to 0.90, 0.85, 0.80, 0.75, 0.70, 0.65, 0.60, 0.55, 0.50, 0.45, or smaller values ​​per cm². 2 In terms of deposition energy, it can be deposited in the buffer layer of TCO.

[0071] Conventionally, the previously described physical deposition process may be carried out in a chamber having a shutter positioned between the sputtering source and the target substrate. The shutter can be rapidly operated (i.e., opened and closed) to shield the target substrate from the sputtering source for a short period of time. The abrupt nature of the shutter can result in sensitive perovskite and transport layers being damaged by ion collisions and exposed to UV radiation. The entire target substrate is also exposed to the entire flow of TCO deposition, which may be for a length of time that achieves a thickness of approximately 300–900 nm to satisfy the requirements of sheet resistance and transmission. In itself, the physical deposition process can inherently result in more ion and UV damage to the target substrate than anticipated, which can lead to defects and recombination sites in the target substrate layers, degrading its electrical performance as an electron-hole pair absorber layer.

[0072] To address the shortcomings of conventional physical deposition processes, TCO layers 110 and 130 can instead be fabricated in an in-line manufacturing process. The in-line manufacturing process may be carried out in multiple processing chambers where the selected target material is deposited. A conveyor belt can transport the target substrate between the multiple processing chambers. The in-line manufacturing process can provide TCO layer deposition while maintaining the low efficiency, good transmittance, and uniform thickness of the perovskite solar cell. The in-line manufacturing process can be vertical or horizontal. An example of a horizontal in-line manufacturing system is shown in Figure 14.

[0073] The inline manufacturing process can reduce defects formed in the ETL125 and perovskite layer 120 due to ultraviolet light and argon / oxygen ions generated by the plasma during the TCO physical deposition process. The use of a moving conveyor belt in multiple processing chambers can reduce defects formed in the ETL125 and perovskite layer 120. The multi-chamber system can minimize the length of time the target substrate is exposed to plasma deposition. The target substrate may be exposed to deposition only in specific chambers. For example, the target substrate may not be exposed to deposition in a buffer chamber, while it is exposed to deposition in processing chambers where the first and second TCO layers are fabricated. In some embodiments, the target substrate, including an upper glass sheet 105, a first TCO layer 110, an HTL 115, a perovskite layer 120, and an ETL 125, is placed on a conveyor belt of an inline PVD manufacturing machine tool. The conveyor transports the target substrate to the target chamber with the ETL layer 125 facing the TCO supply source for TCO deposition. Depending on the desired thickness and composition of the second TCO layer and the processing capacity of the TCO supply source, there may be one or more target substrates in the chamber at a time, or there may be multiple chambers with a single target substrate. Each chamber may be separated by a gate to minimize cross-contamination and damage from plasma exposure. In some cases, the target substrate passes through a first deposition chamber for the deposition of an ITO buffer layer. Next, the substrate passes through the buffer chamber and finally through a second deposition chamber for the deposition of an ITO bulk layer. The buffer chamber can prevent cross-contamination between the first and second deposition chambers, for example, if the compositions or deposition parameters of the two ITO layers are different.

[0074] To further reduce direct exposure to deposition, the moving target substrate on the conveyor belt is ensured that each portion of the target substrate is only directly exposed to the deposition until it has moved beyond the deposition area. The length of time each portion of the target substrate is directly exposed to deposition depends on the conveyor belt speed. The conveyor belt speed can be adjusted to minimize the length of time each portion of the substrate is directly exposed, while still ensuring that each layer is sufficiently deposited on the target substrate. The moving conveyor belt provides a more gradual deposition contour on the target substrate, in contrast to the more abrupt contours created by conventional shutters.

[0075] Multiple chambers may include shielding or other obstructions between them to ensure that ion and UV exposure in other chambers is prevented when the target substrate enters a chamber without deposition. Multiple chambers may also have shielding around the deposition area to block areas of the substrate not directly exposed to deposition from ion and UV radiation. Furthermore, a multiple chamber system enables the deposition of a TCO layer with uniform thickness and at much lower plasma power without compromising the deposition period.

[0076] The in-line manufacturing process may also implement the previously mentioned techniques (e.g., optimizing process parameters such as gas flow / pressure, deposition power, thickness, and material, using buffer layers, reducing deposition energy, using ultrathin silver films, and using annealing processes) when forming a second TCO layer to further reduce defects formed in ETL125 and the perovskite layer 120. The process limits the number of defects both at the interface between the second TCO layer 130 and ETL125, and in the bulk of ETL125 and the perovskite layer 120. Other examples of process parameters may include, but are not limited to, chemical formation parameters (e.g., solvent composition, presence or absence of additives, single-run formulation, double-run formulation, etc.), ultrasonic spraying process parameters (e.g., spray volume, spray speed, ultrasonic power, lateral speed of the substrate, nozzle height, nozzle width, nozzle angle, environmental factors, humidity, atmospheric composition, temperature, etc.), post-application treatment parameters (e.g., drying period, rinsing period, external environmental parameters, chemical properties of the solvent, annealing time, annealing temperature, etc.), transport layer application parameters (e.g., type of application, surface conditions, layer thickness, layer conformability, etc.), or any combination thereof.

[0077] Figure 3 is a flowchart of the fabrication process 300 for forming a perovskite photovoltaic material. The process 300 may optionally include producing a substrate (310) comprising a first transparent conductive layer and a hole transport layer. In some cases, a pre-formed substrate may be provided instead.

[0078] Figure 4 is a flowchart of operation 310 of Figure 3. Operation 310 may include providing a substrate (311). The substrate may be a transparent substrate. The substrate may include silicon-based glass (e.g., amorphous silicon dioxide, doped silicon dioxide, etc.), transparent conductive oxides, ceramics, chalcogenide glass, polymers (e.g., transparent plastics, polymethyl methacrylate, etc.), or any combination thereof. The substrate may include the top surface of a solar module. For example, the substrate may be the upper glass of a silicon solar panel assembly. The substrate may be textured and / or patterned. For example, the substrate may have nanoscale textures configured as anti-reflective coatings and adhesive surfaces. In other examples, the substrate may include patterns configured to create photon pathways. In other examples, the substrate may have pre-patterned portions with electrodes for removing energy from the solar cell (e.g., upper contact grid layout). The substrate may have an area of ​​at least about 0.1, about 0.5, about 1, about 2, about 3, about 4, about 5, about 6, about 7, about 8, about 9, about 10, about 11, about 12, about 13, about 14, about 15, about 20, about 25, or greater in square meters. The substrate may have an area of ​​at most about 25, about 20, about 15, about 14, about 13, about 12, about 11, about 10, about 9, about 8, about 7, about 6, about 5, about 4, about 3, about 2, about 1, about 0.5, about 0.1, or less in square meters. The substrate may be a large form of substrate. For example, the substrate may be a 10th generation substrate.

[0079] Operation 310 may include applying one or more first transparent conductive materials to a substrate to form a first transparent conductive layer (312). The first transparent conductive layer may include transparent conductive oxides (e.g., indium tin oxide (ITO), indium zinc oxide, aluminum zinc oxide, indium cadmium oxide, etc.), transparent conductive polymers (e.g., poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT), poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrene sulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS), poly(4,4-dioctylcyclopentadithiophene), etc.), carbon nanotubes, graphene, nanowires (e.g., silver nanowires), metal lattices (e.g., lattice junctions with metal), thin films (e.g., thin metal films), conductive grain boundaries, etc., or any combination thereof. The transparent conductive layer may have full-spectrum transparency of at least about 20%, about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about 60%, about 70%, about 75%, about 80%, about 85%, about 90%, about 95%, about 96%, about 97%, about 98%, about 99%, about 99.9%, or a greater percentage. The transparent conductive layer may have full-spectrum transparency of up to about 99.9%, about 99%, about 98%, about 97%, about 96%, about 95%, about 90%, about 85%, about 80%, about 75%, about 70%, about 60%, about 50%, about 40%, about 30%, about 20%, or a smaller percentage. The transparent conductive layer may have full-spectrum transparency within a range determined by any two of the above values. For example, the transparent conductive layer may have full-spectrum transparency from 75% to 85%. The transparent conductive layer may have transparency of at least about 20%, about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about 60%, about 70%, about 75%, about 80%, about 85%, about 90%, about 95%, about 96%, about 97%, about 98%, about 99%, about 99.9%, or greater percentages with respect to the spectral band. The transparent conductive layer may have transparency of up to about 99.9%, about 99%, about 98%, about 97%, about 96%, about 95%, about 90%, about 85%, about 80%, about 75%, about 70%, about 60%, about 50%, about 40%, about 30%, about 20%, or less percentages with respect to the spectral band. For example, the transparent conductive layer may have 85% transmittance in the wavelength range from 400 nm to 1200 nm.The transparent conductive layer can act as a barrier to the perovskite layer against moisture, gases, dust, and the like. The transparent conductive layer can also prevent the diffusion of ions (e.g., metal ions) that may affect the performance of the perovskite layer. Methods for forming the transparent conductive oxide layer are described elsewhere in this specification. For example, the transparent conductive oxide layer may be formed using PVD and / or in-line manufacturing processes described herein.

[0080] Operation 310 may include applying one or more hole transport layers to a transparent conductive layer (313). One or more hole transport layers may be configured to move holes from the absorption layer to the transparent conductive layer and out of the solar module. One or more hole transport layers may be organic molecules (e.g., 2,2',7,7'-tetrakis[N,N-di(4-methoxyphenyl)amino]-9,9'-spirobifluorene (Spiro-OMeTAD)), inorganic oxides (e.g., nickel oxide) (NiO x ), copper oxide (CuO x ), cobalt oxide (CoO x ), chromium oxide (CrO x ), vanadium oxide (VO x ), tungsten oxide (WO x ), molybdenum oxide (MoO x These may include, for example, copper-aluminum oxide (CuAlO2), copper-chromium oxide (CuCrO2), copper-gallium oxide (CuGaO2), etc., inorganic chalcogenides (e.g., copper iodide (CuI), copper-indium sulfide (CuInS2), copper-zinc-tin sulfide (CuZnSnS4), copper-barium-tin sulfide (CuBaSnS4), etc.), other inorganic materials (e.g., copper thiocyanate (CuSCN)), organic polymers, etc., or any combination thereof. For example, a glass substrate coated with indium tin oxide may be coated with nickel oxide to form a hole transport layer in the transparent conductive layer.

[0081] Operation 310 may optionally include performing one or more lithography operations (314) on the hole transport layer. One or more lithography operations may include photolithography (e.g., (polar) ultraviolet lithography, X-ray lithography, laser scribing, etc.), electron beam lithography, ion beam lithography, nanoimprint lithography, other direct writing processes (e.g., dip-pen lithography, inkjet printing), or any combination thereof. For example, multiple features may be engraved on the hole transport layer using laser scribing. One or more lithography operations may include adding and / or subtracting features. For example, features can be cured and made permanent. In other examples, features may be formed by removing material from a target.

[0082] Referring to Figure 3, step 300 may include applying one or more perovskite precursors to the hole transport layer (320). The application may include chemical vapor deposition (CVD), plasma-enhanced CVD, atomic layer deposition, spin coating, dip coating, doctor blade, drop casting, centrifugal casting, chemical solution deposition, sol-gel deposition, plating, physical deposition, thermal deposition, molecular beam epitaxy, sputtering, pulsed laser deposition, cathode arc deposition, ultrasonic spraying, inkjet printing, etc., or any combination thereof. The application may include applying a single perovskite precursor at one time. For example, a first perovskite precursor can be evaporated into the hole transport layer, and then a second perovskite precursor can be sprayed onto the first precursor. The application may include applying multiple precursors at one time. For example, an inkjet printer can apply a solution containing multiple precursors. Step 300 may optionally include applying one or more additional perovskite precursors to the hole transport layer (330). The additional perovskite layer may be applied in the same manner as in operation 320. For example, the first precursor may be deposited by physical deposition, followed by the second precursor by physical deposition. Alternatively, the additional perovskite layer may be applied in a different manner than in operation 320. For example, the first perovskite precursor may be deposited by physical deposition, while the second perovskite precursor may be deposited by ultrasonic spraying. Operation 330 may be repeated multiple times. For example, multiple additional perovskite precursors may be applied to the hole transport layer in multiple operations.

[0083] Ultrasonic spraying applications may involve the use of multiple spray nozzles. An ultrasonic spraying process may involve the use of a single spray nozzle. For example, a single spray nozzle may be configured to raster across the application area to provide a range in area. Multiple different types of spray nozzles may be tested for the formation of a predetermined uniformity and / or thickness of the film deposited by the spray nozzles, and the optimal spray nozzle may be selected from multiple different types of spray nozzles. Once the optimal spray nozzle is selected, multiple nozzles of that type may be used in the ultrasonic spraying application. Multiple nozzles may form a sequence of nozzles configured to spray over a large area to improve processing volume and efficiency. The sequence of nozzles may be a strip of nozzles (e.g., a line of nozzles in one dimension), a two-dimensional arrangement of nozzles (e.g., nozzles distributed across a rectangle), or a three-dimensional arrangement of nozzles (e.g., multiple nozzles distributed in three dimensions). Spray nozzles may be adjusted to dispense at a certain angle. The angle may deviate from the line parallel to the substrate by at least about 1 degree, about 2 degrees, about 3 degrees, about 4 degrees, about 5 degrees, about 6 degrees, about 7 degrees, about 8 degrees, about 9 degrees, about 10 degrees, about 11 degrees, about 12 degrees, about 13 degrees, about 14 degrees, about 15 degrees, about 20 degrees, about 25 degrees, about 30 degrees, about 35 degrees, about 40 degrees, about 45 degrees, about 50 degrees, about 55 degrees, about 60 degrees, about 65 degrees, about 70 degrees, about 75 degrees, about 80 degrees, about 85 degrees, about 90 degrees, or a larger angle. The angle can deviate from the line parallel to the substrate by up to approximately 90 degrees, 85 degrees, 80 degrees, 75 degrees, 70 degrees, 65 degrees, 60 degrees, 55 degrees, 50 degrees, 45 degrees, 40 degrees, 35 degrees, 30 degrees, 25 degrees, 20 degrees, 15 degrees, 14 degrees, 13 degrees, 12 degrees, 11 degrees, 10 degrees, 9 degrees, 8 degrees, 7 degrees, 6 degrees, 5 degrees, 4 degrees, 3 degrees, 2 degrees, 1 degree, or smaller angles. The angle can be configured to reduce or eliminate precursors that do not reach the substrate and other contaminating components in the manufacturing process. Use in ultrasonic atomization applications can enable roll-to-roll in-line manufacturing processes.In a roll-to-roll in-line manufacturing process, each of a series of nozzles can continuously add a different layer to the substrate, processing the substrate (e.g., annealing, laser scribing), and the finished photovoltaic cell can be produced in a single line. Using a roll-to-roll process can result in significant improvements in production cost and speed compared to step-by-step manufacturing processes.

[0084] One or more perovskite precursors may include one or more lead halides (e.g., lead fluoride, lead chloride, lead bromide, lead iodide, etc.), lead salts (e.g., lead acetate, lead oxide, etc.), other metal salts (e.g., manganese halides, tin halides, metal oxides, metal halides, etc.), organic halides (e.g., formamidinium chloride, formamidinium bromide, formamidinium iodide, methylammonium chloride, methylammonium bromide, methylammonium iodide, butylammonium halide, etc.), alkali metal salts (e.g., alkali metal halides, etc.), alkaline earth metal salts (e.g., alkaline earth metal halides, etc.), perovskite nanoparticles, etc., or any combination thereof. Multiple perovskite precursors may be used as one or more perovskite precursors. For example, both methylammonium iodide and butylammonium iodide may be used as perovskite precursors. In this example, methylammonium iodide may be mixed with butylammonium iodide in a ratio of approximately 1:99, 10:90, 20:80, 30:70, 40:60, 50:50, 60:40, 70:30, 80:20, 10:90, or 99:1. In other examples, mixtures of lead halides may be used as part of the perovskite precursor. Using different mixtures of lead halides can allow for adjustment of the band gap of the perovskite layer. For example, using different mixtures of lead(II) bromide and lead(II) iodide can result in different band gaps. Using different amounts of lead(II) chloride can affect the crystal stability of the perovskite layer and prevent phase separation within the layer. The amount of lead(II) chloride added may be greater by weight than the amount of lead(II) bromide added. The amount of lead(II) chloride added may be less by weight than the amount of lead(II) bromide added. The amount of lead(II) chloride added may be the same by weight as the amount of lead(II) bromide added. The amount of lead(II) iodide soluble in the solution may be related to the amounts of lead(II) bromide and lead(II) chloride in the solution.For example, adding more lead(II) bromide and lead(II) chloride to a solution of lead(II) iodide can improve the solubility of lead(II) iodide and lead to a reduction in particulate matter in the perovskite layer.

[0085] One or more perovskite precursors may be one or more perovskite precursor solutions. For example, a lead(II) iodide solution in a dimethyl sulfoxide solution may be a perovskite precursor. A perovskite precursor may be a solution of perovskite precursors in weight percent of at least about 0.1, about 0.5, about 1, about 2, about 3, about 4, about 5, about 6, about 7, about 8, about 9, about 10, about 11, about 12, about 13, about 14, about 15, about 20, about 25, about 30, about 35, about 40, about 45, about 50, about 55, about 60, about 65, about 70, about 75, about 80, about 85, about 90, about 95, about 99, or greater. The perovskite precursor may be a solution of perovskite precursor in weight percent of up to approximately 99, approximately 95, approximately 90, approximately 85, approximately 80, approximately 75, approximately 70, approximately 65, approximately 60, approximately 55, approximately 50, approximately 45, approximately 40, approximately 35, approximately 30, approximately 25, approximately 20, approximately 15, approximately 14, approximately 13, approximately 12, approximately 11, approximately 10, approximately 9, approximately 8, approximately 7, approximately 6, approximately 5, approximately 4, approximately 3, approximately 2, approximately 1, approximately 0.5, approximately 0.1, or smaller values. The solution may contain one or more solvents. Examples of solvents are not limited to, but include polar solvents (e.g., water, dimethyl sulfoxide, dimethylformamide, ether, ester, acetate, acetone, etc.), nonpolar solvents (e.g., hexane, toluene, etc.), or any combination thereof. Proper mixing of solvents and solvent compositions can contribute to a controlled solvent removal rate and thus influence grain development and bulk defect formation. Adjusting the strength of solvent coordination and the rate of evaporation of the precursor solution allows for better control of the perovskite film formed and the reaction rate of formation. For example, a weakly coordinating solvent that evaporates quickly may form a more disordered film, but less residual solvent may be present in the film. Solvent mixing can improve solute solubility, decrease evaporation rate, and improve the performance of the application method. For example, a combination of NMO and DMSO can improve solute solubility and decrease solvent evaporation rate. In this example, the properties of the NMO / DMSO mixture can reduce premature crystallization of the perovskite and improve film quality.In another example, adding NMP to DMF can increase the spray width of the solution through ultrasonic atomization in the instrument, which can provide greater flexibility in the atomization parameters used.

[0086] One or more perovskite precursors may comprise one or more additives. The addition of one or more additives is configured to reduce and / or eliminate defects in the perovskite layer, as prepared elsewhere herein. One or more additives may comprise one or more recrystallization solvents. One or more recrystallization solvents may be added to a solution containing one or more perovskite precursors. One or more recrystallization solvents may be applied after the deposition of one or more perovskite precursors and / or after the annealing of one or more perovskite precursors. For example, a lead halide precursor may be applied, followed by the application of a recrystallization solvent, and the perovskite precursor may be further annealed to orient the lead halide precursor toward better methylammonium iodide integration. Examples of recrystallization solvents include, but are not limited to, halobenzenes (e.g., chlorobenzene, bromobenzene, etc.), haloforms (e.g., chloroform, iodoform, etc.), ethers (e.g., diethyl ether), etc., or combinations thereof.

[0087] Various parameters can be adjusted to provide a predetermined perovskite layer. Examples of parameters, but not limited to, include the application temperature of the perovskite precursor solution, the volume applied, the ultrasonic power of the ultrasonic atomizer, the lateral speed of precursor application (e.g., the speed of the substrate moving through the applicator), the height of the applicator (e.g., the distance from the applicator to the substrate), environmental factors (e.g., humidity, reactive gas content, temperature, etc.), wet surface energy, or a combination thereof. Any part of step 300, including the application of the perovskite precursor, may be carried out in a controlled environment. A controlled environment may have a relative humidity of at least about 10%, about 20%, about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about 60%, about 70%, about 80%, about 90%, about 99%, or higher. A controlled environment may have a relative humidity of at most about 99%, about 90%, about 80%, about 70%, about 60%, about 50%, about 40%, about 30%, about 20%, about 10%, or lower. A controlled environment may include a controlled atmosphere. A controlled atmosphere may include inert gases (e.g., nitrogen, noble gases, etc.). A controlled atmosphere may have an oxygen content of at least about 1 part per million (ppm), about 10 ppm, about 50 ppm, about 100 ppm, about 500 ppm, about 1,000 ppm, about 5,000 ppm, about 1%, about 5%, about 10%, about 15%, about 20%, or more. A controlled atmosphere may have up to about 20%, about 15%, about 10%, about 5%, about 1%, about 5,000 ppm, about 1,000 ppm, about 500 ppm, about 100 ppm, about 50 ppm, about 10 ppm, about 1 ppm, or less. The controlled atmosphere may have a temperature of at least about 5°C, about 20°C, about 25°C, about 30°C, about 35°C, about 40°C, about 45°C, about 50°C, about 55°C, about 60°C, about 65°C, about 70°C, about 75°C, about 80°C, about 85°C, about 90°C, about 95°C, about 100°C, about 105°C, about 110°C, about 115°C, about 120°C, about 125°C, about 130°C, about 135°C, about 140°C, about 145°C, about 150°C, about 160°C, about 170°C, about 180°C, about 190°C, about 200°C, or higher.The controlled atmosphere may have temperatures of up to approximately 200°C, 190°C, 180°C, 170°C, 160°C, 150°C, 145°C, 140°C, 135°C, 130°C, 125°C, 120°C, 115°C, 110°C, 105°C, 100°C, 95°C, 90°C, 85°C, 80°C, 75°C, 70°C, 65°C, 60°C, 55°C, 50°C, 45°C, 40°C, 35°C, 30°C, 25°C, 20°C, 15°C, or lower Celsius.

[0088] Step 300 may include performing one or more processing operations on a perovskite precursor to produce a perovskite layer (340). If the perovskite precursor is instead deposited as a completed perovskite layer, operation 340 may be omitted. Figure 5 is a flowchart of operation 340 of Figure 3. Operation 340 may include providing a substrate comprising a first transparent conductive layer, a hole transport layer, and one or more applied perovskite precursors (341). The substrate may be the result of operations 310-330 of step 300.

[0089] Operation 340 may include performing one or more processing operations on a perovskite precursor to produce a perovskite layer (342). One or more processing operations may include annealing, light exposure (e.g., ultraviolet light exposure), stirring (e.g., vibration), functionalization (e.g., surface functionalization), electroplating, template inversion, or any combination thereof. For example, a substrate with a perovskite precursor may be annealed to form a perovskite layer from the precursor. In other examples, the perovskite precursor may be annealed and subsequently functionalized. Annealing may be performed under an inert atmosphere (e.g., an argon atmosphere, a nitrogen atmosphere). Annealing may be performed under a reactive atmosphere (e.g., an atmosphere containing a reagent (e.g., methylammonium)). Annealing may occur at temperatures of at least about 15°C, about 20°C, about 25°C, about 30°C, about 35°C, about 40°C, about 45°C, about 50°C, about 55°C, about 60°C, about 65°C, about 70°C, about 75°C, about 80°C, about 85°C, about 90°C, about 95°C, about 100°C, about 105°C, about 110°C, about 115°C, about 120°C, about 125°C, about 130°C, about 135°C, about 140°C, about 145°C, about 150°C, about 160°C, about 170°C, about 180°C, about 190°C, about 200°C, or higher. Annealing can occur at temperatures of up to approximately 200°C, 190°C, 180°C, 170°C, 160°C, 150°C, 145°C, 140°C, 135°C, 130°C, 125°C, 120°C, 115°C, 110°C, 105°C, 100°C, 95°C, 90°C, 85°C, 80°C, 75°C, 70°C, 65°C, 60°C, 55°C, 50°C, 45°C, 40°C, 35°C, 30°C, 25°C, 20°C, 15°C, or lower Celsius. Annealing can occur within a temperature range defined by any two of the above values. For example, annealing can occur between 90°C and 120°C.Annealing may occur over a period of time of at least approximately 0.5 minutes, approximately 1 minute, approximately 2 minutes, approximately 3 minutes, approximately 4 minutes, approximately 5 minutes, approximately 6 minutes, approximately 7 minutes, approximately 8 minutes, approximately 9 minutes, approximately 10 minutes, approximately 11 minutes, approximately 12 minutes, approximately 13 minutes, approximately 14 minutes, approximately 15 minutes, approximately 20 minutes, approximately 25 minutes, approximately 30 minutes, approximately 35 minutes, approximately 40 minutes, approximately 45 minutes, approximately 50 minutes, approximately 55 minutes, approximately 60 minutes, approximately 75 minutes, approximately 90 minutes, approximately 105 minutes, approximately 120 minutes, or longer. Annealing can last for a maximum of approximately 120 minutes, 105 minutes, 75 minutes, 60 minutes, 55 minutes, 50 minutes, 45 minutes, 40 minutes, 35 minutes, 30 minutes, 25 minutes, 20 minutes, 15 minutes, 14 minutes, 13 minutes, 12 minutes, 11 minutes, 10 minutes, 9 minutes, 8 minutes, 7 minutes, 6 minutes, 5 minutes, 4 minutes, 3 minutes, 2 minutes, 1 minute, 0.5 minutes, or shorter durations. Annealing can last for a time range determined by any two of the above values. For example, annealing can last from approximately 5 minutes to approximately 15 minutes. Multiple annealing steps can be applied to the substrate. For example, the substrate may be annealed at a first time and temperature, and then annealed again at a second time and temperature. Such additional annealing steps can reduce the number of defects present in the perovskite layer and improve performance.

[0090] Operation 340 may include applying one or more additional layers to the perovskite layer (343). The one or more additional layers may comprise one or more additional perovskite layers. For example, a second perovskite layer with a different band gap may be applied to the first perovskite layer. The one or more additional layers may comprise one or more additional perovskite precursors. For example, iodine gas may be applied to form an iodine layer and / or a perovskite precursor layer in the perovskite. The one or more additional layers may include one or more washing operations. The washing operations may include applying a solvent to the perovskite layer. Examples of solvents are, but are not limited to, water, nonpolar organic solvents (e.g., hexane, toluene, etc.), polar organic solvents (e.g., methanol, ethanol, isopropanol, acetone, etc.), ionic solvents, etc. The one or more additional layers may comprise one or more passivation layers. The passivation layer may contain reagents configured to passivate and / or stabilize the perovskite layer. For example, application of a solution containing phenylethylammonium iodide can passivate and / or stabilize the particles in the perovskite layer.

[0091] Operation 340 may include performing one or more lithography operations on one or more layers and / or perovskite layers (344). One or more lithography operations may be one or more lithography operations as otherwise described herein. For example, laser scribing may be used to create features in the perovskite layer.

[0092] Returning to Figure 3, step 300 may include applying an electron transport layer to a perovskite layer (350). Figure 6 is a flowchart of operation 350 in Figure 3. Operation 350 may include providing a substrate comprising a first transparent conductive layer, a hole transport layer, and a perovskite layer (351). The substrate may be a substrate produced by operations 310-340 in Figure 3.

[0093] Operation 350 may include applying an electron transport layer to the perovskite layer (352). The electron transport layer may be applied by methods and systems as described elsewhere herein (e.g., physical deposition, ultrasonic spraying, etc.). The electron transport layer may comprise a material having a smaller minimum conduction band than the perovskite layer. For example, if the perovskite layer has a minimum conduction band of -3.9 eV, the electron transport layer may have a minimum conduction band of -4 eV. Examples of electron transport layer materials include, but are not limited to, titanium oxide (e.g., TiO2), zinc oxide, tin oxide, tungsten oxide, indium oxide, niobium oxide, iron oxide, cerium oxide, titanium strontium oxide, zinc tin oxide, tinbarium oxide, cadmium selenide, indium sulfide, lead iodide, organic molecules (e.g., phenyl-C61-methyl butyrate (PCBM), poly(3-hexylthiophene-2,5-diyl) (P3HT), etc.), lithium fluoride, Buckminsterfullerene (C60), etc., or any combination thereof. Operation 350 optionally includes performing one or more lithographic operations (353) on the electron transport layer. One or more lithographic operations may be one or more lithographic operations as described elsewhere herein. For example, laser scribing may be used to characterize the electron transport layer.

[0094] Returning to Figure 3, step 300 may include applying a second transparent conductive layer to the electron transport layer (360). Figure 7 is a flowchart of operation 360 in Figure 3. Operation 360 may include providing a substrate comprising a first transparent conductive layer, a hole transport layer, a perovskite layer, and an electron transport layer (361). The substrate may be a substrate produced by operations 310-350 in Figure 3.

[0095] Operation 360 may include applying a second transparent conductive layer to the electron transport layer (362). The second transparent conductive layer may be of the same type as the first transparent conductive layer. For example, the first and second transparent conductive layers may be indium tin oxide. The second transparent conductive layer may be of a different type than the first transparent conductive layer. The second transparent conductive layer may be deposited as described elsewhere herein (e.g., by physical vapor deposition).

[0096] Operation 360 may include applying one or more busbars to the second transparent conductive layer (363). One or more busbars may be applied as busbars (e.g., the applied busbars are applied to the second transparent conductive layer). For example, a mask may be used to form the busbars from an evaporation process. One or more busbars may be applied as a solid film and subsequently formed into busbars. For example, a film of silver may be deposited on the second transparent conductive layer and etched to form busbars. In another example, laser scribing may be used to form busbars from a film of silver. Operation 360 optionally includes performing one or more lithographic operations on the electron transport layer (364). One or more lithographic operations may be one or more lithographic operations as described elsewhere herein. For example, laser scribing may be used to create features on the second transparent conductive layer. The busbars may be attached to at least about two, three, four, or more terminals. The busbar can be attached to up to approximately four, three, two, or fewer terminals. The terminals may be configured to form parallel connections with one or more additional photovoltaic modules. The terminals may be configured to form series connections with one or more additional photovoltaic modules. The terminals may be scribed (e.g., laser scribed). The terminals may be configured to allow connection of a perovskite photovoltaic device with other photovoltaic devices before stacking two photovoltaic devices. For example, a perovskite photovoltaic device may be connected to a silicon photovoltaic device via two terminals.

[0097] Returning to Figure 3, step 300 may include applying an encapsulant to a second transparent conductive layer (370). The encapsulant may be configured to reduce or substantially eliminate the exposure of the perovskite layer to one or more reactive species. Examples of reactive species include, but are not limited to, oxygen, water, and polar molecules (e.g., polar volatile organic compounds, acids, etc.). The encapsulant may be substantially transparent. For example, the encapsulant may be transparent in the same region of light as the transparent conductive layer. Examples of encapsulants include, but are not limited to, polymers (e.g., butyl rubber, poly(methyl methacrylate), polycarbonate, polyethylene, polystyrene, thermoplastic olefins, polypropylene, etc.), waxes (e.g., paraffin wax), metals (e.g., iron, copper), semiconductors (e.g., wide-bandgap semiconductors (e.g., zinc oxide, titanium oxide)), or any combination thereof.

[0098] The encapsulant may be applied across the second transparent conductive layer (e.g., across the entire layer), to a portion of the second transparent conductive layer (e.g., to a portion of the layer), to the edges of the second transparent conductive layer (e.g., as a seal across the entire stack of layers), or any combination thereof. For example, the encapsulant may be applied to the edges of the entire stack of layers to prevent the diffusion of moisture and oxygen into the lamination. The encapsulant may be applied between the first conductive layer and the second conductive layer. For example, a substrate may include the encapsulant between the substrate and the first conductive layer. Example 3 below describes the use of PDMS as the encapsulant. Other examples of encapsulants include, but are not limited to, HelioSeal®, silicone adhesives, and butyl-based sealants. For edge encapsulants, the encapsulant may include tape. The tape may act as a barrier with adhesive backing. The encapsulant may be positioned to end at a value of at least 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, or greater from the edge. The encapsulant may be positioned to end at a value of at most 25, 24, 23, 22, 21, 20, 19, 18, 17, 16, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, or less from the edge.

[0099] Following operation 370, the completed lamination (e.g., substrate, perovskite layer, and other layers) can be used as a front panel for additional photovoltaic modules. For example, the completed lamination can be configured to serve as a front connection for two connected photovoltaic modules. The completed lamination can be configured for use as a substrate for additional laminations. For example, the lamination can be used as an initial substrate for growing silicon photovoltaic modules. The lamination can be stacked on top of a second photovoltaic cell. The layers can be stacked at temperatures of at least approximately 15°C, 20°C, 25°C, 30°C, 35°C, 40°C, 45°C, 50°C, 55°C, 60°C, 65°C, 70°C, 75°C, 80°C, 85°C, 90°C, 95°C, 100°C, 105°C, 110°C, 115°C, 120°C, 125°C, 130°C, 135°C, 140°C, 145°C, 150°C, 160°C, 170°C, 180°C, 190°C, 200°C, or higher. The layers can be stacked at temperatures of up to approximately 200°C, 190°C, 180°C, 170°C, 160°C, 150°C, 145°C, 140°C, 135°C, 130°C, 125°C, 120°C, 115°C, 110°C, 105°C, 100°C, 95°C, 90°C, 85°C, 80°C, 75°C, 70°C, 65°C, 60°C, 55°C, 50°C, 45°C, 40°C, 35°C, 30°C, 25°C, 20°C, 15°C, or lower Celsius.

[0100] Figure 13 is a flowchart of a fabrication step 1300 for forming a perovskite layer. Step 1300 may be an embodiment of operations 320-340 in Figure 3. Step 1300 may include providing a substrate having a hole transport layer (1310). The substrate may also have a transparent conductive layer as described elsewhere herein. The hole transport layer may be a hole transport layer as described elsewhere herein. The substrate may be a substrate as described elsewhere herein.

[0101] Step 1300 may include applying a lead layer to the hole transport layer (1320). The lead layer may include lead metal (e.g., lead(0)), lead salts (e.g., lead(II) acetate, lead(II) halide, lead(I) salt, etc.), or any combination thereof. For example, a metallic lead layer may be deposited on the hole transport layer, and a layer of lead(II) acetate may be applied to the lead layer. The lead layer may be deposited as described elsewhere herein. For example, lead may be deposited by physical vapor deposition. The lead layer may be deposited by the same deposition method and / or deposition machinery as the hole transport layer. For example, the same physical vapor deposition apparatus may be used to deposit both the hole transport layer and the lead layer.

[0102] Step 1300 may include applying an organic halide layer to the lead layer (1330). The organic halide may be any organic halide as otherwise described herein. For example, a mixture of methylammonium iodide, methylammonium chloride, and formamidinium iodide may be applied to the lead layer. The organic halide layer may be applied by a deposition step as otherwise described herein. For example, the organic halide may be applied by a spin coating step, an ultrasonic spraying step, and the like.

[0103] Step 1300 may include applying a halide layer to an organic halide layer (1340). The halide layer may include halides (e.g., fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine), oxyhalides (e.g., chlorine), other halide-containing compounds, or any combination thereof. For example, the halide layer may contain iodine. In other examples, the halide layer may be iodine. The halide layer may be applied to the organic halide layer by a deposition step as described elsewhere herein. The halide may be applied as a gas. For example, iodine may be sublimated and applied as a gas to the organic halide layer. The halide may be applied uniformly across the surface of the organic halide layer. Various different application devices may be used to uniformly apply the halide. An example of an application device is a "shower head" (e.g., an application head with multiple holes). An example of a shower head for the application of a perovskite precursor can be found in Figure 9. Another example of an applicable device may be a rod having one or more nozzles that can be translated across the surface of a substrate. For example, a rod the same width as the substrate can be moved across the substrate to deposit a uniform coating of halide.

[0104] Step 1300 may include (1350) performing one or more processing operations to form a perovskite layer. The perovskite layer may be a perovskite layer as otherwise described herein (e.g., the perovskite layer from Figure 3). One or more processing operations may be one or more processing operations as otherwise described herein. For example, a lead layer with a lead acetate layer deposited on top, a methylammonium iodide / formamidinium iodide layer, and an iodide layer may be annealed together at a temperature of 90–120°C to form a methylammonium / formamidinium lead iodide perovskite layer. One or more processing operations may include washing. Washing may include the use of one or more solvents as otherwise described herein. Washing may be configured to remove unreacted precursors from the perovskite layer. For example, isopropanol may be used to remove residual organic halides. One or more processing operations may include one or more treatments. Examples of treatments may include, but are not limited to, the application of phenylethylammonium iodide, thiocyanate washing, other passivation and / or stabilization steps, or any combination thereof.

[0105] In other embodiments, the Disclosure provides a method for producing a perovskite layer, comprising spraying a solution containing a precursor for the perovskite layer. A quenching solution may be applied to the precursor to form a perovskite layer. The solution may comprise all of the precursor for the perovskite layer. For example, the solution may comprise lead halides, organic halides, and halides. The solution may comprise a perovskite precursor as described elsewhere herein. The solution may be applied by a process as described elsewhere herein. For example, the solution may be applied by ultrasonic spraying technique. The solution may be treated after application. For example, the solution may be heated to remove the solvent from the solution. The solution may not be treated after application. The quenching solution may be applied to a solution (e.g., a precursor solution). The quenching solution may be applied to a dried precursor. The quenching solution may comprise a reverse solvent (e.g., a solvent in which the perovskite precursor is less soluble than in the solution for the precursor solution). Examples of reverse solvents, but not limited to, include polar solvents (e.g., alcohols, acetone, etc.), long-chain nonpolar solvents (e.g., octadecene, squalene, etc.), or any combination thereof. The quenching solution may be applied as described elsewhere herein. For example, the quenching solution may be applied by ultrasonic atomization technique. The solution may be subjected to one or more atmospheric conditions to aid in the removal of the solvent. One or more atmospheric conditions may include reduced pressure (e.g., application of vacuum), increased pressure (e.g., blow gas across the substrate), or a combination thereof. Reduced pressure may include the application of a partial vacuum around the substrate. Such a vacuum can remove the solvent from the film, allowing for rapid solvent removal and the production of a high-quality film. Increased pressure may include the use of an air knife or a similar blow scheme to aid in solvent removal. Such a high-quality film may appear mirror-like under visual inspection. After the application of the precursor solution, the solution may be given time to level on its own before curing. For example, the precursor solution may be allowed to sit on the substrate for a sufficient amount of time to settle before the solvent is removed and the perovskite layer is prepared.

[0106] Figure 8 schematically shows a perovskite precursor deposition chamber. A gas can flow from inlet 801 to chamber 802. The gas may be an inert gas (e.g., nitrogen, argon, etc.). Chamber 802 may contain one or more perovskite precursors. For example, the chamber may contain solid iodine. In other examples, the chamber may contain liquid bromine. The gas may be configured as a carrier gas for one or more perovskite precursors in the container. For example, the gas may carry sublimated iodine out of the chamber. The chamber may include an optical sensor assembly 803. The optical sensor assembly may include a light source and a detector as described elsewhere herein. For example, the optical sensor assembly may include a green laser and a photodiode detector. The gas can acquire one or more perovskite precursors from chamber 802 and flow to chamber 804. Chamber 804 may be configured to restrict the flow of gas and / or one or more perovskite precursors from chamber 802. The chamber may be configured to prevent leakage from the deposition chamber 806. Chamber 804 may be configured as a bubbler (e.g., a water bubbler, a mercury bubbler, etc.), a mass flow control device (e.g., an iodine mass flow control device, etc.), or any combination thereof. Gas can flow from chamber 804 to chamber 806 through an additional optical sensor assembly 805. The optical sensor assembly 805 may comprise a light source and a detector as described elsewhere herein. For example, the optical sensor assembly may comprise a green laser and a photodiode detector. The chamber may be a chamber as described elsewhere herein. For example, the chamber may be a chamber as shown in Figure 9. Chamber 808 may be made of or coated with a material resistant to halide gases. For example, the chamber may be made of titanium. In other examples, the chamber may have an inert polymer coating. In other examples, the chamber may be made of glass. The chamber may be connected to an exhaust port 807 which may be further connected to chamber 808.Chamber 808 may be equipped with a bubbler. Chamber 808 may be equipped with a condenser (e.g., a cooling head, a cooling finer, a cooling coil, etc.). Chamber 808 may be configured to prevent the flow of one or more perovskite precursors out of Chamber 806 into the downstream environment. For example, a cooling head can condense iodine gas to prevent it from being released into the atmosphere.

[0107] Figure 9 schematically shows a showerhead design for a spray nozzle. Gas can flow through the inlet 901 and through the nozzle 902 to the deposition chamber 903. The nozzle 902 may have multiple holes 904. The number of holes may be at least about 2, about 5, about 10, about 25, about 50, about 75, about 100, about 150, about 200, about 250, about 500, about 750, about 1,000, or more. The number of holes may be at most about 1,000, about 750, about 500, about 250, about 150, about 100, about 75, about 50, about 25, about 10, about 5, about 3, or fewer. Multiple pores may be configured to uniformly distribute gas from the inlet 901 to the substrate 905 in the chamber 903. The substrate may be any substrate as described elsewhere herein. The substrate may be placed on a heater 906. The heater is configured to anneal the substrate. For example, the heater can anneal the substrate to allow the reaction of a perovskite precursor to form a perovskite layer. The chamber 903 may include one or more exhaust ports 907. The exhaust ports may be configured to remove excess gas (e.g., excess reactants, oxygen, water, etc.) from the chamber atmosphere. The chamber may include a light source 908 directed towards a photodetector 909. The light source may include a laser (e.g., a green laser), an incoherent light source (e.g., a light-emitting diode, etc.), or any combination thereof. The photodetector may include zero-dimensional (0D) detectors (e.g., photodiodes), one-dimensional (1D) detectors (e.g., strip detectors), two-dimensional (2D) detectors (e.g., array detectors), film detectors (e.g., detectors using silver halide crystals on a film), phosphor plate detectors (e.g., plates of downshift or downconversion phosphors), semiconductor detectors (e.g., semiconductor charge-coupled devices (CCDs), complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) devices), or combinations thereof. The substrate may be placed in an oven for the annealing process. For example, the substrate may be placed in an oven along with several other substrates via an automated loader to perform a batch annealing process.

[0108] Figure 20 is a flowchart of process 2000 for manufacturing a tandem solar module according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. The method may include providing a silicon solar panel (2010). Silicon solar panels may be described elsewhere in this specification. For example, silicon solar panels include top-contact solar panels, integrated back-contact solar panels, or roof panel solar panels. A silicon solar panel may have at least about 10, about 15, about 20, about 25, about 30, about 35, about 40, about 45, about 50, about 55, about 60, about 65, about 70, about 72, about 75, about 80, about 85, about 90, about 95, about 96, or more solar cells. A silicon solar panel may have up to approximately 96, 95, 90, 85, 80, 75, 72, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 10, or fewer solar cells. In some embodiments, a silicon solar panel may have 60 six-inch solar cells arranged in a 6x9 grid. The cells may be connected in series. Each cell may have an open-circuit voltage of 0.7V with an overall open-circuit voltage of approximately 42V.

[0109] The method may further include preparing a perovskite on glass as described elsewhere herein (2020). The perovskite on glass may have at least about 1, about 2, about 3, about 4, about 5, about 6, about 7, about 8, about 9, about 10, or more layers. The perovskite on glass may have up to about 10, about 9, about 8, about 7, about 6, about 5, about 4, about 3, about 2, or fewer layers.

[0110] The method may further include laser scribing a perovskite on glass to form a perovskite cell or strip (2030). Fabrication may include the use of fabrication techniques as otherwise described herein. For example, fabrication may include the use of laser scribing to define one or more perovskite solar cells. One or more perovskite solar cells may be multiple perovskite solar cells. One or more perovskite solar cells may be at least about 1, about 2, about 3, about 4, about 5, about 6, about 7, about 8, about 9, about 10, about 11, about 12, about 13, about 14, about 15, about 20, about 25, about 30, about 35, about 40, about 45, about 50, about 55, about 60, about 65, about 70, about 75, 80, about 85, about 90, about 95, about 99, or more. One or more perovskite solar cells can be up to approximately 99, 95, 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or a smaller number. Multiple perovskite solar cells can be connected in series. Multiple perovskite solar cells can be connected in parallel. A laser scribe can separate the perovskite layer into multiple sections. Multiple sections can be formed into multiple perovskite solar cells. For example, contacts can be applied to multiple sections to extract charge from each section.

[0111] A laser scribe can be configured to produce multiple perovskite cells that, when connected together, have the same or substantially the same voltage output as a silicon module. The voltage output per unit area of ​​the perovskite layer can be known, and the perovskite layer can be scribed to form perovskite cells of a size that provide a given voltage. For example, a perovskite layer can be scribed to form five perovskite submodules, each containing 40 perovskite solar cells, to match a silicon solar module with the same voltage output as 40 perovskite solar cells. In this example, the five perovskite submodules can be connected in parallel to increase the current generated by the perovskite layer while maintaining the voltage match with the silicon module.

[0112] The method may further include connecting cells of a silicon solar panel to a perovskite solar cell to form a tandem module (2040). The silicon solar panel and the perovskite solar cell may be in a voltage-matched configuration. Voltage-matched configurations may be described elsewhere in this specification. For example, the silicon solar cell may have the same voltage as the perovskite solar cell. Perovskite solar cells may be connected in parallel with each other. Perovskite solar cells may be connected in series with each other. Perovskite solar cells may be connected such that there are multiple modules in the perovskite layer. For example, rows of perovskite solar cells may each be connected in series, and connected rows may be connected in parallel. The silicon solar panel and the perovskite solar panel may be connected as described elsewhere in this specification. For example, the perovskite solar cell may be connected to the same junction box as the silicon solar cell via terminals of copper (or other metal, such as charge collection tape).

[0113] The method may further include encapsulating the module (2050). Encapsulation may include applying an encapsulating material as otherwise described herein. For example, encapsulation may include applying a thermoplastic polyolefin to the perovskite layer. In other examples, encapsulation may include the use of a transparent conductive oxide.

[0114] The method may further include the step of applying a plurality of contacts to one or more perovskite solar cells in order to electrically connect one or more perovskite solar cells. The plurality of contacts may be applied using one or more steps as otherwise described herein. For example, the plurality of contacts may be evaporated onto the perovskite solar cells. In other examples, the plurality of contacts may be applied to the perovskite solar cells by lithography. The method may include applying an encapsulant to one or more perovskite solar cells. The application may be as otherwise described herein. For example, the encapsulant may be applied by evaporation. In other examples, the encapsulant may be spread as a viscous solution onto the perovskite solar cells. The encapsulant may be as otherwise described herein. For example, the encapsulant may be a thermoplastic polyolefin. The method may include applying an edge seal to one or more perovskite solar cells. The edge seal may be as otherwise described herein. For example, the edge seal may be HelioSeal®.

[0115] Silicon solar panels and perovskite solar panels can be electrically coupled to the same junction box. Such coupling to the same junction box allows for the simple integration of the perovskite layer into existing silicon solar modules. Such coupling can provide a simpler installation of tandem solar modules, as there may be a single output from the tandem module instead of multiple outputs.

[0116] Figures 16–19 show examples of different electrical network connections for different types of silicon-perovskite hybrid solar modules. Hybrid silicon-perovskite solar modules may be described elsewhere in this specification. Figure 16 shows an example of the front side 1601 and back side 1602 of a silicon solar module and a perovskite upper module 1603. The silicon solar module may include a front busbar 1604. The front busbar may be configured to connect the various solar cells in the module to a single junction box output 1605. The silicon solar module may include terminals 1606. The terminals may include charge collection tapes of copper, silver, gold, iron, alloys thereof, etc., or any combination thereof. The terminals may be configured to electrically connect to the perovskite upper module 1603. For example, the terminals may be configured to electrically connect the perovskite upper module to a junction box. The terminals may be configured to provide a parallel connection between the silicon solar module and the perovskite upper module. Alternatively, the terminals may be configured to provide a series connection between the silicon solar module and the perovskite upper module. A tandem solar module may comprise a silicon solar panel. A silicon solar panel may comprise multiple silicon solar cells. A silicon solar panel may comprise an upper glass sheet. Multiple silicon solar panels may be connected in series and may have a first open-circuit voltage. A tandem solar module may comprise a perovskite solar panel positioned beneath the upper glass sheet of the silicon solar panel. A perovskite solar panel may comprise multiple sections. Each section of the section may comprise multiple laser-scribed perovskite strips. Multiple laser-scribed perovskite strips within a section may be connected in series to produce a second open-circuit voltage which may be substantially the same as the first open-circuit voltage. A tandem solar module may comprise an interconnect that connects multiple silicon solar cells and multiple sections of multiple perovskite solar panels in parallel.

[0117] Multiple divisions may comprise at least approximately 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 100, 125, 150, 175, 200, 250, 300, 400, 500, or more divisions. Multiple divisions may have up to approximately 500, 400, 300, 250, 200, 175, 150, 125, 100, 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or fewer divisions. Multiple divisions may have a number of divisions within a range determined by any two of the above values. For example, multiple divisions may have from approximately 10 to approximately 200 divisions.

[0118] The perovskite upper module may comprise one or more passages 1607 and one or more terminals 1608. The passages may be created by methods described elsewhere herein. For example, passages may be cut by laser scribing. The passages may be configured to insulate different perovskite solar cells from each other. In this way, multiple perovskite solar cells may be formed in the perovskite upper module. Additional passages perpendicular to the passages may be used to form a grid of solar cells. For example, a 5 × 40 array of perovskite solar panels may be formed from the perovskite layer. The perovskite upper module may contain at least approximately 1, approximately 2, approximately 3, approximately 4, approximately 5, approximately 6, approximately 7, approximately 8, approximately 9, approximately 10, approximately 11, approximately 12, approximately 13, approximately 14, approximately 15, approximately 20, approximately 25, approximately 30, approximately 35, approximately 40, approximately 45, approximately 50, approximately 55, approximately 60, approximately 65, approximately 70, approximately 75, 80, approximately 85, approximately 90, or more perovskite solar cells. The perovskite upper module may contain up to approximately 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or fewer perovskite solar cells. For example, the perovskite upper layer may contain 40 solar cells separated by channels. Perovskite solar cells may have a width of at least approximately 1, approximately 2, approximately 3, approximately 4, approximately 5, approximately 6, approximately 7, approximately 8, approximately 9, approximately 10, approximately 11, approximately 12, approximately 13, approximately 14, approximately 15, approximately 20, approximately 25, approximately 30, approximately 35, approximately 40, approximately 45, approximately 50, or greater in millimeters. Perovskite solar cells may have a width of at most approximately 50, approximately 45, approximately 40, approximately 35, approximately 30, approximately 25, approximately 20, approximately 15, approximately 14, approximately 13, approximately 12, approximately 11, approximately 10, approximately 9, approximately 8, approximately 7, approximately 6, approximately 5, approximately 4, approximately 3, approximately 2, or less in millimeters.Perovskite solar cells may have lengths of at least about 1, about 2, about 3, about 4, about 5, about 6, about 7, about 8, about 9, about 10, about 11, about 12, about 13, about 14, about 15, about 20, about 25, about 30, about 35, about 40, about 45, about 50, about 55, about 60, about 65, about 70, about 75, about 80, about 85, about 90, about 100, about 150, about 200, about 250, about 500, about 750, about 1,000, or greater in millimeters. Perovskite solar cells can be up to approximately 1,000, 750, 500, 250, 200, 150, 100, 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 2, or smaller in length in millimeters. Perovskite solar cells can be in strips (for example, solar cells that extend to the length of a module). Strips can be connected in series or in parallel. In some cases, perovskite solar cells can be connected in series with each other. Perovskite solar cells can be connected in parallel with each other. Similarly, Figure 17 shows an example of a stacked tandem perovskite-silicon solar module. The silicon solar panel may be an upper-contact solar panel. For example, the silicon solar panel may have electrical contacts configured to extract electricity from the panel positioned on the side of the silicon solar cell facing the sun. The module may comprise one or more encapsulation layers 1701. One or more encapsulation layers may be as described elsewhere herein. One or more encapsulation layers may be applied to a substrate, and then the solar cells of the silicon solar module may be placed on one or more encapsulation layers. Additional layers of encapsulation may be applied over the silicon solar cell, and then glass-on-perovskite may be applied to the encapsulation layers. The encapsulation layers may be configured to allow electrical connections between the silicon layer and the perovskite layer. Figure 18 shows an example of a perovskite upper module electrically connected to an integrated back-contact (IBC) silicon solar module. The silicon solar panel may be an integrated back-contact solar panel.For example, a silicon solar panel may have electrical contacts configured to extract electricity from a panel positioned on the back of a silicon solar cell. Figure 19 shows an example of a perovskite upper module electrically connected to a rooftop silicon solar module. The silicon solar panel can be a rooftop silicon solar panel. For example, multiple silicon solar cells can be stacked such that the back contacts of one of the solar cells contact the front contacts of an adjacent solar cell. In this example, the silicon solar cells can only partially overlap to provide a larger activated area for the solar panel.

[0119] A perovskite solar cell of any size can allow for a random selection of the voltage output of the perovskite upper module. For example, a perovskite solar cell may be formed so that the cell generates a predetermined voltage upon irradiation. A perovskite solar cell may be configured to produce a total voltage that substantially matches that of a silicon solar module. For example, for a silicon solar cell with an output of 42 volts, a perovskite solar cell may be configured to produce 44 volts. The perovskite upper module can produce a voltage within at least about 5%, about 10%, about 20%, about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about 60%, about 70%, about 80%, about 90%, about 99%, or greater than the voltage of the silicon solar module. The perovskite upper module can generate voltages within a range of approximately 99%, 90%, 80%, 70%, 60%, 50%, 40%, 30%, 20%, 10%, 5%, or less than 5% of the silicon solar module's voltage. Matching or substantial matching of the perovskite upper module's voltage with that of the silicon solar module can result in a voltage-matched state between the two modules. A voltage-matched state can produce a hybrid module with a higher current output than a non-voltage-matched hybrid module. Silicon solar panels and perovskite solar panels have substantially similar areas. For example, a perovskite layer can cover an entire silicon solar panel. In this example, the module's total output can be maximized because all available sunlight area is utilized. Perovskite solar panels may make up at least about 5%, about 10%, about 20%, about 30%, about 40%, about 50%, about 60%, about 70%, about 80%, about 90%, about 99%, or more of the area of ​​silicon solar panels. Perovskite solar panels may make up at most about 99%, about 90%, about 80%, about 70%, about 60%, about 50%, about 40%, about 30%, about 20%, about 10%, about 5%, or less of the area of ​​silicon solar panels.

[0120] Perovskite composition and additives The perovskite layer described herein is MA n1 FA n2 Cs n3 The composition of PbX3 may be such that MA is methylammonium, FA is formamidinium, n1, n2, and n3 can be greater than 0 and less than 1 individually, and n1+n2+n3 can be equal to 1. A perovskite solar cell comprising the perovskite layer can retain at least about 80% of its solar conversion efficiency after 300 hours of irradiation under certain solar conditions in an air atmosphere at 45°C. The perovskite layer may be used as described elsewhere herein (it may be used as an absorption layer for perovskite photovoltaic properties).

[0121] In the above formula, X can be selected from the group consisting of fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine. For example, X may be iodine. X may be a combination of two or more of fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine. For example, X may be a mixture of chlorine and iodine. The combination may contain individual components having concentrations of at least about 0.1, about 0.5, about 1, about 2, about 3, about 4, about 5, about 6, about 7, about 8, about 9, about 10, about 11, about 12, about 13, about 14, about 15, about 20, about 25, about 30, about 35, about 40, about 45, about 50, about 55, about 60, about 65, about 70, about 75, about 80, about 85, about 90, about 95, about 96, about 97, about 98, about 99, or greater percentages. The combination may contain individual components having concentrations of up to approximately 99%, 98%, 97%, 96%, 95%, 90%, 85%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 65%, 60%, 55%, 50%, 45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 25%, 20%, 15%, 14%, 13%, 12%, 11%, 10%, 9%, 8%, 7%, 6%, 5%, 4%, 3%, 2%, 1, 0.5%, 0.1%, or less. For example, the combination may be a mixture of approximately 1% chlorine and 99% iodine. The combination may contain individual components having concentrations in a range determined by any two of the above values. For example, the combination may be a mixture of approximately 1% to 5% bromine and approximately 95% to 99% iodine.

[0122] In the above equation, n1, n2, and n3 can individually be at least approximately 0.0001, approximately 0.0005, approximately 0.001, approximately 0.005, approximately 0.01, approximately 0.05, approximately 0.1, approximately 0.11, approximately 0.12, approximately 0.13, approximately 0.14, approximately 0.15, approximately 0.2, approximately 0.25, approximately 0.3, approximately 0.35, approximately 0.4, approximately 0.45, approximately 0.5, approximately 0.55, approximately 0.6, approximately 0.65, approximately 0.7, approximately 0.75, approximately 0.8, approximately 0.85, approximately 0.9, approximately 0.95, approximately 0.96, approximately 0.97, approximately 0.98, approximately 0.99, or greater. In the above equation, n1, n2, and n3 are individually approximately 0.99, 0.98, 0.97, 0.96, 0.95, 0.9, 0.85, 0.8, 0.75, 0.7, 0.65, 0.6, 0.55, 0.5, 0.45, 0.4, 0.35, 0.3, 0.25, and 0. 2, approximately 0.15, approximately 0.14, approximately 0.13, approximately 0.12, approximately 0.11, approximately 0.1, approximately 0.9, approximately 0.8, approximately 0.7, approximately 0.6, approximately 0.5, approximately 0.4, approximately 0.3, approximately 0.2, approximately 0.1, approximately 0.05, approximately 0.01, approximately 0.005, approximately 0.001, approximately 0.0005, approximately 0.0001, or smaller values. In the above formula, n1, n2, and n3 can each have a range determined by any two of the above values. For example, n1 can be approximately 0.001 to approximately 0.05, n2 can be approximately 0.8 to approximately 0.989, and n3 can be approximately 0.01 to approximately 0.15.

[0123] The cations in the formula may be those listed above (e.g., methylammonium, formamidinium, cesium, butylammonium). Examples of cations that may be used are, but are not limited to, imidazolium, dimethylammonium, guanidinium, ammonium, methylformamidinium, tetramethylammonium, trimethylammonium, rubidium, copper, palladium, platinum, silver, gold, rhodium, ruthenium, sodium, potassium, iron, other inorganic cations, other organic cations, or combinations thereof. The perovskite layer may not contain additional additives. For example, the perovskite layer may not contain thiocyanates. In other examples, the perovskite layer may not contain carbamides. The perovskite layer may be configured to provide high performance and long life without additional additives. The absence of additional additives can provide lower cost and easier manufacture of the perovskite layer. The inclusion of cesium cations (or equivalent alternative cations) can improve the thermal stability of the perovskite layer. For example, the presence of cesium can increase the strength of the molecular bonds in the lead halide structure of the perovskite layer. Cesium ions may also have a lower vapor pressure than organic ions, which can contribute to the thermal stability of the perovskite layer. The inclusion of formamidinium may provide greater resistance to higher temperatures due to its increased molecular weight compared to other organic cations (e.g., methylammonium). Due to the possible intrinsic instability of pure formamidinium perovskite, the inclusion of cesium cations and / or methylammonium cations can improve crystalline stability while maintaining thermal stability. Adding excessive amounts of photoorganic cations (e.g., methylammonium) may reduce thermal stability. Adding a small percentage of butylammonium iodide can improve the quality of the perovskite layer because of the larger molecular structure of butylammonium, which can better fill gaps in the perovskite crystal structure, thereby better passivating defects or imperfections within the crystal. This can further lead to achieving higher quality or performance of the perovskite layer.

[0124] A perovskite solar cell may be a perovskite solar cell as described elsewhere herein. For example, a perovskite solar cell may be a solar cell formed on the upper glass of a silicon solar cell. The perovskite layer may retain at least about 10, about 11, about 12, about 13, about 14, about 15, about 20, about 25, about 30, about 35, about 40, about 45, about 50, about 55, about 60, about 65, about 70, about 75, about 80, about 85, about 90, about 95, about 99, or greater percentages of the initial conversion efficiency value after 300 hours of irradiation under certain solar conditions in an air atmosphere between 25°C and 100°C. The perovskite layer may retain a percentage of the initial conversion efficiency value after 300 hours of irradiation under certain solar conditions in an air atmosphere between 25°C and 100°C, up to approximately 99, 95, 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, or less, in an air atmosphere between 25°C and 100°C, as determined by any two of the above values.

[0125] In other embodiments, the Disclosure provides a method. The method may include providing a substrate. A perovskite precursor may be applied to the substrate. The perovskite precursor may be annealed to form a perovskite layer. The perovskite layer is MA n1 FA n2 Cs n3The composition may include PbX3. MA may be methylammonium. FA may be formamidinium. n1, n2, and n3 may individually be greater than 0 and / or less than 1. n1 + n2 + n3 may be equal to 1. A perovskite solar cell comprising the perovskite layer can retain at least about 80% solar conversion efficiency after 300 hours of irradiation under certain solar conditions in an air atmosphere between 25°C and 100°C. The perovskite layer can undergo a encapsulation lamination process at a temperature of at least about 120°C. The method may be as described elsewhere herein. For example, the method may be step 300 in Figure 3.

[0126] The temperature of the encapsulation lamination process may be at least about 15°C, about 20°C, about 25°C, about 30°C, about 35°C, about 40°C, about 45°C, about 50°C, about 55°C, about 60°C, about 65°C, about 70°C, about 75°C, about 80°C, about 85°C, about 90°C, about 95°C, about 100°C, about 105°C, about 110°C, about 115°C, about 120°C, about 125°C, about 130°C, about 135°C, about 140°C, about 145°C, about 150°C, about 160°C, about 170°C, about 180°C, about 190°C, about 200°C, or higher. The temperature during the encapsulation lamination process may be at a maximum of approximately 200°C, 190°C, 180°C, 170°C, 160°C, 150°C, 145°C, 140°C, 135°C, 130°C, 125°C, 120°C, 115°C, 110°C, 105°C, 100°C, 95°C, 90°C, 85°C, 80°C, 75°C, 70°C, 65°C, 60°C, 55°C, 50°C, 45°C, 40°C, 35°C, 30°C, 25°C, 20°C, 15°C, or lower Celsius. The temperature during the encapsulation lamination process may be within a temperature range defined by any two of the above values. Encapsulation may be carried out as described elsewhere in this specification (for example, with respect to the encapsulation material 135 in Figure 1).

[0127] A perovskite solar cell may be a perovskite solar cell as described elsewhere herein. For example, a perovskite solar cell may be a solar cell formed on the upper glass of a silicon solar cell. The perovskite layer may retain at least about 10, about 11, about 12, about 13, about 14, about 15, about 20, about 25, about 30, about 35, about 40, about 45, about 50, about 55, about 60, about 65, about 70, about 75, about 80, about 85, about 90, about 95, about 99, or greater percentages of the initial conversion efficiency value after 300 hours of irradiation under certain solar conditions in an air atmosphere between 25°C and 100°C. The perovskite layer may retain a percentage of the initial conversion efficiency value after 300 hours of irradiation under certain solar conditions in an air atmosphere between 25°C and 100°C, up to approximately 99, 95, 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, or less, in an air atmosphere between 25°C and 100°C, as determined by any two of the above values. The perovskite layer may retain at least about 10, about 11, about 12, about 13, about 14, about 15, about 20, about 25, about 30, about 35, about 40, about 45, about 50, about 55, about 60, about 65, about 70, about 75, about 80, about 85, about 90, about 95, about 96, about 97, about 98, about 99, or a greater percentage of the initial conversion efficiency value after the encapsulation and lamination process. The perovskite layer may retain a percentage of the initial conversion efficiency value, up to approximately 99, 98, 97, 96, 95, 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, or less, after the encapsulation and lamination process. The perovskite layer may retain an efficiency of the initial conversion efficiency value after the encapsulation and lamination process, as determined by any two of the above values.

[0128] Perovskite precursors may be applied as described elsewhere herein. For example, perovskite precursors may be applied using an ultrasonic spraying process. In this example, the precursors may be applied in different spraying operations (e.g., lead(II) iodide may be applied to the substrate, and methylammonium iodide may be applied to lead iodide). In other examples, perovskite precursors may be applied in a single operation. In this example, a solution containing all the precursors for the perovskite layer may be applied and annealed to form the perovskite layer. The annealing process may include heating the perovskite layer to a temperature of at least about 15°C, about 20°C, about 25°C, about 30°C, about 35°C, about 40°C, about 45°C, about 50°C, about 55°C, about 60°C, about 65°C, about 70°C, about 75°C, about 80°C, about 85°C, about 90°C, about 95°C, about 100°C, about 105°C, about 110°C, about 115°C, about 120°C, about 125°C, about 130°C, about 135°C, about 140°C, about 145°C, about 150°C, about 160°C, about 170°C, about 180°C, about 190°C, about 200°C, or higher. The annealing process may include heating the perovskite layer to temperatures of up to approximately 200°C, 190°C, 180°C, 170°C, 160°C, 150°C, 145°C, 140°C, 135°C, 130°C, 125°C, 120°C, 115°C, 110°C, 105°C, 100°C, 95°C, 90°C, 85°C, 80°C, 75°C, 70°C, 65°C, 60°C, 55°C, 50°C, 45°C, 40°C, 35°C, 30°C, 25°C, 20°C, 15°C, or lower Celsius. The annealing process may include heating the perovskite layer to a temperature range defined by any two of the above values.

[0129] The perovskite layers described herein are MA n1 FA n2 Cs n3The composition may include PbX3, where MA is methylammonium and FA is formamidinium. n1 may be a value from about 0.01 to about 0.03. n2 may be a value from about 0.82 to about 0.94. n3 may be a value from about 0.05 to about 0.015. n1 + n2 + n3 may be equal to 1.

[0130] The following examples illustrate specific systems and methods described herein and are not intended to be limiting.

[0131] (Examples) (Example 1) Preparation of perovskite photovoltaic cells The incoming glass substrate can be coated with indium tin oxide and then nickel(II) oxide in a pair of physical deposition steps to produce a substrate comprising a transparent conductive layer and a hole transport layer. Next, the nickel oxide can be laser-scribed to produce templates for individual photovoltaic cells.

[0132] Next, lead(II) iodide in a solution of dimethylformamide and dimethyl sulfoxide can be applied to the hole transport layer via an ultrasonic spraying step. Methylammonium iodide in a solution of dimethylformamide and dimethyl sulfoxide can be applied to the lead(II) iodide via an ultrasonic spraying step. The lead(II) iodide and methylammonium iodide can be annealed to allow for the reaction of the two perovskite precursors and the evaporation of the solvent, thereby forming a methylammonium lead iodide perovskite layer. A phenyl-C61-methyl butyrate (PCBM) hole transport layer can be applied to the newly formed perovskite layer in a solution of dimethylformamide and dimethyl sulfoxide via an ultrasonic spraying step. The hole transport layer can be laser-scribed along the same pattern as the nickel oxide layer.

[0133] Subsequently, a second transparent conductive layer of indium tin oxide can be applied via physical deposition, followed by the application of silver electrodes by a similar physical deposition process, or, in other embodiments, direct attachment of charge collection tapes to the ITO layer may be performed. The electrodes can be cut via laser scribing to form electrode assemblies, and individual photovoltaic cells can be insulated from each other by laser scribing.

[0134] Subsequently, the photovoltaic cells thus formed can be investigated through various measurement techniques, such as scanning electron microscopy (SEM), light absorption / transmission, X-ray diffraction, atomic force microscopy, ellipsometry, electroluminescence spectroscopy, photoluminescence spectroscopy, time-resolved optical spectroscopy, or any combination thereof.

[0135] After the application of the second transparent conductive layer, an encapsulating material may be applied to the back of the photovoltaic cell. The encapsulating material may be applied before the photovoltaic cell is insulated by laser scribing. A first encapsulating material, such as thermoplastic polyolefin, may be applied across the back of the photovoltaic cell, while a second encapsulating material, such as butyl rubber, may be applied to the edges of the photovoltaic cell. The encapsulating material on the back can be optionally transparent, and the encapsulating material on the sides can be optically transparent or opaque. For example, a higher quality encapsulating material (e.g., lower moisture and gas permeability) may be placed on the sides of the photovoltaic cell, although it may not be optically transparent because the sides of the cell do not absorb light, while the encapsulating material on the back of the cell may be transparent so that light can pass through to the lower connection.

[0136] (Example 2) In-line generation of perovskite photovoltaic Each operation in the production of a perovskite photovoltaic cell can be integrated into a single apparatus and / or location. For example, the substrate may be placed in a single apparatus that performs all operations of process 300. The perovskite photovoltaic cell can be integrated with a second photovoltaic cell (e.g., a silicon photovoltaic cell) in the same apparatus in which the first photovoltaic cell was produced. Figure 10 shows an example of an integrated fabrication flow for a perovskite / silicon photovoltaic module. In this example, each operation can be performed on the same fabrication line.

[0137] A large glass substrate (e.g., 1 meter x 2 meters) may be placed on a conveyor belt system configured to guide the glass substrate into an encapsulation body. The encapsulation body may contain a controlled atmosphere (e.g., low moisture, oxygen content, temperature control). The encapsulation body may comprise multiple ultrasonic spray nozzles configured to spray a lead halide solution onto the glass substrate. Following the application of the lead halide solution, different sets of nozzles in the encapsulation body may apply methylammonium halide with a butylammonium halide solution to the lead halide. The conveyor belt may be configured to move the substrate from the lead halide application nozzle to the methylammonium halide / butyl halide solution application nozzle at set intervals to allow the formation of lead halide crystals into which the methylammonium halide / butyl halide can integrate into the perovskite layer. After the application of methylammonium halide with the butylammonium halide solution, the substrate may be moved to an annealing oven. In other embodiments, a formulation consisting of lead halide, methylammonium, and formamidinium in a solution of dimethyl sulfoxide and methyl-2-pyrrolidinone (NMP) can be applied as a single formulation via a one-step ultrasonic spraying process, followed by an accelerated drying step by applying a low vapor pressure chemical such as diethyl ether prior to annealing. Inside the annealing oven, the substrate can be heated to form a perovskite layer with predetermined properties (e.g., particle size, thickness, component distribution). The annealing oven may be inline with a conveyor belt (e.g., the conveyor belt moves through the oven to carry out the annealing). The annealing oven may be a batch annealing oven (e.g., multiple substrates can be placed in the oven to be annealed simultaneously). The type of annealing oven may be determined by the oven cycle time compared to the annealing period.

[0138] After the formation of the perovskite layer, the substrate can pass through another set of ultrasonic spray nozzles for the application of an electron transport layer to the perovskite layer. Next, a second transparent conductive layer can be applied to the electron transport layer via physical deposition, electrodes can be applied via physical deposition, and individual photovoltaic cells can be insulated via laser scribing. The entire in-line process can be carried out on a single conveyor belt.

[0139] (Example 3) Use of PDMS as an encapsulating material PDMS is used as an encapsulant in a tandem 4-terminal silicon-perovskite solar module (i.e., solar module 100 in Figure 1). The PDMS encapsulant is placed between the perovskite layers to the silicon solar cells, between the perovskite solar cells and the silicon solar cells. Figure 11 shows the transmission of light at various wavelengths through the perovskite solar cells when the PDMS encapsulant is not used. The average transmission percentage through the upper TCO layer is 72.24%. The average weighted transmission percentage is 74.67%. The average weighted transmission percentage is weighted by the power delivered by each wavelength of light. The average transmission percentage through the upper glass layer, upper TCO layer, and HTL is 72.20%. The average weighted transmission percentage is 72.68%. The average transmission percentage through the perovskite solar cells is 29.20%. The average weighted transmittance percentage is 24.34%. When PDMS encapsulation is used, the transmittance percentage of silicon solar cells improves to 40.44% with a weighted average of 33.48%.

[0140] Table 1 shows improvements in voltage and current characteristics when PDMS encapsulation material is used. Specifically, the short-circuit current density is 13.93 milliamperes / cm² ("mA / cm") when the air gap is filled with span-on PDMS compared to when there is an air gap between the perovskite solar cell and the silicon solar cell. 2 From "), 22.72 mA / cm² 2This improves the performance. In Table 1, "EFF" refers to efficiency, "FF" refers to the fill factor of the current / voltage graph, "aperture" refers to testing a photovoltaic cell in which a portion of the cell is illuminated through an aperture that blocks the rest of the cell, and "cell itself" refers to measurements across the entire cell without an aperture.

[0141] [Table 1]

[0142] (Example 4) Use of PDMS in the upper glass sheet PDMS can be applied to the upper glass sheet of a tandem 4-terminal silicon-perovskite solar module (i.e., solar module 100 in Figure 1). Table 2 shows the resulting increase in short-circuit current density when various types of such PDMS are used. The improvement is a result of better light capture and refractive index matching as light travels from the air through the PDMS to the perovskite solar cell and then to the glass.

[0143] [Table 2]

[0144] (Example 5) Solar module performance with and without an ultra-thin silver layer As referred to in this disclosure, PVD of the second TCO layer in the ETL can result in defects in both the perovskite layer and the ETL in a tandem four-terminal silicon-perovskite solar module (i.e., solar module 100 in Figure 1). Defects can be minimized by including the inclusion of an ultrathin layer of silver deposited at the interface between the ETL and the second TCO layer.

[0145] As shown in Figure 15, the current and voltage (IV) performance of solar modules with a silver ultrathin layer is better than that of solar modules without a silver ultrathin layer. The silver ultrathin layer contributes to better performance due to the additional interference and shielding of the silver effect during the TCO PVD process. Without the silver layer, the solar module suffers from a lower fill factor (FF) due to the TCO PVD process, resulting in an increased number of defect sites at the interface between the second TCO layer and the ETL, and / or at the interface between the bulk of the ETL and the perovskite layer.

[0146] Table 3 further illustrates the performance improvements of solar modules due to the inclusion of an ultrathin silver layer. For example, with the silver layer, solar modules exhibit better efficiency, fill factor, open-circuit voltage (Voc), short-circuit voltage (Jsc), short-circuit current (Isc), short-circuit resistance (Rsc), and open-circuit resistance (Roc).

[0147] [Table 3]

[0148] (Example 6) Performance of solar modules manufactured in an inline PVD process As described herein, a four-terminal silicon-perovskite solar module (i.e., solar module 100 in Figure 1) can be fabricated in an in-line manufacturing process. The in-line manufacturing process reduces the amount of ETL and ion damage and UV exposure to the perovskite layer during the PVD process, which increases the efficiency of the resulting solar module.

[0149] Table 4 shows the increased efficiency of solar modules fabricated using an in-line manufacturing process. Table 4 highlights (in bold) specific situations in which the solar modules exhibited high efficiency, fill factor, and open-circuit voltage thanks to the in-line manufacturing process. Table 4 also shows that the in-line manufacturing process is sufficiently effective in reducing defects in the ETL and perovskite layers so that the addition of an ultrathin layer of silver is not necessarily required. As shown in Table 4, the ultrathin layer of silver does not provide the same increase in efficiency as solar modules not fabricated using an in-line manufacturing process (for example, compare the data in Table 4 with the data provided in Table 3 in Example 5).

[0150] [Table 4]

[0151] (Example 7) Electrical connection of tandem solar modules Figures 16–19 show examples of different electrical network connections for different types of silicon-perovskite hybrid solar modules. Detailed insets may illustrate the electrical connectivity of silicon-perovskite hybrid solar modules. Leads from the perovskite solar module can be connected to leads on the silicon solar module. For example, a perovskite solar module may comprise multiple strips of perovskite solar cells connected in series. Silicon solar cells can be connected in a similar manner. This may result in two leads coming from the silicon solar module and two leads coming from the perovskite solar module. These leads can be connected together to a junction box to transmit the output from the solar module. Such schemes for connecting silicon and perovskite solar modules to form a hybrid solar module can be adapted to silicon and perovskite solar cells of any shape. For example, silicon modules may comprise front-contact silicon solar cells, integrated back-contact silicon solar cells, roof-plate silicon solar panels, and so on. Other examples include perovskite solar cells, such as strip solar cells, tile solar cells, and front-contact solar cells. A perovskite solar cell may consist of multiple cells comprising multiple strips of perovskite solar cells connected in series. For example, multiple cells comprising multiple strips of perovskite solar cells may be connected in parallel in a voltage-matched scheme.

[0152] In the example of a hybrid module, 6 x 10 array silicon solar cells are electrically connected in series to form a silicon solar module with an open-circuit voltage of 0.7V x 60 = 42V. The perovskite layer is cut via laser scribing to form 40 strips of solar cells. Each strip is approximately 20 mm wide and 300 mm long. Forty strips can be connected in series. The strips can be connected, for example, via the P1 / P2 / P3 layer method. The connected strips can be further connected to each other via electrode / charge collection tape placed at the ends of the connected strips, as described elsewhere herein. Each strip can have an open-circuit voltage of 1.1V, and 40 strips connected in series can have a total voltage of 1.1V x 40 = 44V. To achieve overall coverage of the silicon solar panel, five units of 40 strips of solar cells can be tiled on the same glass sheet. The units can be further connected in parallel to maintain the condition of voltage matching. This can then lead to a hybrid module with effectively matched voltages.

[0153] (Example 8) Performance of perovskite solar cells with mixed compositions As described elsewhere in this specification, the perovskite layer (e.g., perovskite layer 120 in Figure 1) may have a mixed composition. The mixed composition can improve the stability of the perovskite layer and therefore improve the overall output of the tandem solar module. Furthermore, the mixed composition can be used to tune the properties of the perovskite layer to suit a specific application.

[0154] Figure 21 is a graph showing the efficiency of three perovskite solar cells during a long-term reliability test at 85°C and 85% relative humidity (85°C / 85%). Such reliability tests can be accelerated aging tests that demonstrate the long-term stability of solar cells against moisture or atmospheric ingress. As seen in Figure 21, the solar cells show little degradation over long test times. Such slow degradation may be due to the combination of perovskite layer compositions and the quality of perovskite layer encapsulation. The module may have the performance to pass standardized test requirements. For example, such a module may pass reliability tests such as those in IEC 61215 or IEC 61646 standards, and may even exceed the standard performance (e.g., it may pass the test even after 4000 hours of testing).

[0155] Figures 22A and 22B show examples of efficiency degradation of perovskite solar cells in a thermal stress test in the dark (Figure 22A) and a thermal stress test with one solar irradiation at the maximum power point (Figure 22B). Perovskite solar cells containing formamidinium show little to no degradation under no irradiation at 65°C, and exhibit improved thermal stability given by the heavier cation compared to the slight thermal degradation of solar cells containing methylammonium. Under irradiation at 65°C, formamidinium solar cells lose less than a quarter of the performance loss of methylammonium solar cells, making the performance improvement of formamidinium in solar cells even more apparent.

[0156] The high-temperature aging plots in Figures 23A to 23C are MA 0.2 FA 0.88 Cs 0.1 This is a graph of the open-circuit, short-circuit, and maximum power point efficiencies at various temperatures for perovskite solar cells with PbI3 compositions. As seen in Figure 23B, perovskites with mixed compositions perform better under the same conditions than the corresponding perovskites with methylammonium alone or formamidinium alone, as shown in Figure 17B.

[0157] Table 5 shows Cs0.12 FA 0.88 MA 0.02 PbBo 0.01 Br 0.09 I 0.9 This demonstrates the performance of a thermally stable perovskite with a given composition. Despite undergoing annealing at relatively high temperatures, the perovskite solar cell was still able to maintain a high solar conversion efficiency of 18.64%. Such high efficiency indicates the high stability that can be achieved in perovskites with mixed compositions.

[0158] [Table 5]

[0159] Table 6 shows various parameters for perovskite solar cells with different types of edge sealing before the encapsulation and lamination process at high temperatures (e.g., above 120°C), immediately after lamination, after a 10-minute annealing operation at 100°C, and again after 2 days. The first column provides data for perovskite solar cells without edge sealing, the middle column for perovskite solar cells with two edges sealed, and the right column for perovskite solar cells with all four edges sealed. In each case, the perovskite solar cells were able to recover most, if not all, of their original efficiency after annealing. Such thermal stability allows for the use of higher-quality, higher-temperature encapsulation processes, which can further increase the lifespan and efficiency of the solar cells.

[0160] [Table 6]

[0161] (Example 9) Scalable fabrication method for perovskite solar cells Spraying of precursors containing lead(II) halide, methylammonium iodide, cesium, formamidinium iodide, dimethylformamide, dimethyl sulfoxide, and N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone may be performed as described elsewhere herein. For example, these precursors or salts may be mixed together, stirred, and slightly heated to improve homogeneity. The resulting precursor solution may be applied to a substrate via an ultrasonic spraying process and dried at room temperature for 5–15 minutes. The substrate with the precursor layer may be immersed in a reverse solvent to form a perovskite layer. Examples of immersion include immersing the substrate in the reverse solvent, mechanical spraying of the reverse solvent, chemical showering of the reverse solvent, or any combination thereof. Slow addition of the perovskite film to the reverse solvent may be effective in reducing defects in the film and residues left on the film. For example, the forward and backward movement of the film during addition to the reverse solvent bath may generate defects at the contact line between the film and the reverse solvent. The substrate may be slowly introduced into the solvent bath to avoid such defects. Alternatively, high-quality perovskite films can be produced by controlled rinsing followed by air knife drying.

[0162] Examples of reverse solvents include, but are not limited to, diethyl ether, dibutyl ether, chlorobenzene, chloroform, or any combination thereof. The choice of reverse solvent may depend on the miscibility of the reverse solvent with the solvent (e.g., the solvent and the reverse solvent may be miscible) and the solubility of the perovskite in the reverse solvent (e.g., the reverse solvent may not be able to effectively dissolve the perovskite). Rapid removal of the solvent using the reverse solvent may be important for the overall quality of the film. For example, if the reverse solvent does not completely remove the solvent, an impermeable sheath may form on the upper side of the layer, potentially inhibiting further solvent removal. In other examples, rapid removal of the solvent can result in a high-quality film. Lequefumes from immersion may be recovered, replenished (e.g., by removing solid particles), and reused for the preparation of the next perovskite layer. The perovskite layer may be subsequently annealed as described elsewhere herein. For example, the perovskite layer may be annealed at a temperature between 90°C and 110°C for 5 to 15 minutes, followed by annealing at 110°C for 10 minutes. Figure 24A shows an example of an apparatus for producing a perovskite layer, including the use of a reverse solvent, according to an embodiment.

[0163] Such methods for fabricating perovskite films can produce perovskite solar cells with good performance and low hysteresis. Table 7 shows an example of the properties of a perovskite film with a thickness of approximately 350 nm fabricated by this method. Figure 25 shows histograms of the efficiency of various perovskite layers produced by the methods and systems described herein, according to embodiments. This figure demonstrates the potential to produce consistently high-performance perovskite solar modules for use in the devices described herein. Further adjustments of additional parameters, as described elsewhere herein, can lead to further improvements in the efficiency and consistency of the product perovskite modules.

[0164] [Table 7]

[0165] A reverse solvent-free method for preparing the perovskite layer may involve the use of a precursor solution containing lead(II) acetate, lead(II) halide, methylammonium halide, and dimethylformamide. Such a solution does not require the application of a reverse solvent to form the perovskite layer. For example, the solution can be applied to a substrate and dried at room temperature for 5 to 15 minutes to form the perovskite layer. The perovskite layer may then be annealed as described elsewhere herein. Figure 24B shows an example of an apparatus for producing a perovskite layer without the use of a reverse solvent, according to an embodiment.

[0166] Such methods can be scalable due to the combination of easy atmospheric control (e.g., ambient conditions with low humidity), a one-step perovskite spraying formulation, a scalable drying process (e.g., vacuum, air knife, etc.), a scalable annealing process, and the addition of a scalable electron transport layer (e.g., ultrasonic spraying formulation and apparatus).

[0167] (Example 10) Reliability testing and packaging Figure 26 is a schematic of an example solar module package according to an embodiment. Figure 27 is a schematic of an example wiring diagram for a module package according to an embodiment. The example solar module package may be a hybrid module comprising a perovskite layer 2601 and a silicon layer 2602. The perovskite layer may be formed by methods and systems described elsewhere herein. For example, the perovskite layer may be formed on the upper glass sheet of a silicon solar module. The perovskite layer may be placed on a hole transport layer on top of a transparent conductive oxide layer of approximately 7 ohms / square meter, as described elsewhere herein. The perovskite layer may then have an electron transport layer added thereto, and other layers of transparent conductive oxide may be added to the electron transport layer. A metal layer may then be added to form electrode contacts configured for removing current from the perovskite layer. The glass-on-glass perovskite may then be superimposed on a 2x2 array connected in series of 6-inch silicon solar cells. As illustrated, perovskite solar cells can be connected in parallel with silicon solar cells. Alternatively, perovskite and silicon solar cells can be electronically separate (e.g., a four-terminal structure). The perovskite layer can be placed in glass on a glass configuration with silicon solar cells. Glass on a glass configuration can improve light capture in the solar module and thus improve the overall efficiency of the module. As shown in Figure 27, the perovskite layer can be laser-scribed into multiple strips so that the open-circuit voltage of the ensemble of photovoltaic cells can be matched with the open-circuit voltage of the ensemble of silicon cells. This voltage matching can reduce waste and increase overall module performance.

[0168] Modules may be tested to ensure that their performance is sustained over time. Such tests may include performance tests (e.g., performance measurement, temperature coefficient measurement, normal operating cell temperature measurement, low-light performance, measurement of light-induced degradation, measurement of light and high-temperature-induced degradation, etc.), environmental durability tests (e.g., temperature cycling, humidity freezing test, humid heat test, test for potential induced degradation, etc.), long-term durability tests (e.g., outdoor exposure test, hot spot test, reverse current overload test, UV modification, hail resistance, etc.), or any combination thereof.

[0169] Computer system This disclosure provides a computer system programmed to carry out the methods of this disclosure. Figure 12 shows a computer system 1201 programmed or otherwise configured to direct the fabrication and manufacturing processes described herein (e.g., physical deposition, ultrasonic spraying, etc.) or to control the power electronics connected to the solar module described herein.

[0170] The computer system 1201 includes a central processing unit (CPU, also referred to herein as “processor” and “computer processing unit”) 1205, which may be a single-core or multi-core processor, or multiple processors for parallel processing. The computer system 1201 also includes a storage device or storage location 1210 (e.g., random-access memory, read-only memory, flash memory), an electronic storage unit 1215 (e.g., a hard disk), a communication interface 1220 for communication with one or more other systems (e.g., a network adapter), and peripheral devices 1225 such as a cache, other storage devices, data storage, and / or adapters for electronic display devices. The storage device 1210, storage unit 1215, interface 1220, and peripheral devices 1225 communicate with the CPU 1205 through a communication bus (solid line), such as a motherboard. The storage unit 1215 may be a data storage unit (or data storage location) for storing data. Computer system 1201 may be operationally connected to computer network ("Network") 1230 with the help of a communication interface 1220. Network 1230 may be the Internet, the Internet and / or an extranet, or an intranet and / or extranet communicating with the Internet. Network 1230 may, in some cases, be a telecommunications and / or data network. Network 1230 may comprise one or more computer servers that enable distributed computing, such as cloud computing. Network 1230 may, in some cases with the help of computer system 1201, implement a peer-to-peer network, which may allow devices connected to computer system 1201 to behave as clients or servers.

[0171] The CPU 1205 can execute a machine-readable instruction sequence that can be implemented by a program or software. Instructions may be stored in a storage location such as the storage device 1210. Instructions are directed to the CPU 1205, which can then be programmed or otherwise configured to perform the methods of this disclosure. Examples of operations performed by the CPU 1205 may include fetching, decoding, executing, and writing back.

[0172] The CPU 1205 may be part of a circuit, such as an integrated circuit. One or more other components of system 1201 may be included in the circuit. In some cases, the circuit is an application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC).

[0173] The storage unit 1215 can store files such as drivers, libraries, and saved programs. The storage unit 1215 can also store user data, such as user preferences and user programs. The computer system 1201 may include one or more additional data storage units located outside the computer system 1201, such as being located on a remote server that communicates with the computer system 1201 via an intranet or the internet.

[0174] Computer system 1201 can communicate with one or more remote computer systems via network 1230. For example, computer system 1201 can communicate with a user's remote computer system. Examples of remote computer systems include personal computers (e.g., portable PCs), slate or tablet PCs (e.g., Apple® iPad, Samsung® Galaxy Tab), telephones, smartphones (e.g., Apple® iPhone, Android-enabled devices, Blackberry®), or personal digital assistants. Users can access computer system 1201 via network 1230.

[0175] Methods described herein may be implemented using machine-executable code stored in an electronic storage location of the computer system 1201, such as in the memory device 1210 or the electronic storage unit 1215. The machine-executable or machine-readable code may be provided in the form of software. In use, the code may be executed by the processing unit 1205. In some cases, the code may be read from the storage unit 1215 and stored in the memory device 1210 for easy access by the processing unit 1205. In some situations, the electronic storage unit 1215 may be excluded, and the machine-executable instructions are stored in the memory device 1210.

[0176] The code may be pre-compiled and configured for use with a machine having processing equipment adapted to execute the code, or it may be compiled during runtime. The code may be supplied in a programming language that can be selected to allow the code to be executed either pre-compiled or at compile time.

[0177] Embodiments of the systems and methods provided herein, such as computer system 1201, can be embodied in programming. Various embodiments of the art can typically be considered as “products” or “articles of manufacture” in the form of code and / or associated data executable by a machine (or processing unit) that runs or is embodied in some kind of machine-readable medium. Machine-executable code can be stored in electronic storage units such as memory devices (e.g., read-only memory, random-access memory, flash memory) or hard disks. The “storage” medium can include any or all of tangible memory devices such as computers or processing units, or their associated modules such as various semiconductor memories, tape drives, disk drives, etc., that can provide non-temporary storage at any time for software programming. All or part of the software can be communicated from time to time over the Internet or various other telecommunication networks. Such communication can enable the reading of software from one computer or processing unit to another, for example, from a management server or host computer to an application server computer platform. Therefore, other types of media that may contain software elements include light waves, radio waves, and electromagnetic waves, used beyond physical interfaces between local devices, through wired and optical terrestrial communication line networks, and across various air links. Physical elements that carry such waves, such as wired or wireless links and optical links, can also be considered media containing software. Unless otherwise limited as used herein, the term tangible “storage” medium, such as a “readable medium” of a computer or machine, refers to any medium that participates in providing instructions to a processing unit for execution.

[0178] Therefore, machine-readable media such as computer executable code can take many forms, including, but are not limited to, tangible storage media, carrier media, or physical transmission media. Non-volatile storage media include optical disks or magnetic disks, such as any storage device in any computer, which may be used to implement a database shown in drawings, for example. Volatile storage media include dynamic memory, such as the main memory of such a computer platform. Tangible transmission media include coaxial cables, copper wires, and optical fibers, including wires with buses within computer systems. Carrier transmission media can take the form of electrical signals, electromagnetic signals, sound waves, or light waves, such as those produced during radio frequency (RF) and infrared (IR) data communications. Therefore, common forms of computer-readable media include, for example, floppy disks, flexible disks, hard disks, magnetic tapes, any other magnetic media, CD-ROMs, DVDs, DVD-ROMs, any other optical media, punched card paper tapes, any other physical storage media with hole patterns, RAM, ROMs, PROMs, EPROMs, FLASH-EPROMs, any other memory chips or cartridges, carriers for transmitting data or instructions, cables or links for transmitting such carriers, or any other media from which a computer can read programming code and / or data. Many of these forms of computer-readable media may involve transporting one or more sequences of one or more instructions to a processing unit for execution.

[0179] The computer system 1201 may include an electronic display device 1235 with a user interface (UI) 1240, or be able to communicate with such an electronic display device 1235, for example, to provide control over manufacturing process parameters. Examples of UIs include, but are not limited to, graphical user interfaces (GUIs) and web-based user interfaces.

[0180] The methods and systems of this disclosure may be implemented using one or more algorithms. The algorithms may be implemented by software in the execution by the central processing unit 1205.

[0181] Preferred embodiments of the present invention are illustrated and described herein, but it will be apparent to those skilled in the art that such embodiments are provided only as examples. The present invention is not intended to be limited by any particular example provided herein. While the present invention has been described with reference to the above specification, the descriptions and illustrations of embodiments herein are not intended to be construed as limiting. Herein, numerous variations, alterations, and substitutions will be conceivable to those skilled in the art without departing from the present invention. Furthermore, it will be understood that all aspects of the present invention are not limited to any particular description, configuration, or relative characteristics described herein, which depend on various conditions and variables. It should be understood that various substitutions to the embodiments of the present invention described herein may be used when carrying out the present invention. Therefore, it has been considered that the present invention also encompasses all such substitutions, alterations, alterations, or equivalents. It is intended that the following claims define the scope of the present invention, and that the methods and structures within the scope of these claims and their transmissions are thereby covered. [Explanation of symbols]

[0182] 100 Silicon-Perovskite Solar Cells 105 Upper glass sheet 110 The first TCO layer 115 HTL 120 Perovskite layer 125 ETL 130 The second TCO layer 135. Encapsulation material 140 Silicon Solar Cells 145 Back side sheet 801 Entrance 802 Chamber 803 Optical Sensor Assembly 804 Chamber 805 Optical Sensor Assembly 806 Chamber 807 Exhaust port 808 Chamber 901 Entrance 902 Nozzle 903 Deposit Chamber 904 hole 905 Base material 906 Heater 907 Exhaust port 908 light source 909 Photodetector 1201 Computer System 1205 Processing unit, CPU, processing unit, computer processing unit 1210 Storage device, storage location 1215 Electronic Storage Unit 1220 Communication Interface 1225 Peripheral Devices 1230 Computer Networks 1235 Electronic display device 1240 User Interface 1601 Front side of silicon solar module 1602 Back side of a silicon solar module 1603 Perovskite Upper Module 1604 Front busbar 1605 Connection box output 1606 terminal 1607 Passage 1608 terminal 1701 Encapsulation layer

Claims

1. (a) A step of forming a perovskite layer on a glass panel, (i) A step of applying a solution to the glass panel to form a coating of the solution on the glass panel, wherein the solution comprises a perovskite precursor and a solvent, (ii) The step of removing the solvent from the coating to form a perovskite precursor layer on the substrate, (iii) A step of annealing the perovskite precursor layer at a temperature in the range of 40°C to 120°C to form a perovskite layer, wherein the perovskite layer is MA ｎ１ FA ｎ２ Cs ｎ３ PbX ３ The composition is such that MA is methylammonium, FA is formamidinium, Cs is cesium, Pb is lead, 0.001 ≤ n1 ≤ 0.05, 0 < n2 < 1, 0.001 ≤ n3 ≤ 0.15, n1 + n2 + n3 = 1, and X is selected from the group consisting of fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine, and the steps are as follows: Steps including, (c) A step of fabricating one or more perovskite solar cells from the perovskite layer, wherein the one or more perovskite solar cells generate a first output voltage, (d) Laminating one or more perovskite solar cells onto a silicon solar module such that the glass panel forms the upper glass panel of the silicon solar module, wherein the silicon solar module has a second output voltage and the first output voltage is substantially matched to the second output voltage, (e) The step of electrically connecting the silicon solar module to one or more perovskite solar cells. A method that includes this.

2. The method according to claim 1, wherein the manufacturing step includes using a laser scribe to define the one or more perovskite solar cells.

3. The method according to claim 1, wherein the one or more perovskite solar cells are multiple perovskite solar cells.

4. The method according to claim 3, wherein the plurality of perovskite solar cells are connected in series.

5. The method according to claim 1, further comprising the step of applying a plurality of contacts to one or more perovskite solar cells in order to electrically connect the one or more perovskite solar cells.

6. The method according to claim 1, further comprising the step of applying the encapsulating material to one or more perovskite solar cells.

7. The method according to claim 6, wherein the encapsulating material is a thermoplastic polyolefin.

8. The method according to claim 7, wherein the encapsulating material is ethyl vinyl acetate.

9. The method according to claim 1, further comprising the step of applying edge sealing to one or more perovskite solar cells.

10. (i) a plurality of silicon solar cells, and (ii) an upper glass sheet, wherein the plurality of silicon solar cells are connected in series and combined to have a first open-circuit voltage, A perovskite solar panel disposed below the upper glass sheet of the silicon solar panel, The perovskite solar panel comprises a plurality of sections, each of which comprises a plurality of laser-scribed strips of perovskite, and the plurality of laser-scribed strips of perovskite within the section are connected in series to produce a second open-circuit voltage which is substantially the same as the first open-circuit voltage. The aforementioned perovskite is MA ｎ１ FA ｎ２ Cs ｎ３ PbX ３ A perovskite solar panel having the following composition, where MA is methylammonium, FA is formamidinium, Cs is cesium, Pb is lead, 0.001 ≤ n1 ≤ 0.05, 0 < n2 < 1, 0.001 ≤ n3 ≤ 0.15, n1 + n2 + n3 = 1, and X is selected from the group consisting of fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine. An interconnection unit that connects the plurality of silicon solar cells and the plurality of sections of the perovskite solar panel in parallel. A tandem solar module equipped with [a specific feature / feature].

11. The tandem solar module according to claim 10, wherein the plurality of divisions includes 10 to 200 divisions.

12. The tandem solar module according to claim 10, wherein the silicon solar panel is an upper contact solar panel, an integrated back contact solar panel, or a roof panel solar panel.

13. The tandem solar module according to claim 10, wherein the silicon solar panel and the perovskite solar panel are connected to the same junction box.

14. The tandem solar module according to claim 10, wherein the silicon solar panel and the perovskite solar panel have substantially the same area.

15. The tandem solar module according to claim 10, wherein the plurality of laser-scribed strips of perovskite are connected via a P1 / P2 / P3 scheme.

16. The method according to claim 1, wherein the glass panel comprises a hole transport layer and the solution is applied to the surface of the glass panel.

17. The method according to claim 1, wherein the perovskite precursor comprises a metal halide and an organic halide selected from the group consisting of formamidinium chloride, formamidinium bromide, formamidinium iodide, methylammonium chloride, methylammonium bromide, methylammonium iodide, and butylammonium halide.

18. The method according to claim 1, wherein the solvent comprises a mixture of at least two solvents.

19. The method according to claim 18, wherein the two solvents have different evaporation rates when removing the solvent from the coating.

20. The method according to claim 18, wherein one of the two solvents is dimethyl sulfoxide.

21. The method according to claim 1, wherein the step of fabricating one or more perovskite solar cells from the perovskite layer includes the step of applying an electron transport layer to the perovskite layer.

22. The method according to claim 21, wherein the step of producing one or more perovskite solar cells from the perovskite layer further includes the step of forming a transparent conductive layer on the electron transport layer.

23. The method according to claim 21, wherein the step of forming the transparent conductive layer includes generating a buffer layer of transparent conductive oxide on the electron transport layer using a physical deposition process with a first power, and then generating a bulk layer of transparent conductive oxide on the buffer layer using a physical deposition process with a second power greater than the first power.

24. The method according to claim 21, wherein the step of producing one or more perovskite solar cells further includes subjecting the perovskite layer, the electron transport layer, and the transparent conductive layer to an encapsulation lamination process at a temperature of at least 70°C and up to 130°C.

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