Methods and systems for superconductor quench detection, prevention, or mitigation

Abstract

The present disclosure can provide methods and systems for manufacture or operation of a superconductor. The methods of operation can provide quench detection in a superconductor.

Description

METHODS AND SYSTEMS FOR SUPERCONDUCTOR QUENCH DETECTION, PREVENTION, OR MITIGATIONCROSS-REFERENCE

[0001] This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 63 / 607,633 filed December 8, 2023, U.S. Provisional Application No. 63 / 607,880 filed December 8, 2023, U.S. Provisional Application No. 63 / 610,996 filed December 15, 2023, US Application No. 63 / 550,475 filed February 6, 2024, US Application No. 63 / 636,009 filed April 18, 2024, US Application No. 63 / 550,481 filed February 6, 2024, US Application No. 63 / 641,317 filed May 1, 2024, and US Application No. 63 / 651,212 filed May 23, 2024, which applications are incorporated herein by reference.BACKGROUND

[0002] Nuclear fusion may offer a high output, low environmental impact method of producing electricity. Stellarators can provide a platform for nuclear fusion energy production.SUMMARYSuperconductor Quench Detection

[0003] Recognized herein is the need for methods and systems for quickly and accurately determining a quench state of a superconductor. When a superconductor undergoes a quench event, the superconductor can locally lose superconductivity which can, in turn, cause the superconductor to become resistive and undergo an extreme temperature change. The local heating caused by the resistive transition of the superconductor can then damage the superconductor. The ability to determine that a quench event is occurring, especially accurately early in the event, enables responses that mitigate the damage caused by the quench.

[0004] Other methods of detecting a superconductor quench can rely on use of optical detection systems with fiber optics used to transport an optical signal indicative of a quench event. Such systems can have low sensitivity to the quench event, and the fragile nature of the optical fiber can result in damage to the fiber during the formation of a superconducting coil, rendering such a system unable to detect any quenches from the superconductor. Using a second superconductor to detect a quench event in a first superconductor can provide benefits such as, for example, increased mechanical strength, enhanced sensitivity to the quench event (e.g., the second superconductor can be operated such that a small change in the local temperature of the second superconductor can produce a signal indicative of a quench), easier manufacturing (e.g., adding another superconducting tape to a tape stack can be facile compared to integration of an optical fiber), or the like, or any combination thereof.

[0005] In an aspect, the present disclosure provides a method of identifying a quench event, comprising: (a) providing a first superconductor and a second superconductor in thermal communication with the first superconductor, wherein an operating condition of the first superconductor and the second superconductor is such that (i) a first ratio of a first operating current of the first superconductor to a first critical current of the first superconductor, is less than (ii) a second ratio of a second operating current of the second superconductor to a second critical current of the second superconductor; and (b) based at least in part on the operating condition in (a), identifying the quench event in the first superconductor using the second superconductor.

[0006] In some embodiments, the first superconductor or the second superconductor are a high temperature superconductor (HTS). In some embodiments, the first superconductor or the second superconductor is a superconducting tape. In some embodiments, the quench event is detected in the second superconductor prior to being detected in the first superconductor. In some embodiments, the first superconductor and the second superconductor are electrically coupled to different power supplies. In some embodiments, a temperature of the first superconductor and a temperature of the second superconductor are different by at most about 5 Kelvin. In some embodiments, a temperature of the first superconductor and a temperature of the second superconductor are different by at most about 1 Kelvin. In some embodiments, a temperature of the first superconductor and a temperature of the second superconductor are substantially the same. In some embodiments, the first superconductor and the second superconductor are each a part of a same high temperature superconductor (HTS) tape stack. In some embodiments, the first superconductor and the second superconductor are co-would together. In some embodiments, the first superconductor and the second superconductor are electrically insulated from one another. In some embodiments, the second superconductor comprises more copper than the first superconductor. In some embodiments, the second superconductor has a smaller physical cross section than the first superconductor. In some embodiments, the second superconductor is a same material as the first superconductor. In some embodiments, the quench event is detected at least about 5 seconds earlier using the second superconductor than using the first superconductor. In some embodiments, the method further comprises (c), activating a quench protection apparatus in response to the detecting the quench event. In some embodiments, the quench protection apparatus reduces a current flowing through the first superconductor. In some embodiments, the first superconductor is not damaged by the quench event. In some embodiments, the first superconductor is at least a portion of a stellarator. In some embodiments, the operating current of the first superconductor or the operating current of the second superconductor is tunable. In some embodiments, the quench event is detectedusing an electrical signal. In some embodiments, the quench event is detected using a magnetic signal. In some embodiments, the second superconductor is electronically coupled to a quench detection apparatus. In some embodiments, the first superconductor is not electronically coupled to a quench detection apparatus. In some embodiments, the first superconductor and the second superconductor do not have the ability to share current between one another. In some embodiments, the second superconductor provides less than about 5% of a magnetic field of the first superconductor. In some embodiments, the quench event is detected with an accuracy, sensitivity, or specificity of at least about 95%. In some embodiments, the operating current of the second superconductor comprises an alternating current portion. In some embodiments, the alternating current portion is a sine wave. In some embodiments, the detecting comprises detecting a change in a form of the alternating current.

[0007] In another aspect, the present disclosure provides a method of identifying a quench event, comprising: (a) providing a first superconductor and a second superconductor in thermal communication with the first superconductor, wherein, at an operating condition of the first superconductor and the second superconductor, the second superconductor has a lower critical current value than the first superconductor; and (b) based at least in part on the operating condition in (a), identifying the quench event in the first superconductor using the second superconductor.

[0008] In some embodiments, the first superconductor or the second superconductor are a high temperature superconductor (HTS). In some embodiments, the first superconductor or the second superconductor is a superconducting tape. In some embodiments, the quench event is detected in the second superconductor prior to being detected in the first superconductor. In some embodiments, the first superconductor and the second superconductor are electrically coupled to different power supplies. In some embodiments, a temperature of the first superconductor and a temperature of the second superconductor are different by at most about 5 Kelvin. In some embodiments, a temperature of the first superconductor and a temperature of the second superconductor are different by at most about 1 Kelvin. In some embodiments, a temperature of the first superconductor and a temperature of the second superconductor are substantially the same. In some embodiments, the first superconductor and the second superconductor are each a part of a same high temperature superconductor (HTS) tape stack. In some embodiments, the first superconductor and the second superconductor are co-would together. In some embodiments, the first superconductor and the second superconductor are electrically insulated from one another. In some embodiments, the second superconductor comprises more copper than the first superconductor. In some embodiments, the second superconductor has a smaller physical cross section than the first superconductor. In someembodiments, the second superconductor is a same material as the first superconductor. In some embodiments, the quench event is detected at least about 5 seconds earlier using the second superconductor than using the first superconductor. In some embodiments, the method further comprises (c), activating a quench protection apparatus in response to the detecting the quench event. In some embodiments, the quench protection apparatus reduces a current flowing through the first superconductor. In some embodiments, the first superconductor is not damaged by the quench event. In some embodiments, the first superconductor is at least a portion of a stellarator. In some embodiments, the quench event is detected using an electrical signal. In some embodiments, the quench event is detected using a magnetic signal. In some embodiments, the second superconductor is electronically coupled to a quench detection apparatus. In some embodiments, the first superconductor is not electronically coupled to a quench detection apparatus. In some embodiments, the first superconductor and the second superconductor do not have the ability to share current between one another. In some embodiments, the second superconductor provides less than about 5% of a magnetic field of the first superconductor. In some embodiments, the quench event is detected with an accuracy, sensitivity, or specificity of at least about 95%. In some embodiments, an operating current of the second superconductor comprises an alternating current portion. In some embodiments, the alternating current portion is a sine wave. In some embodiments, the detecting comprises detecting a change in a form of the alternating current.

[0009] In another aspect, the present disclosure provides a method of identifying a quench event, comprising: (a) providing a first superconductor and a second superconductor in thermal communication with the first superconductor, wherein at an operating condition of the first superconductor and the second superconductor, the second superconductor has a higher quench propagation velocity than the first superconductor; and (a) based at least in part on the operating condition in (a), identifying the quench event in the first superconductor using the second superconductor.

[0010] In some embodiments, the first superconductor or the second superconductor are a high temperature superconductor (HTS). In some embodiments, the first superconductor or the second superconductor is a superconducting tape. In some embodiments, the quench event is detected in the second superconductor prior to being detected in the first superconductor. In some embodiments, the first superconductor and the second superconductor are electrically coupled to different power supplies. In some embodiments, a temperature of the first superconductor and a temperature of the second superconductor are different by at most about 5 Kelvin. In some embodiments, a temperature of the first superconductor and a temperature of the second superconductor are different by at most about 1 Kelvin. In some embodiments, atemperature of the first superconductor and a temperature of the second superconductor are substantially the same. In some embodiments, the first superconductor and the second superconductor are each a part of a same high temperature superconductor (HTS) tape stack. In some embodiments, the first superconductor and the second superconductor are co-would together. In some embodiments, the first superconductor and the second superconductor are electrically insulated from one another. In some embodiments, the second superconductor comprises more copper than the first superconductor. In some embodiments, the second superconductor has a smaller physical cross section than the first superconductor. In some embodiments, the second superconductor is a same material as the first superconductor. In some embodiments, the quench event is detected at least about 5 seconds earlier using the second superconductor than using the first superconductor. In some embodiments, the method further comprises (c), activating a quench protection apparatus in response to the detecting the quench event. In some embodiments, the quench protection apparatus reduces a current flowing through the first superconductor. In some embodiments, the first superconductor is not damaged by the quench event. In some embodiments, the first superconductor is at least a portion of a stellarator. In some embodiments, the quench event is detected using an electrical signal. In some embodiments, the quench event is detected using a magnetic signal. In some embodiments, the second superconductor is electronically coupled to a quench detection apparatus. In some embodiments, the first superconductor is not electronically coupled to a quench detection apparatus. In some embodiments, the first superconductor and the second superconductor do not have the ability to share current between one another. In some embodiments, the second superconductor provides less than about 5% of a magnetic field of the first superconductor. In some embodiments, the quench event is detected with an accuracy, sensitivity, or specificity of at least about 95%. In some embodiments, an operating current of the second superconductor comprises an alternating current portion. In some embodiments, the alternating current portion is a sine wave. In some embodiments, the detecting comprises detecting a change in a form of the alternating current.

[0011] In another aspect, the present disclosure provides a quench detection system, comprising: a first superconductor in thermal communication with a second superconductor, wherein at an operating condition of the first superconductor and the second superconductor, (i) a first ratio of a first operating current of the first superconductor to a first critical current of the first superconductor, is configured to be less than (ii) a second ratio of a second operating current of the second superconductor to a second critical current of the second superconductor; and a quench detection instrument operably coupled to the second superconductor configured to detect a quench event.

[0012] In some embodiments, the first superconductor or the second superconductor are a high temperature superconductor (HTS). In some embodiments, the first superconductor or the second superconductor is a superconducting tape. In some embodiments, the quench event is detected in the second superconductor prior to being detected in the first superconductor. In some embodiments, the system further comprises a first power supply and a second power supply, wherein the first superconductor is connected to the first power supply and the second superconductor is connected to the second power supply. In some embodiments, the first power supply and the second power supply are different power supplies. In some embodiments, a temperature of the first superconductor and a temperature of the second superconductor are different by at most about 5 Kelvin. In some embodiments, a temperature of the first superconductor and a temperature of the second superconductor are different by at most about 1 Kelvin. In some embodiments, a temperature of the first superconductor and a temperature of the second superconductor are substantially the same. In some embodiments, the first superconductor and the second superconductor are each a part of a same high temperature superconductor (HTS) tape stack. In some embodiments, the first superconductor and the second superconductor are co-would together. In some embodiments, the first superconductor and the second superconductor are electrically insulated from one another. In some embodiments, the second superconductor comprises more copper than the first superconductor. In some embodiments, the second superconductor has a smaller physical cross section than the first superconductor. In some embodiments, the second superconductor is a same material as the first superconductor. In some embodiments, the quench detection apparatus is configured to detect the quench event at least about 5 seconds earlier using the second superconductor than using the first superconductor. In some embodiments, the system further comprises a quench protection apparatus activatable in response to the quench detection apparatus detecting the quench event. In some embodiments, the quench protection apparatus reduces a current flowing through the first superconductor. In some embodiments, the first superconductor is not damaged by the quench event. In some embodiments, the first superconductor is at least a portion of a stellarator. In some embodiments, the quench detection apparatus detects the quench event is using an electrical signal. In some embodiments, the quench detection apparatus detects the quench event is detected using a magnetic signal. In some embodiments, the second superconductor is electronically coupled to the quench detection apparatus. In some embodiments, the first superconductor is not electronically coupled to the quench detection apparatus. In some embodiments, the first superconductor and the second superconductor do not have the ability to share current between one another. In some embodiments, the second superconductor provides less than about 5% of a magnetic field of the first superconductor. In some embodiments, thequench event is detected with an accuracy, sensitivity, or specificity of at least about 95%. In some embodiments, an operating current of the second superconductor comprises an alternating current portion. In some embodiments, the alternating current portion is a sine wave. In some embodiments, the quench detection apparatus detects the quench event by detecting a change in a form of the alternating current.Strategic Quench Protection with Integrated Fuses

[0013] In one aspect, the present disclosure provides a plasma reactor system. In some cases, the plasma reactor system comprises a plurality of high temperature superconducting (HTS) tapes. In some cases, the plasma reactor system comprises one or more reverse fuses. In some cases, a first reverse fuse is coupled to a first HTS tape of said plurality of HTS tapes. In some cases, the plasma reactor system comprises a control system configured to detect a quench signal. In some cases, said first reverse fuse is configured to direct current away from said HTS tape upon said detection of said quench signal. In some cases, said first HTS tape is within a coil.

[0014] In some cases, said coil comprises an insulator. In some cases, said one or more reverse fuses are coupled to said first HTS tape at a plurality of locations on said first HTS tape. In some cases, said first reverse fuse comprises a non-superconducting material. In some cases, said quench signal is a measurement of a current in said first HTS tape. In some cases, said quench signal occurs when said current of said first HTS tape is greater than 98% of a critical current of said first HTS tape.

[0015] In some cases, the plasma reactor system comprises a dump system. In some cases, said dump system comprises a network of electrical loads. In some cases, said network of electrical loads comprises a plurality of resistors. In some cases, said first reverse fuse is coupled to a first resistor of said plurality of resistors. In some cases, said control system further comprises a plurality of sensors. In some cases, said plurality of sensors comprises a plurality of temperature sensors. In some cases, said a temperature sensor of said plurality of temperature sensors is located at a location of a plurality of locations in said plasma reactor system. In some cases, said temperature sensor of said plurality of temperature sensors is configured to collect temperature data. In some cases, said control system is configured to detect said quench signal by analyzing said temperature data. In some cases, said temperature data is configured to indicate said quench signal at said location of said plurality of locations in said plasma reactor system.

[0016] In some cases, said control system is configured to activate said first reverse fuse. In some cases, said control system is configured to activate a subset of said plurality of reversefuses. In some cases, said subset of said plurality of reverse fuses located at or adjacent to said location of said plurality of locations in said plasma reactor system.

[0017] In some cases, said activation changes a current path of said system. In some cases, said activation redirects said current of said first HTS tape from said first HTS tape to said subset of said plurality of reverse fuses. In some cases, said activation redirects said current of said first HTS tape from said first HTS tape through said subset of said plurality of reverse fuses to a subset of said plurality of resistors. In some cases, said activation redirects said current of said first HTS tape from said first HTS tape into a water heating system. In some cases, said activation redirects said current of said first HTS tape from said first HTS tape into an energy storage system. In some cases, said activation redirects said current of said first HTS tape from said first HTS tape into a grid injection system.

[0018] In some cases, said control system comprises a memory. In some cases, said temperature data or said quench signal are stored in said memory. In some cases, said control system further comprises a diagnostic system. In some cases, the plasma reactor system comprises a power supply. In some cases, said power supply is configured to deliver electrical energy to components of said plasma reactor system. In some cases, said control system is coupled to said power supply. In some cases, said power supply is configured to modulate said electrical energy. In some cases, said power supply is configured to adjust a voltage or a current delivered to said components of said plasma reactor system.

[0019] In another aspect, the present disclosure provides a method of controlling a current in a plasma reactor coil. In some cases, the method of controlling the current in the plasma reactor coil comprises providing the plasma reactor coil comprising a plurality of HTS tapes, a reverse fuse coupled to a first HTS tape of said plurality of HTS tapes, and a sensor coupled to at least a part of said plasma reactor coil. In some cases, the method of controlling the current in the plasma reactor coil comprises collecting, via a control system, a signal from said sensor. In some cases, the method of controlling the current in the plasma reactor coil comprises controlling said reverse fuse to change a current path of said plasma reactor coil to reduce said current through said first HTS tape.

[0020] In some cases, said reverse fuse comprises a non-superconducting material. In some cases, said signal from said sensor indicates a temperature of said plasma reactor coil. In some cases, said signal from said sensor indicates a temperature of said first HTS tape of said plurality of HTS tapes. In some cases, said signal from said sensor indicates a current through said first HTS tape of said plurality of HTS tapes. In some cases, the controlling reduces said current through said first HTS tape of said plurality of said HTS tapes by at least 90%. In some cases,the controlling changes said current path of said plasma reactor from said first HTS tape into said reverse fuse.Quench Mitigation Using Low-Temperature Infill

[0021] In one aspect, the present disclosure provides a superconducting magnet coil. In some cases, the superconducting magnet coil comprises one or more high temperature superconducting (HTS) tapes and a solder material. In some cases, the solder material is thermally and / or electrically coupled to said magnet coil. In some cases, the solder material has a melting temperature that is less than or equal to a critical temperature of said one or more HTS tapes. In some cases, the critical temperature of said one or more HTS tapes is a temperature at which said one or more HTS tapes degrade.

[0022] In some cases, the solder material comprises one or members from the group consisting of bismuth, lead, tin and indium. In some cases, the solder material comprises one or members from the group consisting of copper powder, carbon fiber, fiberglass, and polyamide fibers. In some cases, the one or more HTS tapes comprise barium copper oxide. In some cases, the one or more HTS tapes comprise bismuth strontium calcium copper oxide. In some cases, the coil further comprises an insulator between one or more layers of said one or more HTS tapes. In some cases, the solder material fills between HTS tapes but does not permeate said insulator. In some cases, the coil further comprises a direct temperature measurement device. In some cases, the coil further comprises at least one sensor configured to detect the presence of melted solder material.

[0023] In another aspect, the present disclosure provides a method of detecting a quench event or status in a superconducting magnet coil. In some cases, the method comprises providing a magnet coil comprising (i) one or more HTS tapes and (ii) a solder material with a melting point lower than a critical temperature of said one or more HTS tapes, providing at least one sensor coupled to said solder material; and sensing a change of phase of said solder material. In some cases, the change of phase of said solder material indicates said quench event or status.

[0024] In some cases, the critical temperature of said one or more tapes is a temperature at which said one or more HTS tapes degrade. In some cases, the solder material comprises one or members from the group consisting of bismuth, lead, tin and indium. In some cases, the solder material comprises one or members from the group consisting of copper powder, carbon fiber, fiberglass, and polyamide segments. In some cases, the one or more HTS tapes comprise barium copper oxide. In some cases, the magnet coil comprises an insulator between one or more layers of said one or more HTS tapes. In some cases, the solder material fills between said THS tapes but does not permeate said insulator. In some cases, the solder material is electrically coupled to at least one HTS tape of said one or more HTS tapes. In some cases, the solder material isthermally coupled to at least one HTS tape of said one or more HTS tapes, such that a temperature difference between said HTS tape and said solder material is no greater than 5% of a temperature of said HTS tape. In some cases, the solder material is thermally coupled to at least one HTS tape of said one or more HTS tapes, but said solder material is electrically insulated from said HTS tape.Flexible Superconductor Cable with Flexible Quench Stabilizer

[0025] In one aspect, the present disclosure provides a magnetic coil of a fusion reactor. In some cases, the magnetic coil of a fusion reactor comprises a superconducting cable. In some cases, the superconducting cable comprises at least one superconducting tape. In some cases, the superconducting cable comprises at least one non-superconductor. In some cases, the nonsuperconductor comprises at least one flexible wire having a high thermal conductivity. In some cases, the superconducting cable comprises at least one cooling channel. In some cases, the cooling channel comprises at least one bendable tube having a high thermal conductivity. In some cases, the superconducting cable comprises a low melt temperature metal (LMTM). In some cases, the superconducting cable comprises a flexible jacket. In some cases, the superconducting cable, the non-superconductor, the metal, or the cooling channel are comprised within the flexible jacket.

[0026] In some cases, the superconducting cable comprises a plurality of superconducting cables. In some cases, the superconducting cable is a high temperature superconductor (HTS) or a low temperature superconductor (LTS). In some cases, the superconducting cable is twisted. In some cases, the superconducting cable is not twisted. In some cases, the flexible wire comprises copper. In some cases, the non-superconductor comprises a plurality of flexible wires. In some cases, the plurality of flexible wires carry current during a quench event. In some cases, the plurality of flexible wires are unordered. In some cases, the plurality of flexible wires are weaved, braided, or otherwise ordered together. In some cases, the bendable tube comprises a copper tube or an annealed copper tube. In some cases, the cooling channel comprises a coolant. In some cases, the coolant comprises helium. In some cases, the LMTM fills the magnetic coil. In some cases, the superconducting cable comprises at least one instrumentation cable. In some cases, the instrumentation cable facilitates detection of a quench event. In some cases, the superconducting cable comprises an insulation sleeve, wherein the flexible jacket is comprised in the insulation sleeve.Quench Detection in HTS Magnets

[0027] In one aspect, the disclosure herein provides a method of detecting a characteristic of a superconducting coil, comprising: (a) providing a superconducting coil and a sensor, wherein the superconducting coil comprises a transmission line, (b) directing a transverse electro-magnetic (TEM) wave through the transmission line, and (c) detecting a change in a characteristic of the TEM wave with the sensor, wherein the change is indicative of the characteristic of the superconducting coil.

[0028] In some cases, the transmission line comprises a microwave stripline or a microstrip line. In some cases, the change is alteration in a local reflection coefficient. In some cases, the change is caused by an impedance change. In some cases, the impedance change is caused by a quench event. In some cases, the characteristic of the superconducting coil is a temperature of the superconducting coil. In some cases, the quench event causes a change in the temperature of the superconducting coil.Stellarator Magnets Formed of Conductor On Round Core (CORC) Superconducting Cable

[0029] In one aspect, disclosed herein is a stellarator magnet comprising: a stellarator form having a channel; and a plurality of Conductor On Round Core (CORC®) cables, wherein a CORC® cable of the plurality of CORC® cables comprises a plurality of superconducting tapes, and wherein at least a portion of the CORC® cable is disposed within the channel; and a solder electrically coupling consecutive CORC® cables of the plurality of CORC® cables to one another, and wherein the CORC® cable , the stellarator form, or both comprise a cooling conduit. In some cases, the channel comprises a channel bend portion and wherein a ratio between a minimum bend radius of the channel bend portion and an outer diameter of at least a portion of the plurality of CORC® cables is about 7 : 1 to about 400: 1. In some cases, two or more of the plurality of CORC® cables have different diameters, lengths, or both. In some cases, two or more of the plurality of CORC® cables have different quantities of the superconducting tapes. In some cases, the superconducting tapes in two or more of the plurality of CORC® cables have different widths, lengths, or both. In some cases, the solder comprises copper, silver, carbon nanotubes, graphene, tin, bismuth, indium, cadmium, or any combination thereof. In some cases, the CORC® cable and the stellarator form comprise the cooling conduit. In some cases, the stellarator of magnet further comprises a coating tube surrounding at least a portion of the CORC® cable. In some cases, the stellarator of magnet further comprises a resin disposed in at least a portion of the channel, on a CORC® cable of the plurality of CORC® cables, within a CORC® cable of the plurality of CORC® cables, or any combination thereof. In some cases, a CORC® cable of the plurality of CORC® cables further comprises a quench detector. In some cases, the quench detector comprises a voltage tap, an optical fiber, a hall array sensor, a microwave sensor, an ultrasonic sensor, or any combination thereof.

[0030] Another aspect provided herein is a method of forming a stellarator magnet, the method comprising: (a) inserting at least a portion of a plurality of Conductor On Round Core (CORC®)cables in a channel of a stellarator form; (b) coating at least a portion of the plurality of CORC® cables with a solder; and (c) heating the plurality of CORC® cables, the solder, and the stellarator form. In some cases, the solder comprises copper, silver, carbon nanotubes, graphene, tin, bismuth, indium, cadmium, or any combination thereof. In some cases, step (b) is performed at a soldering temperature of about 30 °C to about 210 °C. In some cases, step (c) comprises heating to a temperature of about 30 °C to about 210 °C. In some cases, step (c) comprises heating for a period of time of about 0.05 hours to about 10 hours. In some cases, the method further comprises depositing a resin in the channel, on a CORC® cable of the plurality of CORC® cables, within a CORC® cable of the plurality of CORC® cables, or any combination thereof. In some cases, each of the plurality of CORC® cables comprises a plurality of superconducting tapes. In some cases, each of the plurality of CORC® cables, the stellarator form, or both, comprise a cooling channel therethrough. In some cases, the channel comprises a channel bend portion and wherein a ratio between a minimum bend radius and an outer diameter of at least a portion of the plurality of CORC® cables is about 7: 1 to about 400: 1. In some cases, two or more of the plurality of CORC® cables have different diameters. In some cases, two or more of the plurality of CORC® cables have different quantities of the superconducting tapes. In some cases, the superconducting tapes in two or more of the plurality of CORC® cables have different widths, lengths, or both. In some cases, at least a portion of a CORC® cable of the plurality of CORC® cables is surrounded by a coating tube. In some cases, a CORC® cable of the plurality of CORC® cables further comprises a quench detector. In some cases, the quench detector comprises a voltage tap, an optical fiber, a hall array sensor, a microwave sensor, an ultrasonic sensor, or any combination thereof. In some cases, the CORC® cable, the stellarator form, or both comprise a cooling conduit. In some cases, the method further comprises: filling the cooling conduit with a support material before step (a); and removing the support material after step (a). In some cases, the support material comprises solder, sand, plastic balls, or any combination thereof.

[0031] Another aspect of the present disclosure provides a system comprising one or more computer processors and computer memory coupled thereto. The computer memory comprises machine executable code that, upon execution by the one or more computer processors, implements any of the methods above or elsewhere herein.

[0032] Additional aspects and advantages of the present disclosure will become readily apparent to those skilled in this art from the following detailed description, wherein only illustrative embodiments of the present disclosure are shown and described. As will be realized, the present disclosure is capable of other and different embodiments, and its several details are capable of modifications in various obvious respects, all without departing from the disclosure.Accordingly, the drawings and description are to be regarded as illustrative in nature, and not as restrictive.INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE

[0033] All publications, patents, and patent applications mentioned in this specification are herein incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each individual publication, patent, or patent application was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference. To the extent publications and patents or patent applications incorporated by reference contradict the disclosure contained in the specification, the specification is intended to supersede and / or take precedence over any such contradictory material.BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0034] The novel features of the invention are set forth with particularity in the appended claims. A better understanding of the features and advantages of the present invention will be obtained by reference to the following detailed description that sets forth illustrative embodiments, in which the principles of the invention are utilized, and the accompanying drawings (also “Figure” and “FIG.” herein), of which:

[0035] FIG. 1 shows a flowchart of a method of identifying a quench event, according to some embodiments.

[0036] FIG. 2 shows a flowchart of a method of identifying a quench event, according to some embodiments.

[0037] FIG. 3 shows a flowchart of a method of identifying a quench event, according to some embodiments.

[0038] FIG. 4 shows a computer system that is programmed or otherwise configured to implement methods provided herein.

[0039] FIG. 5 illustrates an example of a system for quench protection with integrated fuses, according to some embodiments.

[0040] FIG. 6 illustrates an example of a base module, according to some embodiments.

[0041] FIG. 7 illustrates an example of a data collection module, according to some embodiments.

[0042] FIG. 8 illustrates an example of an analysis module, according to some embodiments.

[0043] FIG. 9 illustrates an example of a quench detection module, according to some embodiments.

[0044] FIG. 10 illustrates an example of a protection module, according to some embodiments.

[0045] FIG. 11 illustrates an example of a quench mitigation system, according to some embodiments.

[0046] FIG. 12 illustrates an example of a low-temperature solder, according to some embodiments.

[0047] FIG. 13 illustrates an example of a base module, according to some embodiments.

[0048] FIG. 14 illustrates an example of a quench detection module, according to some embodiments.

[0049] FIG. 15 illustrates an example of a quench mitigation module, according to some embodiments.

[0050] FIG. 16 illustrates an example of a microwave stripline and a microstrip line, according to some embodiments.

[0051] FIG. 17 is a first diagram of an exemplary stellarator magnet, according to some embodiments.

[0052] FIG. 18 is a second diagram of an exemplary stellarator magnet, according to some embodiments.

[0053] FIG. 19 is a third diagram of an exemplary stellarator magnet, according to some embodiments.

[0054] FIG. 20 is a fourth diagram of an exemplary stellarator magnet, according to some embodiments.

[0055] FIG. 21 is a flow chart of an exemplary method for forming a stellarator magnet, according to some embodiments.

[0056] FIG. 22 is a fifth diagram of an exemplary stellarator magnet, according to some embodiments.DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0057] While various embodiments of the invention have been shown and described herein, it will be obvious to those skilled in the art that such embodiments are provided by way of example only. Numerous variations, changes, and substitutions may occur to those skilled in the art without departing from the invention. It should be understood that various alternatives to the embodiments of the invention described herein may be employed.

[0058] Whenever the term “at least,” “greater than,” or “greater than or equal to” precedes the first numerical value in a series of two or more numerical values, the term “at least,” “greater than” or “greater than or equal to” applies to each of the numerical values in that series of numerical values. For example, greater than or equal to 1, 2, or 3 is equivalent to greater than or equal to 1, greater than or equal to 2, or greater than or equal to 3.

[0059] Whenever the term “no more than,” “less than,” or “less than or equal to” precedes the first numerical value in a series of two or more numerical values, the term “no more than,” “lessthan,” or “less than or equal to” applies to each of the numerical values in that series of numerical values. For example, less than or equal to 3, 2, or 1 is equivalent to less than or equal to 3, less than or equal to 2, or less than or equal to 1.

[0060] Certain inventive embodiments herein contemplate numerical ranges. When ranges are present, the ranges include the range endpoints. Additionally, every sub range and value within the range is present as if explicitly written out. The term “about” or “approximately” may mean within an acceptable error range for the particular value, which will depend in part on how the value is measured or determined, e.g., the limitations of the measurement system. For example, “about” may mean within 1 or more than 1 standard deviation, per the practice in the art. Alternatively, “about” may mean a range of up to 20%, up to 10%, up to 5%, or up to 1% of a given value. Where particular values are described in the application and claims, unless otherwise stated the term “about” meaning within an acceptable error range for the particular value may be assumed.

[0061] It will be understood that when an element such as a layer, region, or substrate is referred to as being “on” or extending “onto” another element, it may be directly on or extend directly onto the other element or intervening elements may also be present. In contrast, when an element is referred to as being “directly on” or extending “directly onto” another element, there are no intervening elements present. Likewise, it will be understood that when an element such as a layer, region, or substrate is referred to as being “over” or extending “over” another element, it may be directly over or extend directly over the other element or intervening elements may also be present. In contrast, when an element is referred to as being “directly over” or extending “directly over” another element, there are no intervening elements present. It will also be understood that when an element is referred to as being “connected” or “coupled” to another element, it may be directly connected or coupled to the other element or intervening elements may be present. In contrast, when an element is referred to as being “directly connected” or “directly coupled” to another element, there are no intervening elements present.

[0062] Relative terms such as “below” or “above” or “upper” or “lower” or “horizontal” or “vertical” may be used herein to describe a relationship of one element, layer, or region to another element, layer, or region as illustrated in the Figures. It will be understood that these terms and those discussed above are intended to encompass different orientations of the device in addition to the orientation depicted in the Figures.

[0063] It will be understood that, although the terms “first,” “second,” “third,” etc. may be used herein to describe various elements, these elements should not be limited by these terms. These terms are only used to distinguish one element from another. For example, a first element maybe termed a second element, and, similarly, a second element may be termed a first element, without departing from the scope of the present disclosure.

[0001] As used herein, the phrases “at least one”, “one or more”, and “and / or” are open-ended expressions that are both conjunctive and disjunctive in operation. For example, each of the expressions “at least one of A, B and C”, “at least one of A, B, or C”, “one or more of A, B, and C”, “one or more of A, B, or C” and “A, B, and / or C” means A alone, B alone, C alone, A and B together, A and C together, B and C together, or A, B and C together.

[0064] As used herein, the term “Conductor On Round Core (CORC®) cable refers to a cable or wire comprising multiple REBCO (rare-earth barium copper oxide) conductors that are helically wound around a core. The CORC® cable can comprise a plurality of individual cables, a plurality of tapes, or both. The CORC® cable can be formed of various numbers of cables and sizes of cables in a bundle (i. e. , a multi-strand or multifilament wire).

[0065] FIG. 1 shows a flowchart of a method 100 of identifying a quench event, according to some embodiments. In an operation 110, the method 100 may comprise providing the first superconductor and a second superconductor in thermal communication with the first superconductor. At an operating condition of the first superconductor and the second superconductor, a first ratio of a first operating current of the first superconductor to a first critical current of the first superconductor may be less than a second ratio of a second operating current of the second superconductor to a second critical current of the second superconductor.

[0066] The first superconductor and / or the second superconductor may be high temperature superconductors (HTSs). Superconducting materials may include high temperature superconductors (HTS) and low temperature superconductors (LTS). In one example, HTS materials may include cuprate superconductors, which may be ceramics based on cuprates (compounds containing a copper oxide group), such as bismuth strontium calcium copper oxide (BSCCO), or ReBCO (where Re is a rare earth element, commonly Y or Gd). In another example, HTS materials may include iron pnictides (e.g., FeAs and FeSe), magnesium diboride (MgB2), thallium barium calcium copper oxide (TBCCO), mercury barium calcium copper oxide (HBCCO), or the like. The first superconductor and / or the second superconductor may be LTSs. The first superconductor may be at least a portion of a stellarator. For example, the first superconductor can be a portion of a magnetic coil of a stellarator. The second superconductor may provide less of the magnetic field of the magnetic coil as compared to the magnetic field generated by the first superconductor. For example, the first superconductor may generate the majority of the magnetic field while the second superconductor provides only a small portion and is instead configured more as a quench detection superconductor. The secondsuperconductor may produce at most about 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, or less percent of the magnetic field generated by the first superconductor.

[0067] In some cases, the second superconductor can comprise more copper than the first superconductor. For example, the second superconductor can have a composition comprising more copper, thus lowering a critical current value of the second superconductor. The second superconductor may comprise at least about 0.1, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more percent more copper than the first superconductor. The second superconductor may comprise a smaller physical cross section than the first superconductor. For example, the second superconductor can be smaller than the first superconductor. The reduced size of the second superconductor may lower the critical current value of the second superconductor. The second superconductor may be at most about 90, 80, 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10, 5, 1, or less percent of the size (e.g., cross section) of the first superconductor. In some cases, the second superconductor and the first superconductor can be made of a same material. For example, the first superconductor and the second superconductor can be a same HTS material. The second superconductor may have a lower critical current threshold due to a reason other than the material makeup of the second superconductor. For example, the second superconductor can be a single HTS tape and the first superconductor can be a plurality of HTS tapes. In this example, the second superconductor can have a lower critical current value as a result of the smaller cross section of the HTS tape.

[0068] The first superconductor and / or the second superconductor may be a superconducting tape. The superconducting tape may be at most about 1,000, 900, 800, 700, 600, 500, 400, 300, 250, 200, 150, 100, 50, or fewer microns thick. In some cases, the first superconductor and / or the second superconductor can comprise at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 30, 40, 50, or more layers of superconducting tape. The superconductor tape may be at least a portion of an HTS stack. The HTS stack may be configured to generate a combined magnetic field from a plurality of HTS tapes in the stack. The first superconductor and the second superconductor can be co-wound together. For example, the first and second superconductors can collectively form a superconducting coil.

[0069] The first superconductor and second superconductor can be electrically coupled to different power supplies. For example, the first superconductor can be powered by a first power supply different from a second power supply powering the second superconductor. The use of different power supplies can enable the first superconductor and the second superconductor to be driven at different current and voltage values and enable tailoring of the operating parameters of the superconductors. The first superconductor and the second superconductor may be electrically coupled to a same power supply. The first superconductor and the second superconductor can be electrically insulated from one another. The electrical insulation maycause the first superconductor and the second superconductor to not be capable of sharing current. For example, if the second superconductor has a quench event resulting in a reduced superconducting current capacity, the first superconductor may not be capable of receiving the excess current form the second superconductor. An example of an electrical insulation may be use of a thin film of electrical insulator disposed between the first superconductor and the second superconductor. The first superconductor and the second superconductor may not have the ability to share current between one another. For example, insulation may be disposed within an electrical path between the first superconductor and the second superconductor. The ability to share current between superconductors may cause a defect that may otherwise cause a quench to instead divert current to the superconductor that does not have the defect. However, by restricting current sharing, the ability of the second superconductor to detect the quench in the first superconductor may be improved. For example, by restricting current sharing, the quench event in the first superconductor can generate a detectable signal in the second superconductor prior to the quench event causing permanent damage to the first superconductor.

[0070] The operating current of the first superconductor and / or the operating current of the second superconductor may be tunable. For example, a power supply powering a superconductor can be adjustable in the amount of current provided to the superconductor. In this way, the operating current of the superconductor can be tuned, thereby tuning the percentage of the critical current the superconductor operates at. The use of the tunable operating current can enable dynamic tuning of the quench detection capabilities. For example, a second superconductor operated at a higher current percentage can be more sensitive to a quench event, as a smaller change in temperature can result in the second superconductor operating over the critical current. The tunable operating current can also enable corrections to keep the operating current at a given percentage or absolute value difference from the critical current even as the condition of the second superconductor changes. For example, as a superconductor degrades with time, the critical current of the superconductor can decrease. In this example, the operating current of the superconductor can be changed as the critical current changes to keep a same ratio or same offset of the operating current to the critical current.

[0071] The temperature of the first superconductor and the temperature of the second superconductor may be different by at most about 50, 40, 30, 25, 20, 19, 18, 17, 16, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0.5, 0.1, 0.05, 0.01, or less Kelvin. The temperature of the first superconductor and the temperature of the second superconductor may be substantially the same. The temperature of the first superconductor and the temperature of the second superconductor may be the same.

[0072] In another operation 120, the method 100 may comprise based at least in part on the operating condition of operation 110, identifying a quench event in the first superconductor using the second superconductor. The quench event may be detected at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 60, or more seconds earlier using the second superconductor than using the first superconductor. For example, the quench can propagate through the second superconductor faster than the first superconductor. In another example, the operating parameters of the second superconductor can change faster than those of the first superconductor which can, in turn, enable faster quench detection using the second superconductor.

[0073] The quench event can be detected in the second superconductor prior to being detected in the first superconductor. For example, the quench event can generate a signal that is detected through the second superconductor prior to detection in the first superconductor. The quench event may occur in the first superconductor and cause an additional quench event in the second superconductor. For example, the quench event in the first superconductor can cause a local temperature increase, which can transfer to the second superconductor, cause an additional quench event in the second superconductor, which can be detected to thereby detect the presence of the quench event in the first superconductor. The quench event being detected in the second superconductor prior to detection in the first superconductor can provide early warning of the quench event, which can enable damage mitigation strategies to be employed in the first superconductor, potentially saving the first superconductor from being damaged by the quench event.

[0074] In some cases, the quench event is detected using an electrical signal, a magnetic signal, or the like, or any combination thereof. For example, the quench event can be detected by a measurement of an electrical property of the superconductor or a measurement of a electrical operating parameter of the superconductor. For example, a measurement of a current flowing through a superconductor can be used to detect a quench event in the superconductor. In another example, a magnetic field or susceptibility of the superconductor can change during the quench event, and the quench detection system can be configured to detect the change in the magnetic field or susceptibility.

[0075] The first superconductor may not be electronically coupled to a quench detection apparatus. For example, the quench event can be detected in the first superconductor without a direct measurement of the first superconductor by the quench detection apparatus. In this example, the first superconductor may be electronically insulated from the quench detection apparatus. The second superconductor may be electronically coupled to the quench detection apparatus. For example, the second superconductor can be utilized to detect the quench event inthe first superconductor. In this example, the second superconductor can still detect the quench event without being electronically coupled to the first superconductor.

[0076] The quench event may be detected with an accuracy, sensitivity, or specificity each individually at least about 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 99.9, or more percent. The quench event may be detected with an accuracy, sensitivity, or specificity each individually at most about 99.9, 99, 98, 97, 96, 95, 94, 93, 92, 91, 90, 85, 80, 70, 60, 50, or less percent. The quench event may be detected with an accuracy, sensitivity, or specificity in a range as defined by any two of the preceding values. For example, the quench event can be detected with an accuracy, sensitivity, or specificity of about 90 to about 95 percent. The accuracy, sensitivity, and specificity may be enabled by the use of the second superconductor to detect the quench event. Other methods of quench event detection (e.g., optical detection) may suffer lower accuracy, sensitivity, or specificity (e.g., due to damage to the optical detection fiber, due to the lower sensitivity of the optical fiber to the quench event than the second superconductor, etc.).

[0077] The operating current of the second superconductor may comprise an alternating current portion. For example, the second superconductor can be driven by direct current and alternating current. The voltage of the alternating current may be at most about 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 or less percent of the voltage of the direct current. The presence of the alternating current portion may generate a signal for use in the detection of the quench event. For example, the quench can be detected by detecting a change in a form of the alternating current portion. Examples of changes of form include, but are not limited to, modulations of amplitude, phase, shape (e.g., clipping of the waveform of the alternating current portion), or the like, or any combination thereof.

[0078] In some cases, the method 100 can comprise an optional operation 130, comprising activating a quench protection apparatus in response to the detecting the quench event. The quench protection apparatus can be configured to protect the first superconductor and / or the second superconductor from the detrimental effects of a quench event (e.g., heating induced degradation, resistive damage, etc.). The quench protection apparatus may be configured to redirect a current flowing through the first and / or second superconductors in a way that reduces or eliminates damage caused by the current passing through a portion of the superconductor that has lost superconductivity. The first superconductor may not be damaged by the quench event. For example, the detection of the quench event and the activation of the quench protection apparatus can reduce or eliminate damage due to the quench event. Such detection and prevention can provide improvements including reduced system downtime due to a quench,decreased expense due to not losing the main superconducting elements of the system, and enhanced diagnostics of the system.

[0079] FIG. 2 shows a flowchart of a method 200 of identifying a quench event, according to some embodiments. In an operation 210, the method 200 may comprise providing the first superconductor and a second superconductor in thermal communication with the first superconductor. At an operating condition of the first superconductor and the second superconductor, the second superconductor may have a lower critical current value than the first superconductor.

[0080] The first superconductor and / or the second superconductor may be high temperature superconductors (HTSs). Superconducting materials may include high temperature superconductors (HTS) and low temperature superconductors (LTS). In one example, HTS materials may include cuprate superconductors, which may be ceramics based on cuprates (compounds containing a copper oxide group), such as bismuth strontium calcium copper oxide (BSCCO), or ReBCO (where Re is a rare earth element, commonly Y or Gd). In another example, HTS materials may include iron pnictides (e.g., FeAs and FeSe), magnesium diboride (MgB2), thallium barium calcium copper oxide (TBCCO), mercury barium calcium copper oxide (HBCCO), or the like. The first superconductor and / or the second superconductor may be LTSs. The first superconductor may be at least a portion of a stellarator. For example, the first superconductor can be a portion of a magnetic coil of a stellarator. The second superconductor may provide less of the magnetic field of the magnetic coil as compared to the magnetic field generated by the first superconductor. For example, the first superconductor may generate the majority of the magnetic field while the second superconductor provides only a small portion and is instead configured more as a quench detection superconductor. The second superconductor may produce at most about 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, or less percent of the magnetic field generated by the first superconductor.

[0081] In some cases, the second superconductor can comprise more copper than the first superconductor. For example, the second superconductor can have a composition comprising more copper, thus lowering a critical current value of the second superconductor. The second superconductor may comprise at least about 0.1, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more percent more copper than the first superconductor. The second superconductor may comprise a smaller physical cross section than the first superconductor. For example, the second superconductor can be smaller than the first superconductor. The reduced size of the second superconductor may lower the critical current value of the second superconductor. The second superconductor may be at most about 90, 80, 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10, 5, 1, or less percent of the size (e.g., cross section) of the first superconductor. In some cases, the second superconductor and the firstsuperconductor can be made of a same material. For example, the first superconductor and the second superconductor can be a same HTS material. The second superconductor may have a lower critical current threshold due to a reason other than the material makeup of the second superconductor. For example, the second superconductor can be a single HTS tape and the first superconductor can be a plurality of HTS tapes. In this example, the second superconductor can have a lower critical current value as a result of the smaller cross section of the HTS tape.

[0082] The first superconductor and / or the second superconductor may be a superconducting tape. The superconducting tape may be at most about 1,000, 900, 800, 700, 600, 500, 400, 300, 250, 200, 150, 100, 50, or fewer microns thick. In some cases, the first superconductor and / or the second superconductor can comprise at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 30, 40, 50, or more layers of superconducting tape. The superconductor tape may be at least a portion of an HTS stack. The HTS stack may be configured to generate a combined magnetic field from a plurality of HTS tapes in the stack. The first superconductor and the second superconductor can be co-wound together. For example, the first and second superconductors can collectively form a superconducting coil.

[0083] The first superconductor and second superconductor can be electrically coupled to different power supplies. For example, the first superconductor can be powered by a first power supply different from a second power supply powering the second superconductor. The use of different power supplies can enable the first superconductor and the second superconductor to be driven at different current and voltage values and enable tailoring of the operating parameters of the superconductors. The first superconductor and the second superconductor may be electrically coupled to a same power supply. The first superconductor and the second superconductor can be electrically insulated from one another. The electrical insulation may cause the first superconductor and the second superconductor to not be capable of sharing current. For example, if the second superconductor has a quench event resulting in a current spike, the first superconductor may not be capable of receiving the excess current form the second superconductor. An example of an electrical insulation may be use of a thin film of electrical insulator disposed between the first superconductor and the second superconductor. The first superconductor and the second superconductor may not have the ability to share current between one another. For example, insulation may be disposed within an electrical path between the first superconductor and the second superconductor. The ability to share current between superconductors may cause a defect that may otherwise cause a quench to instead divert current to the superconductor that does not have the defect. However, by restricting current sharing, the ability of the second superconductor to detect the quench in the first superconductor may be improved. For example, by restricting current sharing, the quench eventin the first superconductor can generate a detectable signal in the second superconductor prior to the quench event causing permanent damage to the first superconductor.

[0084] The operating current of the first superconductor and / or the operating current of the second superconductor may be tunable. For example, a power supply powering a superconductor can be adjustable in the amount of current provided to the superconductor. In this way, the operating current of the superconductor can be tuned, thereby tuning the percentage of the critical current the superconductor operates at. The use of the tunable operating current can enable dynamic tuning of the quench detection capabilities. For example, a second superconductor operated at a higher current percentage can be more sensitive to a quench event, as a smaller change in current can result in the second superconductor operating over the critical current. The tunable operating current can also enable corrections to keep the operating current at a given percentage or absolute value difference from the critical current even as the condition of the second superconductor changes. For example, as a superconductor degrades with time, the critical current of the superconductor can decrease. In this example, the operating current of the superconductor can be changed as the critical current changes to keep a same ratio or same offset of the operating current to the critical current.

[0085] The temperature of the first superconductor and the temperature of the second superconductor may be different by at most about 50, 40, 30, 25, 20, 19, 18, 17, 16, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0.5, 0.1, 0.05, 0.01, or less Kelvin. The temperature of the first superconductor and the temperature of the second superconductor may be substantially the same. The temperature of the first superconductor and the temperature of the second superconductor may be the same.

[0086] In another operation 220, the method 200 may comprise, based at least in part on the operating condition of operation 210, identifying the quench event in the first superconductor using the second superconductor. The quench event may be detected at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 60, or more seconds earlier using the second superconductor than using the first superconductor. For example, the quench can propagate through the second superconductor faster than the first superconductor. In another example, the operating parameters of the second superconductor can change faster than those of the first superconductor which can, in turn, enable faster quench detection using the second superconductor.

[0087] The quench event can be detected in the second superconductor prior to being detected in the first superconductor. For example, the quench event can generate a signal that is detected through the second superconductor prior to detection in the first superconductor. The quench event may occur in the first superconductor and cause an additional quench event in the second superconductor. For example, the quench event in the first superconductor can cause a localtemperature increase, which can transfer to the second superconductor, cause an additional quench event in the second superconductor, which can be detected to thereby detect the presence of the quench event in the first superconductor. The quench event being detected in the second superconductor prior to detection in the first superconductor can provide early warning of the quench event, which can enable damage mitigation strategies to be employed in the first superconductor, potentially saving the first superconductor from being damaged by the quench event.

[0088] In some cases, the quench event is detected using an electrical signal, a magnetic signal, or the like, or any combination thereof. For example, the quench event can be detected by a measurement of an electrical property of the superconductor or a measurement of an electrical operating parameter of the superconductor. For example, a measurement of a current flowing through a superconductor can be used to detect a quench event in the superconductor. In another example, a magnetic field or susceptibility of the superconductor can change during the quench event, and the quench detection system can be configured to detect the change in the magnetic field or susceptibility.

[0089] The first superconductor may not be electronically coupled to a quench detection apparatus. For example, the quench event can be detected in the first superconductor without a direct measurement of the first superconductor by the quench detection apparatus. In this example, the first superconductor may be electronically insulated from the quench detection apparatus. The second superconductor may be electronically coupled to the quench detection apparatus. For example, the second superconductor can be utilized to detect the quench event in the first superconductor. In this example, the second superconductor can still detect the quench event without being electronically coupled to the first superconductor.

[0090] The quench event may be detected with an accuracy, sensitivity, or specificity each individually at least about 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 99.9, or more percent. The quench event may be detected with an accuracy, sensitivity, or specificity each individually at most about 99.9, 99, 98, 97, 96, 95, 94, 93, 92, 91, 90, 85, 80, 70, 60, 50, or less percent. The quench event may be detected with an accuracy, sensitivity, or specificity in a range as defined by any two of the preceding values. For example, the quench event can be detected with an accuracy, sensitivity, or specificity of about 90 to about 95 percent. The accuracy, sensitivity, and specificity may be enabled by the use of the second superconductor to detect the quench event. Other methods of quench event detection (e.g., optical detection) may suffer lower accuracy, sensitivity, or specificity (e.g., due to damage to the optical detection fiber, due to the lower sensitivity of the optical fiber to the quench event than the second superconductor, etc.).

[0091] The operating current of the second superconductor may comprise an alternating current portion. For example, the second superconductor can be driven by direct current and alternating current. The voltage of the alternating current may be at most about 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 or less percent of the voltage of the direct current. The presence of the alternating current portion may generate a signal for use in the detection of the quench event. For example, the quench can be detected by detecting a change in a form of the alternating current portion. Examples of changes of form include, but are not limited to, modulations of amplitude, phase, shape (e.g., clipping of the waveform of the alternating current portion), or the like, or any combination thereof.

[0092] In some cases, the method 200 can comprise an optional operation 230, comprising activating a quench protection apparatus in response to the detecting the quench event. The quench protection apparatus can be configured to protect the first superconductor and / or the second superconductor from the detrimental effects of a quench event (e.g., heating induced degradation, resistive damage, etc.). The quench protection apparatus may be configured to redirect a current flowing through the first and / or second superconductors in a way that reduces or eliminates damage caused by the current passing through a portion of the superconductor that has lost superconductivity. The first superconductor may not be damaged by the quench event. For example, the detection of the quench event and the activation of the quench protection apparatus can reduce or eliminate damage due to the quench event. Such detection and prevention can provide improvements including reduced system downtime due to a quench, decreased expense due to not losing the main superconducting elements of the system, and enhanced diagnostics of the system.

[0093] FIG. 3 shows a flowchart of a method 300 of identifying a quench event, according to some embodiments. In an operation 310, the method 300 may comprise providing the first superconductor and a second superconductor in thermal communication with the first superconductor. At an operating condition of the first superconductor and the second superconductor, the second superconductor may have a higher quench propagation velocity than the first superconductor.

[0094] The first superconductor and / or the second superconductor may be high temperature superconductors (HTSs). Superconducting materials may include high temperature superconductors (HTS) and low temperature superconductors (LTS). In one example, HTS materials may include cuprate superconductors, which may be ceramics based on cuprates (compounds containing a copper oxide group), such as bismuth strontium calcium copper oxide (BSCCO), or ReBCO (where Re is a rare earth element, commonly Y or Gd). In another example, HTS materials may include iron pnictides (e.g., FeAs and FeSe), magnesium diboride(MgEh). thallium barium calcium copper oxide (TBCCO), mercury barium calcium copper oxide (HBCCO), or the like. The first superconductor and / or the second superconductor may be LTSs. The first superconductor may be at least a portion of a stellarator. For example, the first superconductor can be a portion of a magnetic coil of a stellarator. The second superconductor may provide less of the magnetic field of the magnetic coil as compared to the magnetic field generated by the first superconductor. For example, the first superconductor may generate the majority of the magnetic field while the second superconductor provides only a small portion and is instead configured more as a quench detection superconductor. The second superconductor may produce at most about 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, or less percent of the magnetic field generated by the first superconductor.

[0095] In some cases, the second superconductor can comprise more copper than the first superconductor. For example, the second superconductor can have a composition comprising more copper, thus lowering a critical current value of the second superconductor. The second superconductor may comprise at least about 0.1, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more percent more copper than the first superconductor. The second superconductor may comprise a smaller physical cross section than the first superconductor. For example, the second superconductor can be smaller than the first superconductor. The reduced size of the second superconductor may lower the critical current value of the second superconductor. The second superconductor may be at most about 90, 80, 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10, 5, 1, or less percent of the size (e.g., cross section) of the first superconductor. In some cases, the second superconductor and the first superconductor can be made of a same material. For example, the first superconductor and the second superconductor can be a same HTS material. The second superconductor may have a lower critical current threshold due to a reason other than the material makeup of the second superconductor. For example, the second superconductor can be a single HTS tape and the first superconductor can be a plurality of HTS tapes. In this example, the second superconductor can have a lower critical current value as a result of the smaller cross section of the HTS tape.

[0096] The first superconductor and / or the second superconductor may be a superconducting tape. The superconducting tape may be at most about 1,000, 900, 800, 700, 600, 500, 400, 300, 250, 200, 150, 100, 50, or fewer microns thick. In some cases, the first superconductor and / or the second superconductor can comprise at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 30, 40, 50, or more layers of superconducting tape. The superconductor tape may be at least a portion of an HTS stack. The HTS stack may be configured to generate a combined magnetic field from a plurality of HTS tapes in the stack. The first superconductor and the second superconductor can be co-wound together. For example, the first and second superconductors can collectively form a superconducting coil.

[0097] The first superconductor and second superconductor can be electrically coupled to different power supplies. For example, the first superconductor can be powered by a first power supply different from a second power supply powering the second superconductor. The use of different power supplies can enable the first superconductor and the second superconductor to be driven at different current and voltage values and enable tailoring of the operating parameters of the superconductors. The first superconductor and the second superconductor may be electrically coupled to a same power supply. The first superconductor and the second superconductor can be electrically insulated from one another. The electrical insulation may cause the first superconductor and the second superconductor to not be capable of sharing current. For example, if the second superconductor has a quench event resulting in a current spike, the first superconductor may not be capable of receiving the excess current form the second superconductor. An example of an electrical insulation may be use of a thin film of electrical insulator disposed between the first superconductor and the second superconductor. The first superconductor and the second superconductor may not have the ability to share current between one another. For example, insulation may be disposed within an electrical path between the first superconductor and the second superconductor. The ability to share current between superconductors may cause a defect that may otherwise cause a quench to instead divert current to the superconductor that does not have the defect. However, by restricting current sharing, the ability of the second superconductor to detect the quench in the first superconductor may be improved. For example, by restricting current sharing, the quench event in the first superconductor can generate a detectable signal in the second superconductor prior to the quench event causing permanent damage to the first superconductor.

[0098] The operating current of the first superconductor and / or the operating current of the second superconductor may be tunable. For example, a power supply powering a superconductor can be adjustable in the amount of current provided to the superconductor. In this way, the operating current of the superconductor can be tuned, thereby tuning the percentage of the critical current the superconductor operates at. The use of the tunable operating current can enable dynamic tuning of the quench detection capabilities. For example, a second superconductor operated at a higher current percentage can be more sensitive to a quench event, as a smaller change in current can result in the second superconductor operating over the critical current. The tunable operating current can also enable corrections to keep the operating current at a given percentage or absolute value difference from the critical current even as the condition of the second superconductor changes. For example, as a superconductor degrades with time, the critical current of the superconductor can decrease. In this example, the operatingcurrent of the superconductor can be changed as the critical current changes to keep a same ratio or same offset of the operating current to the critical current.

[0099] The temperature of the first superconductor and the temperature of the second superconductor may be different by at most about 50, 40, 30, 25, 20, 19, 18, 17, 16, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0.5, 0.1, 0.05, 0.01, or less Kelvin. The temperature of the first superconductor and the temperature of the second superconductor may be substantially the same. The temperature of the first superconductor and the temperature of the second superconductor may be the same.

[0100] In another operation 320, the method 300 may comprise, based at least in part on the operating condition of operation 310, identifying the quench event in the first superconductor using the second superconductor. The quench event may be detected at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 60, or more seconds earlier using the second superconductor than using the first superconductor. For example, the quench can propagate through the second superconductor faster than the first superconductor. In another example, the operating parameters of the second superconductor can change faster than those of the first superconductor which can, in turn, enable faster quench detection using the second superconductor.

[0101] The quench event can be detected in the second superconductor prior to being detected in the first superconductor. For example, the quench event can generate a signal that is detected through the second superconductor prior to detection in the first superconductor. The quench event may occur in the first superconductor and cause an additional quench event in the second superconductor. For example, the quench event in the first superconductor can cause a local temperature increase, which can transfer to the second superconductor, cause an additional quench event in the second superconductor, which can be detected to thereby detect the presence of the quench event in the first superconductor. The quench event being detected in the second superconductor prior to detection in the first superconductor can provide early warning of the quench event, which can enable damage mitigation strategies to be employed in the first superconductor, potentially saving the first superconductor from being damaged by the quench event.

[0102] In some cases, the quench event is detected using an electrical signal, a magnetic signal, or the like, or any combination thereof. For example, the quench event can be detected by a measurement of an electrical property of the superconductor or a measurement of an electrical operating parameter of the superconductor. For example, a measurement of a current flowing through a superconductor can be used to detect a quench event in the superconductor. In another example, a magnetic field or susceptibility of the superconductor can change during the quenchevent, and the quench detection system can be configured to detect the change in the magnetic field or susceptibility.

[0103] The first superconductor may not be electronically coupled to a quench detection apparatus. For example, the quench event can be detected in the first superconductor without a direct measurement of the first superconductor by the quench detection apparatus. In this example, the first superconductor may be electronically insulated from the quench detection apparatus. The second superconductor may be electronically coupled to the quench detection apparatus. For example, the second superconductor can be utilized to detect the quench event in the first superconductor. In this example, the second superconductor can still detect the quench event without being electronically coupled to the first superconductor.

[0104] The quench event may be detected with an accuracy, sensitivity, or specificity each individually at least about 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 99.9, or more percent. The quench event may be detected with an accuracy, sensitivity, or specificity each individually at most about 99.9, 99, 98, 97, 96, 95, 94, 93, 92, 91, 90, 85, 80, 70, 60, 50, or less percent. The quench event may be detected with an accuracy, sensitivity, or specificity in a range as defined by any two of the preceding values. For example, the quench event can be detected with an accuracy, sensitivity, or specificity of about 90 to about 95 percent. The accuracy, sensitivity, and specificity may be enabled by the use of the second superconductor to detect the quench event. Other methods of quench event detection (e.g., optical detection) may suffer lower accuracy, sensitivity, or specificity (e.g., due to damage to the optical detection fiber, due to the lower sensitivity of the optical fiber to the quench event than the second superconductor, etc.).

[0105] The operating current of the second superconductor may comprise an alternating current portion. For example, the second superconductor can be driven by direct current and alternating current. The voltage of the alternating current may be at most about 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 or less percent of the voltage of the direct current. The presence of the alternating current portion may generate a signal for use in the detection of the quench event. For example, the quench can be detected by detecting a change in a form of the alternating current portion. Examples of changes of form include, but are not limited to, modulations of amplitude, phase, shape (e.g., clipping of the waveform of the alternating current portion), or the like, or any combination thereof.

[0106] In some cases, the method 300 can comprise an optional operation 330, comprising activating a quench protection apparatus in response to the detecting the quench event. The quench protection apparatus can be configured to protect the first superconductor and / or the second superconductor from the detrimental effects of a quench event (e.g., heating induceddegradation, resistive damage, etc.). The quench protection apparatus may be configured to redirect a current flowing through the first and / or second superconductors in a way that reduces or eliminates damage caused by the current passing through a portion of the superconductor that has lost superconductivity. The first superconductor may not be damaged by the quench event. For example, the detection of the quench event and the activation of the quench protection apparatus can reduce or eliminate damage due to the quench event. Such detection and prevention can provide improvements including reduced system downtime due to a quench, decreased expense due to not losing the main superconducting elements of the system, and enhanced diagnostics of the system.Strategic Quench Protection with Integrated Fuses

[0107] Hybrid Fusion Systems

[0108] Fusion systems may be integrated with an additional power system, including hybrids between fusion and fission. Hybrid fusion systems, including a stellarator-mirror (SM) hybrid, may facilitate optimizing stellarator functionality and advancing the business model. SM hybrids combine fusion and fission and may be referred to as fusion-fission hybrids. Fusionfission hybrid methodology may employ uranium-238, a resource that can sustain global energy generation for a prolonged duration (about 100,000 years), as a principal fuel. A benefit of uranium-238 can include its subcritical configuration, which employs an external neutron source such as a plasma neutron generator, to regulate neutron reactions. Fusion-fission hybrids may both enhance safety through the substitution of delayed neutron actions and increase flexibility of control systems.

[0109] Furthermore, fusion-fission hybrid models may incorporate fuel recycling to preserve isotopic equilibrium and convert fission byproducts into valuable co-products instead of deeming them waste. Fuel recycling may substantially improve the safety and control capabilities of a stellarator by adhering to nuclear non-proliferation standards.

[0110] Magnetic Materials[OHl] In some aspects, the systems described herein may comprise novel magnet materials. These materials may be utilized in plasma confinement devices. Magnetic material advancements may optimize plasma confinement in a stellarator, thus enhancing the stellarator's operation and business model. Stellarator magnets preserve the form and stability of the plasma.

[0112] Permanent magnets may be applied to shape stellarator designs in a way that reduces a need for intricate three-dimensional coils to confine plasma. This method may streamline and reduce the cost of stellarator construction. For example, the MUSE stellarator features optimized magnetic configurations. Optimization may involve systematic arrangement andorientation of magnets in order to generate intended magnetic fields to confine the plasma efficiently.

[0113] Progressions in magnetic materials and design methodologies may improve stellarator effectiveness, security, and economic viability, enhancing their appeal as a viable alternative for fusion energy production. Advancements in stellarator magnet technology not only serve to optimize operational processes but also potentially mitigate construction and operational expenses, thereby bolstering the sustainability of the business model.

[0114] Cables

[0115] Advancements in stellarator cables and connectors may prioritize resistance to high forces and enhanced structural integrity, as well as improved current carrying capacity of the cables at operational conditions (e.g., at field and at temperature). Adjustments may be made to field angle, field temperature, lower field, lower temperature, pending center optimization, in order to improve current capacity. These adjustments may help preserve stability and safety within the intricate magnetic confinement systems found in stellarators. Stellarator operational dependability may be enhanced by cables and connectors constructed from robust and long- lasting materials. Improved operational dependability may reduce operational expenses, minimize maintenance demands, and diminish the probability of mechanical malfunctions. Thus, improved cables and connectors may contribute to the economic viability and overall efficiency of stellarator-based fusion energy generation.

[0116] Neutron-Multiplier Materials

[0117] Tritium may be used as the primary fuel for fusion reactors. Materials capable of producing tritium efficiently while minimizing neutron flux during the fusion process may be used as neutron-multiplier materials in stellarators. Self-sufficiency of neutron-multiplier materials contributes to the production of tritium. Tritium breeding blanket material compositions may be optimized, with the dual objectives of enhancing tritium production and effectively managing the heat generated throughout the procedure. This methodology may improve the viability and profitability of stellarators for tritium production, suggesting that the revenue generated by tritium surpasses the expenses associated with the materials. Heat transfer and structural integrity may impact breeding blankets design and efficiency of tritium production. Optimizing breeding blanket design may augment stellarators’ operational efficiency and positively contribute to their business model by ensuring steady and adequate fuel provision.

[0118] Neutron-Resistant Materials

[0119] Materials that exhibit minimal damage when exposed to high levels of neutrons may be used for internal components of stellarators. Neutron-resistant materials may improve stellaratorfunctionality and economic viability, particularly regarding cost, environmental impact, upkeep, and security. Stellarator internal components constructed from neutron-resistant materials may better withstand intense neutron bombardment from fusion reactions.

[0120] The formidable neutron flux generated by fusion reactions may encourage designs which guard stellarator magnets against intense neutron bombardment. A breeding blanket infused with lithium may both safeguard the magnets and capture neutrons to produce tritium. A blanket approximately 1 to 1.5 meters thick may capture most neutrons; however, increased distance from the plasma may necessitate stronger magnets. The use of stronger magnets may increase overall machine size, which may affect a stellarator’s overall cost and footprint.

[0121] Intricate magnetic fields present in stellarators necessitate the placement of the magnets with the utmost precision, which may increase expenses associated with construction. Attaining the precise tolerances required for positioning these components may be challenging, especially for construction of large-scale devices.

[0122] The size and complexity of the breeding blanket and magnet systems may be reduced by deploying materials that are more resistant to neutron bombardment without sacrificing functionality or structural integrity. Increased resistance may not only enhance stellarator operational effectiveness, but may also decrease stellarator construction and maintenance expenditures as well as stellarator physical footprints.

[0123] Shielding Materials

[0124] Shielding materials designed for fusion systems may protect a stellarator’s constituents, particularly the magnets, against the intense neutrons generated during fusion processes. The neutrons may induce substantial degradation and harm to the structural materials. Effective shielding may preserve stellarator integrity and may guarantee long-term operational stability and safety. Desirable shielding materials may be capable of efficiently absorbing or deflecting energetic neutrons while preventing structural degradation or excessive radioactivity. Improved shielding materials may enhance overall design of stellarators, by facilitating footprint reduction, safety improvement, and maintenance cost savings due to increased component durability and lifespan. Thus, improved shielding materials may facilitate the economic viability of stellarators as a sustainable energy source.

[0125] Activation Materials

[0126] When exposed to neutrons, activation materials transform into radioactive waste with minimal effort. Low-activation materials may exhibit low susceptibility to neutron bombardment, a frequent occurrence in the stellarator environment of fusion reactors. Low- activation materials may be applied in stellarators to enhance functionality as well as financial implications, environmental impact, upkeep, and safety.

[0127] Components capable of withstanding high neutron bombardment while maintaining structural stability may be desirable in operating fusion reactors. Considerations may include the degradation of wall surfaces due to neutron bombardment and the subsequent plasma-wall surface conditions. Materials suitable for withstanding high neutron bombardment may include SiC / SiC composites, ferritic / martensitic steels, and vanadium alloys. These materials may provide design alternatives for coolants and temperatures, and may be optimal even without the low activation criteria.

[0128] Considerations including material erosion and the disposal of irradiated materials as low- level radioactive waste may be mitigated through thoughtful material selection. In some cases, material degradation may occur if chrome steel is exposed to a typical neutron flux in a reactor, causing neutron activation in the chrome steel and resulting in the formation of chromium- 51 / 51. In some cases, materials used for construction of components of systems described herein may comprise low-activation materials (e.g., beryllium or graphite). Alternatively, materials used for construction of components of systems described herein may comprise high-Z materials (e.g., tungsten). Additionally, molybdenum may be used. Components fabricated, coated or comprising Molydenum may exhibit a lower propensity to undergo radioactive transformation. Tin, lithium, and gallium liquids may also function as low-activation materials. Careful material selection for stellarators may improve operational efficiency, by facilitating decreased maintenance and replacement frequency, and may enhance safety and environmental concerns, by minimizing radioactive waste production.

[0129] High-Temperature Superconductors

[0130] High-temperature superconductors (HTS) may be implemented in reactor coils. HTS materials may be used to generate more vital magnetic fields, which contribute to the confinement of plasma in fusion reactors. Adopting HTS in stellarator coils may lead to compact and efficient reactor designs, potentially reducing the overall reactor size and cost. Reduced reactor size and cost may enhance the economic viability and feasibility of the fusion process, thereby promoting the progress of stellarator technology as an environmentally friendly energy alternative.

[0131] Sensors & Monitors

[0132] Stellarator sensors and monitors may enhance operation and overall design, encompassing factors including cost, footprint, maintenance, and safety. In some cases, XUV (Extreme Ultraviolet) diagnostics may be utilized to observe a multitude of plasma characteristics, including the emission of boron, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen. XUV sensors may enhance precision in regulating and comprehending the fusion process by furnishing comprehensive data regarding plasma conditions and interactions. Enhanced precision mayenhance stellarator performance and safety and may reduce operational expenses and reactor dimensions by implementing more optimized designs.

[0133] Stellarator sensors may include electrostatic probes for determining plasma density and potential, interferometers for quantifying radiated power, bolometers for assessing ion and electron temperature, and magnetic sensors for evaluating the strength and configuration of the magnetic field. Each sensor type may provide distinct perspectives on distinct facets of plasma behavior, and may be deliberately positioned in diverse positions throughout the stellarator to amass exhaustive data. This data may be utilized to enhance ’functionality and safety.

[0134] Vacuum Systems

[0135] An optimized stellarator vacuum system may reduce expenses, environmental impact, upkeep requirements, and safety apprehensions. Meticulously engineered vacuum systems may establish and sustain ultra-high vacuum conditions involved in plasma confinement. An optimized vacuum system may reduce plasma contamination, consequently enhancing plasma stability and performance. Compact and efficient vacuum systems may decrease the energy consumption and overall size of stellarators. Dependable and robust vacuum systems may preserve integrity of the plasma environment and may prevent introduction of impurities, thereby contributing to reactor safety and practical implementation.

[0136] The system may comprise a vacuum system (e.g., sub-system). Ultra-high vacuum conditions may facilitate maintaining plasma stability and reducing the risk of contamination. These conditions may contribute increased safety, decreased operational expenses, and enhanced performance.

[0137] Coil Structure

[0138] Structures associated with coils and magnets may be used to generate magnetic fields in fusion systems. Improving stellarator coil structure may reduce costs, footprint, maintenance, and safety concerns while enhancing operation. Coil configurations may be globally optimized via algorithmic and / or stochastic means. Algorithms may prioritize generating coil sets that exhibit resilience to random errors, thus enhancing the dependability and effectiveness of magnetic field production. Bayesian and stochastic optimizers may be employed to determine promising coil configurations. Algorithmic development may streamline and enhance the intricate three-dimensional coil systems found in stellarators, which may lead to economical and effective fusion reactors.

[0139] Heating Systems

[0140] Optimization of the heating systems of systems described herein may reduce costs, footprint, maintenance, and safety concerns and may improve stellarator operation. The heating system may comprise high-power gyrotrons which utilize electron cyclotron resonance heating(ECRH). The high-power gyrotrons may give the plasma heat greater than or equal to about 1 MW, 2 MW, 3 MW, 5 MW, 7 MW, 10 MW, 12 MW, 15 MW, 20 MW or greater. The substantial heating capability may enable the elevated plasma temperatures at which fusion may occur. Furthermore, the system may comprise a neutral beam injection and / or an ion cyclotron resonance heating (ICRH) system, which individually or taken togehter may enhance its heating capabilities by around 8 megawatts for around 10 seconds. In addition, an enhanced diverter and a water-cooling system may prolong fusion experiments and may improve stellarator performance.

[0141] Implementing these sophisticated heating systems may enhance the performance of the plasma and may enable extended operational phases. Heating systems may be useful when conducting experiments investigating and comprehending plasma behaviors under different conditions. Thus, sophisticated heating systems may contribute to advancing scientific knowledge regarding plasma physics and enhancing stellarator design and efficiency. Such enhancements may facilitate stellarator technology as an alternative for future fusion power plants.

[0142] The heaters utilized in stellarators may attain extremely high temperatures which may enable plasma confinement and fusion reactions by applying fundamental physics principles. A concise synopsis of the physics underlying these heating systems follows:

[0143] Electron Cyclotron Resonance Heating (ECRH): ECRH may utilize the resonance between the cyclotron frequency of the electrons in the plasma and the electromagnetic waves generated by the gyrotron. When the frequency of these microwaves coincides with the natural gyro-frequency of the electrons in the magnetic field, the electrons may receive an efficient energy transfer, which may cause the plasma to heat. ECRH may regulate plasma temperature profiles and stability by enabling the targeting of specific regions of the plasma.

[0144] Neutral Beam Injection (NBI): NBI may inject high-energy neutral atoms into the plasma. After entering the plasma, these neutral atoms may undergo ionization and may initiate interactions with the ions and electrons of the plasma, thereby transferring energy and causing the plasma to heat. NBI may not only elevate plasma temperature but may also contribute to overall confinement quality by aiding in maintaining plasma density.

[0145] Ion Cyclotron Resonance Heating (ICRH): Analogous to ECRH, ICRH relates to the principle of resonance between plasma ions and radio frequency (RF) waves. Aligning the frequency of the radio frequency (RF) waves with the cyclotron frequency of particular ion species present in the plasma may enable an effective energy transfer to the ions, thus heating the plasma.

[0146] These heating techniques may aid in the attainment of the requisite conditions for nuclear fusion through the elevation of plasma temperature and energy. These heating techniques may also enable optimizing stellarator performance and investigating diverse plasma behaviors.

[0147] Cooling Systems

[0148] Improved cooling systems may reduce costs and enhance operation of stellarators. Specifically, cooling systems may be used to maintain temperatures of magnets within stellarators and may be used to sustain plasma confinement. Sophisticated cooling methodologies may enhance the stellarator's operability and stability, diminishing the system's overall dimensions and intricacy. Subsequently, cooling systems may reduce the initial construction and ongoing maintenance costs associated with stellarators. Additionally, enhanced cooling mechanisms may bolster stellarator durability and longevity, thereby augmenting operational dependability and cost-effectiveness.

[0149] Superconducting magnets in stellarators may be used to generate the magnetic fields required to confine the plasma. Liquid helium may be employed to maintain these magnets at superconducting temperatures, thus creating conditions which may necessitate efficient cooling. Other cryogens which may be used may include hydrogen, nitrogen, neon, argon, fluorine, oxygen, and methane. Cryogens used for cooling may be utilized in a vacuum, with various isotopes and phases. A dependable and efficient cooling system for the magnets may enable stable operation of the reactor and the magnetic field.

[0150] Cooling systems may also be used to cool the diverter or other plasma-facing components. The diverter may manage the heat and plasma exhaust from the fusion process. Adequate cooling of the diverter may control the high heat flux and may prevent structural damage to the reactor.

[0151] Cooling systems may also be used to cool breeding blankets — substantial layers comprised of lithium — which may be utilized in a stellarator to capture neutrons generated during fusion reactions. Sufficient cooling of these blankets may preserve functionality and integrity.

[0152] Fueling

[0153] Similar to other fusion devices, the fueling process of a stellarator may include generating and sustaining a plasma state conducive to fusion reactions. In a stellarator, external coils may be employed to produce a helical magnetic field. The helical magnetic field may encircle the plasma in the form of a toroidal donut. This magnetic confinement may facilitate maintaining elevated plasma temperature and density for fusion reactions.

[0154] A stellarator may operate on hydrogen isotopes, including deuterium and tritium, as fuel. These isotopes may be subjected to high temperatures after introduction into the plasma.Electrons may be extracted from the nuclei at these temperatures. These extractions may result in the formation of a plasma state. Stellarator magnetic fields may confine and stabilize plasma These magnetic fields may also prevent plasma from contacting the reactor walls.

[0155] Hydrogen isotope nuclei in a plasma state may be in motion at high velocities. Nuclei in a plasma state may undergo fusion reactions through collisions with sufficient force which overcome inherent electrostatic repulsion. Such reactions may be utilized to produce large quantities of energy during the fusion process.

[0156] Precise manipulation of plasma conditions and magnetic fields may be utilized to fuel and maintain plasma in a stellarator. Enhanced confinement efficiency and plasma state stability and duration may also improve stellarator performance.

[0157] Blankets / Tritium Processing

[0158] Helium-cooled pebble bed (HCPB) breeding blankets may be utilized for tritium processing in the operation and design of stellarators. The use of HCPB breeding blankets may employ pressurized helium gas as a coolant. The use of HCPB breeding blankets may further utilize lithium ceramic as a tritium breeder. Tritium processing may incorporate a purge gas system to facilitate efficient breeding and extraction of tritium. HCPB breeding blanket designs may be characterized by design optimizations. Such optimizations may emphasize safeguarding components against nuclear irradiation. Optimizations may also emphasize extracting highgrade heat for electricity generation. Optimizations may further emphasize ensuring fuel self- sufficiency.

[0159] Wall Diverter Exhaust Enhancements

[0160] Enhancements to stellarator wall diverter exhaust systems may improve costeffectiveness, operational efficiency, and safety. A wall divertor may be located at the radical periphery of the plasma. Stellarator diverters may serve as an exhaust system. Wall divertor exhaust systems may regulate the elimination of particles and heat from the stellarator. These systems may also facilitate the interaction between plasma and reactor walls. A diverter may clean the plasma environment by accumulating and subsequently pumping out helium ash, a byproduct of the fusion process. A clean plasma environment may sustain uninterrupted stellarator operation.

[0161] Diverter design innovations may enhance stellarator performance. The design of a novel Diverter design may incorporate the theoretical and experimental intricacies of plasma physics and the materials implicated. Both magnetic field configuration and material selection may influence diverter function.

[0162] Development of stellarator diverter concepts may entail the execution of synchronized experiments across multiple stellarator facilities and the creation of computational instrumentsfor analysis. Developments may minimize turbulence by optimizing the plasma core. Developments may also integrate a suitably shaped and designed diverter into the apparatus. Such developments may ensure that plasma and exhaust systems operate in unison.

[0163] Magnet Design

[0164] Stellarator magnet design development, including those utilizing permanent magnets, may enhance stellarator operation, cost, footprint, maintenance, and safety. Permanent magnets may resemble the magnets found on refrigerator doors, but possess significantly greater strength. Stellarator design may be streamlined through the use of permanent magnets. Permanent magnets may replace the intricate and expensive twisted magnetic coils traditionally used to confine the superhot plasma in stellarators. The use of permanent magnets may diminish the expense and intricacy associated with stellarator fabrication.

[0165] For example, the MUSE permanent magnet stellarator aims to develop stellarator geometries optimized in place of intricate 3D coils. Permanent magnets have been investigated in this context as a potential practical solution; numerous studies describe techniques for determining magnet distributions for optimized stellarator configurations. A shift from conventional, intricate modular coil designs to more efficient methodologies utilizing permanent magnets may facilitate the creation and assembly of more economical and efficient stellarators.

[0166] Magnetic Field Optimization

[0167] Optimizing stellarator magnetic fields may improve operation, cost-effectiveness, footprint, maintenance, and safety of stellarators. Optimizations may improve plasma confinement and stability, both of which may influence stellarator operational efficiency. Optimizing the magnetic field may involve carefully balancing various computational methods and physical constraints.

[0168] Optimizing a stellarator magnetic field may include applying various magnetic field representations, including the Stepped Pressure Equilibrium Code (SPEC) and the Variational Moments Equilibrium Code (VMEC). Constraints such as nested magnetic surfaces may render VMEC unsuitable for representing magnetic islands and chaos. However, VMEC has been extensively implemented in the stellarator community and functions by minimizing the magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) energy. In comparison, SPEC may depict islands and chaos. SPEC may accomplish this depiction by dividing the toroidal domain into nested annular regions without restricting magnetic surfaces within each region. The use of both VMEC and SPEC during optimization may facilitate manipulation of magnetic islands and utilization of calculations predicated on the existence of magnetic surfaces. The combined use of VMEC and SPEC may mitigate the presence of chaotic regions and magnetic islands, which may otherwisenegatively impact plasma confinement. Thus, adopting this dual strategy may achieve a more thorough optimization procedure.

[0169] Plasma stability and energy confinement may be improved by regulation of parasitic plasma currents via magnetic design. Such improvements may derive from careful engineering and refinement of the magnetic field. Thus, magnetic field optimization may improve stellarator-based fusion systems' overall functionality and sustainability.

[0170] Quench Protection

[0171] Quench event safeguarding is a critical element concerning the efficiency and security of the fusion system regarding stellarator operation. Quenching may denote an expeditious deterioration of superconductivity within a magnet. Improper management of such deterioration may result in substantial harm. Effective quench protection systems may ensure the safe operation of stellarators and may prevent damage.

[0172] Inverse Biot-Savart methods reproduce current distributions in magnet cables. These methods may safeguard against and detect quench conditions in fusion magnets. This methodology may be utilized with superconducting fusion magnets constructed from ReBCO CORC® cables or other high-temperature superconductors. Such systems may utilize voltage or temperature measurements to initiate protective mechanisms. Protective mechanisms may include current extraction processes. Discerning anomalies in the current distribution at cable terminations may identify quench events and may facilitate responses which safeguard the magnet system against potential harm.

[0173] Protection heaters and coupling loss-induced quenching (CLIQ) may protect magnets against quench. Protection heaters may be employed to enlarge the normal zone rapidly when a quench is detected in low-temperature superconductor (LTS) accelerator magnets. However, the substantial enthalpy margin may hinder use of high-power protection heaters in high- temperature superconductor (HTS) magnets. CLIQ may be employed to discharge a capacitor to generate heat in the bulk of the cable conductor. This discharge may generate oscillatory currents and accompanying coupling losses. While efficacious in LTS magnets, implementation of CLIQ in HTS magnets may yet be optimized. A blend of voltage and non-voltage techniques may be used to enhance quench protection system detection sensitivity and redundancy for HTS magnets.

[0174] Diagnostics / Maintenance

[0175] Sophisticated monitoring and diagnostic equipment may optimize stellarator safety, performance, and operational efficiency. This equipment may include predictive maintenance systems. These systems may facilitate real-time monitoring and analysis of stellarator components and conditions. Such real-time monitoring may facilitate prompt interventions andearly identification of potential issues. Integration of these technologies may enable maintenance of optimal operational conditions. Such integration may also reduce overall costs and environmental footprint of stellarators by preventing damage and prolonging component life. Advancing diagnostic and predictive maintenance systems may improve stellarator dependability and sustainability as a viable fusion power source.

[0176] Efficient Operation

[0177] Enhancing stellarator efficiency may entail optimizing diverse facets encompassing stellarator design and operation. Such facets may include mitigation of neoclassical transport losses. Neoclassical transport losses may contribute substantially to plasma depletion in stellarators. The optimized shape of the Wendelstein 7-X (W7-X) stellarator may mitigate neoclassical transport. This mitigation may facilitate the W7-X in attaining elevated temperatures while maintaining heating power. The W7-X optimized shape may diminish plasma loss and enhance fuel utilization efficiency.

[0178] Stellarator configuration may involve harmonizing numerous physical parameters and engineering limitations. Harmonization may lead to exceptional quasi-axisymmetry, minimized alpha-particle losses, and stability to linear ideal modes of MHD. However, harmonization may also result in heightened intricacy in the plasma configuration. The ARIES-CS project is an integrated study examining these trade-offs to optimize compact stellarator power plants. Strategies which may overcome the difficulties associated with stellarator operation and design may include cost-optimization systems and development of modular coils.

[0179] Developing stellarators that maintain high-performance plasma and exhibit efficiency in cost, energy consumption, and maintenance may involve blending theoretical investigations and experimental findings.

[0180] Continuous Operation

[0181] Practical fusion energy may involve continuous stellarator operation. Stellarator design permits steady-state operation with minimal recirculating power demands. Thus, stellarators may function without interruption and without the plasma disturbances typical in tokamaks. The Wendelstein 7-X (W7-X) in Germany, one of the largest stellarators of its kind, demonstrates such uninterrupted function. The U.S. Department of Energy has financially supported energy projects at W7-X to conduct additional research on ion-heat transport, electric field measurement, and plasma confinement enhancement. These initiatives may enhance the performance and dependability of stellarators, which may enable the use of stellarators as fusion power plants in the future.

[0182] Maintaining continuous operation in fusion systems like stellarators may involve advanced plasma confinement, stable magnetic fields, efficient heat and particle management,material durability, integration of control and diagnostic systems, and energy conversion and extraction., (1) Advanced plasma confinement may efficiently confine plasma to optimize the fusion reactions. (2) Magnetic fields which are both stable and intricate may promote prolonged plasma stability. (3) Efficient management of heat and particles generated by the fusion process may be improved by the development of advanced diverters and other systems. (4) Durabile materials capable of withstanding prolonged exposure to extreme conditions may be employed within the reactor. (5) Control and diagnostic systems may be integrated to oversee and modify the parameters of the reactor to achieve maximum efficiency. (6) Efficient mechanisms may be employed to convert and extract the electrical energy generated during fusion reactions.

[0183] Advanced Manufacturing

[0184] The progression of additive manufacturing may influence the evolution of stellarators. Additive manufacturing techniques may produce stellarator components such as coil supports, especially when dealing with complex geometries. Monolithic coil supports for stellarators may be manufactured additively by layering composites on a substrate. Additive manufacturing may meet the necessary precision, stiffness, and strength standards for stellarator components. Advanced manufacturing techniques may be feasible in the presence of moderate to strong magnetic fields. Implementing additive manufacturing techniques of stellarator components may decrease expenses and enhance production efficiency. These improvements may augment stellarator viability and effectiveness.

[0185] Compact and Modular Designs

[0186] Compact and modular stellarator designs may improve the practicality and effectiveness of these fusion systems. Compact hybrid configurations featuring two or three field periods may provide favorable stability and quasiaxial symmetry. Stability and symmetry may facilitate sufficient transport within a magnetic fusion reactor. A combination of helical fields and bootstrap currents may enable compact or modular designs to perform rotational transformations efficiently at low aspect ratios. Moreover, these configurations may exhibit stability against ballooning modes. These configurations may also possess the capability to attain elevated beta limits, which may facilitate efficient fusion reactions. Thus, modular and compact stellarators may increase the accessibility and practicability of fusion energy.

[0187] Safety and Environmental Benefits

[0188] Compared to tokamak fusion reactors, stellarators may present a multitude of environmental and safety benefits which may enhance functionality and overall influence. Stellarators may maintain plasma without being dependent on induced plasma currents. Plasma maintenance may contribute significantly to the stellarator security and stability. Plasma disruptions may present an obstable in tokamak design. In comparison, stellarator mitigation ofthe likelihood of plasma disruptions may enhance the safety and dependability of stellarators for uninterrupted operation.

[0189] Additionally, the safety profile of stellarators may be enhanced by their design flexibility. Stellarators may enable a greater variety of plasma control options, which can result in more stable and effective operation. Furthermore, stellarators may employ robust electromagnetic coils to produce torsional magnetic fields. Use of these coils may involve high accuracy and may provide substantial regulation of plasma characteristics.

[0190] The overarching objectives of fusion energy may include supplying a clean, renewable, and virtually limitless energy source. Stellarators may provide environmental advantages within these objectives. Fusion energy, which may encompass stellarator-generated energy, may aid in mitigating climate change and may contribute to a varied energy portfolio. Stellarators may provide a more environmentally friendly substitute for conventional energy sources by facilitating fusion reactions without producing persistent radioactive waste.

[0191] Ongoing scientific and technical endeavors in stellarator technology, backed by reputable organizations such as the Department of Energy (DOE) and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), may optimize designs for fusion energy. Such designs may encompass optimizing magnetic fields responsible for regulating plasma in stellarators. Such designs may also encompass formulating designs and methodologies which augment operational efficiency while minimizing ecological footprints.

[0192] Power Generation Applications

[0193] Stellarator design and operation improvements may enhance fusion energy as a viable power source. The German Wendelstein 7-X (W7-X) stellarator enhances performance and extends the duration of fusion experiments by installing a water-cooling system and an improved diverter for managing high-performance heat. The W7-X may verify that power plants may utilize optimized stellarators.

[0194] Stellarators present some benefits compared to tokamaks in the field of fusion research. Stellarators may enable increased design flexibility, reduced power consumption for plasma maintenance, and simplified plasma control mechanisms. However, design improvements may overcome stellarator complexity, specifically regarding the design of magnetic field coils. Improvements in plasma theory and high-performance computing may assist in optimizing stellarator designs, such as the W7-X and the HSX (Helically Symmetric Experiment) in Wisconsin. Such designs may develop magnetic fields that effectively regulate plasma in stellarators and may contribute to comprehension of fundamental plasma theory.

[0195] A diverter may remove helium ash to ensure the continuous operation of a clean plasma. Diverters may act as an integral component in the interface between the hot plasma and thereactor walls. Diverter design may involve substantial experimental and theoretical effort due to its intricate nature. A divertor system described herein may streamline the plasma core, minimize turbulence, and incorporate a productive exhaust system.

[0196] Heat Generation Applications

[0197] The heat produced by stellarators may be applied in industrial processes and power generation. Industrial processes may include material processing, metallurgy, chemical manufacturing, or other operations requiring high temperatures. Fusion reactor high-grade heat may be converted into steam for conventional industrial operations. Fusion reactor high-grade heat may also be directly implemented in processes which involve elevated temperatures. Thus, fusion reactions may be substituted for the use of fossil fuels and may contribute to mitigating carbon emissions.

[0198] Reliable and continuous operation of fusion technology may facilitate the development of heat-harvesting technologies for industrial purposes. Advancements in fusion research may extend beyond electricity generation.

[0199] Neutron Production Applications

[0200] Plasma confinement and heating to facilitate fusion reactions may contribute to neutron generation in a stellarator. Stellarators may utilize magnetic fields to confine plasma in the form of a toroid. Stellarator design and operational conditions may impact the rate and efficiency of neutron production resulting from fusion reactions occurring within the plasma.

[0201] Improving the generation of neutrons may involve the optimization of magnetic confinement to maintain the required conditions of high-temperature plasma. Advancements in stellarator design, including enhanced coil configurations and improved plasma heating methods, may augment plasma confinement and stability. Consequently, these advancements may augment neutron production.

[0202] Sophisticated computational models and simulations may be utilized to examine diverse facets of stellarator operation, such as the configurations of the magnetic field and the behavior of the plasma. These models may facilitate increasing the efficiency of neutron production.

[0203] Stellarator designs which are adaptable and sustain stable plasma while consuming less energy may result in operational and financial gains for fusion systems. By optimizing magnetic fields that regulate plasma, these designs may offer a secure and practical approach to generating neutrons in fusion processes.

[0204] Medical Applications

[0205] Stellarators may be designed to produce and regulate high-temperature plasmas to maintain fusion reactions. Technology and discoveries derived from stellarator research mayindirectly benefit medical applications, specifically in fields associated with nuclear and radiation medicine.

[0206] Radiation Therapy: Fusion and plasma physics research developments may contribute to improving radiation therapy technologies. Gaining insight into the dynamics of high-energy particles and radiation within stellarators may contribute to advancing radiation therapy methods. These therapy methods may become more accurate and productive in the context of cancer treatment.

[0207] Production of Medical Isotopes: Fusion systems like stellarators may generate medical isotopes. These medical isotypes may be utilized in therapeutic and diagnostic contexts. Such isotopes may be used in imaging and treatment procedures in nuclear medicine.

[0208] Radiation-Resistant Materials: Materials devised for stellarators may endure high temperatures and radiation and may be modified for medical applications. Radiation-resistant materials may be utilized in medical devices and implants.

[0209] Neutron Imaging: Stellarators utilized in fusion systems may generate neutrons. Neutrons may be utilized in the fields of medical imaging and cancer treatment. Neutron imaging presents specific benefits compared to conventional X-ray imaging. Additionally, specific forms of cancer can be targeted through neutron therapy.

[0210] Precision Requirements

[0211] Stellarator coils may be utilized to generate the complex magnetic fields which confine plasma in a stellarator fusion device. The intricate three-dimensional configurations of these coils may involve a significant level of precision in both design and manufacturing. Precision related to stellarator coils may facilitate optimal plasma confinement and stability. The design, fabrication, and upkeep of stellarator coils may involve extreme precision to improve stellarator operation, reduce costs, enhance maintenance, and reduce device footprint profiles.

[0212] Stellarator Operation Improvements: Accurate coil geometry may enable a stellarator to produce an intended magnetic field configuration. Coil accuracy levels may directly influence the effectiveness of plasma confinement. Coil accuracy may also influence the caliber of the fusion reactions. Coil accuracy may also contribute to overall stellarator performance.Advancements in manufacturing technologies and design methodologies may lead to improved alignment accuracy. These improvements may enhance plasma confinement and stability, ultimately facilitating more efficient fusion processes.

[0213] Achieving Cost Reduction: The intricate design and precise parameters involved in manufacturing and assembling stellarator coils may contribute excessive expenses to stellarator construction. The overall cost of stellarator construction and operation may be diminished through design and fabrication techniques that enhance efficiency. Such techniques may includeemploying advanced computational modeling, 3D printing components, and deploying materials that are simple to shape and assemble. Labor and material costs may be reduced by optimizing coil designs. Such optimizations may facilitate more straightforward assembly or may reduce the number of unique components.

[0214] Enhanced Maintenance and a Reduced Footprint: Precise coil design and fabrication may contribute to more compact stellarator configuration. Compact configurations may further diminish overall footprints of stellarators. A more space-efficient stellarator in a compact design may enable integration into pre-existing facilities. Furthermore, precision-engineered, readily accessible, and replaceable coils may streamline maintenance protocols. Streamlined maintenance protocols may augment stellarator safety and durability.

[0215] Material Stress

[0216] Operational heat and magnetic fields may place significant strain on stellarator component materials. Such material stress may encourage meticulous attention to detail during the design, production, and upkeep stages.

[0217] Enhanced Stellarator Performance: Addressing material stress in stellarators may enhance operational efficiency. Stellarator operations may increase longevity and effectiveness by incorporating composite materials or alloys specifically engineered to endure elevated temperatures and stresses. Further, cooling technologies and heat management systems may alleviate the consequences of thermal stress, resulting in enhanced fusion processes and more consistent plasma confinement.

[0218] Safety, Cost, Footprint, and Maintenance: Effective material stress management may affect stellarators' costs, footprints, and maintenance. Materials with increased resistance to stress may decrease operational expenses by eliminating frequent component replacements and extensive maintenance. Compact designs that effectively handle material stress may result in diminished footprints. Diminished footprints may then in turn increase the viability of stellarators across diverse environments. Materials with a greater capacity to withstand operational stresses may inherently enhance safety by mitigating the likelihood of system failures. System failures may otherwise result in system shutdowns or hazardous environments.

[0219] Interdisciplinary developments may enhance the management of material stress in stellarators. Such developments may involve materials science, thermal dynamics, and plasma physics. Interdisciplinary development may further stellarator technology toward practical and economically viable fusion energy production.

[0220] Magnetic Field Optimization

[0221] Optimization of the magnetic field within stellarators may increase energy generation efficiency and enhance reactor performance as a whole. In contrast to tokamak designs,stellarator design may generate precise magnetic fields. These precise fields may be capable of effectively confining plasma amidst inherent symmetries. The toroidal and poloidal components of these magnetic fields may be balanced to generate flux surfaces. These flux surfaces may confine the plasma throughout the numerous plasma circuits around the apparatus.

[0222] Optimizations which minimize neoclassical energy transport may be utilized to optimize magnetic fields. The magnitude of neoclassical energy transport may be impacted by the geometry of the magnetic field. Stellarators generate both toroidal and poloidal components of the magnetic field. These components may be generated externally through coils specifically engineered to induce the required spiraling of the field. Neoclassical energy transport may be reduced by minimizing time-averaged radial drifts encountered by localized particles. This minimization maybe achieved by optimizing these fields and decreasing the effective helical ripple. The Wendelstein 7-X (W7-X) design strives to minimize neoclassical energy transport by manipulating magnetic field geometry.

[0223] Optimization may relate not only to the magnetic field but also to the configuration and design of the coils responsible for producing it. Computational design may influence configuration and design of the coils. Thus, computational design may provide a cost-effective method for exploring the stellarator design space. Computational models may direct the development process towards configurations that offer enhanced confinement and stability for the plasma by commencing with an optimized initial state.

[0224] Thus, optimization efforts may enhance the stability and confinement of the plasma to improve the operation of stellarators. Such optimization efforts may also address concerns regarding cost, footprint, maintenance, and safety. Enhanced stellarator maintenance, reduced coil system complexity and size, and improved magnetic field efficiency may facilitate efficient, economic, sustainable, and secure fusion energy sources.

[0225] Conductor Material

[0226] Cryogenic superconductors may contribute to stellarator development and function. These cryogenic superconductors may conduct electricity at extremely low temperatures with no resistance. Such superconductors may produce the intense magnetic fields used for plasma confinement in stellarators. High-temperature superconducting (HTS) materials, including REBCO (Rare Earth-Barium-Copper Oxide), may enhance stellarator operations and decrease expenses in multiple respects.

[0227] Enhanced Stellarator Performance: HTS materials may generate more robust and consistent magnetic fields. Such fields may facilitate the efficient confinement of plasma. Compared to conventional superconductors, HTS materials may possess elevated critical temperatures and magnetic field strengths. Such characteristics may facilitate cooling systemswith greater efficiency and may diminish the energy needed to sustain the superconducting state. Thus, HTS materials may improve plasma stability and higher fusion power output.

[0228] Long-Term Cost Reduction: Despite the initial high cost of HTS materials and associated cooling systems, the exceptional efficiency and performance associated with these materials may reduce operational expenditures. HTS materials may enable more compact coil designs and decrease cooling requirements, thereby reducing stellarator device size and complexity. Consequently, reduced device size and complexity may result in cost savings associated with construction and maintenance.

[0229] Enhanced Maintenance and a Smaller Footprint: Incorporating HTS materials into the stellarator design may result in a more compact formation. Compact formations may diminish physical dimensions and potentially streamlining integration with pre-existing infrastructure. Furthermore, the increased dependability and prolonged operational lifespan of HTS coils may decrease maintenance demands and expenses. These decreases may bolster overall security and longevity of the system.

[0230] Structural Support

[0231] The structural support of stellarators may directly influence the efficiency, cost, footprint, maintenance, and safety of fusion devices. Support mechanisms may allow stellarator coils and other functional structures to endure the stresses caused by magnetic fields, thermal loads, and the physical weight of the components.

[0232] Various manufacturing techniques may be employed to produce stellarators of small to medium dimensions. Manufacturing techniques may include additive manufacturing or 3D printing. In contrast to conventional fabrication methods such as cutting, casting, forging, and welding, these approaches may present distinct benefits, particularly when constructing sophisticated, intricate modular stellarators. 3D printing may preserve complex component positioning accuracy while also reducing costs. Geometrically simple assembly configurations achieved with 3D printing may maintain high precision while reducing device costs.

[0233] Manufacturing techniques may also adjust material thicknesses by forming a continuous monolithic coil structural shell that conforms to modular coils. In conjunction with additive manufacturing, this strategy may reduce the capital expenditures associated with stellarator construction. Utilizing computer-aided design files to generate distinct configuration may produce components similar to the intended form. Producing components with minimal deviations from the original designs may diminish extensive machining processes. Components with minimal deviations may also curtail manufacturing expenses while optimizing structural support.

[0234] Like any engineering structure, structural support may preserve stellarator functionality and integrity. To ensure that structures can withstand internal forces such as gravity and lateral forces such as wind or earthquakes, engineering may employ a variety of supports that transfer such loads to the ground in a safe manner. Fixed supports may be utilized for this purpose. Fixed supports may be characterized by extreme rigidity which prevents any motion of the abutting structure. Undesirable motion of the structures may include translations and rotations. Fixed supports may include poles or columns inserted into concrete. Such fixed supports may establish a sturdy linkage for edifices that demand slight deflection or “play” to safeguard adjacent materials.

[0235] Pinned or hinged supports may also be utilized to transfer external loads to the ground in a safe manner. Pinned support may function like a hinge by permitting rotational motion but limiting translational changes. Structures like door leaves, which rotate about a vertical axis without horizontal or vertical displacement, may benefit from pinned support.

[0236] Further, roller supports may be utilized to permit thermal expansion and contraction. Roller supports may resist only perpendicular forces commonly found in large bridges, thus preventing damage from expansion or contraction caused by temperature changes.

[0237] Structural support in stellarators may facilitate designing and constructing intricate coil systems and other functional structures which may confine the plasma. Appropriate forms of structural reinforcement may be deployed to support the complex geometries and critical placement requirements of stellarator components. Fixed supports may be employed to firmly fasten the base of stellarator coils. In contrast, pinned or hinged supports may permit adjustments or movements executed during maintenance without j eopardizing overall structural stability. Roller supports may be utilized in structural components that require thermal expansion accommodation.

[0238] Magnetic Field Shaping Elements

[0239] Stellarators may employ magnetic fields to confine plasma. Electromagnetic coils may be implemented to generate these magnetic fields. Coil configuration, placement, and constituent materials may influence coil efficacy. Prominent stellarators such as the Wendelstein 7-X in Germany, the Helically Symmetric Experiment (HSX) in the United States, and the Large Helical Device in Japan may illustrate the varied methodologies employed in a magnetic field configuration.

[0240] Permanent magnets may be employed to simplify stellarator design. This approach may decrease the intricacy and expense conventionally linked to twisted magnetic coils. Powerful permanent magnets may be used to generate a significant portion of the magnetic fields requiredfor plasma confinement. The use of permanent magnets may eliminate complex coil systems, which could result in more cost-effective and uncomplicated construction processes.

[0241] Optimized coil geometry and magnetic field shaping may increase the efficiency of particle confinement. Numerical methods may be developed to compute particle distribution. The influence of plasma-generated electric currents on the magnetic field may be investigated. Stellarators may be designed to achieve optimal confinement. Finally, plasma turbulence and its consequences for heat and particle losses may be investigated.

[0242] Power Supply and Control Systems

[0243] The design, construction, and testing of electrical power supply components in the TJ-II stellarator in Spain may influence power supply system advancements. The flywheel synchronous generators may satisfy the essential criteria for stellarator operation. Augmenting the effectiveness and dependability of stellarator power systems may result in operational enhancements, cost reductions, and safety improvements.

[0244] Power supplies may supply energy to support the operation of control systems and maintain plasma confinement. Stellarators, such as the Wendelstein 7-X located in Germany, may employ sophisticated power supply systems to regulate the intricate magnetic fields used for for plasma confinement. The use of permanent magnets may simplify stellarator design, potentially reducing the complexity and expense of magnetic coil systems. Robust permanent magnets may generate a proportion of the magnetic fields required for plasma confinement. The use of permanent magnets may avoid the use of complex and costly twisted magnetic coils.

[0245] Plasma turbulence may result in inefficiencies in plasma confinement and energy dissipation. Schola Computational models may be employed to comprehend and mitigate plasma turbulence in stellarator-type plasmas. The Gyrokinetic Electromagnetic Numerical Experiment (GENE) code, initially designed for tokamak systems, has been expanded to include stellarators. GENE code simulations may reduce plasma turbulence by over 50%. Such reductions in turbulence may enhance plasma confinement efficiency and reduce the operational expenses of forthcoming stellarator power plants.

[0246] Thermal Management

[0247] The design and operation of stellarators may involve thermal management. Superconductor cryogenic conditions may contribute to stellarator functionality. These cryogenic conditions may be preserved through effective management of thermal energy produced by stellarators. Thermal management in stellarators may control the heat produced by the apparatus while preserving the cryogenic condition of superconductors.

[0248] The application of high-temperature superconductors (HTS) to stellarators may boost performance and efficiency. Higher temperature operation of HTS materials compared toconventional superconductors may reduce cooling requirements and simplify thermal management systems. Magnetic fields, which may be used for plasma confinement in stellarators, may be generated by these materials with a reduced footprint and energy consumption.

[0249] Thermal management systems may regulate the heat load from external and plasma sources. These systems may also preserve the superconductors below critical temperature. Thermal management may also protect cooling system integrity in intense magnetic fields. Cooling mechanisms, such as cryogenic liquid helium or nitrogen, may extract thermal energy from the superconducting coils.

[0250] Assembly

[0251] Stellarator designs may incorporate precisely shaped and positioned magnetic coils to generate the three-dimensional magnetic fields which may confine plasma. In contrast to tokamaks, the stellarator configuration may deviate from toroidal symmetry. This deviation may lead to more complex configurations of magnetic coils to guarantee efficient plasma containment without a plasma current.

[0252] Integration with Other Systems

[0253] Stellarator designs may involve operational, financial, environmental, upkeep, and safety-related considerations. These considerations may facilitate stellarator-based fusion energy as a feasible component of the overall energy portfolio.

[0254] Improvements to stellarator operation may incorporate optimizing magnetic field configurations to enhance plasma confinement and stability. Sophisticated computational models may be developed to optimize the design of magnetic coils. Optimized designs may minimize energy losses and enhance plasma confinement effectiveness. Integration of real-time temperature monitoring and quench protection systems may enable secure device function even in the most extreme conditions, thereby improving overall operational stability.

[0255] Cost and Physical Footprint: Resilient, effective, and low-maintenance magnetic coils may decrease stellarator expenses and ecological impact. Compact power conversion systems may employ supercritical CO2 in combined cycles for electricity production. Compact power conversion systems may be incorporated into stellarator design to enhance thermal efficiency and diminish the scale of the infrastructure.

[0256] Safety and Maintenance: Safety enhancements may prevent accidents. Such enhancements may include sophisticated diagnostics and control systems that may react to deviations in plasma behavior. Modular designs may enhance the efficiency of maintenance processes by facilitating convenient access to components that require repair or replacement.Energy usage and generation monitoring may be incorporated with safety systems to achieve efficiency while maintaining safety standards.

[0257] Integrating a stellarator with power grid utilities may be enhanced by implementing innovative grid technologies. Such technologies may enable dynamic balancing of energy supply and demand. Innovative integration may include developing energy storage or conversion systems that manage the intermittent nature of fusion energy production. By facilitating smooth integration with the electrical grid, sophisticated control systems may promote fusion power as a dependable and consistent energy source.

[0258] Plasma Creation

[0259] Stellarators may maintain plasma without requiring constant external power to propel plasma currents, unlike tokamaks. Stellarator plasma stability may facilitate consistent and uninterrupted operation. Such operation may decrease operational intricacy and expenses associated with fusion power generation. Stellarators may be engineered to be adaptable, allowing for adjustments. These adjustments may result in enhanced confinement and diminished energy dissipation. Neoclassical transport, a significant source of energy loss, may be mitigated through optimized stellarator designs. This optimization may attain elevated temperatures and confinement underlying the practical generation of fusion energy.

[0260] Furthermore, in contrast to tokamaks, stellarators may function in an intrinsic steadystate manner. Steady-state operation may improve safety and alleviate maintenance difficulties typically associated with fusion reactors. Additionally, steady-state operation may diminish needs for intricate systems to control disruptions and instabilities. Thus, steady-state operation may diminish financial burdens and reduce expenses.

[0261] Plasma theory and high-performance computing may facilitate stellarator designs. Theory and computing may aid in comprehending and optimizing magnetic fields that regulate plasma. Stellarator technology that is safe, clean, and renewable may be a viable alternative for fusion power plants.

[0262] Magnetic Confinement

[0263] Coils may generate complex magnetic fields confine highly charged plasma produced during fusion.

[0264] Stellarators may regulate fusion of highly charged plasma with magnetic confinement. This confinement may be achieved with intricate magnetic coil arrangements. Stellarators have a distinct advantage over tokamaks by preserving plasma stability without a substantial toroidal current. This level of stability may avoid the use of external current drivers, thus decreasing energy consumption and operational expenses. Stable and prolonged plasma confinement within stellarators may also facilitate sustained fusion reactions. Materials and magnetic fieldoptimizations may enhance complex coil design performance and efficiency. Comprehension of plasma behavior and development of robust materials and potent magnets may facilitate stellarators as a feasible alternative for fusion power plants.

[0265] Stability and Control

[0266] Stellarators may incorporate design parameters, including applying 150 million degrees Celsius heating to a plasma, confining the plasma by a meticulous configuration of magnetic coils, and driving the coils by superconductors. Enhanced stability and control in stellarator design may sustain the high-temperature plasma utilized for fusion. Computational optimization may yield stellarator configurations that may enhance turbulent transport reduction, include effective non-resonant diverters, and improve transport of energetic particles. Sophisticated algorithms may refine the plasma boundary and may provide quasi-symmetry and homogeneity. Thus, plasma stability may enhance stellarator performance and stability. Quasi-helical symmetric designs, optimized for particular performance metrics, may be implemented to improve performance and stability. Such metrics may include diminished deviation from quasi- symmetry and enhanced confinement and stability characteristics.

[0267] Stellarator stability and control may also be enhanced by three-dimensional Monte Carlo codes of plasma transport in island diverters. This methodology may enable comprehensive simulation of plasma dynamics in intricate magnetic configurations. These simulations may offer valuable insights into enhancing diverter designs to manage heat loads and regulate particles efficiently. Technological advances of this nature may facilitate refinement of stellarator designs to attain stable and efficient fusion energy production.

[0268] Energy Extraction

[0269] Fusion heat may be converted to a liquid state to extract energy from a fusion reactor. Heat may be converted to a liquid state by producing steam. Energy extraction methods may be utilized to enhance stellarator operations or mitigate concerns related to cost, footprint, maintenance, and safety. Stellarator designs present unique challenges, including the administration of the high-energy neutrons generated during fusion reactions. A breeding blanket, commonly composed of lithium-containing material, may be employed to capture these neutrons. Breeding blankets safeguard the magnets which sustain magnetic confinement of the plasma. The breeding blanket layer must be sufficiently thick to capture the majority of neutrons. If the majority of neutrons are not captured, the magnets may be pushed further away from the plasma. The further the magnets are from the plasma, the more powerful the magnets may become as the device scales up. These stringent placement tolerances may contribute to the intricate nature of stellarator magnets and may pose significant financial and manufacturing obstacles.

[0270] Stellarator design may integrate various plasma heating techniques before ignition to extract energy. Such techniques may include current heating for preliminary warm-up, neutral particle beam injection, and high-frequency electromagnetic waves. High-frequency electromagnetic waves may be analogized to microwave heating. High-frequency electromagnetic waves may be utilized to generate and enhance an ion beam injected into the plasma after neutralization to prevent deflection caused by the magnetic field. This method effectively warms the plasma by transferring kinetic energy to the plasma particles via collisions.

[0271] Gas Introduction

[0272] To ionize a substance, the gas may be introduced into the stellarator while maintaining internal conditions. Gas introduction may be manipulated to optimize the restriction and preservation of plasma at exceedingly high temperatures utilized for fusion reactions. The process of gas introduction into a stellarator, followed by plasma formation via ionization, may influence operational stability and efficiency. Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics suggest that certain particles may attain the elevated energies required for fusion reactions, even at lower bulk gas temperatures. These reactions may generate substantial amounts of energy, which may aid in sustaining the gas at the necessary temperature for fusion to continue.

[0273] The magnetic confinement capabilities of a stellarator may facilitate introducing and managing gas within the apparatus. Gas introduction, ionization, and subsequent plasma heating and containment may support operational enhancements and advancements that may establish stellarator-based fusion as a feasible and environmentally sustainable energy alternative.

[0274] Ionization

[0275] Gas introduced into a stellarator may be heated to induce ionization. The gas may reach a critical temperature for fusion to occur. Thus, gas ionization may facilitate attaining and maintaining ideal plasma conditions.

[0276] Enhancing the efficiency and regulation of gas ionization in stellarators may facilitate the optimization of fusion reactions. Advancements in stellarator design may employ sophisticated optimization methodologies, which may augment ionization efficiency substantially. Manipulation of plasma conditions and optimized magnetic field configurations may result in elevated ion temperatures and enhanced confinement, thus facilitating effective ionization and fusion.

[0277] Department of Energy funded stellarator research aims to surmount the obstacles that arise from ionization and plasma control. This research may advance magnetic fields that improve plasma stability, enhance the efficiency of stellarators in ionizing gas, and sustain the elevated temperatures essential for fusion. Such research may utilize computational tools toinvestigate novel design methodologies, which may influence the capacity to attain the intended ionization rates and thermal conditions for sustainable fusion reactions.

[0278] Neutral Beam Injection

[0279] High-energy neutral particles may be introduced into a magnetic confinement field to induce ionization in the neutral particles. Ionized injected neutral atoms may impart kinetic energy to plasma particles via collisions. This kinetic energy may heat the plasma, thus facilitating fusion. Stellarators such as Wendelstein 7-X may increase plasma heating via Neutral Beam Injection (NBI) by injecting high-energy neutral particles. NBI may generate plasma temperature and aid in plasma fueling via ionizing injected neutral atoms. NBI may contribute to establishing fusion conditions, demonstrating a capacity to enhance stellarator functionality and the security and effectiveness of fusion energy production.

[0280] High-Energy Neutrons

[0281] Primary modes of interaction between high-energy neutrons and matter may include elastic and inelastic collisions with nuclei. These collisions may generate charged particles, secondary neutrons, and gamma rays. In a stellarator setting, secondary particles may be generated by high-energy neutrons interacting with matter. These particles may impact the structural integrity of the materials comprising the reactor as well as the overall efficiency of the fusion process. Addressing the interaction of high-energy neutrons in stellarators with materials and plasma may enhance stellarator functionality, safety, and cost-effectiveness.

[0282] Magnetic fields may be optimized to regulate the behavior of high-energy particles, such as neutrons.

[0283] Advanced materials and magnetic configurations that reduce energetic particle losses and mitigate the effects of neutron radiation on reactor components may optimize particle confinement and manage neutron interactions. Detecting resonances that may result in particle losses during the design stage may produce effective confinement and reduce challenges associated with neutrons.

[0284] Stellarator performance may be improved by reducing neutron-induced damage and augmenting neutron confinement. These improvements may decrease expenses and provide compact physical appearance. In turn, these improvements may simplify stellarator upkeep and improved safety profiles. These developments may enhance overall effectiveness and security, increasing feasibility of extended periods of stellarator operation.

[0285] Collision with Reactor Walls

[0286] Neutrons colliding with the breeding blanket positioned within the reactor walls may produce tritium. Tritium may serve as supplementary fuel for the reactor. Thus, stellarator reactor design and operation may consider management of neutrons. Capturing these neutronsefficiently to produce tritium may augment stellarator fuel supply, which may improve operational efficiency.

[0287] Advanced materials and design strategies may be employed to reduce maintenance needs, enhance reactor safety, and mitigate neutron-induced damage in light of interactions between neutrons with reactor materials. Thus, design principles and material science techniques may enhance stellarator overall performance and cost-efficiency.

[0288] Heat Utilization

[0289] Heat may be harvested from nuclear fusion reactions utilizing heat exchangers embedded in the blanket. These heat exchanges may convert the heat to liquid that flows through the exchangers. This liquid may then be utilized to produce electricity, for instance, through turbines. Utilizing this heat may transform the enormous energy generated by fusion reactions into practical electrical power. Thus, stellarators ay enhance operational effectiveness and positively contribute to generating sustainable energy.

[0290] Neutron Handling and Material Durability

[0291] Fusion may produce elastic neutrons. These elastic neutrons may be utilized to generate energy, but may also have long-term degradation effects on the materials comprising the reactor. Issues associated with neutron handling and material durability may be addressed by development of materials and concepts that are intrinsically stable and able to operate continuously. Stability and continuous operation may be improved by enhancing energy confinement duration and reducing neoclassical losses. These improvements may improve reactor performance and resilience to energetic neutrons. . . These advancements may decrease the environmental impact of stellarators, enhance safety measures, and streamline maintenance procedures.

[0292] Energy Transfer

[0293] Energy may transfer to a liquid that flows through the blanket and is subsequently utilized to power generators to produce electricity. Power generators may include turbines. Employing heat exchangers integrated into the blanket may facilitate the efficient transfer of heat generated during fusion reactions to a working fluid. Subsequently, the heated fluid may be employed to drive turbines, which produce electrical energy. This procedure may demonstrate the potential of stellarators to enhance operational efficiency and generate energy.

[0294] Liquid lithium-based walls may be incorporated into stellarator structures to overcome obstacles in fusion energy generation associated with neutron management and material longevity. These liquid walls may prevent the transfer of almost all neutron energy to solid materials, which could potentially induce radioactivity. Stellarators may utilize thick, fluid- filled walls to regulate the heat produced during fusion efficiently. These fluid-filled walls mayenable the extraction of heat to drive turbine-driven electricity generation. By preventing material degradation over time, this method may improve sustainability and safety and increase energy transfer efficiency.

[0295] Extraction of Waste Products

[0296] Waste products may be gradually extracted during cycles. Waste products may also be eliminated when a stellarator may be cycled down between cycles. Fusion reactors may generate inert helium as their primary output, rather than hazardous byproduct gases that necessitate further processing. Stellarators, may integrate sophisticated techniques for waste product management. These waste product management techniques may emphasize secure and effective elimination of inert helium, the principal byproduct of fusion processes. In contrast to traditional nuclear reactors, stellarators and fusion reactors may operate without emitting perilous waste gases. Operation without such waste may mitigate environmental and safety apprehensions linked to waste management. The extraction of waste products in stellarators may involve cycling down the reactor to eliminate waste between cycles or utilizing systems designed to draw off waste gradually during operation cycles. Elimination of waste may contribute to safe and continuous operation of the reactor.

[0297] Stellarator operational methodology, distinct from that of tokamaks and other fusion reactor designs, may utilize magnetic fields to confine the plasma. Stellarator operational methodology may generate conditions for fusion reactions without relying on induced plasma currents. This methodology may enhance the potential of stellarators to facilitate more straightforward plasma control and potentially more effective waste management procedures.

[0298] Additionally, technological developments like innovative first-wall designs and dual coolant lithium lead breeding blankets may improve operational efficiency and material durability. These advancements may enhance heat extraction and regulate neutron flux, both of which may impact the materials of the reactor gradually. In particular, incorporating sophisticated materials and cooling mechanisms may alleviate the deterioration induced by the energetic neutrons produced during fusion. These materials may prolong reactor lifespan and diminish maintenance demands. Optimized stellarator operation and waste management may facilitate stellarators as a means of fusion energy generation that is secure, effective, and ecologically sustainable.

[0299] Handling and Treatment of Neutron-Irradiated Material

[0300] A breeding blanket may contain a significant amount of neutron-irradiated material because it absorbs neutrons to produce additional tritium for use as fuel. Structural and functional properties of a reactor may deteriorate gradually due to neutrons interacting with other structures. Induced radiation may result from the activation of neutrons by materialsexposed to neutron irradiation; therefore, improved systems and methods described herein may be advantageous for maintaining and decommissioning a fusion reactor.

[0301] In stellarators, the treatment and handling of neutron-irradiated materials may preserve the integrity and safety of the reactor. In addition to absorbing neutrons to produce additional tritium, a breeding blanket may degrade gradually due to neutron impact. To mitigate induced radiation caused by neutron activation, neutron-irradiated materials may be managed meticulously, including implementing precautions during maintenance and decommissioning stages.

[0302] Momentum and Collision

[0303] The ionized particles that make up the plasma in a stellarator may collide with supplementary fuel, thereby sustaining the fusion reaction. Similarly, neutrons produced from these reactions may breed tritium by colliding with the breeding blanket, which may then supply additional fuel to the reactor, or with fluid in heat exchangers, which may then extract energy that may be converted to electricity. The momentum and collision mechanisms involving ionized particles and neutrons may maintain fusion reactions and extract energy during stellarator operations. The aforementioned dual function of neutrons may contribute to practical energy extraction and to sustaining the fusion process.

[0304] Stellarators may confine plasma in a toroidal (doughnut-like) shape using complex electromagnetic coils rather than induced plasma currents. The use of complex electromagnetic coils represents a departure from tokamak designs. Magnetic confinement may facilitate the regulation of the plasma particles and may establish optimal circumstances for fusion reactions. Efforts to manage heat and particle confinement in stellarators may include reducing neoclassical transport, a form of heat loss induced by collisions that expel heated particles from their orbits. In some cases, a stellarator system described herein may exhibit substantial reductions in neoclassical transport through the use of optimized magnetic field designs. Optimized magnetic field designs indicate that stellarators may be optimized to increase fusion reaction efficiency and energy extraction to generate electricity.

[0305] Heating Metal Hydrides

[0306] When heated, hydrogen gas may be liberated from metal hydrides. Due to their heating- activated hydrogen storage and release mechanism, metal hydrides may be viable candidates for energy storage applications, including stellarator fusion reactors. Accordingly, hydrogen storage by metal hydrides may enhance stellarator operations, costs, footprints, maintenance, and safety considerations. The process by which metal hydrides emit hydrogen gas when heated may be utilized to regulate fuel supply in a fusion reactor or for alternative power generation.

[0307] Efficient utilization of metal hydrides may involve optimizing hydrogen storage performance, managing heat generated during hydrogen absorption and desorption processes, and accounting for corrosion, degradation, and cost. Sophisticated thermal management methodologies may augment the operational efficiency and security of hydrogen storage systems based on metal hydride. Such methodologies encompass the advancement of novel materials and structures to enhance hydrogen storage capacity and the formulation of inventive strategies to regulate the thermal components effectively.

[0308] Investigations into using metal hydrides in conjunction with solar technologies may focus on metal hydrides’ potential for thermal energy storage (TES) purposes in high- temperature power generation. This methodology facilitates uninterrupted power production by storing solar energy heat in high-temperature (HT) metal hydrides, which may subsequently be utilized to produce electricity, potentially even during periods of low solar activity. Dual-bed metal hydride systems demonstrate the versatility of metal hydrides in energy storage and generation by incorporating low-temperature (LT) and high-temperature (HT) hydrides. Such developments demonstrate how metal hydrides may contribute to the sustainability of energy systems.

[0309] Radiation Protection Measures

[0310] A blanket situated within the reactor may act as a primary means of radiation protection. Fuel in fusion reactors possesses only a low level of radioactivity and may not regarded as exceedingly hazardous. Optimization of stellarator operation and efficiency may prioritize reducing neoclassical losses and enhancing energy confinement. Design improvements resulting from enhanced comprehension of neoclassical transport and plasma stability may enable the development of steady-state operational designs. Such improvements may mitigate radiation- related issues by decreasing the likelihood of plasma instabilities, which may otherwise result in elevated radiation levels. Constant, interruption-free operation may increase safety and reduce the expense and complexity of radiation protection measures.

[0311] Plasma Purification

[0312] Plasma may be purified after use in the reactor by extracting small quantities of helium from the plasma, separating the helium, and reintroducing the plasma into the reactor. In stellarators, the process of plasma purification may involve the removal of helium from the plasma while reintroducing the fuel. Plasma purification may preserve plasma quality and reactor efficiency. Both effective management of plasma-wall interactions and precise assembly of a stellarator may impact plasma purification and overall stellarator operation.

[0313] Helium Separation

[0314] When helium is extracted from the plasma, a portion of the fuel may be extracted and separated before being reintroduced into the reactor. Membrane gas separation technologies, whose selectivity demonstrates potential in the retrieval and purification of helium, may augment helium separation in stellarators. Incorporation of membrane gas separation into stellarator operations may effectively isolate helium from the fusion process, enabling fuel reintroduction while guaranteeing helium retrieval for subsequent applications. Streamlining the management of mixed gas streams may enhance safety, reduce expenses, and improve operational efficiency.

[0315] Pumping Out

[0316] The process of pumping out, also known as ash removal, may involve the removal of waste gases from stellarators. Pumping-out procedures in stellarators may involve removing ash or waste gases, usually during a cycle-down of a reactor. Pumping-out preserves the safety and effectiveness of the reactor by ensuring that only the elements required for fusion reactions are present. Initial experiments involving expansive stellarator configurations may signify progression in the manipulation and upkeep of plasma by encompassing efficient management of waste gases. Enhancements to stellarator operation demonstrate the potential for environmentally friendly and secure nuclear energy sources, emphasizing the usefulness of an effective waste gas management system.

[0317] Safety Systems

[0318] Safety systems may focus primarily on containing plasma during a reactor cycle down in case of a failure, such as quenching. Stellarator safety systems may be engineered to regulate plasma containment in the event of a malfunction, thereby facilitating safe cycling down of the reactor. Methodologies devised for magnetic confinement fusion, including implementing “baseball” coil arrangements and Ioffe bars, focus on enhancing containment and mitigating other challenges, including flute instability. The present disclosure enhances the safety of stellarators by improving plasma containment and control, facilitating prevention and management of potential failures.

[0319] Integration of Al

[0320] In one aspect, the systems described herein may comprise computer systems comprising an Artificial Intelligence (Al) or Machine Learning algorithm (collectively referred to herein as “Al”). Al may identify optimal operational parameters that maximize energy extraction while maintaining adequate safety margins. Al may be utilized to develop predictive models that utilize training data to detect occurrences like quenching events. These predictive models may facilitate proactive modifications that avert offlineing of a reactor.

[0321] Al may be applied to stellarator operations in optimizing operational parameters to increase safety and efficiency. Al algorithms may forecast disruptions, such as quenching events, facilitating proactive adaptations by operators. Proactive adaptations may avert avoidable reactor downtimes and optimize energy extraction while maintaining safe operational margins. The present disclosure addresses the intricate plasma dynamics in stellarators and may improve the stability and efficiency of fusion energy generation.

[0322] Al algorithms may determine the most efficient operational parameters by analyzing vast datasets from previous operations, thereby increasing energy output and decreasing wear on reactor components.

[0323] Al may provide predictive maintenance recommendations as an automated safety measure, ensuring that all components operate within safe parameters. Al may analyze operational data to identify when components are likely to fail or require maintenance, thus preventing unanticipated downtimes.

[0324] Al may provide real-time plasma control by regulating magnetic fields in microseconds, facilitating optimal confinement and averting disruptions or instabilities in the plasma.

[0325] High-temperature superconducting (HTS) materials have revolutionized magnetic coil systems, offering significant advantages in efficiency and performance for applications such as stellarators. However, the technology may face certain challenges, such as in the durability and maintenance of HTS tape coils. HTS coils may be vulnerable to quench events, where a sudden loss of superconductivity leads to rapid heating and potential damage. This risk may be exacerbated by the high costs and technical difficulties associated with repairing or replacing HTS tapes. Current HTS coil designs may also face challenges with limitations in flexibility and adaptability. For example, the intricate and rigid structures of these coils may make them difficult to modify or repair without compromising integrity or performance. This lack of adaptability may restrict the ability to upgrade or repair systems, leading to, for example, increased waste and costs as entire coils may need to be replaced, rather than repaired.

[0326] Additionally, the manufacturing and assembly processes for HTS coils may be complex and sensitive, using precise conditions to reduce damage to the superconducting tapes. Any deviation during these processes can lead to inefficiencies or failures in the system.Furthermore, the use of traditional soldering materials in HTS coil systems may pose a problem due to their high melting points, which may be close to the critical temperatures at which HTS tapes can be damaged. This narrow temperature margin may complicate repair and maintenance activities, as the risk of damaging the tapes may be high.

[0327] The environmental impact of HTS coil systems may also face certain challenges. The difficulty in repairing and recycling components may contribute to material waste, as damaged coils may be discarded, rather than repaired or reused.

[0328] Advantageously, the HTS coil system disclosed herein may be capable of being repaired. This system may significantly reduce operational downtime and costs associated with the maintenance and replacement of HTS coils, especially in critical applications like stellarators. The ability to efficiently repair and replace HTS tapes after quenching events or for aftermarket upgrades extends the lifespan of magnetic coil systems, decrease waste, and promote sustainable practices. This advancement represents a significant step forward in the reliability and environmental sustainability of HTS coil technologies, offering a practical solution to the current challenges faced in their maintenance and lifecycle management.

[0329] FIG. 5 illustrates a system for quench protection with integrated fuses. A quench is a transition from the superconducting state to the normal, or resistive, state due to local overheating, which can rapidly spread if not managed properly. The system may include a stellarator system 5-502. The stellarator system 5-502 may be a fusion energy system utilizing a stellarator configuration. The stellarator configuration may employ superconducting coils 5-504 for magnetic confinement. The stellarator system 5-502 may incorporate advanced quench protection mechanisms. Advanced quench protection mechanisms may include the integration of reverse fuses 5-106 within the coil insulation. The reverse fuses 5-506 may be strategically placed to become conductive and shunt current at predetermined points when voltage exceeds safe levels. Thus, the reverse fuses 5-506 may prevent undesirable current paths or arcing during quench events. The stellarator system 5-502 may include a network of resistors 5-508. The resistors 5-508 may provide alternative current paths. The network of resistors 5-508 may allow for real-time monitoring and diagnostics of the status of the superconducting coils 5-504. The stellarator system 5-502 may combine physical protection mechanisms with diagnostic features. The stellarator system 5-502 may facilitate integrity and functionality of the coils in high-tum configurations.

[0330] In some cases, the stellarator system 5-502 may include a plurality of superconducting coils 5-504. The superconducting coils 5-504 may be high-performance coils. The superconducting coils 5-504 may be composed of superconducting materials that exhibit zero or nearly no electrical resistance when cooled to cryogenic temperatures. The superconducting coils 5-502 may generate the strong magnetic fields which facilitate magnetic confinement of the fusion plasma. The magnetic fields may prevent the plasma from contacting the walls of the confinement vessel. The magnetic fields may maintain the necessary conditions for sustained fusion reactions.

[0331] In some cases, the superconducting coils 5-504 may be high-temperature superconductors (HTS). HTS may be composed of yttrium barium copper oxide, bismuth strontium calcium copper oxide, etc. HTS may operate at relatively higher temperatures. The superconducting coils 5-504 may be low-temperature superconductors (LTS). LTS may be composed of as niobium-titanium, niobium-tin, etc. LTS may operate at relatively lower temperatures.

[0332] Superconductivity may be characterized by the complete absence of electrical resistance and expulsion of magnetic fields in certain materials cooled below a critical temperature. Superconducting materials may carry electric current without energy loss. Superconducting materials may create powerful, stable magnetic fields useful in fusion reactors like stellarator systems 5-502. In stellarator systems 5-502, the superconducting coils may be arranged in a complex geometry. The superconducting coils may produce a 3D magnetic field which may effectively confine the plasma. Stellarator systems 5-502 may leverage complexity in order to maintain plasma stability without the symmetry of a toroidal device like a tokamak. The design of stellarator superconducting coils 5-504 may allow for continuous operation. Stellarator systems 5-502 may avoid instabilities and disruptions associated with tokamaks.

[0333] In some cases, the stellarator system 5-502 may include a plurality of reverse fuses 5- 506. The reverse fuses 5-506 may be protective elements within the stellarator system 5-502. The reverse fuses 5-506 may disrupt or divert current flow under specific conditions. The reverse fuses 5-506 may prevent damage or undesirable consequences. Traditional fuses may break the circuit when the current exceeds a certain threshold. In contrast, when excess current occurs, reverse fuses may intentionally become conductive and shunt current in predetermined locations to redirect electrical energy and safeguard critical components.

[0334] The reverse fuses 5-506 may be integrated within the insulation of superconducting coils 5-504 at predetermined points. Thus, the reverse fuses 5-506 may shunt current and prevent undesirable electrical paths during voltage spikes. The location of the reverse fuses 5-506 may depend on the arrangement of the coil 5-504. The coil 5-504 may be radial layered or axial layered. In a radial layered coil, the cables are added layer by layer radially. A radial layered coil may be used in applications like transformers. During a quench event, the generated voltage may exist between the inner diameter (ID) and the outer diameter (OD) of the radially layered coil. The reverse fuses 5-506 for the radially layered coil may be located on the axial sides of the coil, thus connecting the layers of the coil through external dump resistors. In contrast, the cable in an axial layered coil may spiral between the ID and the OD for each layer. The voltage generated during a quench event may exist between the axial sides of the axial layered coil. The reverse fuses 5-506 may be located on the OD and / or ID of the axial layered coil, thusconnecting the layers of the coil through dump resistors. In some cases, an axially layered coil with 5-528 turns arranged into 8 layers of 16 turns each may include 8 reverse fuses 5-506. Each reverse fuse 5-506 may be placed on the outermost turn of the layers. 7 connectors or jumpers may each connect the reverse fuses 5-506 of adjacent layers to route the current through dump resistors.

[0335] After a quench event, the reverse fuses 5-506 may be replaced to restore the magnet to normal function. The reverse fuses 5-506 may become conductive when specific conditions are met. During a quench event or when the voltage exceeds safe levels, the reverse fuses 5-506 may activate and provide a low-resistance pathway for the current. The activation of reverse fuses 5-506 may prevent arcing and the formation of undesirable current paths within the superconducting coils 5-504. Avoiding arcing and undesirable current paths may maintain the integrity of the coils 5-504. Avoiding arcing and undesirable current paths may also prevent damage that may otherwise compromise the overall functionality of the stellarator system 5-502.

[0336] In some cases, the reverse fuses 5-506 may be passive elements or active components, which allows for customization of the stellarator system 5-502. As passive elements, the reverse fuses 5-506 may automatically activate under specific conditions. As active components, the reverse fuses 5-506 may be controlled based on the needs of the stellarator system 5-502.

[0337] In some cases, the reverse fuses 5-506 may be integrated into a broader system that includes a network of resistors 5-508. The broader system may not only divert current during a quench but may also facilitate real-time diagnostics. The network of resistors 5-508 may create alternative current paths. The alternative current paths may enable the stellarator system 5-502 to redistribute current during a quench event. The alternative current paths may also provide insights into the status of the superconducting coils 5-504 during a quench event.

[0338] Ignitrons may be used instead of reverse fuses 5-506. Ignitrons may pass large amounts of current and stand-off high voltages. When a high-voltage pulse is sent into the trigger pin, the mercury in the ignitron may vaporize. Upon vaporizing, the mercury may form a plasma channel between the anode and cathode and create a low-resistance path to the dump system 5- 518. Thus, current may be effectively redirected during a quench.

[0339] The reverse fuses 5-506 may be superconducting switches. Superconducting switches may be devices that may switch between superconducting or zero resistance and normal or resistive states based on temperature, magnetic field, or injected current. The superconducting switches may be used to divert current to a bypass circuit. The superconducting switches may act as a reverse fuse 5-506 by becoming conductive under predetermined conditions to protect the system. A quench detection and protection system may detect the onset of a quench or a transition from superconducting to normal resistive state, and then may activate measures toprotect the superconducting coil 5-504. A protective measure may include activating alternative current paths or initiating procedures to safely dissipate energy.

[0340] The reverse fuses 5-506 may be cryogenic current leads. Cryogenic current leads may be used to connect superconducting systems operating at cryogenic temperatures to external power sources at room temperature. Cryogenic current leads may incorporate mechanisms to become highly conductive or switch to a different conductive path under certain conditions. Cryogenic current leads may protect the superconducting system from thermal overload or excessive current.

[0341] The reverse fuses 5-506 may be active protection circuits that may use electronic components to actively control the current path in response to detected conditions. Electronic components may include IGFT, transistors, thyristors, or relays. Detected conditions may include overcurrent, overheating, or magnetic field anomalies. The active protection circuits may redirect current away from sensitive components. The active protection circuits may protect a superconducting coil by redirecting current during a quench.

[0342] The network of resistors 5-508 may be a strategically arranged system of resistors. The network of resistors 5-508 may fulfill multiple functions within a quench protection system for superconducting coils 5-504 in a stellarator system 5-502. The resistors 5-508 may be placed to contribute to various aspects of quench detection, protection, and diagnostics. The network of resistors 5-508 may be strategically positioned to create alternative current paths within the stellarator system 5-502. In the event of a quench, the resistors 5-508 may guide the flow of electrical current in a controlled manner. Thus, the resistors 5-508 may prevent undesirable pathways and protect the superconducting coils 5-504 from damage. The network of resistors 5- 508 may redistribute the current during a quench by offering alternative paths. The resistors 5- 508 may divert the electrical energy away from the quenching region. Thus, the resistors 5-508 may limit the impact of the quench and prevent excessive heating or arcing. The network of resistors 5-508 may monitor the voltage and current across specific resistors, thus contributing to real-time diagnostics of the status of the superconducting coil 5-504. The network of resistors 5- 508 may provide valuable information about the occurrence and severity of a quench event. Detailed information about a quench event may aid in assessing the health of the coils and may enable timely preventive measures.

[0343] The network of resistors 5-508 may work in conjunction with reverse fuses 5-506 to provide a comprehensive protection mechanism. In the presence of a quench, the current may be directed through the reverse fuses 5-506 and the network of resistors 5-508. The network of resistors 5-508 may be located to accommodate the geometry of the coils and to optimize the dissipation of energy during a quench. The coils may be radially layered or axially layered. Thenetwork of resistors 5-508 may act as a load to dissipate the energy stored in the superconducting coils during a quench. The network of resistors 5-508 may safely convert the magnetic energy stored in the coils into heat. This conversion may prevent damage to the system.

[0344] The network of resistors 5-508 may be a network of loads. The network of loads may manage and dissipate energy within the stellarator system 5-502. The network of loads may maintain operational safety and efficiency, including during quench events in superconducting coils. When a superconducting coil 5-504 quenches, the resistance in the previously superconducting section may increase, leading to the generation of heat. This heat may cause a rapid increase in temperature, which may damage the coil and surrounding materials. The network of resistors 5-508 may manage this heat by engaging and redistributing the current flow away from the quenching coil. The network of resistors 5-508 may thereby reduce the current through the quenched section and limit the generation of heat.

[0345] The network of resistors 5-508 may provide a controlled path for the current to prevent quench propagation and to minimize thermal stress on the coil and insulation materials. The controlled path may dissipate magnetic energy stored in the coil as heat in the resistors. The controlled path may be an alternative path for the current. Utilizing the controlled path, the network of resistors 5-508 may help to redistribute the current away from the affected sections of the coil. Thus, the network of resistors 5-508 may reduce the risk of further damage and may allow the system to stabilize until corrective actions can be taken.

[0346] In some cases, energy may be dissipated or redirected by various methods. Energy may be dissipated by heating water. Heating water may be effective for managing large amounts of energy. The heated water may be used for other purposes, such as space heating or industrial processes. Energy may be dissipated by dump resistors. Energy may be dissipated by high- power resistors that may absorb and dissipate large amounts of energy quickly. Energy may be dissipated through energy storage systems, allowing for the temporary storage and later use of the energy. Energy storage systems may include batteries, flywheels, or supercapacitors. Energy may be dissipated through grid injection, by feeding excess energy back into the power grid.

[0347] In some cases, the stellarator system 5-502 may include a power supply 5-510. The power supply 5-510 may deliver electrical energy to elements of the stellarator system 5-502, including the superconducting coils 5-504. The power supply 5-510 may provide a controlled and regulated flow of electricity. The flow of electricity may facilitate normal operation of the stellarator system 5-502. The power supply 5-510 may respond to various conditions to prevent damage. Conditions may include quench events. The power supply 5-510 may regulate bothvoltage and current to meet the needs of the superconducting coils 5-506. The power supply 5- 510 may provide a stable power source to maintain the coils in a superconducting state during normal operation. The power supply 5-510 may respond to changed conditions to mitigate the impact of a quench or activate specific protection mechanisms. The power supply 5-510 may respond by adjusting the supplied voltage or current. The power supply 5-510 may be integrated into the quench protection system, allowing for real-time adjustments based on information provided by a quench detection system. The quench detection system may include the quench detection module 5-528 and the protection module 5-530. The power supply 5-510 may provide triggering signals or adjustments to the supplied power in order to align with the protective functions of the reverse fuses 5-506.

[0348] In some cases, the stellarator system 5-502 may include a control system 5-512. The control system 5-512 may include an integrated set of components, devices, and software that collectively manage and regulate the operation of the stellarator system 5-502. The control system 5-512 may include the quench detection system. The quench detection system may identify and respond to quench events, thus facilitating safety and optimal performance of the stellarator system 5-502. The control system 5-512 may incorporate safety protocols to facilitate the integrity and functionality of the stellarator system 5-502. These safety protocols may include fail-safe mechanisms, emergency shutdown procedures, and protocols for system recovery after a quench event. The control system 5-512 may incorporate a specialized quench detection module 5-528 and protection module 5-530. The quench detection module 5-528 and protection module 5-530 may monitor the superconducting coils 5-504, identify signs of quench events, and relay this information to the broader control system 5-512.

[0349] In some cases, the control system 5-512 may coordinate with reverse fuses 5-508 integrated into the coil insulation. In the event of a detected quench, the control system 5-512 may trigger the reverse fuses 5-508 to become conductive. When conductive, the reverse fuses 5-508 may provide an alternative and controlled path for the current, thus protecting the coil. The control system 5-512 may continuously monitor various parameters using sensors 5-514 and detectors placed strategically throughout the system. These parameters may include voltage, current, and temperature. Continuous monitoring may facilitate immediate detection of anomalies or quench-related changes.

[0350] In some cases, the control system 5-512 may interact with the power supply 5-510 and may control the flow of electricity based on information received from the quench detection module 5-528. In the event of a quench, the control system 5-512 may instruct the power supply 5-510 to make adjustments. These adjustments may mitigate the impact of the quench. The control system 5-512 may coordinate with the dump load when a quench is detected. The dumpload may facilitate a controlled dissipation of excess energy to prevent damage to the superconducting coils 5-504. The dump load may manage the redirection of current through external resistors for safe dissipation. The control system 5-512 may manage the network of resistors 5-508 to provide alternative current paths during a quench. The control system 5-512 may be equipped with diagnostic capabilities facilitated by the network of resistors 5-508.These diagnostic capabilities may facilitate real-time assessment of the superconducting coil's 5- 504 status during a quench. The diagnostic capabilities may also aid in identifying potential issues and facilitating timely corrective actions.

[0351] In some cases, the control system 5-512 may include a plurality of sensors 5-514. The sensors 5-514 may include a diverse set of sensing devices. These devices may be placed throughout the stellarator system 5-502 and may collectively gather data on various parameters. These devices may provide real-time information to the control system 5-512 for monitoring, detection, and response purposes.

[0352] The sensors 5-514 may include voltage sensors, current sensors, temperature sensors, diagnostic sensors, positional sensors, power supply feedback sensors, dump load sensors, and / or safety sensors. The voltage sensors may measure the voltage levels across different components of the superconducting coils 5-504. The voltage sensors may be voltage taps. The current sensors may monitor the flow of electrical current. The current sensors may be hall effect sensors like 3D hall effect sensors. The temperature sensors may monitor the thermal conditions of the superconducting coils 5-504. The diagnostic sensors may include sensors that measure resistivity, impedance, or other electrical properties. The diagnostic sensors may facilitate the real-time assessment of the health of the superconducting coils 5-504 during and / or after a quench. The positional sensors may provide information about the position and orientation of different coil layers. The positional sensors may contribute to the spatial understanding of how the system responds to a quench event. The power supply feedback sensors may be integrated into the power supply system 5-510 to provide feedback on its performance. The dump load sensors may be associated with the dump load monitoring of the dissipation of excess energy. The safety sensors may collect data on safety parameters to facilitate operation within safe limits and conditions. Safety parameters may include pressure, cryogenic fluid levels, or other environmental factors.

[0353] The sensors 5-514 may include temperature sensors, magnetic field sensors, pressure sensors, acoustic sensors, optical sensors, cryogenic sensors, strain sensors, magnetometers, accelerometers, gas sensors, etc. The temperature sensors may include thermocouples, capacitance sensors and resistance temperature detectors. The magnetic field sensors may include magnetic flux sensors. The pressure sensors may include pressure transducers. Theacoustic sensors may include acoustic emission sensors. The optical sensors may include fiber optic sensors. The cryogenic sensors may include cryogenic temperature sensors. The strain sensors may include strain gauges. The magnetometers may include fluxgate magnetometers. The accelerometers may include vibration sensors. The gas sensors may include gas detectors.

[0354] In some cases, the control system 5-512 may include a memory 5-516. The memory 5- 516 may include fixed (hard) drives, magnetic tape, floppy diskettes, optical disks, Compact Disc Read-Only Memories (CD-ROMs), magneto-optical disks, semiconductor memories, Read-Only Memories (ROMs), Random Access Memories (RAMs), Programmable Read-Only Memories (PROMs), Erasable PROMs (EPROMs), Electrically Erasable PROMs (EEPROMs), flash memory, magnetic or optical cards, or another type of media / machine-readable medium suitable for storing electronic instructions. The memory may comprise modules implemented as a program.

[0355] In some cases, the control system 5-512 may include a dump system 5-518. The dump system 5-518 may be a subsystem which may safely redirect and dissipate excess electrical energy generated in the superconducting coils 5-504 during a quench event. The dump system 5-518 may mitigate the impact of a quench, prevent undesirable current paths, and protect the overall integrity of the system. The dump system 5-518 may incorporate the external network of resistors 5-508. The external network of resistors 5-508 may connect to the superconducting coils 5-504 through reverse fuses 5-506. The resistors 5-508 may provide an alternative path for the dissipation of excess current during a quench when the reverse fuses 5-506 become conductive and facilitate controlled diversion of current through the dump resistors. The dump system 5-518 may be activated by the quench detection module 5-528 and / or protection module 5-530. The dump system 5-518 may utilize conventional solid-state switches, ignitrons, or spark-gap switches. The components of the dump system 5-518 may pass substantial amounts of current. The components of the dump system 5-518 may provide a mechanism for safely redirecting current during a quench. Sensors 5-514 within the dump system 5-518 may monitor the dissipation of excess energy through the dump resistors.

[0356] In some cases, the control system 5-512 may include a diagnostic system 5-520. The diagnostic system 5-520 may be a subsystem which may monitor and assess the condition of the superconducting coils 5-504. The diagnostic system 5-520 may provide real-time information about the health and status of the coils, especially during quench events. The diagnostic system 5-520 may offer insights into potential issues and contribute to overall system reliability. The diagnostic system 5-520 may incorporate temperature monitoring devices distributed throughout the superconducting coils 5-504. The temperature monitoring devices may detect temperature changes and may serve as primary indicators of potential quench events. The diagnostic system5-520 may operate in real-time. The diagnostic system 5-520 may continuously collect data on temperature changes and other parameters. The diagnostic system 5-520 may identify faults or abnormalities within the superconducting coils 5-504. Faults or abnormalities may include variations in resistance, voltage, or other parameters. The diagnostic system 5-520 may operate within the control system 5-512 and share data and insights with the control system 5-512. Thus, the diagnostic system 5-520 may contribute to the decision-making process during normal operations and emergencies. The diagnostic system 5-520 may use thermopiles as a coating on the tape stack, which may provide enhanced diagnostic capabilities. The diagnostic system 5- 520 may detect voltage differences and respond to the early stages of a quench. The diagnostic system 5-520 may actively manage temperature variations, potentially preventing or mitigating quench propagation.

[0357] In some cases, the control system 5-512 may include a base module 5-522. The base module 5-522 may initiate the data collection module 5-524, analysis module 5-526, and quench detection module 5-528. The base module 5-522 may include the protection module 5-530.

[0358] The data collection module 5-524 may collect the system data. The base module 5-522 may continuously initiate the data collection module 5-524 to collect the system data. The data collection module 5-524 may collect the data from the plurality of sensors 5-514. The data collection module 5-524 may stores the system data in the memory 5-516. The data stored in the memory 5-516 may be used by the analysis module 5-526. The data collected from the data collection module 5-524 may be used by the quench detection module 5-528, protection module 5-530, control system 5-512, etc. The data stored in the memory 5-516 may include parameter data related to the operation of the stellarator system 5-502. The parameter data may provide real-time information to the control system 5-512 for monitoring, detection, and response purposes. The data collection module 5-524 may return to the base module 5-522.

[0359] The analysis module 5-526 may perform real-time analysis of the system data. The base module 5-522 may continuously initiate the analysis module 5-526 to provide real-time analysis of the operational performance of the stellarator system 5-502. The analysis module 5-526 may continuously extract the data stored in the memory 5-516 to analyze new data entries. The analysis module 5-526 may continuously monitor and process the data stored in the memory 5- 516 to provide insights into the condition or performance of the superconducting coils 5-504. The analysis module 5-526 may perform real-time temperature analysis, which may facilitate the immediate detection of anomalies. The analysis module 5-526 may analyze voltage and current levels in the superconducting coils 5-504. Deviations from normal operating parameters may trigger real-time alerts, which may signal potential operational issues. Intervention for these issues may be immediate. The analysis module 5-526 may perform a quench detectionalgorithm within the real-time analysis. The algorithm may process temperature, voltage, and current data. The algorithm may identify patterns associated with quench events. Once a quench is detected, the control system 5-512 may initiate predetermined protective measures. Detected anomalies may be relayed to the control system 5-512, which may activate safety measures, adjust current paths, or initiate the dump system.

[0360] The analysis module 5-526 may perform spatial analysis of the stored data. The analysis module 5-526 may examine data patterns and variations across different spatial locations within the superconducting coils 5-504. The analysis module 5-526 may determine the distribution of temperature changes and other parameters. The analysis module 5-526 may categorize temperature, voltage, and current data based on locations within the coils. The spatial categorization may determine areas where changes are occurring or have occurred. The spatial analysis may localize potential operational issues. When thermopiles are used as a coating on the tape stack, the spatial analysis may involve interpreting voltage differences across different thermopile layers. This interpretation may analyze the spatial distribution of temperature changes during the early stages of a quench. The spatial analysis may map temperature gradients across the coil structure to identify regions with significant temperature variations. The spatial analysis may include the specific spatial relationships between coil layers when the coils are radially or axially layered. The spatial analysis may involve predictive modeling, which may anticipate temperature change propagation and quench events.

[0361] The analysis module 5-526 may store the analysis data in the memory 5-516. The analysis module 5-526 may store the real-time analysis data and spatial analysis data in the memory 5-516. The quench detection module 5-528 may use the analysis data, real-time analysis data, and spatial analysis data stored in the memory 5-516 to determine if there is a quench event. The stored analyses may include predetermined thresholds, which may assist the quench detection module 5-528 in identifying quench events. Predetermined thresholds may include normal operation parameter ranges. Operation parameters may include temperature, voltage, current, etc. The analysis module 5-526 returns to the base module 5-522.

[0362] The quench detection module 5-528 may determine if new system parameter data collected by the data collection module 5-524 is a sign of a quench event. The quench detection module 5-528 may also determine if new analysis data from the analysis module 5-526 is a sign of a quench event. The quench detection module 5-528 may be initiated by the base module 5- 522. The quench detection module 5-528 may be continuously initiated by the base module 5- 522. The quench detection module 5-528 may extract the analysis data from the memory 5-516. The quench detection module 5-528 may extract the real-time analysis stored in the memory 5-516 from the analysis module 5-526. The quench detection module 5-528 may extract the spatial analysis stored in the memory 5-516 from the analysis module 5-526.

[0363] The analysis data may include predetermined thresholds that may aid the quench detection module 5-528 in identifying quench events. The predetermined thresholds may include normal operation parameter ranges. Operation parameters may include temperature, voltage, current, a combination of parameters, a combination of parameters and locations, etc. The quench detection module 5-528 may extract the parameter data stored in the memory 5-516. The predetermined thresholds may be inputted into the control system 5-516 by a user or administrator of the system. The predetermined thresholds may be continuously updated from the results of the analysis module 5-526.

[0364] The quench detection module 5-528 may use the predetermined thresholds as a comparison for the analysis data and parameter data to determine if there is a quench event. The quench detection module 5-528 may compare the real-time analysis data to the predetermined thresholds. The quench detection module 5-528 may compare the spatial analysis data to the predetermined thresholds.

[0365] The quench detection module 5-528 may perform a quench algorithm to determine a quench event. The quench algorithm may detect abnormal conditions that may indicate a transition from superconducting to a normal state. Abnormal conditions may include temperature rises or voltage spikes. The quench detection module 5-528 may determine if there is a quench event based on a previous comparison. If there is a temperature rise or a spike in voltage higher than the predetermined thresholds, then the quench detection module 5-528 may determine there is a quench event. If the parameter data and / or analysis data fall within the predetermined thresholds or operational ranges, the quench detection module 5-528 may determine that there is no quench event.

[0366] As described herein, a quench event is a transition of a superconducting material from a superconducting state to a normal resistive state due to local overheating or other factors. A superconducting state may correspond with little to no electrical resistance. A transition from a superconducting state to a normal resistive state may lead to rapid temperature increases. Rapid temperature increases may damage the stellarator system 5-502. The quench detection module 5-528 may utilize temperature sensors distributed along the coil to monitor hotspots. If a temperature sensor records a value exceeding the critical temperature threshold, the quench detection module 5-528 may identify a quench event.

[0367] Local overheating may occur when a specific section of the superconducting coil 5-504 exceeds the critical temperature due to external heat input or internal energy dissipation. The superconducting coil 5-504 may exceed the critical temperature when the superconducting coil5-504 conducts a current greater than a critical current of the superconducting coil 5-504. Local overheating may be caused by mechanical strain, radiation heating from the plasma, electrical current hotspots, inductive heating due to self ramping, inductive heating due to coupled magnets ramping, inductive heating due to plasma dynamics and transients, etc. A sudden change in the magnetic field intensity or direction may induce currents within the superconducting coil 5-504 that lead to localized heating. If the localized heating is sufficient to raise the temperature of part of the coil 5-504 above the critical temperature, a quench event may occur. The quench detection module 5-528 may use magnetic field sensors in conjunction with current monitoring to detect abnormal magnetic field fluctuations or unexpected current patterns indicative of a magnetic field-induced quench.

[0368] The quench detection module 5-528 may intervene when a quench event is detected by initiating the protection module 5-530. This intervention may safely dissipate energy and may protect the system. After the protection module 5-530 has been initiated, the quench detection module 5-528 may return to the base module 5-522. If it is determined that there is not a quench event, the quench detection module 5-528 may return to the base module 5-522.

[0369] The protection module 5-530 may prevent damage that could compromise the overall functionality of the stellarator system 5-502. The protection module 5-530 may be initiated by the quench detection module 5-528. The data collection module 5-524 or the analysis module 5- 526 may initiate the protection module 5-530 if a quench is detected.

[0370] Upon detection of a quench event, the protection module 5-530 may initiate cooling procedures to lower the temperature of the affected section. The protection module 5-530 may redistribute the energy from the quench event. Upon detection, the the protection module 5-530 may redistribute the electrical current to prevent further heating. The protection module 5-530 may activate mechanisms to divert the current away from the quenched section. The protection module 5-530 may activate the reverse fuses 5-506. The protection module 5-530 may redistribute the energy from the quench event through the network of resistors 5-508.

[0371] The protection module 5-530 may engage fast-acting switches to alter the current path, employ dynamic resistance adjustments, or initiate magnetic field stabilization techniques to mitigate the impact of the quench impact. A quench event may be induced by mechanical disturbances, including vibrations or impacts. Mechanical disturbances may cause physical changes in the coil structure, which may lead to local heating or alter the cooling efficiency. Accelerometers and strain gauges integrated with the coil structure may provide data to the quench detection module 5-528 which may identify mechanical disturbances that may lead to a quench. The protection module 5-530 may initiate measures to mechanically stabilize a physically disturbed area. These measures may include adjusting the cooling flow to enhanceheat removal, or temporarily reducing the operational parameters to a safer level until the disturbance effect is mitigated. An electrical fault, like a short circuit or a sudden surge in current, may inject excessive energy into the coil. The quench detection module 5-528 may monitor for electrical anomalies using current sensors and voltage monitors. An unexpected spike or drop in these values may indicate an electrical fault that may lead to a quench. The protection module 5-530 may isolate the faulted section through circuit breakers or fast switches. The protection module 5-530 may engage energy dissipation systems like resistor banks. Energy dissipation systems may safely absorb and dissipate the excess energy. Thus, the protection module 5-530 may prevent a widespread quench.

[0372] The protection module 5-530 may store the quench data in the memory 5-516. The quench data may include timestamps, temperature data, voltage spikes, current profiles, sensor 5-514 readings, spatial information, response mechanism activation, diagnostic system outputs, system status before the quench, system status after the quench, energy dissipation, fault codes, fault alarms, environmental conditions, operational parameters, etc. The protection module 5- 530 may return to the base module 5-522.

[0373] FIG. 6 illustrates the base module 5-522. The base module 5-522 may begin at step 6- 600 by initiating the data collection module 5-524. As described herein, the data collection module 5-524 may collect the system data from a plurality of sensors 5-514. As described herein, the data collection module 5-524 may store the system data in memory 5-516 to be used by the analysis module 5-526.

[0374] The base module 5-522 may then continue at step 6-602 by initiating the analysis module 5-526. As described herein, the analysis module 5-526 may provide real-time analysis of the operational performance of the stellarator system 5-502. As described herein, the analysis module 5-526 may may store the real-time analysis data and spatial analysis data in the memory 5-516 to be used by the quench detection module 5-528. The analysis module 5-526 may utilize spatial analysis algorithms to detect anomalies that may indicate the onset of a quench. The spatial analysis algorithms may analyze data from sensors 5-514 distributed across the superconducting coil 5-504 to detect these anomalies.

[0375] The spatial analysis algorithm may be a finite element method (FEM). A FEM may be a numerical technique for solving complex thermal and electromagnetic problems by breaking down a large system into smaller, simpler parts known as finite elements. A FEM may model the thermal and electromagnetic behavior of superconducting coils 5-504 in detail. A FEM model may predict of hotspots and abnormal thermal gradients that may lead to a quench. By analyzing spatial distributions of temperature and magnetic fields, the FEM model may help identify regions at risk of reduced superconducting performance. Once a potential quench isdetected, the FEM model may simulate how the quench may propagate through the coil system. The FEM model may assess how quickly the temperature may rise in different parts of the coil during or after a quench. The FEM model may assess how the magnetic field distribution would change during or after a quench. Real-time data on temperature, magnetic field intensity, and current density collected by the sensors 5-514 may be inputted into the FEM model. The FEM model may calculate the thermal and electromagnetic fields throughout the system. The FEM model may identify regions where critical thresholds are exceeded. Exceeded critical thresholds may signal a potential quench.

[0376] The spatial analysis algorithm may be a machine learning (ML)-based anomaly detection model. The ML model may include support vector machines (SVM), neural networks, or decision trees. The ML model may be trained on historical data to recognize the early signs of a quench. The ML model may take into account the complex spatial relationships between different parts of the coil and the operational parameters. Features like local temperature gradients, changes in magnetic field intensity, and electrical resistance may be extracted from the sensor 5-514 data. These features may capture the spatial distribution of physical quantities across the coil. The ML model may classify the state of the stellarator system 5-502 as normal or at risk of a quench. Regression models may predict the time to quench or the location of the next quench based on the spatial distribution of the extracted features. Data collected by the sensors 5-514 may be used to train the ML model. This data may teach the ML model to recognize patterns associated with quench conditions. The ML model may continuously analyze incoming data. The ML model may identify spatial anomalies that signal the onset of a quench.

[0377] Both FEM and ML models may leverage spatial analysis to understand and predict quench phenomena in the stellarator system 5-502. The FEM model may provide a physicsbased approach to simulate and analyze the behavior of the system under different conditions. The ML model may offer a data-driven strategy to detect and predict quenches based on patterns in the sensor 5-514 data.

[0378] The base module 5-522 may then continue at step 6-604 by initiating the quench detection module 5-528. As described herein, the quench detection module 5-528 may determine if the new system parameter data collected by the data collection module 5-524 and if the new analysis data from the analysis module 5-526 is a sign of a quench event.

[0379] FIG. 7 illustrates the data collection module 5-524. The data collection module 5-524 may begin at step 7-700 by being initiated by the base module 5-522. As described herein, the base module 5-522 may continuously initiate the data collection module 5-524 to collect the system data. The data collection module 5-524 may continue at step 7-702 by collecting the system data. As described herein, the data collection module 5-524 may collect the data fromthe plurality of sensors 5-514. The data collection module 5-524 may continue at step 7-704 by storing the system data in the memory 5-516. As described herein, the data collection module 5- 524 may store the data in the memory 5-516 to be used by the analysis module 5-526, quench detection module 5-528, protection module 5-530, control system 5-112, etc. The data collection module 5-524 may then return to the base module 5-522 at step 7-706.

[0380] FIG. 8 illustrates the analysis module 5-526. The analysis module 5-526 may begin at step 8-8-800 by being initiated by the base module 5-522. As described herein, the base module 5-522 may continuously initiate the analysis module 5-526 to provide real-time analysis of the operational performance of the stellarator system 5-502. The analysis module 5-526 may continue at step 8-802 by performing the real-time analysis of the system data. As described herein, the analysis module 5-526 may continuously monitor and process the data stored in the memory 5-516 to provide insights into the condition or performance of the superconducting coils 5-504. The analysis module 5-526 may continue at step 8-804 by performing the spatial analysis of the system data. As described herein, the analysis module 5-526 may examine data patterns and variations across different spatial locations within the superconducting coils 5-504 to understand the distribution of temperature changes and other parameters. The analysis module 5-526 may continue at step 8-806 by storing the analysis data in the memory 5-516. As described herein, the analysis module 5-526 may store the real-time analysis and spatial analyses in the memory 5-516 to be used by the quench detection module 5-528 to determine whether there is a quench event. The analysis module 5-526 may then return to the base module 5-522 at step 8-808.

[0381] FIG. 9 illustrates the quench detection module 5-528. The quench detection module 5- 528 may begin at step 9-900 by being initiated by the base module 5-522. As described herein, the base module 5-522 may continuously initiate the quench detection module 5-528 to determine if the new system parameter data and the new analysis data may be a sign of a quench event. The quench detection module 5-528 may then continue at step 9-902 by extracting the analysis data from the memory 5-516. The quench detection module 5-528 may then continue at step 9-904 by comparing the analysis data to the predetermined thresholds. As described herein, the predetermined thresholds may be inputted into the control system 5-516 by a user or administrator of the system or continuously updated from the results of the analysis module 5- 526. The quench detection module 5-528 may then continue at step 9-906 by determining if there is a quench event. As described herein, the quench detection module 5-528 may determine whether there is a quench event based on the previous comparison.

[0382] If it is determined that there is a quench event, the quench detection module 5-528 may initiate the protection module 5-530 at step 9-908. As described herein, the protection module5-530 may prevent damage that could compromise the overall functionality of the stellarator system 5-502 when a quench event is detected. As described herein, the protection module 5- 530 may also be initiated by the data collection module 5-524 or the analysis module 5-526. The protection module 5-530 may activate the reverse fuses 5-106. The protection module 5- 530 may log the data in the memory 5-516.

[0383] After logging the data in the memory 5-516, the protection module 5-530 may return to the base module 5-522. After the protection module 5-530 has been initiated, the quench detection module 5-528 may return to the base module 5-522 at step 9-910. If it is determined that there is not a quench event, the quench detection module 5-528 may return to the base module 5-522 at step 9-910.

[0384] FIG. 10 illustrates the protection module 5-530. The protection module 5-530 may begin at step 10-1000 by being initiated by the quench detection module 5-528 if the quench detection module 5-528 detects a quench event. As described herein, the protection module 5-530 may prevent damage that may compromise the functionality of the stellarator system 5-502. The protection module 5-530 may continue at step 10-1002 by activating the reverse fuses 5-106.The protection module 5-530 may continue at step 10-1004 by redistributing the energy from the quench event. As described herein, the protection module 5-530 may redistribute the energy from the quench event through the network of resistors 5-508. The protection module 5-530 may continue at step 10-1006 by logging the quench data in the memory 5-516. The protection module 5-530 may returns to the base module 5-522 at step 10-1008.

[0385] The functions performed in the processes and methods may be implemented in differing order. Furthermore, the outlined steps and operations are only provided as examples, and some of the steps and operations may be optional, combined into fewer steps and operations, or expanded into additional steps and operations without detracting from the essence of the disclosed embodiments.Quench Mitigation Using Low-Temperature Infill

[0386] FIG. 11 illustrates a quench mitigation system. The system may comprise a stellarator 11-1102 that utilizes an array of coils 11-1106 to generate strong magnetic fields. The coils 11- 1106 may be comprised of superconductors, such as high-temperature superconductors 11-1108. The system may generate strong magnetic fields by passing a strong electrical current through the superconductors. The superconductors may contain a plasma. The plasma may be heated to an ignition temperature of around 150 million degrees Celsius (°C). The plasma may be heated until a fusion reaction is achieved. The charged particles may be contained by the magnetic field. The neutrons may be contained by a blanket, which may be comprised of lithium. Lithiummay facilitate the breeding of tritium, which may be used as an additional source of fuel for the fusion reaction.

[0387] In some cases, the system may include a plate assembly 11-1104. the plate assembly 11- 1104 may serve as a structural component of the stellarator 11-1102. The plate assembly 11- 1104 may maintain the shape of the array of coils 11-1106. The plate assembly 11-1104 may also support the weight of the coils 11-1106 and related structures. The plate assembly 11-1104 may also function as a heat sink and / or heat exchanger to facilitate cooling of the coils 11-1106. Thus, the plate assembly 11-1104 may facilitate a temperature suitable to maintain the superconducting properties of the high-temperature superconductor 11-1108.

[0388] In some cases, the coils 11-1106 may include a coating of a low-temperature solder 11- 1110. The low-temperature solder 11-1110 may provide structural support to the coils 11-1106. The low-temperature solder 11-1110 may provide protection during quenching events. The low- temperature solder 11-1110 may be formed by being cast in a mold. The low-temperature solder 11-1110 may be cast directly within the plate assembly 11-1104 after the coil 11-1106 has been installed using the plate assembly 11-1104 as a mold. The low-temperature solder 11-1110 may comprise an alloy of materials such as Cerrolow 136, which is an alloy comprised of bismuth, lead, tin, and indium. The low-temperature solder 11-1110 may include mix-ins such as copper powder, synthetic diamond powders, carbon fiber, fiberglass, chopped Kevlar, etc. to the mix- ins may improve the thermal conductivity, electrical conductivity, and / or structural strength of the coils 11-1106. As used herein, the term “Kevlar” may refer to polyamide substances, or other forms of synthetic polymers. “Kelvar” may refer to a polymer having a monomer molecule of [-CO-C6H4-CO-NH-C6H4-NH-],

[0389] The coils 11-1106 may include a structural component. The structural component may be comprised of thermally and / or electrically conductive materials such as copper, aluminum, or alloys thereof. The structural component may facilitate the desired shape of the high-temperature superconductor 11-1108 to achieve the desired properties of the generated magnetic field when a current is applied. The structural component may include one or more cooling channels. The cooling channels may facilitate fluid flow through the coil 11-1106. The cooling channels may be copper tubing. The cooling channels may help maintain the superconductivity of the high- temperature superconductor 11-1108.

[0390] In some cases, the system may include a high-temperature superconductor 11-1108 which can conduct high-current electricity with little to no resistance. The high-temperature superconductor 11-1108 may include any material that behaves as a superconductor above 77K. The high-temperature superconductor 11-1108 may include materials such as yttrium barium copper oxide, bismuth strontium calcium copper oxide, etc. In some cases, references to a high-temperature superconductor 11-1108 may include low-temperature superconductors, such as niobium-titanium, niobium-tin, etc. The high-temperature superconductor 11-1108 may be a tape or stack of tapes. The high-temperature superconductor 11-1108 may be formed into wires, cables, or bundles of wires or cables. The high-temperature superconductors 11-1108 may be layered. The high-temperature superconductors may include an insulator between one or more layers. The insulator may be Kapton. The insulator may provide an electrical and / or thermal barrier.

[0391] In some cases, the system may include sensors 11-1114. The sensors 11-1114 may be devices for detecting and measuring physical properties such as temperature, force, motion, pressure, etc. The sensors 11-1114 may include thermometers, thermocouples, bolometers, hall probes, strain gauges, load cells, accelerometers, etc. The sensors 11-1114 may comprise direct temperature measurement devices such as thermocouples. A sensor 11-1114 may comprise a piezoelectric sensor for measuring characteristics of transverse mechanical waves, which are transmitted through one or more plate assemblies 11-1104 and / or low-temperature solder 11- 1110.

[0392] The sensors 11-1114 may be distributed throughout one or more plate assemblies 11- 1104. The sensors 11-1114 may be distributed throughout one or more coils 11-1106. One or more sensors 11-1114 may be initialized for monitoring the conditions within the stellarator 11- 1102 and or the plate assemblies 11-1104, coils 11-1106, high-temperature superconductors 11- 1108, and / or low-temperature solder 11-1110. The sensors 11-1114 may be polled to measure temperature, current, resistance, transverse waves traveling through a plate assembly 11-1104 and / or low-temperature solder 11-1110, etc.

[0393] In some cases, the system may include a control system 11-1112. The control system 11- 1112 may monitor the status of the stellarator 11-1102. The control system 11-1112 may at least monitor one or more sensors 11-1114 for indications of a quench event. The control system 11- 1112 may transfer a mechanical transverse wave into a plate assembly 11-1104 and / or low- temperature solder 11-1110. The control system 11-1112 may poll one or more sensors to measure characteristics of the mechanical transverse wave. The characteristics may include the frequency, wavelength, and amplitude of the mechanical transverse wave. The transverse wave may be naturally occurring. The transverse wave may result from harmonic resonance. As characteristics of transverse mechanical wave propagation through solids and fluids are different, a change in the measured characteristics of such transverse waves may be an indication of melted low-temperature solder 11-1110. The low-temperature solder 11-1110 may melt because of heating from a quench event. The control system 11-1112 may detect melted low-temperature solder 11-1110 and determine a quench event has occurred. The control systemmay determine a quench event has occurred and then initiate the cycling down of the stellarator 11-1102.

[0394] In some cases, the system may include a base module 11-1116. The base module 11- 1116 may cycle up the stellarator 11-1102. In some cases, the system may include a quench detection module 11-1118. The base module 11-1116 may initialize the quench detection module 11-1118. The quench detection module 11-1118 may initialize and monitor one or more sensors 11-1114. The quench detection module 11-1118 may receive the operational status of a stellarator 11-1102, such as that the stellarator 11-1102 has been cycled up. The quench detection module 11-1118 may determine a quench detection status based on one or more sensor measurements. The quench detection module 11-1118 may send a quench detection status to the base module 11-1116. In some cases, the system may include a quench mitigation module 11- 1120. The base module 11-1116 may send a quench detection status indicating that a quench event has been detected to the quench mitigation module 11-1120. The quench mitigation module 11-1120 may send an operational status of the stellarator 11-1102 to the base module 11-1116. If the quench detection module 11-1118 receives a quench event status which indicates a quench event, the quench mitigation module 11-1120 may be initiated. Upon initiation, the quench mitigation module 11-1120 may cycle down the stellarator 11-1102.

[0395] During a quench event, the low-temperature solder 11-1110 may absorb electrical energy and heat from the coil 11-1106 and / or high-temperature superconductor 11-1108. Thus, the low- temperature solder 11-1110 may delay or prevent heating the high-temperature superconductor 11-1108 beyond a temperature at which it would be damaged. If no quench event has been detected, it may be determined whether the stellarator 11-1102 is still online. If the stellarator 11-1102 is still online, a quench detection module 11-1118 may be initialized. If the stellarator 11-1102 is not online, then the quench mitigation process may be ended.

[0396] The quench mitigation module 11-1120 may comprise the melting of the low- temperature solder 11-1110 surrounding the coils 11-1106 in response to an increase in temperature of the coils 11-1106 and low-temperature solder 11-1110 above the melting point temperature of the low-temperature solder 11-1110. The phase transition of the low-temperature solder 11-1110 from solid to liquid provides increased thermal capacity compared to traditional solders comprising alloys of lead and tin, providing increased time for the stellarator to be cycled down and the heating further mitigated while maintaining a temperature well below a temperature which may result in damage to the high-temperature superconductor 11-1108.

[0397] In some cases, the system may include low temperature metals not in direct contact or otherwise surrounding the coil. These metals may act as a fuse, or rupturable link connection in a current-carrying circuit. These metals may act as a heat sink. This heat sink may capture someor all of the energy stored in the magnet. This heat sink may be in series or parallel with the magnets. This heat sink may compromise the majority of or a component within a dump circuit. The lowtemperature metals may allow for heat absorption. Heat absorption may occur through sensible temperature rise, phase change (by melting a fuse), or heat transfer to a high heat capacity heatsink material. High heat capacity heat sink materials may include water, organics like oil or liquid methane, condensed liquid or solid nitrogen, or other condensed liquid or solid cryogens, etc. The low temperature metals may go through changes to induce a variable resistance dump resistor. The variable resistance dump resistor may modify the LR circuit during the quench.

[0398] In some cases, the system may include a dump circuit. During normal ramp up and ramp down of the stellarator, the dump resistor may be parasitic and may carry some current. Thus, the stellarator may cause some power losses at the cost of protecting the magnets. During steady state, the superconducting coil may have no resistance, so the dump resistor may experience little to no voltage or current. During quench, there may be a switch that cuts off the power supply. This switch may cause the current to be transported entirely though the dump resistor. The entirety of the current running through the dump resistor may raise the dump resistor circuit temperature. The dump resistor circuit may act as the ultimate heat sink.

[0399] The dump circuit may include a superconducting magnet dump resistor. The dump resistor may be in parallel with the magnet. During standard energization, HTS or LTS magnet may not reach 0.1V or full current, which may be many tens of kiloamps. The dump resistor may have a resistance on the order of nano-ohms or micro-ohms. The dump resistor may tolerate power be on the order of megawatts, and the total energy deposited may be on the order of megajoules. The L / R circuit time constant tau may be in seconds or milliseconds.

[0400] FIG. 12 illustrates the low-temperature solder 11-1110. The low-temperature solder 11- 1110 may be an alloy of metals. The low-temperature solder 11-1110 may have a melting point lower than the temperature at which a high-temperature superconductor (HTS) 11-1108 is damaged or bums. Cerrolow, which may contain the component metals bismuth, lead, tin, and indium, may be used as the low-temperature solder 11-1110. Cerrolow may be available with melting points ranging from 117°F to 203°F, with varying ratios of its component metals. Cerrolow 136 may serve as the low-temperature solder 11-1110 with a melting temperature of 136°F or 57.8°C. The low-temperature solder 11-1110 may comprise Indalloy, gallium, Rose's metal, Wood's metal, Field's metal. Indalloy may have a melting temperature of 140°F to 338°F. The low-temperature solder 11-1110 may comprise other alloys comprising bismuth, lead, tin, cadmium, indium, gallium, or thallium. The low-temperature solder 11-1110 may comprise high-entropy alloys. The low-temperature solder 11-1110 may comprise alloys amenable to theformation of bulk metallic glass. The low-temperature solder 11-1110 may comprise low- temperature superconducting alloys. The low-temperature solder 11-1110 may comprise one or more mix-ins, to adjust and / or optimize the thermal conductivity, electrical conductivity, and / or structural strength of the low-temperature solder 11-1110. The mix-ins may be copper powder, synthetic diamond powder, carbon fiber, fiberglass, chopped Kevlar, silica powder, silica beads, seed crystals, metallic glass fragments, etc.

[0401] In some cases, the composition of the low-temperature solder 11-1110 may be optimized with machine learning algorithms and / or artificial intelligence models. Optimizations may identify preferred elemental ratios and / or mix-ins. Optimization may also utilize computer models and simulations, small- and large-scale physical experimentation, and end-use demonstrations to evaluate the optimizations. The performance of the low-temperature solder 11-1110 may be optimized for electrical conductivity, thermal behavior, and structural characteristics. These characteristics may be customized to specific regions and / or use cases. The low-temperature solder 11-1110 may have a composition optimized for electrical conductivity, such that the coils 11-1106 may shunt excess current to resistors, grounds, or other power drains while regions not near these functional areas may be optimized for thermal properties such as thermal conductivity and capacity. The compositions of the low-temperature solder 11-1110 may be selected based upon thermal contraction or expansion at operational temperatures. Operational temperatures may range from cryogenic temperatures to elevated temperatures, which may occur during a quench event. The compositions of the low-temperature solder 11-1110 may be evaluated for performance at operational cryogenic temperatures. The compositions of the low-temperature solder 11-1110 may also be evaluated for the crystalline structure or lack thereof in the cast alloy.

[0402] The low-temperature solder 11-1110 may be cast or otherwise formed around the coil 11-1106. The low-temperature solder 11-1110 may provide structural support and improved thermal conductivity. In some cases, the temperature of the plate assembly 11-1104, casting mold, and low-temperature solder 11-1110 being cast may be controlled and stabilized to achieve a preferred crystal structure or suspension of non-metallic infill. The temperature may be controlled using hot water or an ice-water bath. The water may be substituted with other fluids with different boiling points and viscosities. Other fluids may include glycerin or oil. The low-temperature solder 11-1110 being cast may be cooled slowly to generate large grains. The low-temperature solder 11-1110 being cast may be cooled quickly to generate smaller grains. The low-temperature solder 11-1110 may be quenched rapidly with a cryogen to create a bulk of metallic glass or amorphous structures. The pressure may be controlled during the casting process to produce thixotropic or other non-Newtonian behaviors.

[0403] Air bubbles may be avoided or removed by modifying the process. Air bubbles may be removed by lengthening the casting process. Air bubbles may be removed by using a vacuum to extract air. Air bubbles may be removed by increasing the pressure during the cooling process to minimize the size of air bubbles in a solid state. Air bubbles may be removed by providing holes to allow air to escape. The holes may be plugged after the casting process. The holes may be partially or completely filled with the low-temperature solder 11-1110. Air bubbles may be removed with vibration during the casting process. Vibration may be utilized at ultrasonic frequencies. Vibration may also aid mixing. Multiple heating and cooling cycles may be utilized to achieve a desired structure.

[0404] In some cases, the low-temperature solder 11-1110 may be cast in layers. Layered casting may include the use of multiple molds to achieve desired properties. Each layer may comprise a different composition of low-temperature solder 11-1110.

[0405] The low-temperature solder 11-1110 may have a melting point lower than the temperature at which a high-temperature superconductor (HTS) 11-1108 is damaged or bums. If the HTS 11-1108 warms beyond the critical point, the HTS 11-1108 may lose superconducting properties and may lose current capacity once warmed. In light of this relationship, the low- temperature solder may provide protection during quenching events. When the low-temperature solder 11-1110 is heated to a melting point temperature, the temperature may remain constant while the low-temperature solder 11-1110 undergoes a phase transition from solid to liquid. Once the entire mass of the low-temperature solder 11-1110 within a region of heating has transitioned to the liquid phase, the temperature of the low-temperature solder 11-1110 may increase. Thus, the liquid low-temperature solder 11-1110 may facilitate improved heat removal via convective heat flux. In some cases, the liquid low-temperature solder 11-1110 may increase heat capacity by 40% over traditional lead and tin alloy solders. This increased heat capacity may provide additional time during which the low-temperature solder 11-1110 absorbs heat before the HTS 11-1108 is damaged. In some cases, the low-temperature solder 11-1110 may also conduct current away from the HTS 11-1108. To conduct current away from the HTS 11- 1108, the low-temperature solder 11-1110 may have a greater conductivity than the HTS 11- 1108 or a lower resistance than the HTS 11-1108. The low temperature solder 11-1110 may undergo a second order phase change such as from one solid crystal structure to another.

[0406] The low-temperature solder 11-1110 may provide component protection to components other than the coils 11-1106 and HTS 11-1108. The low-temperature solder 11-1110 may serve as a heat sink for external dump resistors. The low-temperature solder 11-1110 may provide a demountable joint method. The low-temperature solder 11-1110 may provide a method ofremotely connecting and / or disconnecting electrical components within the stellarator 11-1102 vacuum vessel without requiring leads to transfer current out of the cryostat.

[0407] FIG. 13 illustrates the base module 11-1116. A reactor cycle in a stellarator 11-1102 may be initiated at step 13-1302. The reactor cycle is an operational period during which fuel may be introduced into a reactor chamber. The fuel may then be ionized via heating to an ignition temperature of around 150 million °C. During the reactor cycle, a magnetic field may be generated and maintained by providing large amounts of electrical current through a plurality of coils 11-1106. The coils 11-1106 may comprise a high-temperature superconductor (HTS) 11- 1108. The HTS 11-1108 may contain the charged particles of the plasma created by ionizing and heating the fuel. Initiating at step 13-1304,

[0408] A quench detection module 11-1118 may be initiated at step 13-1304. The quench detection module 11-1118 may initialize one or more sensors 11-1114. A control system 11- 1112 may poll the sensors 11-1114 and may use measurements from one or more sensors to determine whether a quench event is occurring. A quench event may occur when the temperature of the HTS 11-1108 rises beyond the critical temperature. Beyond the critical temperature, the HTS 11-1108 no longer behaves as a superconductor. The temperature of the HTS 11-1108 may be detected via direct or indirect temperature measurements. The temperature of the HTS 11-1108 may be detected via resistance or current measurements of the coil 11-1106, high-temperature superconductor 11-1108, and / or low-temperature solder 11-1110. The temperature of the HTS 11-1108 may be detected via the attenuation of transverse mechanical waves traveling through the plate assembly 11-1104 and / or low-temperature solder 11-1110, which may indicate a phase change of the low-temperature solder 11-1110 from solid to liquid.

[0409] A quench detection status may be received from the quench detection module 11-1118 at step 13-1306. The quench detection status may be false, indicating that the stellarator 11-1102 is operating nominally. The quench detection status may be true, indicating that a quench event is occurring or likely occurring. Whether a quench event has been detected may be determined at step 13-1308. A quench event may be detected if the quench event status is true. Alternatively, the quench event status may comprise a probability, such as 75%. When the quench detection status comprises a probability, the probability of a quench event occurring may be compared against a predetermined threshold value. The threshold value may be based on various factors. These factors may include confidence in sensor 11-1114 measurements, probability calculation methods, and safety factors. A lower probability threshold of 60% may be selected if a conservative safety factor is applied, such that a 75% probability of a quench event would indicate a quench event. High confidence in detection methods may result in a higher probability threshold of 85%, such that a 75% probability of a quench event would not indicate a quenchevent. Detection methods may include operability, interpretation of sensor 11-1114 measurements, and higher risk tolerance.

[0410] If a quench event has not been detected, then it may be determined whether the reactor is online. The quench mitigation module 11-1120 may be initiated at step 13-1310. The quench mitigation module 11-1120 may receive a quench detection status. If the temperature of the coil 11-1106 increases above the critical temperature of the HTS 11-1108, the HTS 11-1108 may lose superconducting properties, resulting in a rapid increase in resistance and heat. The heat may be conducted and / or absorbed by the low-temperature solder 11-1110. The low-temperature solder 11-1110 may melt when the temperature of the coil 11-1106 and surrounding low- temperature solder 11-1110 reach the melting point temperature of the low-temperature solder 11-1110. The phase change of the low-temperature solder 11-1110 from solid to liquid may maintain the temperature of the coil 11-1106 and HTS 11-1108 at the melting point temperature of the low-temperature solder 11-1110 until the entirety of the mass of the low-temperature solder 11-1110 surrounding the coil 11-1106 has melted. This temperature maintenance may delay further increases in the temperature of the coil 11-1106 and HTS 11-1108.

[0411] In response to the quench event being detected, the stellarator 11-1102 may be cycled down. An operational status of the stellarator 11-1102 from the quench mitigation module 11- 1120 may be received at step 132. The operation status may indicate that the stellarator has cycled down. Whether the stellarator reactor is online may be determined at step 13-1314. The stellarator 11-1102 reactor may be online if it is operating nominally, such as when a quench event is not detected. The stellarator 11-1102 may not be online when the stellarator 11-1102 has been cycled down. The stellarator may be cycled down when a quench event has been detected or due to planned maintenance without a quench event occurring. The base module 11- 1116 ends at step 13-1316 by ending the quench mitigation process.

[0412] FIG. 14 illustrates the quench detection module 11-1118. The quench detection module 11-1118 may be initialized by the base module 11-1116 at step 14-1402. The quench detection module 11-1118 may receive an operational status of the stellarator 11-1102. The operational status may indicate that the stellarator 11-1102 has been cycled up.

[0413] One or more sensors 11-1114 may be initialized at step 14-1404. One or more sensors 11-1114 may be initialized by providing power to one or more sensors 11-1114 and receiving a measurement and / or handshake response to confirm the operability of the sensors 11-1114. The sensors 11-1114 may be calibrated by comparing measurement samples to known values. The sensors 11-1114 may be calibrated by comparing values from redundant sensors 11-1114 and identifying and correcting for any identified variances. Initializing the sensors 11-1114 maycomprise the control system 11-1112 establishing communication with and sampling from a thermocouple.

[0414] Initializing the sensors 11-1114 may comprise the activation of a piezoelectric transducer. The piezoelectric transducer may produce transverse mechanical waves at a first point of the HTS 11-1108, coil 11-1106, and / or low-temperature solder 11-1110. The piezoelectric transducer may generate vibrations that possess optimized characteristics, including frequency and amplitude. The vibrations may penetrate the low-temperature solder 11- 1110 and / or the plate assembly 11-1104 while preventing undesired heating or mechanical damage. To optimize energy transfer, the interface between the transducer and the high- temperature superconductor 11-1108, coil 11-1106, and / or low-temperature solder 11-1110 may minimize energy loss to ensure the integrity and quality of the received waveform.

[0415] Initializing the sensors 11-1114 may comprise the activation of an electromagnetic acoustic transducer. The electromagnetic acoustic transducer may generate ultrasound waves and utilize interactions between electric currents and magnetic fields to stimulate vibrations. This approach may produce vibrations in conductive materials in the absence of direct contact where traditional piezoelectric transducers may be less effective. Ultrasonic waves may also be generated via pulsed lasers utilizing thermoelastic expansion.

[0416] The one or more sensors 11-1114 may be polled at step 14-1406. The sensors 11-1114 may measure temperatures of the plate assembly 11-1104, coil 11-1106, HTS 11-1108, and / or low-temperature solder 11-1110, or other stellarator 11-1102 components. The sensors 11-1114 may measure temperatures via a thermocouple, thermistor, bolometer, etc. The sensors 11-1114 may comprise a piezoelectric sensor for detecting and measuring transverse mechanical waves in the plate assembly 11-1104 and / or low-temperature solder 11-1110 surrounding the coils 11- 1106. The piezoelectric sensor may detect an attenuation of a transverse mechanical wave traveling through the low-temperature solder 11-1110. Data generated by the sensors 11-1114 may include waveforms of the transverse waves that have interacted with the low-temperature solder 11-1110 and propagated through the HTS 11-1108, coil 11-1106, and / or low-temperature solder 11-1110. The control system 11-1112 may include a high-fidelity data acquisition system. The data acquisition system may differentiate between waves that are reflected, refracted, or directly received. The sensors 11-1114 may detect reflected waves via optical techniques.Optical techniques may include interferometry, which may measure variations in the phase of light reflected from the surface of a material to measure ultrasonic waveforms, which may be induced by a laser. Some methods of detecting transverse waves may have limitations. Electromagnetic acoustic transducers and laser-based ultrasound generators may have limited penetration distances. Thus, additional sensors 11-1114 of the same or differing types may beused to facilitate adequate coverage of the low-temperature solder 11-1110. Adequate coverage may be able to detect liquid phase low-temperature solder 11-1110 at any location within the stellarator 11-1102.

[0417] A quench detection status may be determined at 14-1408. A quench detection status may comprise a binary indication. The binary indication may be true if a quench event is detected, or may be false if a quench event is not detected and the reactor is operating nominally. A quench detection status may indicate a probability of a quench event occurring. A quench detection status may be true if a high probability of a quench event occurring is calculated.

[0418] Such calculations may be based upon one or more sensor 11-1114 measurements. The sensor measurements may include an increase of temperature within the plate assembly 11-1104, coil 11-1106, HTS 11-1108, and / or low-temperature solder 11-1110 beyond a maximum threshold value. The increase of temperature may be detected at a single point and / or be an average increase across multiple sensors 11-1114. A high probability of a quench event may also be indicated by the attenuation of a transverse mechanical wave traveling through a plate assembly 11-1104 and / or low-temperature solder 11-1110. The attenuation may indicate a phase change of the low-temperature solder 11-1110 from solid to liquid, as may be measured by a piezoelectric sensor.

[0419] Methods of detecting a quench event may include measurement of increased resistance in the coil 11-1106 and / or HTS 11-1108. Increased resistance may be indicative of a loss of superconductivity. A loss of superconductivity may also be known as the superconductor going normal. During such events, current may be measured via a current sensor and may be shunted through the conductive supporting structure of the coil 11-1106 and / or the low-temperature solder 11-1110.

[0420] A high probability of a quench event may be indicated based upon a logic tree or may be calculated using formulas based upon measurements. A logic tree may include whether one or more sensor 11-1114 measurements exceed threshold values. A machine learning or artificial intelligence algorithm may be used to identify a quench detection status. The acquired waveforms may be compared against a database of historical waveforms. These acquired waveforms may correspond with a variety of waveform signatures that may correspond with a variety of conditions. Conditions may include when the low-temperature solder 11-1110 is completely solid, partially solid, and partially liquid, completely liquid, etc. Comparing the current and historical waveforms may facilitate the identification that melting of the low- temperature solder 11-1110 is present, indicating a quench event is occurring. Comparisons may also yield an approximate mass and / or volume of low-temperature solder 11-1110 which is in a liquid phase or still in a solid phase. The comparisons may indicate the approximate location orlocations of where the low-temperature solder 11-1110 is in a liquid phase. Changes in the waveforms may be in amplitude, velocity, frequency, etc. and may be indicated by reflected wave patterns and / or measurement of directly received transverse waves. Further analysis of the waveforms may indicate changes in the phase state of the low-temperature solder 11-1110. Analysis may recognize that a change in impedance may indicate the presence of liquid-phase low-temperature solder 11-1110. Time-of-flight analysis may be used on a reflected waveform to identify the distance and location of the liquid phase low-temperature solder 11-1110. Analysis of multiple distinct reflected waveforms may identify multiple regions of liquid phase low-temperature solder 11-1110. Analysis of waveforms may further utilize algorithms for filtering out noise, improving signal quality, and interpreting waveform data. The algorithms may comprise machine learning and / or artificial intelligence models, Fourier transform analysis, wavelet transforms, etc.

[0421] The control system 11-1112 may include automated monitoring. Automated monitoring may initiate maintenance and / or safety procedures in response to the waveform analysis. Automated monitoring may provide alerts and / or notifications based upon conditions identified via waveform analysis. Continuous and / or periodic monitoring may occur. The sensors 11-1114 and systems related to waveform analysis may be periodically calibrated to ensure the reliability of the acquired data, waveform analysis, and conditions identified via the waveform analysis.

[0422] A quench detection status may be sent to the base module 11-1116 at step 14-1410. A false quench detection status may indicate that the stellarator 11-1102 is operating nominally. A true quench detection status may indicate that a quench event is occurring or likely occurring. The quench detection status may further comprise a volume and / or location of liquid phase low- temperature solder 11-1110, which may further indicate the location and magnitude of the quench event. The quench may be detected using a sensor that measures the capacitance of helium produced by the fusion reaction. The helium capacitance differential may be spatial or with time. The differential may be between liquid and gas. The differential may be between gases of different temperatures or densities. The gaseous pressure differential may be measured directly using pressure sensors. The gaseous temperature may be measured directly using pressure sensors.

[0423] The “maximum threshold” for quench may be determined by individual or complex combinations various parameters. Parameters may include voltage, temperature, pressure, magnetic field, resistance, changes in magnetic field, changes in waveform based sensors (optical, electromagnetic, acoustic, etc.). These parameters may be measured statically or in a time-dependent way. These parameters may have complex algorithms that determine amaximum threshold. The maximum threshold may be static or based on specific situations. The maximum threshold may be computed using digital or analog logic.

[0424] The quench detection system may be utilized to indicate that a transient or event has occurred. Some of these transients may not be indicative of quench. Some of these transients may show thermal recovery, current sharing, current redistribution, field profile changes, flux jumping, high energy particle events, and / or thermal transients. The quench system may be utilized with coupled multi-physics models to indicate other system diagnostics. These system diagnostics could indicate shield temperature, shield composition, neutron flux, neutron energy, neutron energy spectra, plasma transients, plasma thermal runaway, plasma quench, plasma instabilities, plasma-coil coupling, plasma current, plasma diamagnetic behavior, ECH power, and / or ECH dynamics.

[0425] FIG. 15 illustrates the quench mitigation module 11-1120. The quench mitigation module 11-1120 may be initialized by the base module 11-1116 at step 15-1502. The quench mitigation module 11-1120 may receive a quench detection status from the base module 11- 1116. The quench detection status may indicate that a quench event has occurred. The quench mitigation module 11-1116 may occur automatically based on the physical properties of the coil 11-1106, HTS 11-1108, and / or low-temperature solder 11-1110.

[0426] The temperature of the coil 11-1106 may increase at step 15-1504. The temperature of the coil 11-1106 may increase due to radiant heat, partial or total failure of a cooling system or mechanism, increased resistance in the HTS 11-1108 resulting from a loss of its superconducting properties, etc. If the HTS 11-1108 reaches a temperature above the critical point, thermal runaway may propagate the loss of superconducting properties of a HTS 11-1108 at a localized point or region to other regions. During runaway, heat may be conducted to adjacent HTSes 11-1108, resulting in a cascading loss of superconducting properties of the HTSes 11-1108. The HTSes 11-1108 going normal may result in a rapid increase in resistance.

[0427] At step 15-1506, the low-temperature solder 11-1110 that surrounds the coil 11-1106 and HTS 11-1108 may absorb enough heat to reach the melting point temperature. The melting point temperature of the low-temperature solder 11-1110 may be selected to be below the temperature at which the high-temperature superconductor 11-1108 would be damaged. Thus, the entirety of the mass of the low-temperature solder 11-1110 may melt before the temperature of the coil 11- 1106 and HTS 11-1108 increases. The phase change of the low-temperature solder 11-1110 may provide increased thermal capacity to the coils 11-1106, which may otherwise be surrounded by more traditional solders comprised of alloys of lead and tin. The low-temperature solder 11- 1110 may be comprised of an alloy that may be optimized for thermal capacity, thermal conductivity, electrical conductivity, thermal contraction, residual resistivity ratio, neutronabsorption, low activation, machinability, etc. The low-temperature solder 11-1110 may have an electrical conductivity less than the HTS 11-1108, which may otherwise go normal. Thus, the low-temperature solder 11-1110 may shunt away and / or absorb electrical energy from the coil 11-1106, further protecting the HTS 11-1108 from damage.

[0428] The stellarator 11-1102 may be cycled in response to a detected quench event at step 15- 1508. Cycling down the stellarator 11-1102 may involve reducing or stopping the addition of external energy and / or fuel to the reactor chamber. Cycling down the stellarator 11-1102 may involve rapid cooling of the reactor chamber. Rapid cooling may be achieved with heat exchangers, which may be located within the blanket surrounding the reactor. Cycling down the stellarator 11-1102 may involve a discharge of the plasma from within the reactor. Cycling down the stellarator 11-1102 may also involve the deployment of safety systems. Safety systems may include additional cooling devices to rapidly cool the reactor and / or coils 11-1106. Rapid cooling may prevent a loss of containment of the plasma within the reactor.

[0429] The quench mitigation module 11-1120 may conclude by sending the operational status of the stellarator 11-1102 to the base module 11-1116 at step 15-1510. The operational status may indicate that the stellarator has cycled down.

[0430] In some cases, the temperature of the coils may temporarily increase and thermally recover. Thermal recovery may not cause a sufficient amount of heating to have the superconductor lose all superconducting properties. At low temperatures far from the critical temperature, increases in temperature may reduce the critical current that the superconductor may carry. The shunting material may carry the difference between the total transport current and the critical current. The current carried by the shunting material may be insignificant enough to not cause quench. If the current carried by the shunting material does not cause quench, the system temperature may be reduced. The temperature reduction may be provided by the thermal capacity of the coilpack or the cooling system. If the current carried by the shunting material does not cause quench, all current may be carried through the superconductor again. The temperature rise and shunting current may be stable and reach an equilibrium below a thermal runaway condition.Flexible Superconductor Cable with Flexible Quench Stabilizer

[0431] Recognized herein is the need for systems and methods for flexible superconductor components that can withstand fault situations (e.g., a quench).

[0432] Described herein is a superconducting (SC) cable and methods for forming an SC cable. The cable may be robust against local defects in the SC tapes. The cable may be mechanically flexible. Previous SC cables may not be greatly mechanically flexible. The cable may be comprised in a stellarator magnet coil. The SC cable may be used for a variety of uses, includingfusion energy production. The SC cable may facilitate 3D-shaped magnet coils. Such coils may be useful for MRI magnets, high-power electromotors, turbine generators, next generation particle accelerators, NMR and ICR, and power transmission.

[0433] Fusion involves the fusion of light nuclei into heavier nuclei. The most reactive fusion process (e.g., D-T fusion) involves fusion of deuterium and tritium into helium and a neutron. The D-T fusion reaction releases 17.6 MeV of energy. In magnetic confinement fusion, D-T fusion fuel may be heated to thermonuclear temperatures (on the order of 10 kiloelectron volts (keV), or about 120 million Kelvin (K)). Once the fuel is heated, the fuel may be fully ionized and reach a plasma state. Then, the fusion plasma can be confined by magnetic fields. A magnetic field may be comprised in a fusion device to confine a plasma.

[0434] In a stellarator, a magnetic field may be shaped into a toroidal three-dimensional geometry comprising nested magnetic surfaces. A magnetic field in a stellarator may confine plasma particles and the thermal energy associated with the plasma particles. In D-T fusion, the neutron may be automatically released from the core plasma. The exhaust related to the neutron may therefore be trivial. This exhaust may not heat the plasma to any significant degree, since neutrons only interact very weakly with the plasma particles or the magnetic field. In comparison, the exhaust associated with the released helium nucleus (e.g., the alpha particle) may be significant. The alpha particle is positively charged and carries 3.5 MeV of kinetic energy when home from the D-T fusion process.

[0435] The confinement of the plasma by the magnetic field facilitates achieving fusion bum, which is a condition where the plasma is self-heated by the fusion alpha particles. Such confinement may be achieved via control of the geometry of the magnetic field lines and a sufficient magnetic field strength. SC cables may be precisely shaped and may provide large magnetic fields. Thus, high-magnetic-field-strength SC cables may provide the combination of large magnetic field strength and precise control of the magnetic field line geometry, thus enabling technologies for fusion energy research.

[0436] Strong and carefully 3D-shaped magnetic fields may facilitate fusion conditions. Magnetic confinement may facilitate net fusion energy. The magnetic field facilitates confinement of the fourth state of matter, plasma, without any material objects touching the hot core plasma. Plasma confinement by magnetic fields may involve a number of design parameters in order to reach a fusion bum. Fusion device (e.g., stellarator) designs may involve careful sculpting of the geometry of the magnetic field lines. Sculpted magnetic field lines can be achieved with 3D-shaped magnet coils. 3D-shaped magnet coils may comprise 3D-shaped current-carrying SC cables. SC cables that are mechanically flexible may facilitate assembly of tens of windings of cable into shapes that provide such magnetic field lines. Mechanicallyflexible SC cables may be bent into a variety of shapes. Robust, economical, and efficient methods for the creation of high-performance flexible SC cables may facilitate fusion energy production.

[0437] The cable may comprise at least one SC strand or tape, at least one non-superconductor (e.g., a normal conductor, e.g., copper), at least one cooling channel, and a low-melt-temperature metal. These components may be enclosed by the flexible conduit (e.g., jacket). The cable may further comprise a low-melt-temperature metal (LMTM).

[0438] The flexible jacket may withstand modest pressure. The at least one non-superconductor may comprise a plurality of flexible wires (e.g. copper wires), which may act as a stabilizing material (e.g., against a quench). The plurality of flexible wires may have relatively small diameters. The flexible wires may sufficiently thin to be flexible and sufficient in quantity to carry significant current during a quench. The plurality of flexible wires may be unordered. The plurality of flexible wires may be weaved, braided, or otherwise ordered together in arrangement that does not materially diminish the flexibility of the plurality of flexible wires. The flexible wires may have high electrical conductivity, may be relatively inexpensive, and may be commercially available. The flexible wires may comprise copper. Braided copper wire tapes may be commercially available. The at least one cooling channel may comprise a plurality of soft, bendable, or flexible tubes (e.g., copper tubes or annealed copper tubes) for coolant flow. The plurality of flexible tubes may have relatively small diameters. The small diameters of the plurality of flexible wires and the plurality of flexible tubes may provide improved flexibility.

[0439] During assembly of the cable, the SC tapes may be placed (e.g., threaded) inside the flexible jacket, along with the non-superconductor (which may be loosely placed) and the cooling channel. After assembly and 3D forming, the LMTM may be flown into the assembly by use of a pressure differential (e.g., vacuum pressure or pressurized molten metal).

[0440] Since all components of the SC cable may be flexible, the cable itself may be very flexible. Once the LMTM is flown into the assembly, if the LMTM later solidifies, the SC cable may become relatively inflexible.

[0441] The SC tape may carry a strong current during nominal operation with little dissipation. The cooling channel may carry a coolant to maintain the low temperatures that facilitate superconductivity. The coolant may comprise cryogenic, gaseous helium. During nominal conditions, the non-superconductor and the LMTM may carry negligible current owing to the superconductivity of the SC tape.

[0442] During a fault situation (such as a quench) the non-superconductor may share current with the SC tape and the LMTM, and provide electrical conductivity sufficient to avoid damage to the cable.Quench Detection in HTS Magnets

[0443] Recognized herein is the need for systems and methods for flexible superconductor components that can detect fault events (e.g., quench). Provided herein are methods and systems for using a microwave stripline or microstrip line to detect quench in a superconductor tape magnet. The superconductor tape may be a high temperature superconductor (HTS) tape magnet. Detection may be based on time domain reflectometry resulting from impedance changes with temperature.

[0444] Large magnet coils made from HTS tapes (e.g., HTS REBCO) may present significant difficulty in detecting a quench. In comparison, low temperature superconductors (e.g., NbTi) may detect a quench efficiently.

[0445] The soft transition to normal conduction and low normal zone propagation velocity (NZPV) in a superconductor may make terminal detection challenging. The soft transition and low NZPV may incentivize alternative methods for monitoring temperatures along the entire length of a superconductor. Alternative methods may include optical fiber methods, acoustic propagation, and electromagnetic systems. Alternative methods may involve co-location of a transmission system along with the elements (e.g., tapes) to be sensed. Optical fibers, acoustic transmission lines, or coaxial E&M wave propagating systems may be used as transmission systems, but may not incorporate well into the design of manufacturing processes for the HTS cables.

[0446] Alternatively, a planar E&M wave propagating system may act as a transmission system. A planar E&M wave propagating system may easily and effectively incorporate a transmission line into a REBCO tape-based system. A microwave stripline system or microstripline system may be incorporated directly into a tape stack without detrimental impact on manufacturability. Similarly, a microwave stripline system or microstripline system may be co-wound directly into a copper on rounded core (CORC) cable without detrimental impact on manufacturability. A tape-based stack or a CORC structure may include a microwave stripline or microstrip line that is seamlessly integrated into the coil.

[0447] A planar E&M wave propagating system may comprise two conductors separated by an insulator, which guides an E&M wave along the structure (FIG. 16). A planar E&M wave propagating system may be included as another tape in an HTS tape magnet system.

[0448] A planar E&M wave propagating system may support a TEM wave. A planar E&M wave propagating system may have no cutoff frequency. A disturbance (e.g., quench event) may cause a temperature variation along the HTS tape magnet. Temperature variations along the length of the HTS tape magnet may result in impedance changes, which may alter the local reflection coefficient. This alteration may result in scattering of the wave, which can be detectedat the input (and output) of the planar E&M wave propagating system. Analysis of the scattered wave signal may indicate what the disturbance is and where the disturbance is located.Stellarator Magnets Formed of Conductor On Round Core (CORC) Superconducting Cable

[0449] Many current stellarator magnets are formed by winding one or more Vacuum Pressure Impregnated, Insulated, Partially transposed, Extruded, and Roll-formed (VIPER) cables. Such VIPER cables, however, are often too rigid to accurately shape into bended configurations required in some stellarator magnets. This increased rigidity often damages such cables during assembly, which reduces a current density through, and thus efficacy of, stellarator magnets formed thereof. Further, bends in current stellarator magnets often require multiple VIPER cable segments to be connected at joints, which further reduce current density and form heatgenerating quench regions. In some cases, the cooling required to prevent such heat from damaging the magnets is prohibitively costly, non-superconducting coils make commercial fusion uneconomical. Additionally, the connection between the VIPER cables in current stellarator magnets are difficult to form, form quench sources, and lack rigidity.

[0450] As such, provided herein are stellarator magnets and methods of forming thereof that use Conductor On Round Core (CORC®) cables. Such stellarator magnets can be formed with multiple and sharper bends for improved magnetic field generation and alternative configurations. Further, the magnets herein can be formed with less joints, increasing the current density, and reducing generated heat, allowing for reduced cryogenic loading of the superconducting materials therein, and reduced sources of quench. Further, the joints between cables within the stellarator magnets herein are easier and cheaper to construct, to meet the high demand formed by research scientists around the world. Finally, to form a magnetic field, the CORC® cables in many stellarator magnets are wound repetitively from an outer edge of the stellarator magnet to an inner loci of the stellarator magnet. As such, the CORC® cables herein can be wound in such a configuration without requiring multiple joints at the inner loci, which would distort the magnetic field at a key point of interest.Stellarator Magnets

[0451] In one aspect, disclosed herein per FIGS. 17-19, is a stellarator magnet 1700, 1800, or 1900 as described elsewhere herein. As shown, in some embodiments, the stellarator magnet 1700, 1800, or 1900 comprises a stellarator form 1710, 1810, or 1910, a plurality of Conductor On Round Core (CORC®) cables, and a solder 1740, 1840, or 1940.

[0452] In some embodiments, the stellarator magnet 1700, 1800, or 1900 comprises a plurality of stellarator forms 1710, 1810, or 1910, wherein each stellarator form 1710, 1810, or 1910 comprises one or more CORC® cables 1720, 1820, 1920, 1730, 1830, or 1930. In someembodiments, the plurality of stellarator forms 1710, 1810, or 1910 are stacked in an array, wherein an edge of the channel 1711, 1811, or 1911 of one stellarator forms 1710, 1810, or 1910 contacts a bottom surface of a subsequent stellarator form 1710, 1810, or 1910. In some embodiments, per FIGS. 19 and 20, the stellarator form 1910 or 2010 has a channel 1911 or 2011. In some embodiments, the shape and / or location of the channel 1711, 1811, 1911, or 2011 defines the magnetic field imparted by the CORC® cable 1720, 1730, 1820, 1830, 1920, 1930, 2020, or 2030 in the stellarator magnet. In some embodiments, a width of the channel 1711, 1811, 1911, or 2011 is greater or equal to a maximum, minimum, or average outer diameter of the CORC® cable 1720, 1730, 1820, 1830, 1920, 1930, 2020, or 2030. In some embodiments, the maximum, minimum, or average outer diameter of the CORC® cable 1720, 1730, 1820, 1830, 1920, 1930, 2020, or 2030 is about 1 mm to about 20 mm. In some embodiments, the stellarator form 1710, 1810, 1910, or 2010 receives forces imparted by the CORC® cable 1720, 1730, 1820, 1830, 1920, 1930, 2020, or 2030 due to Lorentz forces during electrical transmission therethrough. In some embodiments, a shape and / or size of the channel 1711, 1811, 1911, or 2011 is configured to account for lengthening and / or shortening of the CORC® cable 1720, 1730, 1820, 1830, 1920, 1930, 2020, or 2030 during use and / or through cooling / heating cycles. In some embodiments, a shape and / or size of the channel 1711, 1811, 1911, or 2011 is configured to prevent the CORC® cable 1720, 1730, 1820, 1830, 1920, 1930, 2020, or 2030 during insertion and / or during use and through cooling / heating cycles. In some embodiments, a shape and / or size of the channel 1711, 1811, 1911, or 2011 is configured to reduce movement of the CORC® cable 1720, 1730, 1820, 1830, 1920, 1930, 2020, or 2030 during use to provide an accurate magnetic field. The channel 1711, 1811, 1911, or 2011 may be formed by, for example, a computer numerical controlled (CNC) machine, whose high tolerances enable the formation of channels 1711, 1811, 1911, or 2011, and thus magnetic fields, with high precision.

[0453] In some embodiments, per FIGS. 19 and 20, the stellarator form 1910 or 2010 comprises a form cooling conduit 1913 or 2013. In some embodiments, the form cooling conduit 1913 or 20 Bis configured to receive a cooled fluid to maintain the superconductivity the CORC® cable 1920, 1930, 2020, or 2030 components. In some embodiments, the form cooling conduit 1913 or 2013 is offset from the channel 1911 or 2011. In some embodiments, the form cooling conduit 1913 or 2013 is parallel to the channel 1911 or 2011. In some embodiments, the form cooling conduit 1913 or 2013 surrounds at least a portion of the channel 1911 or 2011. In some embodiments, the form cooling conduit 1913 or 2013 is beneath at least a portion of the channel 1911 or 2011. In some embodiments, the stellarator form 1910 or 2010 is hollow.

[0454] In some embodiments, the channel 1711, 1811, 1911, or 2011 comprises a channel bend portion 1712, 1812, 1912, or 2012. In some embodiments, the channel 1711, 1811, 1911, or2011 comprises a plurality of channel bend portions 1712, 1812, 1912, or 2012. In some embodiments, the number of channel bend portions 1712, 1812, 1912, or 2012 in the channel 1711, 1811, 1911, or 2011 is about 1 to about 10,000. In some embodiments, the number of channel bend portions 1712, 1812, 1912, or 2012 in the channel 1711, 1811, 1911, or 2011 is about 1 to about 5, about 1 to about 10, about 1 to about 50, about 1 to about 100, about 1 to about 500, about 1 to about 1,000, about 1 to about 5,000, about 1 to about 10,000, about 5 to about 10, about 5 to about 50, about 5 to about 100, about 5 to about 500, about 5 to about 1,000, about 5 to about 5,000, about 5 to about 10,000, about 10 to about 50, about 10 to about 100, about 10 to about 500, about 10 to about 1,000, about 10 to about 5,000, about 10 to about 10,000, about 50 to about 100, about 50 to about 500, about 50 to about 1,000, about 50 to about 5,000, about 50 to about 10,000, about 100 to about 500, about 100 to about 1,000, about 100 to about 5,000, about 100 to about 10,000, about 500 to about 1,000, about 500 to about 5,000, about 500 to about 10,000, about 1,000 to about 5,000, about 1,000 to about 10,000, or about 5,000 to about 10,000, including increments therein. In some embodiments, the number of channel bend portions 1712, 1812, 1912, or 2012 in the channel 1711, 1811, 1911, or 2011 is about 1, about 5, about 10, about 50, about 100, about 500, about 1,000, about 5,000, or about 10,000. In some embodiments, the number of channel bend portions 1712, 1812, 1912, or 2012 in the channel 1711, 1811, 1911, or 2011 is at least about 1, about 5, about 10, about 50, about 100, about 500, about 1,000, or about 5,000. In some embodiments, the number of channel bend portions 1712, 1812, 1912, or 2012 in the channel 1711, 1811, 1911, or 2011 is at most about 5, about 10, about 50, about 100, about 500, about 1,000, about 5,000, or about 10,000.

[0455] In some embodiments, the channel 1711, 1811, 1911, or 2011 comprises a channel bend portion 1712, 1812, 1912, or 2012, wherein a ratio between a minimum bend radius of the channel bend portion 1712, 1812, 1912, or 2012 and an outer diameter of at least a portion of the plurality of CORC® cables 1720, 1730, 1820, 1830, 1920, 1930, 2020, or 2030 is about 7: 1 to about 400: 1. In some embodiments, the channel 1711, 1811, 1911, or 2011 comprises a channel bend portion 1712, 1812, 1912, or 2012 wherein a ratio between a minimum bend radius of the channel bend portion 1712, 1812, 1912, or 2012 and an outer diameter of at least a portion of the plurality of CORC® cables 1720, 1730, 1820, 1830, 1920, 1930, 2020, or 2030 is about 7: 1 to about 10: 1, about 7: 1 to about 25: 1, about 7: 1 to about 50: 1, about 7: 1 to about 100: 1, about 7: 1 to about 200: 1, about 7: 1 to about 300: 1, about 7: 1 to about 400: 1, about 10: 1 to about 25: 1, about 10: 1 to about 50: 1, about 10: 1 to about 100: 1, about 10: 1 to about 200: 1, about 10: 1 to about 300: 1, about 10: 1 to about 400: 1, about 25: 1 to about 50: 1, about 25: 1 to about 100: 1, about 25: 1 to about 200:1, about 25: 1 to about 300: 1, about 25: 1 to about 400: 1, about 50: 1 to about 100: 1, about 50: 1 to about 200: 1, about 50: 1 to about 300: 1, about 50: 1 to about 400: 1,about 100:1 to about 200:1, about 100:1 to about 300:1, about 100: 1 to about 400:1, about 200:1 to about 300: 1, about 200: 1 to about 400: 1, or about 300: 1 to about 400: 1, including increments therein. In some embodiments, the channel 1711, 1811, 1911, or 2011 comprises a channel bend portion 1712, 1812, 1912, or 2012 wherein a ratio between a minimum bend radius of the channel bend portion 1712, 1812, 1912, or 2012 and an outer diameter of at least a portion of the plurality of CORC® cables 1720, 1730, 1820, 1830, 1920, 1930, 2020, or 2030 is about 7:1, about 10:1, about 25:1, about 50:1, about 100:1, about 200:1, about 300:1, or about 400:1. In some embodiments, the channel 1711, 1811, 1911, or 2011 comprises a channel bend portion 1712, 1812, 1912, or 2012 wherein a ratio between a minimum bend radius of the channel bend portion 1712, 1812, 1912, or 2012 and an outer diameter of at least a portion of the plurality of CORC® cables 1720, 1730, 1820, 1830, 1920, 1930, 2020, or 2030 is at least about 7:1, about 10:1, about 25:1, about 50:1, about 100:1, about 200: 1, or about 300:1. In some embodiments, the channel 1711, 1811, 1911, or 2011 comprises a channel bend portion 1712, 1812, 1912, or 2012 wherein a ratio between a minimum bend radius of the channel bend portion 1712, 1812, 1912, or 2012 and an outer diameter of at least a portion of the plurality of CORC® cables 1720, 1730, 1820, 1830, 1920, 1930, 2020, or 2030 is at most about 10:1, about 25:1, about 50:1, about 100:1, about 200:1, about 300:1, or about 400: 1. In some embodiments, the bend radius of the channel bend portion 1712, 1812, 1912, or 2012 is selected to minimize the number of CORC® cables 1720, 1730, 1820, 1830, 1920, 1930, 2020, or 2030 and thus the number of CORC® cable 1720, 1730, 1820, 1830, 1920, 1930, 2020, or 2030 joints. In some embodiments, the bend radius of the channel bend portion 1712, 1812, 1912, or 2012 is greater than a minimum bend radius of the CORC® cable 1720, 1730, 1820, 1830, 1920, 1930, 2020, or 2030, based on its strain capabilities.

[0456] In some embodiments, the CORC® cable 1720, 1730, 1820, 1830, 1920, 1930, 2020, or 2030 comprises a plurality of superconducting tapes. In some embodiments, the CORC® cable 1720, 1730, 1820, 1830, 1920, 1930, 2020, or 2030 comprises a 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 or more superconducting tapes, including increments therein. In some embodiments, at least a portion of the plurality of plurality of superconducting tapes are coated with a solder, a flux, or both. In some embodiments, the CORC® cable 1720, 1730, 1820, 1830, 1920, 1930, 2020, or 2030 comprises an insulation layer between at least two consecutive superconducting tapes. In some embodiments, the insulation layer changes a time constant of the CORC® cable 1720, 1730, 1820, 1830, 1920, 1930, 2020, or 2030 in transient current situations. In some embodiments, at least a portion of the CORC® cable 1720, 1730, 1820, 1830, 1920, 1930, 2020, or 2030 is disposed within the channel 1711, 1811, 1911, or 2011. In some embodiments, the flexibility of the CORC® cable 1720, 1730, 1820, 1830, 1920, 1930, 2020, or 2030 enables it toform bends with smaller radii of curvature, form shapes with higher accuracy, and form greater number of turns before requiring joint. In some embodiments, per FIGS. 18 and 20, the CORC® cable 1820, 1830, 2020, or 2030 comprises a cable cooling conduit 1821, 1831, 2021, or 2031. In some embodiments, per FIG. 20, the CORC® cable 2020 or 2030 comprises the cable cooling conduit 2021 or 2031 and the stellarator form 2010 comprises the form cooling conduit 2013. In some embodiments, the cable cooling conduit 2021 or 2031 is configured to receive a cooled fluid to maintain the superconductivity the CORC® cable 2020 or 2030 components.

[0457] In some embodiments, two or more of the plurality of CORC® cables 1720, 1730, 1820, 1830, 1920, 1930, 2020, or 2030 have different diameters, lengths, or both. In some embodiments, per FIG. 22, the CORC® cables 2220 comprises a plurality of superconducting tapes, wherein the solder 2240 covers the superconducting tapes 2223. In some embodiments, the CORC® cables 2220 comprises a plurality of superconducting tapes 2223, a plurality of wires wrapped around a copper core 2222, or both. In some embodiments, the winding of the superconducting tapes 2223, the plurality of wires, or both, reduces a stress on the CORC® cables 2220 or 2230. In some embodiments, the stellarator magnet 1700, 1800, 1900, or 2000 comprises a plurality of u-shaped turns. FIG. 22 shows a magnet is made of multiple turns, showing a cutaway section of a three turn magnet, The magnet may have, for example 1- 1000 turns. The turns may be on multiple levels or plates. There are typically n+1 plates where n is the number of levels.

[0458] In some embodiments, two or more of the plurality of CORC® cables 1720, 1730, 1820, 1830, 1920, 1930, 2020, or 2030 have different quantities of the superconducting tapes 123. In some embodiments, the superconducting tapes in two or more of the plurality of CORC® cables 1720, 1730, 1820, 1830, 1920, 1930, 2020, or 2030 have different widths, lengths, or both. In some embodiments, a portion of a CORC® cable 1720, 1730, 1820, 1830, 1920, 1930, 2020, or 2030 has a reduced diameter, length, quantity of the superconducting tapes, tape width, tape length, or any combination thereof to enable its insertion into channels 1711, 1811, 1911, 2011, or 2211 of the stellarator form 1710, 1810, 1910, 2010, or 2210 with a smaller bend radius. In some embodiments, a CORC® cable 1720, 1730, 1820, 1830, 1920, 1930, 2020, or 2030 has a reduced diameter, length, quantity of the superconducting tapes, tape width, tape length, or any combination thereof to enable its insertion into channels 1711, 1811, 1911, 2011, or 2211 of the stellarator form 1710, 1810, 1910, 2010, or 2210 with a smaller bend radius. In some embodiments, a portion of a CORC® cable 1720, 1730, 1820, 1830, 1920, 1930, 2020, or 2030 has a reduced diameter, length, quantity of the superconducting tapes, tape width, tape length, or any combination thereof to ease the process of its insertion into channels 1711, 1811, 1911, 2011, or 2211 of the stellarator form 1710, 1810, 1910, 2010, or 2210 with a smaller bendradius. In some embodiments, a CORC® cable 1720, 1730, 1820, 1830, 1920, 1930, 2020, or 2030 has a reduced diameter, length, quantity of the superconducting tapes, tape width, tape length, or any combination thereof to ease the process of its insertion into channels 1711, 1811, 1911, 2011, or 2211 of the stellarator form 1710, 1810, 1910, 2010, or 2210 with a smaller bend radius. In some embodiments, a portion of a CORC® cable 1720, 1730, 1820, 1830, 1920, 1930, 2020, or 2030 has a reduced diameter, length, quantity of the superconducting tapes, tape width, tape length, or any combination thereof to enable its insertion into channels 1711, 1811, 1911, 2011, or 2211 of the stellarator form 1710, 1810, 1910, 2010, or 2210 with a smaller bend radius without exceeding a strain limit of the CORC® cable 1720, 1730, 1820, 1830, 1920, 1930, 2020, or 2030. In some embodiments, a CORC® cable 1720, 1730, 1820, 1830, 1920, 1930, 2020, or 2030 has a reduced diameter, length, quantity of the superconducting tapes, tape width, tape length, or any combination thereof to enable its insertion into channels 1711, 1811, 1911, 2011, or 2211 of the stellarator form 1710, 1810, 1910, 2010, or 2210 with a smaller bend radius, without exceeding a strain limit of the CORC® cable 1720, 1730, 1820, 1830, 1920,1930, 2020, or 2030.

[0459] In some embodiments, per FIGS. 17-20, the CORC® cable 1720, 1730, 1820, 1830, 1920, 1930, 2020, or 2030 comprises a cable bend portion 1731, 1831, 1931, or 2031 wherein a ratio between a minimum bend radius of the cable bend portion 1731, 1831, 1931, or 2031 and an outer diameter of at least a portion of the plurality of CORC® cables 1720, 1730, 1820, 1830, 1920, 1930, 2020, or 2030 is about 7:1 to about 400:1. In some embodiments, the CORC® cable 1720, 1730, 1820, 1830, 1920, 1930, 2020, or 2030 comprises a cable bend portion 1731, 1831,1931, or 2031 wherein a ratio between a minimum bend radius of the cable bend portion 1731, 1831, 1931, or 2031 and an outer diameter of at least a portion of the plurality of CORC® cables 1720, 1730, 1820, 1830, 1920, 1930, 2020, or 2030 is about 7:1 to about 10:1, about 7:1 to about 25:1, about 7:1 to about 50:1, about 7:1 to about 100:1, about 7:1 to about 200:1, about 7:1 to about 300:1, about 7:1 to about 400:1, about 10:1 to about 25:1, about 10:1 to about 50:1, about 10:1 to about 100:1, about 10:1 to about 200:1, about 10:1 to about 300:1, about 10:1 to about 400:1, about 25:1 to about 50:1, about 25:1 to about 100:1, about 25:1 to about 200:1, about 25:1 to about 300:1, about 25:1 to about 400:1, about 50:1 to about 100:1, about 50:1 to about 200:1, about 50:1 to about 300:1, about 50:1 to about 400:1, about 100:1 to about 200:1, about 100:1 to about 300:1, about 100:1 to about 400:1, about 200:1 to about 300:1, about 200:1 to about 400: 1, or about 300: 1 to about 400: 1, including increments therein. In some embodiments, the CORC® cable 1720, 1730, 1820, 1830, 1920, 1930, 2020, or 2030 comprises a cable bend portion 1731, 1831, 1931, or 2031 wherein a ratio between a minimum bend radius of the cable bend portion 1731, 1831, 1931, or 2031 and an outer diameter of at least a portion of theplurality of CORC® cables 1720, 1730, 1820, 1830, 1920, 1930, 2020, or 2030 is about 7:1, about 10:1, about 25:1, about 50:1, about 100:1, about 200:1, about 300:1, or about 400:1. In some embodiments, the CORC® cable 1720, 1730, 1820, 1830, 1920, 1930, 2020, or 2030 comprises a cable bend portion 1731, 1831, 1931, or 2031 wherein a ratio between a minimum bend radius of the cable bend portion 1731, 1831, 1931, or 2031 and an outer diameter of at least a portion ofthe plurality of CORC® cables 1720, 1730, 1820, 1830, 1920, 1930, 2020, or 2030 is at least about 7:1, about 10: 1, about 25:1, about 50:1, about 100:1, about 200:1, or about 300:1. In some embodiments, the CORC® cable 1720, 1730, 1820, 1830, 1920, 1930, 2020, or 2030 comprises a cable bend portion 1731, 1831, 1931, or 2031 wherein a ratio between a minimum bend radius of the cable bend portion 1731, 1831, 1931, or 2031 and an outer diameter of at least a portion of the plurality of CORC® cables 1720, 1730, 1820, 1830, 1920, 1930, 2020, or 2030 is at most about 10: 1, about 25: 1, about 50: 1, about 100: 1, about 200: 1, about 300:1, or about 400:1. In some embodiments, the bend radius of the cable bend portion 1731, 1831, 1931, or 2031 is selected to minimize the number of CORC® cables 1720, 1730, 1820, 1830, 1920, 1930, 2020, or 2030 and thus the number of CORC® cable 1720, 1730, 1820, 1830, 1920, 1930, 2020, or 2030 joints. In some embodiments, the bend radius of the cable bend portion 1731, 1831, 1931, or 2031 is greater than a minimum bend radius of the CORC® cable 1720, 1730, 1820, 1830, 1920, 1930, 2020, or 2030, based on its strain capabilities.

[0460] In some embodiments, a CORC® cable 1720, 1730, 1820, 1830, 1920, 1930, 2020, or 2030 ofthe plurality of CORC® cables 1720, 1730, 1820, 1830, 1920, 1930, 2020, or 2030 further comprises a quench detector. In some embodiments, the quench detector comprises a voltage tap, an optical fiber, a hall array sensor, a microwave sensor, an ultrasonic sensor, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the CORC® cable 1720, 1730, 1820, 1830, 1920, 1930, 2020, or 2030 is surrounded by a coating tube. In some embodiments, the coating tube protects the CORC® cable 1720, 1730, 1820, 1830, 1920, 1930, 2020, or 2030 from damage. In some embodiments, the coating tube protects the CORC® cable 1720, 1730, 1820, 1830, 1920, 1930, 2020, or 2030 from damage during the bending process. In some embodiments, the coating tube insulates the CORC® cable 1720, 1730, 1820, 1830, 1920, 1930, 2020, or 2030 to maximize cooling thereof.

[0461] In some embodiments, the solder 1740, 1840, 1940, 2040, or 2240 electrically couples consecutive CORC® cables 1720, 1730, 1820, 1830, 1920, 1930, 2020, 2030, 2220, or 2230 of the plurality of CORC® cables 1720, 1730, 1820, 1830, 1920, 1930, 2020, 2030, 2220, or 2230 to one another. In some embodiments, the solder 1740, 1840, 1940, 2040, or 2240 comprises copper, silver, carbon nanotubes, graphene, tin, bismuth, indium, cadmium, or any combination thereof. Some current stellarator magnets connect cables therein with a praying hand joint,wherein two fingers are formed in a first cable and a flattened portion is formed at the terminus of a second cable, and wherein the cables are brazed, welded, or bolted together. Alternatively, current stellarator magnets employ a “finger trap” connector, wherein cables frayed from each cable are interwoven. By contrast, soldering provides joints with increased strength and reduced resistance, which forms less heat. As such methods are labor intensive and prone to forming quench points, the use of solder 1740, 1840, 1940, 2040, or 2240 herein enables the facile formation of improved stellarator magnets with greater strength. In some embodiments, soldering the CORC® cables 1720, 1730, 1820, 1830, 1920, 1930, 2020, 2030, 2220, or 2230 allows sharing of current therebetween for increased mechanical loading and reliability, improved quench resilience, and lower cost assemblies.

[0462] In some embodiments, per FIG. 20, the CORC® cable 2020 or 2030 comprises a cable cooling conduit and the stellarator form 2010 comprise the form cooling conduit. In some embodiments, the stellarator of magnet 2000 further comprises a coating tube surrounding at least a portion of the CORC® cable 2020 or 2030. In some embodiments, the stellarator of magnet 2000 further comprises a resin disposed in at least a portion of the channel 2011, on a CORC® cable 2020 or 2030 of the plurality of CORC® cables 2020 or 2030, within a CORC® cable 2020 or 2030 of the plurality of CORC® cables 2020 or 2030, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the resin strengthens the stellarator magnet 2000.Methods of Forming a Stellarator Magnet

[0463] Another aspect provided herein is a method of forming a stellarator magnet. In some embodiments, per FIG. 21, the method comprises: (a) inserting at least a portion of a plurality of Conductor On Round Core (CORC®) cables in a channel of a stellarator form 2101; (b) coating at least a portion of the plurality of CORC® cables with a solder 2102; and (c) heating the plurality of CORC® cables, the solder, and the stellarator form 2103. In some embodiments, step (c) 2103 is performed before step (a) 2101, before step (b) 2102, or both.

[0464] In some embodiments, the solder comprises copper, silver, carbon nanotubes, graphene, tin, bismuth, indium, cadmium, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the solder is heated during step (b) 2102. In some embodiments, the heated solder is coated onto the portion of the plurality of CORC® cables at a pressure below or above atmospheric pressure.

[0465] In some embodiments, step (b) 2102 is performed at a soldering temperature of about 30 °C to about 210 °C. In some embodiments, step (b) 2102 is performed at a soldering temperature of about 30 °C to about 60 °C, about 30 °C to about 90 °C, about 30 °C to about 120 °C, about 30 °C to about 180 °C, about 30 °C to about 210 °C, about 60 °C to about 90 °C, about 60 °C to about 120 °C, about 60 °C to about 180 °C, about 60 °C to about 210 °C, about 90 °C to about 120 °C, about 90 °C to about 180 °C, about 90 °C to about 210 °C, about 120 °C to about 180°C, about 120 °C to about 210 °C, or about 180 °C to about 210 °C, including increments therein. In some embodiments, step (b) 2102 is performed at a soldering temperature of about 30 °C, about 60 °C, about 90 °C, about 120 °C, about 180 °C, or about 210 °C. In some embodiments, step (b) is performed at a soldering temperature of at least about 30 °C, about 60 °C, about 90 °C, about 120 °C, or about 180 °C. In some embodiments, step (b) 2102 is performed at a soldering temperature of at most about 60 °C, about 90 °C, about 120 °C, about 180 °C, or about 210 °C. In some embodiments, step (c) 2103 comprises heating to a temperature of about 30 °C to about 210 °C. In some embodiments, step (c) 2103 comprises heating to a temperature of about 30 °C to about 60 °C, about 30 °C to about 90 °C, about 30 °C to about 120 °C, about 30 °C to about 180 °C, about 30 °C to about 210 °C, about 60 °C to about 90 °C, about 60 °C to about 120 °C, about 60 °C to about 180 °C, about 60 °C to about 210 °C, about 90 °C to about 120 °C, about 90 °C to about 180 °C, about 90 °C to about 210 °C, about 120 °C to about 180 °C, about 120 °C to about 210 °C, or about 180 °C to about 210 °C, including increments therein. In some embodiments, step (c) comprises heating to a temperature of about 30 °C, about 60 °C, about 90 °C, about 120 °C, about 180 °C, or about 210 °C. In some embodiments, step (c) comprises heating to a temperature of at least about 30 °C, about 60 °C, about 90 °C, about 120 °C, or about 180 °C. In some embodiments, step (c) comprises heating to a temperature of at most about 60 °C, about 90 °C, about 120 °C, about 180 °C, or about 210 °C. In some embodiments, the soldering temperature is high enough to melt the solder, but low enough to prevent damage to the stellarator magnet. In some embodiments, the specific heating times and temperatures herein are critical to avoid degrading the CORC® cables.

[0466] In some embodiments, step (c) comprises heating for a period of time of about 0.05 hours to about 10 hours. In some embodiments, step (c) comprises heating for a period of time of about 0.05 hours to about 0.1 hours, about 0.05 hours to about 0.5 hours, about 0.05 hours to about 1 hour, about 0.05 hours to about 2 hours, about 0.05 hours to about 4 hours, about 0.05 hours to about 6 hours, about 0.05 hours to about 8 hours, about 0.05 hours to about 10 hours, about 0.1 hours to about 0.5 hours, about 0.1 hours to about 1 hour, about 0.1 hours to about 2 hours, about 0.1 hours to about 4 hours, about 0.1 hours to about 6 hours, about 0.1 hours to about 8 hours, about 0.1 hours to about 10 hours, about 0.5 hours to about 1 hour, about 0.5 hours to about 2 hours, about 0.5 hours to about 4 hours, about 0.5 hours to about 6 hours, about 0.5 hours to about 8 hours, about 0.5 hours to about 10 hours, about 1 hour to about 2 hours, about 1 hour to about 4 hours, about 1 hour to about 6 hours, abo...

Claims

CLAIMSWHAT IS CLAIMED IS:

1. A method of identifying a quench event, comprising:(a) providing a first superconductor and a second superconductor in thermal communication with said first superconductor, wherein an operating condition of said first superconductor and said second superconductor is such that(i) a first ratio of a first operating current of said first superconductor to a first critical current of said first superconductor, is less than(ii) a second ratio of a second operating current of said second superconductor to a second critical current of said second superconductor; and(b) based at least in part on said operating condition in (a), identifying said quench event in said first superconductor using said second superconductor.

2. The method of claim 1, wherein said first superconductor or said second superconductor are a high temperature superconductor (HTS).

3. The method of claim 1, wherein said first superconductor or said second superconductor is a superconducting tape.

4. The method of claim 1, wherein said quench event is detected in said second superconductor prior to being detected in said first superconductor.

5. The method of claim 1, wherein said first superconductor and said second superconductor are electrically coupled to different power supplies.

6. The method of claim 1, wherein a temperature of said first superconductor and a temperature of said second superconductor are different by at most about 5 Kelvin.

7. The method of claim 6, wherein a temperature of said first superconductor and a temperature of said second superconductor are different by at most about 1 Kelvin.

8. The method of claim 7, wherein a temperature of said first superconductor and a temperature of said second superconductor are substantially the same.

9. The method of claim 1, wherein said first superconductor and said second superconductor are each a part of a same high temperature superconductor (HTS) tape stack.

10. The method of claim 1, wherein said first superconductor and said second superconductor are co-would together.

11. The method of claim 1 , wherein said first superconductor and said second superconductor are electrically insulated from one another.

12. The method of claim 1, wherein said second superconductor comprises more copper than said first superconductor.

13. The method of claim 1, wherein said second superconductor has a smaller physical cross section than said first superconductor.

14. The method of claim 1, wherein said second superconductor is a same material as said first superconductor.

15. The method of claim 1, wherein said quench event is detected at least about 5 seconds earlier using said second superconductor than using said first superconductor.

16. The method of claim 1, further comprising (c), activating a quench protection apparatus in response to said detecting said quench event.

17. The method of claim 16, wherein said quench protection apparatus reduces a current flowing through said first superconductor.

18. The method of claim 16, wherein said first superconductor is not damaged by said quench event.

19. The method of claim 1, wherein said first superconductor is at least a portion of a stellarator.

20. The method of claim 1, wherein said operating current of said first superconductor or said operating current of said second superconductor is tunable.

21. The method of claim 1, wherein said quench event is detected using an electrical signal.

22. The method of claim 1, wherein said quench event is detected using a magnetic signal.

23. The method of claim 1, wherein said second superconductor is electronically coupled to a quench detection apparatus.

24. The method of claim 1, wherein said first superconductor is not electronically coupled to a quench detection apparatus.

25. The method of claim 1, wherein said first superconductor and said second superconductor do not have the ability to share current between one another.

26. The method of claim 1, wherein said second superconductor provides less than about 5% of a magnetic field of said first superconductor.

27. The method of claim 1, wherein said quench event is detected with an accuracy, sensitivity, or specificity of at least about 95%.

28. The method of claim 1, wherein said operating current of said second superconductor comprises an alternating current portion.

29. The method of claim 28, wherein said alternating current portion is a sine wave.

30. The method of claim 28, wherein said detecting comprises detecting a change in a form of said alternating current.

31. A method of identifying a quench event, comprising:(a) providing a first superconductor and a second superconductor in thermal communication with said first superconductor, wherein, at an operating condition of said first superconductor and said second superconductor, said second superconductor has a lower critical current value than said first superconductor; and(b) based at least in part on said operating condition in (a), identifying said quench event in said first superconductor using said second superconductor.

32. The method of claim 31, wherein said first superconductor or said second superconductor are a high temperature superconductor (HTS).

33. The method of claim 31, wherein said first superconductor or said second superconductor is a superconducting tape.

34. The method of claim 31, wherein said quench event is detected in said second superconductor prior to being detected in said first superconductor.

35. The method of claim 31, wherein said first superconductor and said second superconductor are electrically coupled to different power supplies.

36. The method of claim 31, wherein a temperature of said first superconductor and a temperature of said second superconductor are different by at most about 5 Kelvin.

37. The method of claim 36, wherein a temperature of said first superconductor and a temperature of said second superconductor are different by at most about 1 Kelvin.

38. The method of claim 37, wherein a temperature of said first superconductor and a temperature of said second superconductor are substantially the same.

39. The method of claim 31, wherein said first superconductor and said second superconductor are each a part of a same high temperature superconductor (HTS) tape stack.

40. The method of claim 31, wherein said first superconductor and said second superconductor are co-would together.

41. The method of claim 31, wherein said first superconductor and said second superconductor are electrically insulated from one another.

42. The method of claim 31, wherein said second superconductor comprises more copper than said first superconductor.

43. The method of claim 31, wherein said second superconductor has a smaller physical cross section than said first superconductor.

44. The method of claim 31, wherein said second superconductor is a same material as said first superconductor.

45. The method of claim 31, wherein said quench event is detected at least about 5 seconds earlier using said second superconductor than using said first superconductor.

46. The method of claim 31, further comprising (c), activating a quench protection apparatus in response to said detecting said quench event.

47. The method of claim 46, wherein said quench protection apparatus reduces a current flowing through said first superconductor.

48. The method of claim 46, wherein said first superconductor is not damaged by said quench event.

49. The method of claim 31, wherein said first superconductor is at least a portion of a stellarator.

50. The method of claim 31, wherein said quench event is detected using an electrical signal.

51. The method of claim 31, wherein said quench event is detected using a magnetic signal.

52. The method of claim 31, wherein said second superconductor is electronically coupled to a quench detection apparatus.

53. The method of claim 31, wherein said first superconductor is not electronically coupled to a quench detection apparatus.

54. The method of claim 31, wherein said first superconductor and said second superconductor do not have the ability to share current between one another.

55. The method of claim 31, wherein said second superconductor provides less than about 5% of a magnetic field of said first superconductor.

56. The method of claim 31, wherein said quench event is detected with an accuracy, sensitivity, or specificity of at least about 95%.

57. The method of claim 31, wherein an operating current of said second superconductor comprises an alternating current portion.

58. The method of claim 57, wherein said alternating current portion is a sine wave.

59. The method of claim 57, wherein said detecting comprises detecting a change in a form of said alternating current.

60. A method of identifying a quench event, comprising:(a) providing a first superconductor and a second superconductor in thermal communication with said first superconductor, wherein at an operating condition of said first superconductor and said second superconductor, said second superconductor has a higher quench propagation velocity than said first superconductor; and(b) based at least in part on said operating condition in (a), identifying said quench event in said first superconductor using said second superconductor.

61. The method of claim 60, wherein said first superconductor or said second superconductor are a high temperature superconductor (HTS).

62. The method of claim 60, wherein said first superconductor or said second superconductor is a superconducting tape.

63. The method of claim 60, wherein said quench event is detected in said second superconductor prior to being detected in said first superconductor.

64. The method of claim 60, wherein said first superconductor and said second superconductor are electrically coupled to different power supplies.

65. The method of claim 60, wherein a temperature of said first superconductor and a temperature of said second superconductor are different by at most about 5 Kelvin.

66. The method of claim 65, wherein a temperature of said first superconductor and a temperature of said second superconductor are different by at most about 1 Kelvin.

67. The method of claim 66, wherein a temperature of said first superconductor and a temperature of said second superconductor are substantially the same.

68. The method of claim 60, wherein said first superconductor and said second superconductor are each a part of a same high temperature superconductor (HTS) tape stack.

69. The method of claim 60, wherein said first superconductor and said second superconductor are co-would together.

70. The method of claim 60, wherein said first superconductor and said second superconductor are electrically insulated from one another.

71. The method of claim 60, wherein said second superconductor comprises more copper than said first superconductor.

72. The method of claim 60, wherein said second superconductor has a smaller physical cross section than said first superconductor.

73. The method of claim 60, wherein said second superconductor is a same material as said first superconductor.

74. The method of claim 60, wherein said quench event is detected at least about 5 seconds earlier using said second superconductor than using said first superconductor.

75. The method of claim 60, further comprising (c), activating a quench protection apparatus in response to said detecting said quench event.

76. The method of claim 75, wherein said quench protection apparatus reduces a current flowing through said first superconductor.

77. The method of claim 75, wherein said first superconductor is not damaged by said quench event.

78. The method of claim 60, wherein said first superconductor is at least a portion of a stellarator.

79. The method of claim 60, wherein said quench event is detected using an electrical signal.

80. The method of claim 60, wherein said quench event is detected using a magnetic signal.

81. The method of claim 60, wherein said second superconductor is electronically coupled to a quench detection apparatus.

82. The method of claim 60, wherein said first superconductor is not electronically coupled to a quench detection apparatus.

83. The method of claim 60, wherein said first superconductor and said second superconductor do not have the ability to share current between one another.

84. The method of claim 60, wherein said second superconductor provides less than about 5% of a magnetic field of said first superconductor.

85. The method of claim 60, wherein said quench event is detected with an accuracy, sensitivity, or specificity of at least about 95%.

86. The method of claim 60, wherein an operating current of said second superconductor comprises an alternating current portion.

87. The method of claim 86, wherein said alternating current portion is a sine wave.

88. The method of claim 86, wherein said detecting comprises detecting a change in a form of said alternating current.

89. A quench detection system, comprising: a first superconductor in thermal communication with a second superconductor, wherein at an operating condition of said first superconductor and said second superconductor, (i) a first ratio of a first operating current of said first superconductor to a first critical current of said first superconductor, is configured to be less than (ii) a second ratio of a second operating current of said second superconductor to a second critical current of said second superconductor; and a quench detection instrument operably coupled to said second superconductor configured to detect a quench event.

90. The system of claim 89, wherein said first superconductor or said second superconductor are a high temperature superconductor (HTS).

91. The system of claim 89, wherein said first superconductor or said second superconductor is a superconducting tape.

92. The system of claim 89, wherein said quench event is detected in said second superconductor prior to being detected in said first superconductor.

93. The system of claim 89, further comprising a first power supply and a second power supply, wherein said first superconductor is connected to said first power supply and said second superconductor is connected to said second power supply.

94. The system of claim 93, wherein said first power supply and said second power supply are different power supplies.

95. The system of claim 89, wherein a temperature of said first superconductor and a temperature of said second superconductor are different by at most about 5 Kelvin.

96. The system of claim 95, wherein a temperature of said first superconductor and a temperature of said second superconductor are different by at most about 1 Kelvin.

97. The system of claim 96, wherein a temperature of said first superconductor and a temperature of said second superconductor are substantially the same.

98. The system of claim 89, wherein said first superconductor and said second superconductor are each a part of a same high temperature superconductor (HTS) tape stack.

99. The system of claim 89, wherein said first superconductor and said second superconductor are co-would together.

100. The system of claim 89, wherein said first superconductor and said second superconductor are electrically insulated from one another.

101. The system of claim 89, wherein said second superconductor comprises more copper than said first superconductor.

102. The system of claim 89, wherein said second superconductor has a smaller physical cross section than said first superconductor.

103. The system of claim 89, wherein said second superconductor is a same material as said first superconductor.

104. The system of claim 89, wherein said quench detection apparatus is configured to detect said quench event at least about 5 seconds earlier using said second superconductor than using said first superconductor.

105. The system of claim 89, further comprising a quench protection apparatus activatable in response to said quench detection apparatus detecting said quench event.

106. The system of claim 105, wherein said quench protection apparatus reduces a current flowing through said first superconductor.

107. The system of claim 105, wherein said first superconductor is not damaged by said quench event.

108. The system of claim 89, wherein said first superconductor is at least a portion of a stellarator.

109. The system of claim 89, wherein said quench detection apparatus detects said quench event is using an electrical signal.

110. The system of claim 89, wherein said quench detection apparatus detects said quench event is detected using a magnetic signal.

111. The system of claim 89, wherein said second superconductor is electronically coupled to said quench detection apparatus.

112. The system of claim 89, wherein said first superconductor is not electronically coupled to said quench detection apparatus.

113. The system of claim 89, wherein said first superconductor and said second superconductor do not have the ability to share current between one another.

114. The system of claim 89, wherein said second superconductor provides less than about 5% of a magnetic field of said first superconductor.

115. The system of claim 89, wherein said quench event is detected with an accuracy, sensitivity, or specificity of at least about 95%.

116. The system of claim 89, wherein an operating current of said second superconductor comprises an alternating current portion.

117. The system of claim 116, wherein said alternating current portion is a sine wave.

118. The system of claim 116, wherein said quench detection apparatus detects said quench event by detecting a change in a form of said alternating current.

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