Mesoporous activated carbon

Abstract

The present invention relates to activated carbon. In particular, the present invention relates to activated carbon, wherein the surface of the activated carbon comprises pores, wherein 45 % or greater of the total volume of pores are mesoporous pores.

Description

[0001] Title: Mesoporous activated carbon FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to activated carbon. In particular, the present invention relates to activated carbon, wherein the surface of the activated carbon comprisespores, wherein 45 % or greater of the total volume of pores are mesoporous pores.BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTIONPollutants such as endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDC), pharmaceutical activecompounds (PhAC), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), chloramines, siloxanes and acidic gases such ashydrogen sulphide (H2S), sulphur oxides (SOx) and nitrogen oxides (NOX) pose athreat to human and animal health when present in a fluid, such as water, oil spills,industrial effluents and combustion processes. For example, endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDC) are able to mimic natural hormones and interfere with the nervous and reproductive systems of humans and wildlife, whilst pharmaceutical active compounds (PhAC) are persistent and non- biodegradable pollutants. Examples of endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDC) and pharmaceutical active compounds (PhAC) include ß-blockers, antibiotics, paracetamol, diclofenac, sulfamethoxazole, ibuprofen and irbesartan. Ibuprofen, a commonly used non-steroidal and anti-inflammatory drug, is generally safe when used appropriately but carries potential health risks such as gastrointestinal issues like ulcers, bleeding and cardiovascular risks such as heart attacks, strokes, kidneyand liver damage and allergic reactions when present as a fluid pollutant.As a further example, chloramines are harmful to humans and nature because chloramines can cause eye, nose and skin problems, breathing difficulties such asasthma, stomach upset and dehydration as well as blood and kidney disorders.Chloramines can also damage pipe faucets, water quality as well as aquatic animalsand plants. These pollutants require effective removal methods during fluid treatment processes.Adsorbents such as zeolite, celite, cellulosic aerogel and modified mineral clay areregularly used in the removal of pollutants from a fluid. However, these adsorbents have limitations in terms of their effectiveness and stability. Another adsorbentregularly used in the removal of pollutants from a fluid are carbon-based materialslike biochar and activated carbon. However, the adsorption performance of carbon-based materials is restricted owing to the carbon-based materials being influencedby factors such as water quality, such as the presence of impurities, and propertiesof the carbon-based materials such as the type of functional group on the surface ofthe carbon-based materials, the surface charge and the pore structure and size ofthe carbon-based materials. The pore size, such as micropores, mesopores andmacropores, will have a strong influence how the pore contributes to adsorption. Current technologies used to remove endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDC) and pharmaceutical active compounds (PhAC) from a fluid include biodegradation membrane filtration, advanced oxidation, coagulation sedimentation and adsorption. Unfortunately, such current technologies used to remove endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDC) and pharmaceutical active compounds (PhAC) from a fluid are associated with a number of disadvantages. For example, biodegradation membranefiltration is associated with disadvantages such as (a) incomplete removal ofpollutants in water, (b) being too compound specific to break down allpharmaceuticals present in a fluid, (c) being considered a generally slow process in the field of pollutant removal, and, (d) being ineffective at breaking down all pharmaceuticals present in a fluid owing to the adaptation of microbes to the pharmaceuticals resulting in the microbe-pharmaceutical combination resisting breakdown. For a further example, advance oxidation is associated with disadvantages such as (a) only being able to partially eliminate pollutants from a fluid, (b) being too compound specific to break down all pharmaceuticals present in a fluid, (c) being too complex to implement, and, (d) requiring expensive equipment and maintenance as well as requiring a large input of energy to operate. For a furtherexample, coagulation sedimentation is associated with disadvantages such as (a)only being able to partially eliminate pollutants from a fluid, (b) non-selective removal of pollutants which is an issue if only targeted pollutants are to be removed from afluid, (c) being too expensive to implement, (d) the formation of toxic sludge duringoperation, and, (e) limited effectiveness when used in an environment where the concentration of pollutant in the fluid is low. For a further example, adsorption isassociated with disadvantages such as (a) non-selective removal of pollutants whichis an issue if only targeted pollutants are to be removed from a fluid, (b) efficiency being dependent on properties of the pharmaceuticals (such as surface charge and chemical structure) and (c) pH of the environment in which the pollutants must be removed. Current technologies used to remove perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) from a fluid include hydrogel-based sorbents, modified clays intercalated with one or more multifunctional-quaternary amine compound, quaternized cotton,crosslinked chitosan beads, cationic-amine engineered sorbents and carbonmaterials modified with oxides such as but not limited to copper oxides, iron oxidesand / or zinc oxides. Unfortunately, such current technologies used to perfluoroalkyland polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) from a fluid are associated with a number of disadvantages. For example, the technologies are associated with disadvantages such as (a) non-selective removal of pollutants which is an issue if only targeted pollutants are to be removed from a fluid, (b) efficiency being dependent on properties of the pollutants being removed (such as surface charge and chemical structure), (c) pH of the environment in which the pollutants must be removed, and, (d) high costs owing to regular replacement of parts. Current technologies used to remove acidic gases from fluids include wet / dry desulfurization, chemical absorption, membrane separation and cryogenic distillation. However, all of these technologies have high energy consumption andoperational costs. For example, wet scrubbing with chemical solvents, dry sorptionwith metal oxides or zeolites and biological treatment with microorganisms are regularly used to remove hydrogen sulphide (H2S) from fluids. However, these methods are limited owing to high water consumption, low selectivity and / or a slow reaction rate.Another material routinely used in the removal of pollutants from a fluid is activatedcarbon. The use of activated carbon as an agent for the removal of pollutants from a fluid is well known in the art, as exemplified in US7361280B2, US10702853B2,US9023755B2, US9120079B1, US20230107676A1 and US20230234024A1.Methods of making activated carbon is well-known as exemplified EP3619283B1.The use of activated carbon is advantageous because activated carbon is moreenvironmentally friendly and simpler in design than other removal methods. Furtheradvantageously, activated carbon can be low cost and has operational simplicity. Activated carbon has a high surface area owing to activated carbon being a highlyporous material. This makes activated carbon a useful material in the removal ofpollutants from a fluid. The pores of activated carbon can be classified asmicropores, mesopores and macropores. Adsorption typically occurs in bothmicropores and mesopores, whilst mesopores and macropores act as transport pores. Adsorption of pollutants by activated carbon is dependent on characteristics such as pore volume, pore size distribution, the internal surface area of the pores and the surface chemistry of the activated carbon. The size, structure, volume of the pores of activated carbon as well as the surface chemistry of the activated carbon are dependent on the precursor material used to make the activated carbon. Ideally, the pore size of the activated carbon is two to five times larger than the diameter of the pollutant otherwise the pollutant may not be able to enter the pore. Further ideally, the activated carbon includes nitrogen and / or oxygen functional groups on its surface. The presence of nitrogen containing functional groups advantageously increases the basicity of the activated carbon. This is advantageous because functional groups associated with an increase in basicity and / or nitrogen content arealso associated with increasing the hydrophilic properties of the activated carbon. Itis believed that the presence of nitrogen-containing functional groups such as amines or amides can introduce polar sites on the surface of activated carbon, which enhances the affinity of the activated carbon for polar or hydrophilic substances. This increased hydrophilicity is advantageous in application where water treatment and / oradsorption of polar molecules is desired. Further advantageously, by increasing thebasicity of the activated carbon, the activated carbon will become more efficient in adsorbing acidic contaminants.Unfortunately, the characteristics such as pore volume, pore size distribution, theinternal surface area of the pores and the surface chemistry of the activated carboncan limit the use of activated carbon as an adsorbent in the removal of pollutantsfrom a fluid. For example, activated carbon comprising mostly large pores (such ason the scale of macropores) might not be efficient in adsorbing small pollutants, whereas activated carbon comprising mostly small mores (such as micropores) might become overly saturated too rapidly. There is therefore a need for an improved activated carbon. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to activated carbon. In particular, the present invention relates to activated carbon, wherein the surface of the activated carbon comprisespores, wherein 45 % or greater of the total volume of pores are mesoporous pores.Representative features of the present invention are set out in the following clauses, which stand alone or may be combined, in any combination, with one or more features disclosed in the text of the specification. The present invention is as set out in the following clauses: 1. Activated carbon, the surface of the activated carbon comprising pores, wherein 45 % or greater of the total volume of pores are mesoporous pores.2. The activated carbon of clause 1, wherein from 45 to 84 %, or, from 45 to 70 %,or, from 50 to 60 %, or, from 45 to 58 %, or, from 50 to 58 %, or, from 51 to 55 %, or,from 51.7 to 53.4 % of the total volume of pores are mesoporous pores.3. The activated carbon of clause 1 or clause 2, wherein the mesoporous pores havea diameter of from 2 to 50 nm.4. The activated carbon of any one of clauses 1 to 3, where the activated carbon hasa total pore volume of from 0.84 ml / g or less, or, from 0.80 ml / g or less, or, from 0.75 ml / g or less, or, from 0.70 ml / g or less, or, from 0.65 ml / g or less, or, from 0.45 to 0.70 ml / g, or, from 0.50 to 0.65 ml / g, or, from 0.526 to 0.624 ml / g.5. The activated carbon of any one of clauses 1 to 4, wherein the activated carbonhas a Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) specific surface area accessible to nitrogen offrom 600 to 1150 m2 / g, or, from 700 to 1150 m2 / g, or, from 750 to 1150 m2 / g, or,from 800 to 1150 m2 / g, or, from 900 to 1150 m2 / g, or, from 900 to 1050 m2 / g, or,from 945 to 1024 m2 / g.6. The activated carbon of any one of clauses 1 to 5, wherein the activated carboncomprises nitrogen, wherein the nitrogen is present at from 1.1 to 2.1 mass %, or,from 1.1 to 2.0 mass %, or, from 1.1 to 1.8 mass %, or, from 1.1 to 1.6 mass %, or, from 1.2 to 1.5 mass %, or, from 1.3 to 1.4 mass %, or, from 1.33 to 1.37 mass % of the total mass of the activated carbon. 7. The activated carbon of clause 6, wherein the activated carbon comprisesnitrogen, wherein the nitrogen is present in the form of one or more of pyridine,amine, pyridone, pyrrole, quaternary-nitrogen, pyridine-N-oxide and / or nitrogen oxides (NOx).8. The activated carbon of any one of clauses 1 to 7, wherein the surface of theactivated carbon comprises nitrogen, wherein the concentration of nitrogen present on the surface of the activated carbon is from 0.1 to 2 %, or, from 0.2 to 1.7 %, or, from 0.5 to 1.5 %, or, from 0.74 to 1.38 % of the total number of elements on the surface of the activated carbon. 9. The activated carbon of clause 8, wherein the surface of the activated carbon is a layer adjacent the air-activated carbon interface having a thickness of 10 nm.10. The activated carbon of clause 8 or clause 9, wherein the surface of theactivated carbon comprises nitrogen, wherein the nitrogen is in the form of one ormore of pyridine, amine, pyridone, pyrrole, quaternary-nitrogen, pyridine-N-oxide and / or nitrogen oxides (NOx).11. The activated carbon of any one of clauses 1 to 10, wherein the activated carboncomprises carbon, wherein the carbon is present at from 80 to 90 mass %, or, from 80 to 95 mass %, or, from 85 to 90 mass %, or, from 85.09 to 87.99 mass % of the total mass of the activated carbon.12. The activated carbon of any one of clauses 1 to 11, wherein the surface of theactivated carbon comprises carbon, wherein the concentration of carbon present onthe surface of the activated carbon is from 75 to 95 %, or, from 80 to 95 %, or, from90 to 95 %, or, from 91.5 to 92.5 %, or, from 91.53 to 92.47 % of the total number ofelements on the surface of the activated carbon.13. The activated carbon of clause 12, wherein the surface of the activated carbon is a layer adjacent the air-activated carbon interface having a thickness of 10 nm.14. The activated carbon of any one of clauses 1 to 13, wherein the activated carboncomprises potassium; optionally, wherein the activated carbon comprises potassium at a concentration of from 0.1 to 30 %, or, from 0.1 to 25 %, or, from 0.1 to 20 % of the total number of elements of the activated carbon.15. The activated carbon of any one of clauses 1 to 14, wherein the activated carbonis in a granular, powdered and / or pelletised form.16. The activated carbon of any one of clauses 1 to 15, for use in removing one ormore of endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDC), pharmaceutically active compounds (PhAC), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), perfluoroalkyl and / or polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), chloramines, such as but not limited to monochloramines, siloxanes, hydrogen sulphide (H2S), sulphur oxides (SOx) and / ornitrogen oxides (NOx) from a fluid; optionally, wherein the fluid is a liquid or a gas,optionally, wherein the fluid is an aqueous liquid. 17. A composition comprising: an activated carbon according to any one of clauses 1 to 16; anda metallic salt; optionally, wherein the metal in the salt is from group one or group two of the periodic table; optionally, wherein the metal in the salt is potassium.18. A method of forming the activated carbon of any one of clauses 1 to 16, themethod comprising the steps of: (a) providing a carbonaceous precursor; (b) pyrolysing the carbonaceous precursor to form a carbonised product; (c) mixing the carbonised product with a salt; and (d) activating the carbonised product to form the activated carbon. 19. The method of clause 18, wherein the carbonaceous precursor is medium- density fibreboard (MDF).20. The method of clause 18 or clause 19, wherein the carbonaceous precursor ispyrolysed at a temperature of at least 500 °C, or, from 500 to 1100 °C, or, from 600 to 800 °C, or, 750 °C.21. The method of any one of clauses 18 to 20, wherein the carbonaceous precursoris pyrolysed for from 10 to 120 minutes, or, from 15 to 60 minutes, or, from 20 to 40 minutes, or, 30 minutes.22. The method of any one of clauses 18 to 21, wherein the salt is a potassium salt;optionally, wherein the potassium salt is potassium carbonate, potassium sulfate and / or potassium chloride.23. The method of any one of clauses 18 to 22, wherein the carbonised product isground to form a powdered carbonised product. 24. The method of clause 23, wherein the powdered carbonised product is extruded to form an extruded carbonised product, wherein the extrusion comprises the following steps: (i) mixing the powdered carbonised product with a binder and water to form a mixture; (ii) extruding the mixture through a pelletiser to form an extruded pellet; (iii) baking the extruded pellet to form a baked extruded pellet, wherein the extruded pellet is baked for from 10 to 120 minutes, or, from 15 to 60 minutes, or,from 20 to 40 minutes, or, 30 minutes until a final temperature of from 200 to 500 °C,or, from 250 to 450 °C, or, from 300 to 400 °C, or, 350 °C is achieved; and (iv) baking the baked extruded pellet to form an extruded carbonised product, wherein the baked extruded pellet is baked for from 10 to 120 minutes, or, from 15 to60 minutes, or, from 20 to 40 minutes, or, 30 minutes until a final temperature of from450 to 750 °C, or, from 500 to 700 °C, or, from 550 to 650 °C, or, 600 °C is achieved. 25. The method of clause 24, wherein the binder is lignin-based and / or tar, optionally wherein the binder is one or more of ammonium lignosulfonate, calcium lignosulfonate and / or sodium lignosulfonate.26. The method of any one of clauses 18 to 25, wherein the carbonised product,powdered carbonised product and / or extruded carbonised product is activated at a temperature of at least 800 °C, or, at least 900 °C, or, at least 950 °C, or, from 800 to 1100 °C, or, from 900 to 1000 °C, or, at 950 °C.27. The method of any one of clauses 18 to 26, wherein the carbonised product,powdered carbonised product and / or extruded carbonised product is activated for from 10 to 120 minutes, or, from 15 to 60 minutes, or, from 20 to 40 minutes, or, 30 minutes.28. The method of any one of clauses 18 to 27, wherein the carbonised product,powdered carbonised product and / or extruded carbonised product is exposed to steam during activation, wherein the ratio of steam to the carbonised product is from 1:50 to 1:1, or, from 1:30 to 1:20, or, 1:25; optionally, wherein the steam is water.29. The method of any one of clauses 18 to 28, wherein the activated carbon is in agranular, powdered and / or pelletised form.30. Use of the activated carbon of any one of clauses 1 to 16 in removing pollutantsfrom a fluid.31. Use of the activated carbon of any one of clauses 1 to 16 in removing endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDC) from a fluid.32. Use of the activated carbon of any one of clauses 1 to 16 in removingpharmaceutically active compounds (PhAC) from a fluid.33. Use of the activated carbon of any one of clauses 1 to 16 in removing polycyclicaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) from a fluid.34. Use of the activated carbon of any one of clauses 1 to 16 in removingperfluoroalkyl and / or polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) from a fluid.35. Use of the activated carbon of any one of clauses 1 to 16 in removingchloramines, such as but not limited to monochloramines, from a fluid.36. Use of the activated carbon of any one of clauses 1 to 16 in removing siloxanesfrom a fluid.37. Use of the activated carbon of any one of clauses 1 to 16 in removing hydrogensulphide (H2S), sulphur oxides (SOx) and / or nitrogen oxides (NOx) from a fluid.38. Use of the activated carbon of any one of clauses 30 to 37, wherein the fluid is aliquid or a gas, optionally, wherein the fluid is an aqueous liquid. DETAILED DESCRIPTIONEmbodiments of the present disclosure will be described more fully hereinafter.Embodiments of the claims may, however, be embodied in many different forms and should not be construed as limited to the embodiments set forth herein. The words "comprising," "having," "containing," and "including," and other forms thereof, are intended to be equivalent in meaning and be open ended in that an item or items following any one of these words is not meant to be an exhaustive listing of such item or items, or meant to be limited to only the listed item or items. It must also be noted that as used herein and in the appended claims, the singular forms "a," "an," and "the" include plural references unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Although any systems and methods similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used in the practice or testing of embodiments of the present disclosure, the preferred systems and methods are now described. Some of the terms used to describe the present invention are set out below: “Acidic gases” refers to gases such as but not limited to hydrogen sulphide (H2S),sulphur oxides (SOx) and nitrogen oxides (NOX). Acidic gases can be releasedduring power generation and transportation and contribute to global warming andacid rain, thereby having a negative impact on the climate and ecosystems.“Activated carbon” refers to a porous form of carbon. Activated carbon is usuallyproduced by pyrolysis (carbonization) and activation, wherein activation is either physical (such as high temperatures) or chemical (such as exposure to phosphoric acid).“Air-activated carbon interface” with respect to the activated carbon refers to theinterface between the atmosphere and the activated carbon. “Amine” refers to an organic compound or functional group that is derived from ammonia by replacing one or more hydrogen atoms with a substituent such as an alkyl or aryl group. Examples of amines include, but are not limited to, amino acids, biogenic amines, trimethylamine and aniline. “Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) specific surface area” refers to the surface area measurement of a sample obtained by multi-point analysis of a sample’s surface area through gas adsorption analysis, wherein an inert gas such as nitrogen or argon is continuously flowed over a solid sample. “Carbonised carbon” refers to a form of carbon that has undergone pyrolysis (carbonization). “Chloramines” refers to a derivative of ammonia and organic amines wherein one or more N-H bond has been replaced by a N-Cl bonds. Examples of chloramines include, but are not limited to, monochloramine (NH2Cl), dichloramine (NHCl2) andnitrogen trichloride (NCl3). Chloramines as pollutants are formed when chlorine andammonia react in water. Factors such as pH, temperature and the chlorine-to-nitrogen ratio effect the amount of chloramine produced.“Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDC)” refers to natural or human-made chemicals that may mimic, block or interfere with the body’s hormones that are part of the endocrine system.“Macroporous” refers to a porous material containing pores that are larger than 50nm in diameter.“Mesoporous” refers to a porous material containing pores that are from 2 to 50 nmin diameter.“Microporous” refers to a porous material containing pores that are less than 2 nm indiameter.“Nitrogen oxides (NOx)” refers to a gas containing nitrogen and oxygen. Examples ofnitrogen oxides includes nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2).“Perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS)” refers to a group of syntheticorganofluoride chemical compounds that contain at least one fully fluorinated methyl or methylene carbon atom (i.e., without any hydrogen, chlorine, bromine or iodineattached). Perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances are widely used in manyindustries, such as but not limited to, paints, textile, paper and firefighting.“Pharmaceutically active compounds (PhAC)” refers to an ingredient in a medicinethat causes the desired effect of the medicine.“Point of zero charge” or “PZC” refers to the pH at which an adsorbent’s net surfacecharge is zero. The PZC depends on the properties of the adsorbent and will affect how substances are adsorbed based on pH. When activated carbon is added to a solution, the pH of the solution is altered. If the PZC of the activated carbon is higherthan the pH of the solution, the pH will rise. Conversely, if the PZC of the activatedcarbon is lower than the pH of the solution, the pH will decrease. This is due to thefunctional groups on the activated carbon. If the pH is less than the PZC, protons bind to the basic sites on the activated carbon thereby increasing the pH of the solution. If the pH is greater than the PZC, acidic groups on the activated carbon release protons thereby decreasing the pH of the solution. Adding more activated carbon will continue to change the pH of the solution until the pH matches the PZC, beyond which no further pH change occurs.“Pollutants” refers to a harmful material. Examples of pollutants includes, but is notlimited to, endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDC), pharmaceutical active compounds (PhAC), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), chloramines, siloxanes and acidic gases such as hydrogensulphide (H2S), sulphur oxides (SOx) and / or nitrogen oxides (NOX). The pollutantmay be present in a fluid, such as water, oil spills, industrial effluents and combustion gases.“Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH)” refers to a group of chemicals that iscomposed of multiple aromatic rings. Examples of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons include, but are not limited to, naphthalene, anthracene and / or phenanthrene.Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons can occur naturally in coal, crude oil and gasoline.Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons can result from but are not limited to, burning coal,oil, gas, wood, garbage and / or tobacco. When a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon ispresent as a pollutant the compound can cause cancer and endocrine disruption. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons can be found as a pollutant in a number of fluids, such as but not limited to, water, oil spills, industrial effluents and combustion processes. “Pyrolysis” refers to the heating of an organic material, such as carbonaceous precursors, in the absence of oxygen. Typically, heating occurs at temperatures offrom 500 to 1100 °C. “Reporting limit” refers to the smallest concentration of an analyte that a laboratory can report.“Siloxanes” refers to a compound containing a functional group of two silicon atomsbound to an oxygen atom (Si-O-Si). Siloxanes can be formed when biogas is combusted, and the siloxanes produced can form silica deposits that damage the engines and turbines of the biogas combustion plant. “Sulphur oxides (SOx)” refers to a group of molecules made of sulphur and oxygen atoms. Examples include, but are not limited to, sulfur dioxide (SO2) and sulfur trioxide (SO3).“Quaternary-nitrogen” refers to a compound having a nitrogen group that is bondedto four alkyl or aryl groups. Activated carbon In some examples of the present invention, an activated carbon is provided. The surface of the activated carbon preferably comprising pores, wherein 45 % or greater of the total volume of pores are mesoporous pores. In some examples of the present invention, the surface of the activated carbonpreferably comprising pores, wherein from 45 to 84 %, or, from 45 to 70 %, or, from50 to 60 %, or, from 45 to 59 %, or, from 50 to 59 %, or, from 51 to 55 %, or, from51.7 to 53.4 % of the total volume of pores are mesoporous pores.In some examples of the present invention, the mesoporous pores have a diameterof from 2 to 50 nm. In some examples of the present invention, the activated carbon has a total porevolume of from 0.84 ml / g or less, or, from 0.80 ml / g or less, or, from 0.75 ml / g orless, or, from 0.70 ml / g or less, or, from 0.65 ml / g or less, or, from 0.45 to 0.70 ml / g, or, from 0.50 to 0.65 ml / g, or, from 0.526 to 0.624 ml / g. In some examples of the present invention, the surface of the activated carbonpreferably comprising pores, wherein from 30 to 60 %, or, from 35 to 55 %, or, from40 to 50 %, or, from 46.6 to 48.3 % of the total volume of pores are microporouspores.In some examples of the present invention, the activated carbon has a Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) specific surface area accessible to nitrogen of from 600 to 1150m2 / g, or, from 700 to 1150 m2 / g, or, from 750 to 1150 m2 / g, or, from 800 to 1150m2 / g, or, from 900 to 1150 m2 / g, or, from 900 to 1050 m2 / g, or, from 945 to 1024m2 / g. In some examples of the present invention, the activated carbon has a Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) specific surface area accessible to argon of greater than 600m2 / g, or greater than 700 m2 / g, or, greater than 800 m2 / g, or, greater than 900 m2 / g,or, from 600 to 1300 m2 / g, or, from 750 to 1200 m2 / g, or, from 900 to 1050 m2 / g, or,from 923 to 1048 m2 / g.In some examples of the present invention, the activated carbon comprises nitrogen,wherein the nitrogen is present at from 1.1 to 2.1 mass %, or, from 1.1 to 2.0 mass%, or, from 1.1 to 1.8 mass %, or, from 1.1 to 1.6 mass %, or, from 1.2 to 1.5 mass %, or, from 1.3 to 1.4 mass %, or, from 1.33 to 1.37 mass % of the total mass of the activated carbon.In some examples of the present invention, the activated carbon comprises nitrogen,wherein the nitrogen is present in the form of one or more of pyridine, amine, pyridone, pyrrole, quaternary-nitrogen, pyridine-N-oxide and / or nitrogen oxides (NOx).In some examples of the present invention, the activated carbon comprises nitrogenin the form of pyridine, wherein the nitrogen in the form of pyridine is present at aconcentration of from 10 to 35 %, or, from 15 to 30 %, or, from 16.96 to 27.32 % of the total number of nitrogen functional groups of the activated carbon. In some examples of the present invention, the activated carbon comprises nitrogen in the form of amines, wherein the nitrogen in the form of amines is present at a concentration of from 1 to 20 %, or, from 2 to 15 %, or, from 3.97 to 11.17 % of thetotal number of nitrogen functional groups of the activated carbon.In some examples of the present invention, the activated carbon comprises nitrogen in the form of pyridone and / or pyrrole, wherein the nitrogen in the form of pyridoneand / or pyrrole is present at a concentration of from 5 to 30 %, or, from 10 to 25 %,or, from 15 to 20 %, or, from 17.85 to 19.24 % of the total number of nitrogenfunctional groups of the activated carbon.In some examples of the present invention, the activated carbon comprises nitrogen in the form of quaternary-nitrogen, wherein the nitrogen in the form of quaternary-nitrogen is present at a concentration of from 10 to 35 %, or, from 15 to 30 %, or,from 20 to 25 %, or, from 20.75 to 23.96 % of the total number of nitrogen functionalgroups of the activated carbon.In some examples of the present invention, the activated carbon comprises nitrogen in the form of pyridine-N-oxide, wherein the nitrogen in the form of pyridine-N-oxideis present at a concentration of from 1 to 30 %, or, from 5 to 25 %, or, from 7 to 20%, or, from 9.54 to 19.99 % of the total number of nitrogen functional groups of theactivated carbon. In some examples of the present invention, the activated carbon comprises nitrogenin the form of nitrogen oxides (NOx), wherein the nitrogen in the form of nitrogenoxides (NOx) is present at a concentration of from 5 to 25 %, or, from 10 to 20 %, or,from 12 to 17 %, or, from 13.27 to 15.97 % of the total number of nitrogen functionalgroups of the activated carbon.In some examples of the present invention, the surface of the activated carboncomprises nitrogen, wherein the concentration of nitrogen present on the surface ofthe activated carbon is from 0.1 to 2 %, or, from 0.2 to 1.7 %, or, from 0.5 to 1.5 %,or, from 0.74 to 1.38 % of the total number of elements on the surface of the activated carbon. Optionally, wherein the surface of the activated carbon is a layer adjacent the air-activated carbon interface having a thickness of 10 nm. In some examples of the present invention, the surface of the activated carbon comprises nitrogen, wherein the nitrogen is in the form of one or more of pyridine, amine, pyridone, pyrrole, quaternary-nitrogen, pyridine-N-oxide and / or nitrogenoxides (NOx). Optionally, wherein the surface of the activated carbon is a layeradjacent the air-activated carbon interface having a thickness of 10 nm. In some examples of the present invention, the surface of the activated carboncomprises nitrogen in the form of pyridine, wherein the concentration of nitrogen inthe form of pyridine present on the surface of the activated carbon is from 0.10 to0.50 %, or, from 0.20 to 0.40 %, or, from 0.23 to 0.36 % of the total number ofelements on the surface of the activated carbon. Optionally, wherein the surface of the activated carbon is a layer adjacent the air-activated carbon interface having a thickness of 10 nm. In some examples of the present invention, the surface of the activated carbon comprises nitrogen in the form of amine, wherein the concentration of nitrogen in theform of amines present on the surface of the activated carbon is from 0.01 to 0.20 %,or, from 0.03 to 0.17 %, or, from 0.05 to 0.15 % of the total number of elements onthe surface of the activated carbon. Optionally, wherein the surface of the activated carbon is a layer adjacent the air-activated carbon interface having a thickness of 10 nm. In some examples of the present invention, the surface of the activated carboncomprises nitrogen in the form of pyridone and / or pyrrole, wherein the concentrationof nitrogen in the form of pyridone and / or pyrrole present on the surface of theactivated carbon is from 0.10 to 0.50 %, or, from 0.20 to 0.30 %, or, from 0.25 to0.26 % of the total number of elements on the surface of the activated carbon.Optionally, wherein the surface of the activated carbon is a layer adjacent the air- activated carbon interface having a thickness of 10 nm. In some examples of the present invention, the surface of the activated carboncomprises nitrogen in the form of quaternary-nitrogen wherein the concentration ofnitrogen in the form of quaternary-nitrogen present on the surface of the activatedcarbon is from 0.10 to 0.50 %, or, from 0.20 to 0.40 %, or, from 0.29 to 0.32 % of thetotal number of elements on the surface of the activated carbon. Optionally, whereinthe surface of the activated carbon is a layer adjacent the air-activated carbon interface having a thickness of 10 nm. In some examples of the present invention, the surface of the activated carbon comprises nitrogen in the form of pyridine-N-oxide, wherein the concentration ofnitrogen in the form of pyridine-N-oxide present on the surface of the activatedcarbon is from 0.05 to 0.50 %, or, from 0.75 to 0.30 %, or, from 0.13 to 0.28 % of thetotal number of elements on the surface of the activated carbon. Optionally, whereinthe surface of the activated carbon is a layer adjacent the air-activated carbon interface having a thickness of 10 nm. In some examples of the present invention, the surface of the activated carbon comprises nitrogen in the form of nitrogen oxides (NOx), wherein the concentration of nitrogen in the form of nitrogen oxides (NOx) present on the surface of the activatedcarbon is from 0.05 to 0.50 %, or, from 0.75 to 0.30 %, or, from 0.18 to 0.21 % of thetotal number of elements on the surface of the activated carbon. Optionally, whereinthe surface of the activated carbon is a layer adjacent the air-activated carbon interface having a thickness of 10 nm. In some examples of the present invention, the activated carbon comprises carbon,wherein the carbon is present at from 80 to 90 mass %, or, from 80 to 95 mass %,or, from 85 to 90 mass %, or, from 85.09 to 87.99 mass % of the total mass of the activated carbon. In some examples of the present invention, the surface of the activated carbon comprises carbon, wherein the concentration of carbon present on the surface of theactivated carbon is from 75 to 95 %, or, from 80 to 95 %, or, from 90 to 95 %, or,from 91.5 to 92.5 %, or, from 91.53 to 92.47 % of the total number of elements onthe surface of the activated carbon. Optionally, wherein the surface of the activated carbon is a layer adjacent the air-activated carbon interface having a thickness of 10 nm. In some examples of the present invention, the activated carbon has a moisturecontent of from 0.1 to 2.9 mass % of the total mass of the activated carbon.Preferably, the activated carbon has a moisture content of from 0.5 to 2 mass %, or,from 0.8 to 1.3 mass % of the total mass of the activated carbon. Preferably, whenthe activated carbon is in the form of a powder or a pellet, the activated carbon has amoisture content of from 0.8 to 1.3 mass % of the total mass of the activated carbon.In some examples of the present invention, the activated carbon has an ash contentof from 1 to 11 mass % of the total mass of the activated carbon. Preferably, theactivated carbon has an ash content of from 2 to 10 mass %, or, from 3 to 7 mass %,or, 4 mass % of the total mass of the activated carbon. Preferably, when theactivated carbon is in the form of a powder or a pellet, the activated carbon has an ash content of 4 mass % of the total mass of the activated carbon. In some examples of the present invention, the activated carbon has an iodine number of from 500 to 1500 mg / g of activated carbon. Preferably, the activated carbon has an iodine number of from 750 to 1250, or, from 800 to 1200, or, from 882to 1168, or, from 972 to 1127 mg / g of activated carbon. Preferably, when theactivated carbon is in the form of a powder or a pellet, the activated carbon has aniodine number of from 882 to 1168 mg / g of activated carbon. Preferably, when theactivated carbon is in the form of a powder or a pellet, the activated carbon has an iodine number of from 972 to 1127 mg / g of activated carbon. In some examples of the present invention, the activated carbon has a methylene blue number of from 5 to 25 g / 100g of the activated carbon. Preferably, the activated carbon has a methylene blue number of from 7.5 to 22.5, or, from 10.0 to 21.0, or,from 13.2 to 20.9, or, 11.3 to 20.9 g / 100g of the activated carbon. Preferably, whenthe activated carbon is in the form of a powder or a pellet, the activated carbon has amethylene blue number of from 13.2 to 20.9 g / 100g of activated carbon. Preferably,when the activated carbon is in the form of a powder or a pellet, the activated carbon has a methylene blue number of from 11.3 to 20.9 g / 100g of activated carbon. In some examples of the present invention, the activated carbon has a pH of from 7.5 to 15.0. Preferably, the activated carbon has a pH of from 9 to 12.5, or, from 10.4 to 11.4. Preferably, when the activated carbon is in the form of a powder or a pellet, the activated carbon has a pH of from 10.4 to 11.4. In some examples of the present invention, the activated carbon comprises a salt.Preferably, the salt is an inorganic salt. Preferably, the salt is a metallic salt, whereinthe metal is from group one or group two of the periodic table. Preferably, the salt isa potassium, sodium, calcium and / or magnesium salt. Preferably, the salt is in theform of one or more of carbonates, chlorides, sulphates and / or nitrates. Preferably, the salt is one or more of carbonates, chlorides, sulphates and / or nitrates of potassium, sodium, calcium and / or magnesium. In some examples of the present invention, the activated carbon comprises potassium. The potassium content is measured by any known method in the art,preferably XPS (x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy). Preferably, the activated carboncomprises potassium at a concentration of from 0.1 to 30 %, or, from 0.1 to 25 %, or,from 0.1 to 20 % of the total number of elements of the activated carbon. In some examples of the present invention, the activated carbon is used in removalof one or more of endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDC), pharmaceutically activecompounds (PhAC), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), perfluoroalkyl and / or polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), chloramines, such as but not limited to monochloramines, siloxanes, hydrogen sulphide (H2S), sulphur oxides (SOx) and / ornitrogen oxides (NOx) from a fluid. Optionally, wherein the fluid is a liquid or a gas,optionally, wherein the fluid is an aqueous liquid. Advantageously, activated carbon according to the present invention is effective inpurifying various substances. Advantageously, activated carbon according to thepresent invention effectively removes pollutants such as, but not limited to, organicmicropollutants, pesticides and / or arsenic from fluids such as, but not limited to,wastewater and / or drinking water. Activated carbon can be used as a pollutantremoval agent in beverage dichlorination, pre-treatment for ultrafiltration, reverse osmosis membranes and soil remediation by extracting polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and / or perfluoroalkyl and / or polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). Further advantageously, activated carbon according to the present invention can beused for refining fluids such as, but not limited to, edible oils, stearin, amino acids,acids and / or agrochemicals. Further advantageously, activated carbon according to the present invention is effective in obtaining glycerine from biodiesel production for pharmaceutical, food, and / or cosmetic use. Further advantageously, activated carbon according to the present invention can be used in the removal of pollutants such as, but not limited to, mercaptans, dioxins, furans, and / or mercury from fluids so that the resultant fluid complies with environmental regulations. Further advantageously, activated carbon according to the present invention can be used in the oil and / or gas sector. For example, activated carbon according to the present invention can be used to purify amine and / or glycol solutions that are used in washing systems used in oil and / or gas sector. For a further example, activated carbon according to the present invention can be used to remove hydrogen sulfide from fluids such as, but not limited to, gas streams. Further advantageously, activated carbon according to the present invention can be used in the treatment of fluids such as, but not limited to, gases formed in hydrocracking reactors. The use of the activated carbon according to the present invention advantageously prevents the formation of heavy polynuclear aromatics, thereby prolonging the use of any amines and glycols used in the hydrocracking reactors. Method of making the activated carbon In some examples of the present invention, the activated carbon is produced by a method that comprises the following steps: (a) providing a carbonaceous precursor; (b) pyrolysing the carbonaceous precursor to form a carbonised product; (c) mixing the carbonised product with a salt; and(d) activating the carbonised product to form the activated carbon. In some examples of the present invention, the carbonaceous precursor is MDF (medium-density fibreboard), particle board, chipboard, melamine (urea) formaldehyde, polyacrylonitrile (PAN), grain products, fruit pits, palm fronds, nutshells, wood, coconut shell, peat, coir, lignite, coal, petroleum pitch and / or mixtures thereof. Preferably, the carbonaceous precursor is MDF. In some examples of the present invention, the carbonaceous precursor undergoes pyrolysis by being subjected to heat in the absence of oxygen. Optionally, thecarbonaceous precursor undergoes pyrolysis in a furnace. Optionally, thetemperature of the heat is at least 500 °C, or, from 500 to 1100 °C, or, from 600 to800 °C, or, at 750 °C. Optionally, the time of pyrolysis is from 10 to 120 minutes, or,from 15 to 60 minutes, or, from 20 to 40 minutes, or, 30 minutes. Preferably, thetemperature of the heat is 750 °C and the time of pyrolysis is 30 minutes.During the pyrolysis, the carbonised product is formed.In some examples of the present invention, the carbonised product is ground to form a powdered carbonised product.In some examples of the present invention, the salt is an inorganic salt. Preferably,the salt is a metallic salt, wherein the metal is from group one or group two or theperiodic table. Preferably, the salt is a potassium, sodium, calcium and / or magnesium salt. Preferably, the salt is in the form of one or more of carbonates, chlorides, sulphates and / or nitrates. Preferably, the salt is one or more of carbonates, chlorides, sulphates and / or nitrates of potassium, sodium, calciumand / or magnesium. salt. Preferably, the salt is potassium carbonate, potassiumsulfate and / or potassium chloride. Preferably, a sufficient amount of the salt is added to the carbonised product or powdered carbonised product so that the activated carbon has a salt content of from 0.1 to 30 %, or, from 0.1 to 25 %, or, from 0.1 to 20% of the total number of elements of the activated carbon. Preferably, a sufficientamount of the salt, wherein the salt is a potassium salt, is added to the carbonised product or powdered carbonised product so that the activated carbon has a potassium content at a concentration of from 0.1 to 30 %, or, from 0.1 to 25 %, or,from 0.1 to 20 % of the total number of elements of the activated carbon.In some examples of the present invention, the powdered carbonised product is extruded to form an extruded carbonised product, wherein the extrusion comprises the following steps: (i) mixing the powdered carbonised product with a binder and water to form a mixture; (ii) extruding the mixture through a pelletiser to form an extruded pellet; (iii) baking the extruded pellet to form a baked extruded pellet, wherein the extruded pellet is baked for from 10 to 120 minutes, or, from 15 to 60 minutes, or, from 20 to 40 minutes, or, 30 minutes until a final temperature of from 200 to 500 °C, or, from 250 to 450 °C, or, from 300 to 400 °C, or, 350 °C is achieved; and (iv) baking the baked extruded pellet to form an extruded carbonised product, wherein the baked extruded pellet is baked for from 10 to 120 minutes, or, from 15 to 60 minutes, or, from 20 to 40 minutes, or, 30 minutes until a final temperature of from 450 to 750 °C, or, from 500 to 700 °C, or, from 550 to 650 °C, or, 600 °C is achieved. In some examples, the ratio of binder to water to powdered carbonised product (binder: water: powdered carbonised product) is 1:1:3.33. In some examples of the present invention, the binder is lignin-based and / or tar, optionally wherein the binder is one or more of ammonium lignosulfonate, calciumlignosulfonate and / or sodium lignosulfonate. Preferably, the binder is ammoniumlignosulfonate.Preferably, the extruded pellet is baked for 30 minutes until a final temperature offrom 350 °C is achieved and the baked extruded pellet is baked for 30 minutes untila final temperature of 600 °C is achieved. In some examples of the present invention, the carbonised product, powdered carbonised product and / or extruded carbonised product is activated. Optionally, the carbonised product, powdered carbonised product and / or extruded carbonisedproduct are activated in a furnace.In some examples of the present invention, the carbonised product, powderedcarbonised product and / or extruded carbonised product is activated at a temperatureof at least 800 °C, or, at least 900 °C, or, at least 950 °C, or, from 800 to 1100 °C, or, from 900 to 1000 °C, or, at 950 °C. In some examples of the present invention, the carbonised product, powderedcarbonised product and / or extruded carbonised product is activated for from 10 to120 minutes, or, from 15 to 60 minutes, or, from 20 to 40 minutes, or, 30 minutes. In some examples of the present invention, the carbonised product, powderedcarbonised product and / or extruded carbonised product is exposed to steam duringactivation, wherein the ratio of steam to the carbonised product is from 1:50 to 1:1, or, from 1:30 to 1:20, or, 1:25; optionally, wherein the steam is water. Preferably, the carbonised product, powdered carbonised product and / or extrudedcarbonised product is activated at a temperature of 950 °C, for 30 minutes andactivation occurs in the presence of steam wherein the ratio of steam to the mixture is from 1:25.During the activation, the activated carbon is formed.In some examples of the present invention, the activated carbon is additionallyexposed to an oxidizing gas during activation. The oxidizing gas may be carbon monoxide (CO) and / or carbon dioxide (CO2).In some examples of the present invention, the activated carbon is further processedto form the activated carbon is in a granular, powdered and / or pelletised form. Uses of the activated carbon In some examples, the activated carbon is used in the removal of pollutants from a fluid. In some examples, the pollutant is endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDC), pharmaceutical active compounds (PhAC), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), chloramines, siloxanes andacidic gases such as hydrogen sulphide (H2S), sulphur oxides (SOx) and / or nitrogenoxides (NOX). In some examples, the fluid may be water, oil spills, industrial effluents and combustion gases. EXAMPLESThe following are non-limiting examples that discuss, with reference to tables, theadvantages of the present invention. The examples set forth herein are merely examples among other possible examples.Example 1: Forming activated carbon in a powdered formIn this non-limiting example, four powdered activated carbon (PAC) samples according to the present invention were formed.In this non-limiting example, the PAC samples were formed from MDF. The MDFwas sourced from Homanit GmbH. All of the PAC samples were produced separately by the same process. The process of producing the PAC samples is set out below: 1. The MDF was placed in an oven and heated at 750 °C for 30 minutes. Any oven can be used. In this non-limiting example, a Nabertherm rotary oven was used (model RSRC 1201000 / 11). During the heating, the carbonaceous precursor underwent pyrolysis to form carbonised char flakes.2. The carbonised char flakes were milled in a grinder to form a powderedcarbonised product. Any grinder can be used. In this non-limiting example, a grinderfrom JM machines custom converted from a shredder machine type AM2018 / 200 was used. 3. The powdered carbonised product was then combined with potassium carbonate.The potassium carbonate was sourced from Carl Roth. In one example, the amountof potassium carbonate combined with the powdered carbonised product was 1 mass % of the total mass of the powdered carbonised product. Alternatively, the amount of potassium carbonate combined with the powdered carbonised product was from 0.5 to 5 mass % of the total mass of the powdered carbonised product. The amount of potassium carbonate combined with the powdered carbonisedproduct was sufficient so that the formed powdered activated carbon (PAC) has apotassium content of 1 % of the total number of elements of the formed powderedactivated carbon (PAC). Optionally, the potassium content of 1 % of the total numberof elements of the formed powdered activated carbon (PAC) was measured by XPS. 4. The powdered carbonised product was placed in an oven and heated at 950 ˚C in the presence of steam for 30 minutes, wherein the ratio of powdered carbonised product to steam was 1:25. During heating, the powdered carbonised productunderwent activation to form powdered activated carbon (PAC). Any oven can beused. In this non-limiting example, a Nabertherm rotary oven was used (model RSRC 1201000 / 11).The process was repeated to form four powdered activated carbon samples. Thefour powdered activated carbon formed in this example are called PAC1, PAC2,PAC3 and PAC4 hereinafter. Example 2: Forming activated carbon in an extruded form In this non-limiting example, an extrudate activated carbon (EAC) sample accordingto the present invention was formed.In this non-limiting example, the EAC samples was formed from MDF. The MDF wassourced from Homanit GmbH. The process of producing the EAC sample is set out below: 1. The MDF was placed in an oven and heated at 750 °C for 30 minutes. Any oven can be used. In this non-limiting example, a Nabertherm rotary oven was used (model RSRC 1201000 / 11). During the heating, the carbonaceous precursor underwent pyrolysis to form carbonised char flakes. 2. The carbonised char flakes milled in a grinder to form a powdered carbonisedproduct. Any grinder can be used. In this non-limiting example, a grinder from JMmachines custom converted from a shredder machine type AM2018 / 200 was used. 3. The powdered carbonised product was then combined with potassium carbonate. The potassium carbonate was sourced from Carl Roth. In one example, the amount of potassium carbonate combined with the powdered carbonised product was 1 mass % of the total mass of the powdered carbonised product. Alternatively, the amount of potassium carbonate combined with the powdered carbonised product was from 0.5 to 5 mass % of the total mass of the powdered carbonised product. The amount of potassium carbonate combined with the powdered carbonised product was sufficient so that the formed extruded activated carbon (EAC) has a potassium content of 1 % of the total number of elements of the formed extruded activated carbon (EAC). Optionally, the potassium content of 1 % of the total numberof elements of the formed extruded activated carbon (EAC) was measured by XPS.4. The powdered carbonised product was mixed in a mixer with ammonium lignosulfonate (a binder) and water to form a mixture. The mixture was made from 30 g of binder and 30 g of water for every 100 g of powdered carbonised product. Anymixer can be used. In this non-limiting example, a mixer from DOMO was used.Mixing was performed until a uniform mixture was formed. 5. The mixture was extruded through a pelletiser to form an extruded pellet. Any pelletiser can be used. In this non-limiting example, a flat die pellet mill (KL 120C with 4 mm diameter mold) was used.6. The extruded pellet was placed in an oven and heated for 30 minutes until a finaltemperature of 350 °C was achieved. At the end of the heating step, a baked extruded pellet was formed. Any oven can be used. In this non-limiting example, a Nabertherm rotary oven was used (model RSRC 1201000 / 11). 7. The baked extruded pellet was retained in the oven and further heated for 30minutes until a final temperature of 600 °C was achieved. At the end of the heatingstep, an extruded carbonised product was formed. Any oven can be used. In thisnon-limiting example, a Nabertherm rotary oven was used (model RSRC 120 1000 / 11).8. The extruded carbonised product was retained in the oven and further heated at950 ˚C in the presence of steam for 30 minutes, wherein the ratio of extrudedcarbonised product to steam was 1:25. During heating, the extruded carbonisedproduct underwent activation to form activated carbon. Any oven can be used. In thisnon-limiting example, a Nabertherm rotary oven was used (model RSRC 120 1000 / 11). 9. The activated carbon underwent pelletisation to form extruded activated carbon(EAC). Any pelletiser can be used. In this non-limiting example, a flat die pellet mill(KL 120C with 4 mm diameter mold) was used. Example 3: Physical characterisation of the activated carbon In this non-limiting example, the moisture content, ash content, iodine number, methylene blue number and gas adsorption (with argon and nitrogen) and porosity ofPAC1, PAC2, PAC3 and PAC4 was measured. In addition, the moisture content, ash content, iodine number, methylene bluenumber and gas adsorption (with argon and nitrogen) and porosity of a comparativePAC sample was measured. The comparative sample is called PAC-A hereinafter.PAC-A was sourced from Cabot Norit (sample NORIT SAE Super). PAC-A is a mesoporous material.Further additionally, the moisture content, ash content, iodine number and methyleneblue number of another comparative PAC sample was measured. The comparative sample is called PAC-B hereinafter. PAC-B was sourced from Chemviron (sampleFiltrasorb®400 or F400). PAC-B is a mesoporous material and has a lowermesopore volume than PAC-A. PAC-B is commonly used in drinking watertreatment. Measuring moisture content To measure the moisture content of activated carbon, the weight of a dry cup or crucible was measured. A sample of the activated carbon was then placed inside thedry cup or crucible and the weight of the activated carbon and dry cup or cruciblemeasured. The cup or crucible (along with the activated carbon sample) was placed in a preheated oven without a lid. The sample was dried until the cup or crucible (along with the activated carbon) maintained a constant weight despite continued heating in the oven. The cup or crucible (along with the activated carbon) was then cooled to room temperature in a desiccator. The crucible or cup (along with the activated carbon) was weighed again. The moisture content is the percentage of weight loss compared to the original sample. Measuring ash content To measure ash content, the weight of a dry cup or crucible was measured. A sample of the activated carbon was then placed inside the dry cup or crucible and the weight of the activated carbon and dry cup or crucible measured. The cup or crucible (along with the activated carbon sample) was placed in a temperature-controlled muffle furnace until the sample was completely burnt to form a completely burnt sample. The completely burnt sample contained non-combustible inorganicresidue. The completely burnt sample stayed in the muffle furnace until a constantweight was maintained despite the completely burnt sample remaining in the mufflefurnace. The cup or crucible (along with the completely burnt sample) was then cooled to room temperature in a desiccator. The crucible or cup (along with the completely burnt sample) was weighed again. The ash content is the percentage of weight loss compared to the original sample.Measuring iodine number (IN)To measure the iodine number, a test based on the determination of a three-point absorption isothermal of iodine and the specific activated carbon was used. To measure the iodine number (IN), a standard iodine solution was brought intocontact with three different masses of activated carbon according to ASTM D4607-94 to form three activated carbon solutions. The method applied in accordance withthe present invention used a molar ratio of potassium iodine to iodine of 3:1, whilst the method in ASTM D4607-94 used a ratio of potassium iodine to iodine of 2:1 otherwise the method followed in the present invention is the same as that in ASTM D4607-94. Once the method from ASTM D4607-94 had been followed, the three activated carbon solutions were then filtered separately to separate the activated carbon from the solution. The residual iodine concentration of the solution was then determined for each solution by titration. From the data obtained by the titration, theamount of iodine (in milligrams) removed per gram of carbon was determined foreach activated carbon sample used, and the data was plotted in an absorptionisotherm. The amount of adsorbed iodine (in milligrams) per gram of carbon at a residual iodine concentration of 0.02 N is reported as the iodine number (IN).Measuring methylene blue number (MBN)To measure the methylene blue number (MBN), the volume of standardised methylene blue solution that was decolourised after ten minutes by 0.1 g of dried activated carbon was measured. The absorbance of the methylene blue solution was measured at an absorbance of 0.100 at a wavelength of 620 nm in a 1 cm quartz cuvette. The methylene blue solution was filtered through a 0.45 µm membrane prior to the measurement.Measuring Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) specific surface area (argon)The BET specific surface area (with argon used as the inert gas) was measured according to the ISO 9277:2010.1. The BET specific surface area was measured by measuring the adsorption of the activated carbon samples at 77 K on aQuantachrome Autosorb IQ. A relative pressure range of from p / p0 = 0.01 to p / p0 =0.30 was used.Prior to the measurements, the sample cell of the Quantachrome Autosorb IQ waspre-treated at a temperature of 130 °C in a vacuum for sixteen hours.Measuring Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) specific surface area (nitrogen)The BET specific surface area (with nitrogen used as the inert gas) was measuredaccording to the ISO 9277:22. The BET specific surface area was measured on a micromeritics ASAP2010 gas adsorption analyser equipped with additional 1 mmHg and 10 mmHg pressure transducers. A relative pressure range of from p / p0= 10-7 to 0.99 was used.Prior to the measurements, the sample cell of the analyser was pre-treated at atemperature of 130 °C in a vacuum for sixteen hours.Measuring the point of zero charge of activated carbon The point of zero charge (PZC) was measured by mixing 2.0 g of activated carbon in 20 ml of 0.1 M potassium nitrate solution in a closed vessel. By using 2.0 g of activated carbon in 20 ml of 0.1 M potassium nitrate solution, the mass of the activated carbon was high enough to ensure that the pH of the resultant mixture reached an equilibrium in the direction of the PZC. Once the activated carbon hadbeen added to the potassium nitrate solution, the resultant mixture was shaken in athermostatic shaker at 25 °C for 24 hours. After 24 hours, the equilibrium pH of the mixture was measured with a calibrated combined pH electrode and taken as the PZC. The experiment was repeated three times and the results taken as the average point of zero charge. Results of the measurementsTable 1 sets out the results of the physical characterisation of PAC1, PAC2, PAC3,PAC4, PAC-A and PAC-B.The data for PAC-A, the comparative example, was obtained from a paper publishedby D Dittmann et al. “Characterization of activated carbons for water treatment usingTGA-FTIR for analysis of oxygen-containing functional groups” published in Applied Water Science (15 July 2022) (doi: org / 10.1007 / s13201-022-01723-2), the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety.Table 1: Physical characterisation of PAC1. PAC2, PAC3, PAC4, PAC-A and PAC-B(AC stands for activated carbon in Table 1).t ) n C ) elere) ) no tt) n CAngputn msietm / o)A gercm / g / 0 g) a) 0org / ( g / a on m h m g N S Mo1c% / C Tti2 T 2 ( s A%( N I mB ( Mg(Z E P Bn(m(E Bm(Activated carbon according to the present inventionPAC1 0.8 4.0 1168 20.9 10.4 1024 1048PAC2 1.3 4.0 882 13.2 11.4 945 923PAC3 / / 1127 20.8 / / / PAC4 / / 972 11.3 / / / Comparative examplePAC-A 3.0 12.0 1123 20.2 11.0 1182 / PAC-B 1.0 7.0 1004 16.6 / / / Example 4: Porosity of the activated carbonIn this non-limiting example, the porosity of PAC1, PAC2, PAC-A and PAC-B wasmeasured.To measure the porosity of the activated carbon PAC1, PAC2 and PAC-A, theactivated carbon was firstly degassed at a temperature of 130 °C in a vacuum forsixteen hours. The intrusion and extrusion curves were then recorded on a micromeritics autopore 9505 analyser at a pressure range of from 0.002 to 220 MPa (in accordance with DIN 66133 (obsolete and replaced by ISO 15901-1:2016)8). The porosity of PAC-B was obtained from the paper titled “Sorption of per-and poly- fluoroalkyl substances and their precursors on activated carbon under realistic drinking water conditions: Insights into sorbent variability and PFAS structuraleffects”, M. Sadia et al. Heliyon, volume 10, issue 3, 15 February 2024, which isincorporated by reference in its entirety. The results are shown in Table 2.Table 2: The porosity of PAC1, PAC2, PAC-A and PAC-B.Sample PAC1 PAC2 PAC-A PAC-BTotal pore volume (ml / g) 0.624 0.526 0.950 0.44Total volume of micropores (ml / g) 0.291 0.254 0.140 0.32Total volume of mesopores (ml / g) 0.333 0.272 0.810 0.12Percentage of mesopores of total pores53.4 51.7 85.0 27.3(%) Advantageously, activated carbon comprising hierarchical pore structure (i.e., activated carbon having pore sizes of different sizes such as a combination ormicropores, mesopores and / or macropores) is desirable because the multipleavailable pore sizes provide ideal space for the adsorption of multiple size adsorbates. Example 5: Chemical characterisation of the activated carbonIn this non-limiting example, the carbon and nitrogen content of PAC1, PAC2 andPAC-A was measured. Measuring the nitrogen content and carbon content via CHNS / O combustion Prior to the CHNS-O measurements, the samples were milled with a mortar andpestle to a fine powder and dried at 130 °C for sixteen hours. The quantitativedetermination of the nitrogen, carbon hydrogen and sulphur mass percent of theactivated carbon was performed using a FlashEA 1112 CHNS / O automatic elementanalyser. The oxygen mass percent of the activated carbon was performed using theFlashEA 1112 CHNS / O automatic element analyser in a separate assessment.The experiment was duplicated to ensure accuracy of results.Measuring the nitrogen N 1s and carbon C 1s content via XPS (x-ray photoelectronspectroscopy) In this non-limiting example, the concentration of the nitrogen and the concentrationof the carbon relative to the total number of elements on the surface of the activatedcarbon was determined. The surface of the activated carbon was a layer adjacentthe air-activated carbon interface having a thickness of 10 nm. The concentration ofnitrogen relative to the total number of elements at the surface of the activated carbon was called N 1s and the concentration of carbon relative to the total number of elements at the surface of the active carbon was called C 1s. To measure the nitrogen and carbon content of the activated carbon, XPS was used. Prior to the XPS measurements, the samples were milled with a mortar and pestle to a fine powder XPS measurements were then conducted on a k-alpha XPS apparatusfrom Thermo Scientific (400 μm spot size). The XPS had a monochromatic X-raysource with an energy of 1486.68 eV (Al Kα). When running the measurements, the base pressure inside the chamber of the XPS was at 10 to 8 mbar (ultra-high vacuum (UHV) conditions). Survey scans with a pass energy of 200 eV and narrow (high resolution) elemental scans with a pass energy of50 eV were performed for the C 1s and N 1s regions. All spectra were calibratedbased on the C 1s C=C peak at a binding energy of 284.5 eV. All spectra were processed using the Casa XPS software version 2.3.25PR1.0 by using a Shirly background. The C=C peak was fitted with an asymmetric line shape (Doniach- Sunjic model) and a full-width half maximum (FWHM) of 0.6 to 1.0 eV. The rest ofthe C 1s and N 1s features were constrained with a symmetric line shape (Gaussian-Lorentzian mixture; GL(30)), and a full-width half maximum (FWHM) of 1.4-1.6 eV. Results of the measurementsTables 3 and 4 set out the results of the chemical characterisation of PAC1, PAC2and PAC-A.Table 3: Chemical characterisation of PAC1, PAC2 and PAC-A.Sample PAC1 PAC2 PAC-ANitrogen content (m / m %) 1.37 1.33 / Carbon content (m / m %) 87.99 85.09 79.03Nitrogen N 1s content (%) 1.38 0.74 / Carbon C 1s content (%) 91.53 92.47 72.7Pyridine content N 1s (%) 0.23 0.36 / Amine content N 1s (%) 0.15 0.05 / Pyridone and / or pyrrole N 1s (%) 0.25 0.26 / Quaternary-nitrogen N 1s (%) 0.29 0.32 / Pyridine-N-oxide N 1s (%) 0.28 0.13 / Nitrogen oxides N 1s (%) 0.18 0.21 / Table 4: The concentration of nitrogen in the form of different nitrogen containingfunctional groups with regard to the total number of nitrogen functional groups of theactivated carbon.Sample PAC1 PAC2 PAC-APyridine content N 1s (%) 16.96 27.32 / Amine content N 1s (%) 11.17 3.97 / Pyridone and / or pyrrole N 1s (%) 17.85 19.24 / Quaternary-nitrogen N 1s (%) 20.75 23.96 / Pyridine-N-oxide N 1s (%) 19.99 9.54 / Nitrogen oxides N 1s (%) 13.27 15.97 / Example 6: Use of the activated carbon in the removal of endocrine disrupting compounds and from waste waterIn this non-limiting example, the removal efficiency of PAC1 and PAC-A wereanalysed for five endocrine disrupting compounds (EDC) and pharmaceuticallyactive compounds (PhAC). The five endocrine disrupting compounds (EDC) andpharmaceutically active compounds (PhAC) were paracetamol, diclofenac sodium salt, sulfamethoxazole, ibuprofen, and irbesartan. In this non-limiting example, water was chemically modified to represent realistic wastewater conditions. The water made had the following chemical composition: NaHCO365.7 mg / l, KCl 5.75 mg / l, CaCl2.2H2O 294 mg / l, MgSO4.7H2O 123 mg / l. To measure the removal efficiency of the PAC samples, solutions of 200 mg / L ofeach EDC / PhAC were prepared separately in the chemically modified water. Then30 ml of each solution was added to 20 mg of the PAC samples in a bottle with ascrew cap and the pH of all solutions was adjusted to 7. The mixture was thenplaced on a shaking table (frequency 55%) for 24 hours at a temperature of 25 °C.Once 24 hours had passed, residual concentrations were measured using aspectrophotometer and the removal efficiency was calculated as follows:removal efficiency(%)=(C0- Cend)C0x 100 where Co (mg / L) is the initial EDC / PhAC concentration and Cend(mg / mL) the residual concentration.The results of the measurement are shown in Table 5. In Table 5, the adsorptioncapacity as µg / mg and removal efficiency as % are shown.Table 5: The adsorption capacity removal efficiency of PAC1 and PAC-A wasanalysed for five endocrine disrupting compounds (EDC) and pharmaceuticallyactive compounds (PhAC).Sample PAC1 PAC-AParacetamol Adsorption capacity 247.5 258.9Removal efficiency 77.1 777.6Diclofenac sodium salt Adsorption capacity 351.8 352.7Removal efficiency 99.9 97.7Sulfamethoxazole Adsorption capacity 243.0 224.3Removal efficiency 71.7 67.2Ibuprofen Adsorption capacity 239.4 246.0Removal efficiency 73.4 73.1Irbesartan Adsorption capacity 277.9 286.5Removal efficiency 85.5 83.6Total removal efficiency (%) 81.5 79.7Table 5 shows that PAC1 has a high removal efficiency of the endocrine disruptingcompounds (EDC) and pharmaceutically active compounds (PhAC). This is likelydue to the high volume of mesopores in PAC1 and the surface chemistry of PAC1. Example 7: Use of the activated carbon in the removal of perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl (PFAS) from water environmentsIn this non-limiting example, the removal efficiency of PAC3, PAC4 and PAC-B in theremoval of PFAS from water was measured. The PFAS used was representative ofthe PFAS found in drinking water sources and are regularly used in water quality andtreatment studies. Whilst polyfluoroalkyl substances can be observed in water, these compounds often degrade into perfluoroalkyl substances. Perfluoroalkyl substancesare the most relevant PFAS to study when conducting a study on water quality andtreatment. In this non-limiting example, a stock solution of the PFAS was prepared. The stocksolution contained a mixture of PFAS, and the PFAS in the stock solution are set outin Table 6. The stock solution had a PFAS concentration of 0.25 mg / L. The 0.25mg / L PFAS stock solution was then combined with tap water to achieve a PFASconcentration that was 100 times higher than the PFAS reporting limit of 1 ng / L.Table 6 sets out the PFAS used in the stock solution and the reporting limit of eachPFAS. Table 6: The PFAS used in the stock solution.PFAS PFAS Unit ofReporting reporting limit limitPerfluorobutanoic acid PFBA ng / L 1Perfluorobutane sulfonic acid PFBS ng / L 1Perfluorodecanoic acid PFDA ng / L 1Perfluorodecae sulfonic acid PFDS ng / L 1Perfluoroheptanoic acid PFHpA ng / L 1Perfluoroheptane sulfonic acid PFHpS ng / L 1Perfluorohexanoic acid PFHxA ng / L 1Linear perfluorohexane sulfonic acid L-PFHxS ng / L 1Perfluorononanoic acid PFNA ng / L 1Linear perfluororooc tanoic acid L-PFOA ng / L 1Linear perfluorooctane sulfonic acid L-PFOS ng / L 1Perfluoropentane sulfonic acid PFPeS ng / L 1Sum branchedB-PFHxS ng / L 1perfluorohexanesulfonic acid isomersSum branched perfluorooctaneB-PFOS ng / L 1sulfonate isomersPFAS substances bound to soil sum-ng / L 1organic matter PFAS IIn this non-limiting example, PAC3, PAC4 and PAC-B were grinded to a powder anddried at a temperature of 105 °C for more than 24 hours to form a dried powder. The dried powder was then sieved with a stainless steel 63 µm sieve. The fraction ofdried powder that was smaller than 63 µm was used to make two suspensions ofrespectively 1 and 10 g / L in ultrapure water produced using a Milli-Q water purification system for each of PAC3, PAC4 and PAC-B. The two suspensions of respectively 1 and 10 g / L were used as stock solutions to prepare a series ofdilutions ranging from 2 to 200 mg / L (described in more detail below) for each ofPAC3, PAC4 and PAC-B.Solutions that contained the PFAS and activated carbon were then prepared readyfor experimentation.The PFAS stock solution was added to 10 L of tap water to achieve a concentrationof 0.25 mg / L for each individual PFAS, and then further diluted with tap water from the city of Nieuwegein in the Netherlands to form a diluted solution that contained the PFAS at a concentration of about 100 ng / L. Although the diluted solution had beenprepared with a target concentration, the concentration was not always achievable inpractice because some of the PFAS substances were more challenging to dissolve or adsorbed onto surfaces, such as bottle walls, during dissolution or handling. Consequently, lower concentrations were observed in the diluted solution and, subsequently, in the experiments. However, for the adsorption experiments this was not problematic because adsorption onto an adsorbent under the conditions of thisnon-limiting example was independent of the initial concentration. Determining theinitial concentration using blank samples (i.e., samples without activated carbon) wasadequate. Then several 0.5 L bottles were separately filled with the diluted solution.The PAC-B, PAC3 and PAC4 samples were then added separately to a 0.5 L bottlecontaining the diluted solution. Each activated carbon sample was added to the 0.5 Lbottle until the activated carbon sample was present at a concentration of 2 mg / L.This stage was repeated until separate solutions containing each activated carbonsample present at a concentration of 2, 4, 8, 15, 25, 40, 70, 100 and 200 mg / L in thediluted solution had been made – the resultant solutions will be called PFAS / ACsolutions hereinafter. Then each 0.5 L bottle containing the PFAS / AC solutions wasstirred at 300 rpm in the dark at 20 °C for 7 days.After the 7 days, the PFAS / AC solutions were filtered using Spartan 30 / 0.45 filterunits (0.45 µm). The filtrates obtained were then individually used in the subsequentsample preparation steps.The filtrates were individually prepared via solid phase extraction ready forsubsequent analysis with a high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) system.The filtrates were individually prepared by firstly adding 4 ng / L of a PFAS labelledinternal standard solution (provided by KWR) to 250 mL of ultrapure water to formwater samples (that contained the filtrates). The pH of the water sample wasadjusted to a pH of 4-5 before being passed through OASIS WAX columns, whichwere versatile weak anion exchange resins. The columns were then rinsed with 5 mLof 25 mL ammonium acetate (pH 4) and then the columns were dried under vacuumready for elution. The product obtained from the OASIS WAX columns was thendried under vacuum to form dried PFAS. The dried PFAS was then eluted in theOASIS WAX columns using 0.25 % ammonium hydroxide in methanol to formextracts containing the PFAS. The extracts containing the PFAS was thenevaporated to 500 µL of methanol to form evaporated products containing PFAS(i.e., the extracts containing the PFAS were concentrated by evaporating methanoluntil only 500 µL of methanol remained). Then 500 µL of ultrapure water containingthe PFAS labelled internal standard solution was added to each of the evaporatedproducts containing PFAS and the resultant mixtures were then filtered through a0.45 µm filter and transferred into a polypropylene autosampler vial to form a finalPFAS sample. This was repeated for each PFAS / AC solution.The analysis of the final PFAS samples was conducted using a Vanquish HPLCsystem coupled to a Tribrid Orbitrap Fusion mass spectrometer, operating in negative ionization mode. Chromatographic separation was achieved using an XBridge BEH C18 XP column (100 mm × 2.1 mm I.D., particle size 2.5 μm) in combination with a Phenomenex SecurityGuard Ultra precolumn. A 10 μL aliquot ofeach final PFAS sample was separately injected into the analytical column. ThePFAS content of the final PFAS sample was determined based on an externalcalibration curve, with corrections for the PFAS labelled internal standard solution toensure accurate quantification. The lower reporting limit of the method is provided inTable 6. The determined PFAS content was used to assess the removal efficiency ofPAC3, PAC4 and PAC-B.PFAS adsorbed onto the activated carbon, thereby reducing the concentration ofPFAS in the aqueous phase. To measure the amount of PFAS that was adsorbed bythe activated carbon load, equilibrium concentrations of the PFAS in water weremeasured. Owing to the PFAS being present as a mixture of PFAS, and not asseparate PFAS, all PFAS were adsorbed at the same time. Concentrations of PFAS were low, and significantly lower than the concentration of natural organic matter (which is typically about 1.6 mg of carbon per litre). It can therefore be assumed that adsorption will be independent of the initial concentration, and that the various PFAS used in the mixture will not interfere with each other. Here, “equilibriumconcentrations” refers to the concentrations of PFAS in the aqueous phase after theadsorption process has reached a steady state, i.e., the rate at which PFAS adsorb onto the activated carbon equals the rate at which the desorb back into the aqueous phase. Tables 7 and 8 present the equilibrium concentration of PFAS in water after adsorption versus activated carbon concentration. Table 7 Equilibrium concentrations of PFAS after adsorption on activated carbon. Two “blank” activated carbon samples are listed, and these two samples did not contain any activated carbon. Activated AC PFBA PFBS PFDA PFDS PFHpA PFHpS PFHxA carbon (AC) (mg / l) (ng / l) (ng / l) (ng / l) (ng / l) (ng / l) (ng / l) (ng / l) Blank 1 0.0 78.0 76.0 28.0 3.1 92.0 69.0 84.0Blank 2 0.0 76.0 76.0 27.0 3.1 90.0 72.0 86.0PAC-B 2.0 76.0 67.0 11.0 <1.0 73.0 36.0 77.0PAC-B 4.0 74.0 54.0 4.2 <1.0 51.0 11.0 64.0PAC-B 8.0 74.0 27.0 <1.0 <1.0 14.0 <1.0 34.0PAC-B 15.0 62.0 8.0 <1.0 <1.0 3.0 <1.0 10.0PAC-B 25.0 55.0 1.8 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 2.2PAC-B 40.0 48.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0PAC-B 70.0 27.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0PAC-B 100.0 15.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0PAC-B 200.0 4.8 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0PAC3 2.0 83.0 67.0 4.0 <1.0 73.0 14.0 78.0PAC3 4.0 74.0 52.0 <1.0 <1.0 49.0 3.7 67.0PAC3 8.0 73.0 31.0 <1.0 <1.0 25.0 1.2 47.0PAC3 15.0 65.0 12.0 <1.0 <1.0 6.7 <1.0 22.0PAC3 25.0 62.0 4.0 <1.0 <1.0 1.6 <1.0 7.7PAC3 40.0 52.0 1.1 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 2.3PAC3 70.0 39.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0PAC3 100.0 29.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0PAC3 200.0 16.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0PAC4 2.0 81.0 54.0 2.2 <1.0 53.0 6.2 71.0PAC4 4.0 78.0 33.0 <1.0 <1.0 22.0 1.4 50.0PAC4 8.0 79.0 14.0 <1.0 <1.0 6.4 <1.0 25.0PAC4 15.0 70.0 2.6 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 5.5PAC4 25.0 59.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 1.1PAC4 40.0 40.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0PAC4 70.0 18.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0PAC4 100.0 10.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0PAC4 200.0 3.4 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 Table 8: Equilibrium concentrations of PFAS after adsorption on activated carbon.Two “blank” activated carbon samples are listed, and these two samples did notcontain any activated carbon. d ) S etnl / S o) g x) Sx) A) A) S) S) A O S) F ) av C i m HL / HL / NL / O tbrA (F g F g F g FL / g FL / O g FL / e g PL / gP L / g a(P P-PF c C CP-n(P-n(Pn( -n(n( -n(Pn(mn(A A B L L B L o s Blank 1 0.0 1.5 85.0 78.0 95.0 12.0 55.0 110.0 867.6Blank 2 0.0 1.5 85.0 77.0 96.0 12.0 55.0 120.0 877.7PAC-B 2.0 <1.0 55.0 44.0 65.0 6.6 22.0 93.0 625.6PAC-B 4.0 <1.0 26.0 17.0 35.0 2.8 5.7 57.0 401.7PAC-B 8.0 <1.0 3.1 1.2 4.4 <1.0 <1.0 14.0 171.7PAC-B 15.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 1.0 <1.0 <1.0 2.9 86.9PAC-B 25.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 59.0PAC-B 40.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 48.0PAC-B 70.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 27.0PAC-B 100.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 15.0PAC-B 200.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 4.8PAC3 2.0 <1.0 36.0 23.0 54.0 2.8 5.1 72.0 511.9PAC3 4.0 <1.0 14.0 6.8 26.0 <1.0 1.0 43.0 336.5PAC3 8.0 <1.0 4.8 2.6 9.6 <1.0 <1.0 21.0 215.2PAC3 15.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 1.8 <1.0 <1.0 5.0 112.5PAC3 25.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 1.1 76.4PAC3 40.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 55.4PAC3 70.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 39.0PAC3 100.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 29.0PAC3 200.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 16.0PAC4 2.0 <1.0 19.0 12.0 32.0 <1.0 2.5 50.0 382.9PAC4 4.0 <1.0 4.9 2.5 8.5 <1.0 <1.0 19.0 219.3PAC4 8.0 <1.0 1.0 <1.0 2.0 <1.0 <1.0 4.7 132.1PAC4 15.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 78.1PAC4 25.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 60.1PAC4 40.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 40.0PAC4 70.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 18.0PAC4 100.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 10.0PAC4 200.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 <1.0 3.4As shown in Tables 7 and 8, PAC3 generally had the highest PFAS concentrationsin the aqueous phase for experiments that contained the activated carbon at greaterthan 8 mg / L. PAC4 has the lowest PFAS concentrations of all concentrations ofPFAS substances. PAC-B showed higher or similar concentrations to PAC3 andlower or similar concentration to PAC4, making PAC4 the best performing activated carbon.Adsorption isotherms were calculated according to the Freundlich model. TheFreundlich model isotherm is given by the following equation: Where qeis the PFAS mass adsorbed per unit mass of activated carbon (ng / mg), Kfis the Freundlich coefficient related to the adsorption capacity, n is the Freundlich constant associated with the intensity of adsorption and Ce is the equilibrium concentration of PFAS in water (ng / l). When the concentration of the PFAS was below the detection limit, then half of the detection limit was used for calculations. Only the samples with a PFAS concentration above the detection limit and the sample with the lowest concentration that was below the concentration limit wereconsidered for the isotherm calculations. There were therefore insufficient datapoints for some of the adsorption isotherms. For some isotherms with enough datapoints, the reliability (R²) was very low. The limited availability of reliable isothermswas due to the nearly complete adsorption of PFAS, a common occurrence in adsorption studies where the extent of adsorption is only known afterward. This can lead to either excessive or insufficient adsorption, resulting in less reliable data.Table 9 shows the calculated Freundlich isotherms, including the R² values and thenumber of data points the R² values were based on. Isotherms based on fewer than 5 data points or with an R² value less than 0.5 have not been included in Table 9.

[0002] Table 9: Calculated Freundlich isotherms for the PFAS.PFAS Adsorbent Isotherm R2Number of datapoints for calculationPFBA PAC-B / <1.07 9PFBA PAC4 / <1.09 8PFBA PAC3 y = 0.4767x – 1.0492 0.72 8PFBS PAC-B y = 0.2018x + 0.4009 0.82 6PFBS PAC4 y = 0.2856x + 0.5687 0.99 5PFBS PAC3 y = 0.3134x + 0.2219 0.91 7PFDA PAC-B / / 2PFDA PAC4 / / 1PFDA PAC3 / / 1PFHpA PAC-B / / 4PFHpA PAC 4 / / 4PFHpA PAC3 y = 0.2966x + 0.4774 0.97 5PFHpS PAC-B / / 3PFHpS PAC4 / / 3PFHpS PAC3 / / 4PFHxA PAC-B y = <1.0605x + 0.4442 0.67 6PFHxA PAC4 y = 0.2539x + 0.4764 0.91 6PFHxA PAC3 y = 0.2445x + 0.2153 0.88 7L-PFHxS PAC-B / / 4L-PFHxS PAC4 / / 4L-PFHxS PAC3 / / 4PFNA PAC-B / / 4PFNA PAC4 / / 3PFNA PAC3 / / 4L-PFOA PAC-B y = 0.2539x + 0.4764 0.91 5L-PFOA PAC4 / / 4L-PFOA PAC3 / / 4B-PFOS PAC-B / / 3B-PFOS PAC4 / / 0B-PFOS PAC3 / / 2L-PFOS PAC-B / / 3L-PFOS PAC4 / / 2L-PFOS PAC3 / / 3PFPeS PAC-B y = <1.0956x + 0.7708 0.82 5PFPeS PAC4 / / 4PFPeS PAC3 y = 0.3894x + 0.5989 0.99 6Sum PFAS PAC-B y = 0.9077x - 0.2591 0.94 9Sum PFAS PAC4 y = 1.1672x - 0.5777 0.99 9Sum PFAS PAC3 y = 1.2177x - 0.9413 0.98 9where y is logqe and x is log(Ce) From these isotherms, it can be concluded that the adsorption performance of PAC4outperforms both PAC-B and PAC 3.The features disclosed in the foregoing description, or the following claims, or the accompanying drawings, expressed in their specific forms or in terms of a means for performing the disclosed function, or a method or process for attaining the disclosed result, as appropriate, may, separately, or in any combination of such features, be utilized for realizing the invention in diverse forms thereof. Although certain example aspects of the invention have been described, the scope of the appended claims is not intended to be limited solely to these examples. The claims are to be construed literally, purposively, and / or to encompass equivalents.

Claims

CLAIMS 1. Activated carbon, the surface of the activated carbon comprising pores, wherein 45 % or greater of the total volume of pores are mesoporous pores.

2. The activated carbon of claim 1, wherein from 45 to 84 %, or, from 45 to 70 %, or,from 50 to 60 %, or, from 45 to 58 %, or, from 50 to 58 %, or, from 51 to 55 %, or,from 51.7 to 53.4 % of the total volume of pores are mesoporous pores; and / or, wherein the mesoporous pores have a diameter of from 2 to 50 nm; and / or,where the activated carbon has a total pore volume of from 0.84 ml / g or less, or,from 0.80 ml / g or less, or, from 0.75 ml / g or less, or, from 0.70 ml / g or less, or, from 0.65 ml / g or less, or, from 0.45 to 0.70 ml / g, or, from 0.50 to 0.65 ml / g, or, from 0.526 to 0.624 ml / g; and / or, wherein the activated carbon has a Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) specific surfacearea accessible to nitrogen of from 600 to 1150 m2 / g, or, from 700 to 1150 m2 / g, or,from 750 to 1150 m2 / g, or, from 800 to 1150 m2 / g, or, from 900 to 1150 m2 / g, or,from 900 to 1050 m2 / g, or, from 945 to 1024 m2 / g.

3. The activated carbon of claim 1 or claim 2, wherein the activated carboncomprises nitrogen, wherein the nitrogen is present at from 1.1 to 2.1 mass %, or,from 1.1 to 2.0 mass %, or, from 1.1 to 1.8 mass %, or, from 1.1 to 1.6 mass %, or, from 1.2 to 1.5 mass %, or, from 1.3 to 1.4 mass %, or, from 1.33 to 1.37 mass % of the total mass of the activated carbon; optionally,wherein the activated carbon comprises nitrogen, wherein the nitrogen is present inthe form of one or more of pyridine, amine, pyridone, pyrrole, quaternary-nitrogen,pyridine-N-oxide and / or nitrogen oxides (NOx).

4. The activated carbon of any one of claims 1 to 3, wherein the surface of theactivated carbon comprises nitrogen, wherein the concentration of nitrogen presenton the surface of the activated carbon is from 0.1 to 2 %, or, from 0.2 to 1.7 %, or,from 0.5 to 1.5 %, or, from 0.74 to 1.38 % of the total number of elements on thesurface of the activated carbon; optionally, wherein the surface of the activated carbon is a layer adjacent the air-activated carbon interface having a thickness of 10 nm; and / or,wherein the surface of the activated carbon comprises nitrogen, wherein the nitrogenis in the form of one or more of pyridine, amine, pyridone, pyrrole, quaternary-nitrogen, pyridine-N-oxide and / or nitrogen oxides (NOx).

5. The activated carbon of any one of claims 1 to 4, wherein the activated carboncomprises carbon, wherein the carbon is present at from 80 to 90 mass %, or, from80 to 95 mass %, or, from 85 to 90 mass %, or, from 85.09 to 87.99 mass % of the total mass of the activated carbon.

6. The activated carbon of any one of claims 1 to 5, wherein the surface of theactivated carbon comprises carbon, wherein the concentration of carbon present onthe surface of the activated carbon is from 75 to 95 %, or, from 80 to 95 %, or, from90 to 95 %, or, from 91.5 to 92.5 %, or, from 91.53 to 92.47 % of the total number ofelements on the surface of the activated carbon; optionally,wherein the surface of the activated carbon is a layer adjacent the air-activated carbon interface having a thickness of 10 nm.

7. The activated carbon of any one of claims 1 to 6, wherein the activated carbon comprises potassium; optionally, wherein the activated carbon comprises potassiumat a concentration of from 0.1 to 30 %, or, from 0.1 to 25 %, or, from 0.1 to 20 % ofthe total number of elements of the activated carbon; and / or,wherein the activated carbon is in a granular, powdered and / or pelletised form.

8. The activated carbon of any one of claims 1 to 7, for use in removing one or more of endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDC), pharmaceutically active compounds (PhAC), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), perfluoroalkyl and / orpolyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), chloramines, such as but not limited to monochloramines, siloxanes, hydrogen sulphide (H2S), sulphur oxides (SOx) and / ornitrogen oxides (NOx) from a fluid; optionally, wherein the fluid is a liquid or a gas,optionally, wherein the fluid is an aqueous liquid.

9. A composition comprising: an activated carbon according to any one of claims 1 to 8; and a metallic salt; optionally, wherein the metal in the salt is from group one or group two of the periodic table; optionally, wherein the metal in the salt is potassium.

10. A method of forming the activated carbon of any one of claims 1 to 8, the method comprising the steps of: (a) providing a carbonaceous precursor; (b) pyrolysing the carbonaceous precursor to form a carbonised product; (c) mixing the carbonised product with a salt; and (d) activating the carbonised product to form the activated carbon.

11. The method of claim 10, wherein the carbonaceous precursor is medium-density fibreboard (MDF); and / or, wherein the carbonaceous precursor is pyrolysed at a temperature of at least 500 °C, or, from 500 to 1100 °C, or, from 600 to 800 °C, or, 750 °C; and / or, wherein the carbonaceous precursor is pyrolysed for from 10 to 120 minutes, or, from 15 to 60 minutes, or, from 20 to 40 minutes, or, 30 minutes; and / or, wherein the salt is a potassium salt; optionally, wherein the potassium salt is potassium carbonate, potassium sulfate and / or potassium chloride.

12. The method of claim 10 or claim 11, wherein the carbonised product is ground to form a powdered carbonised product; optionally,wherein the powdered carbonised product is extruded to form an extruded carbonised product, wherein the extrusion comprises the following steps: (i) mixing the powdered carbonised product with a binder and water to form a mixture; (ii) extruding the mixture through a pelletiser to form an extruded pellet; (iii) baking the extruded pellet to form a baked extruded pellet, wherein the extruded pellet is baked for from 10 to 120 minutes, or, from 15 to 60 minutes, or,from 20 to 40 minutes, or, 30 minutes until a final temperature of from 200 to 500 °C,or, from 250 to 450 °C, or, from 300 to 400 °C, or, 350 °C is achieved; and (iv) baking the baked extruded pellet to form an extruded carbonised product, wherein the baked extruded pellet is baked for from 10 to 120 minutes, or, from 15 to60 minutes, or, from 20 to 40 minutes, or, 30 minutes until a final temperature of from450 to 750 °C, or, from 500 to 700 °C, or, from 550 to 650 °C, or, 600 °C is achieved; optionally,wherein the binder is lignin-based and / or tar, optionally wherein the binder is one ormore of ammonium lignosulfonate, calcium lignosulfonate and / or sodiumlignosulfonate.

13. The method of any one of claims 10 to 12, wherein the carbonised product,powdered carbonised product and / or extruded carbonised product is activated at a temperature of at least 800 °C, or, at least 900 °C, or, at least 950 °C, or, from 800 to 1100 °C, or, from 900 to 1000 °C, or, at 950 °C; and / or, wherein the carbonised product, powdered carbonised product and / or extruded carbonised product is activated for from 10 to 120 minutes, or, from 15 to 60 minutes, or, from 20 to 40 minutes, or, 30 minutes; and / or,wherein the carbonised product, powdered carbonised product and / or extrudedcarbonised product is exposed to steam during activation, wherein the ratio of steam to the carbonised product is from 1:50 to 1:1, or, from 1:30 to 1:20, or, 1:25; optionally, wherein the steam is water; and / or,wherein the activated carbon is in a granular, powdered and / or pelletised form.

14. Use of the activated carbon of any one of claims 1 to 8 in removing pollutantsfrom a fluid; and / or, in removing endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDC) from a fluid; and / or, in removing pharmaceutically active compounds (PhAC) from a fluid; and / or, in removing polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) from a fluid; and / or, in removing perfluoroalkyl and / or polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) from a fluid; and / or, in removing chloramines, such as but not limited to monochloramines, from a fluid; and / or, in removing siloxanes from a fluid; and / or,in removing hydrogen sulphide (H2S), sulphur oxides (SOx) and / or nitrogen oxides(NOx) from a fluid.

15. Use of the activated carbon of claim 14, wherein the fluid is a liquid or a gas, optionally, wherein the fluid is an aqueous liquid.

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