Apparatuses, systems, and methods for generating hydrogen

Abstract

Methods of producing a product, such as methods that include irradiating a susceptor material with electromagnetic radiation, and contacting the susceptor material and a fluid to produce the product. The irradiating of the susceptor material may produce an electric current, a field, and / or generate heat, which can effect a chemical reaction of the fluid or a component thereof. Apparatuses and systems, which include a susceptor material disposed in a container.

Description

PCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD APPARATUSES, SYSTEMS, AND METHODS FOR GENERATING HYDROGEN Cross-reference to Related Applications

[0001] This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 807,247, filed May 16, 2025, U.S. Provisional Patent Application No.63 / 793,250, filed April 23, 2025, U.S. Provisional Patent Application No.63 / 765,951, filed March 3, 2025, and U.S. Provisional Patent Application No.63 / 687,376, filed August 27, 2024, which are incorporated by reference herein. Field of the Disclosure

[0002] This application relates to apparatuses, systems, and methods for generating hydrogen or performing other chemical reactions. Background

[0003] A number of different techniques can be used to produce hydrogen (H2), which is a potential clean energy source. Two common techniques for producing hydrogen are steam-methane reforming and electrolysis. Electrolysis, unlike steam-methane reforming, does not produce emissions other than oxygen and hydrogen. Moreover, the storage and transporting of hydrogen produced by these methods can be a difficult, energy-consuming endeavor.

[0004] Microwave energy can be used to process a variety of materials in a number of industries, including various chemical industries. For example, microwaves have been tested and applied in plasma processes (e.g., powder processing, chemical vapor infiltration, surface modification, etc.), chemical processing and synthesis, and waste remediation. Although significant effort has been made to expand the industrial use of microwave energy, little progress has been made.

[0005] The disadvantages commonly associated with the deployment of microwave energy include (i) the difficulties faced when designing an apparatus or process, especially an apparatus that can withstand the forces generated by the high temperatures and / or pressures that can be generated when using microwave energy, (ii) the need for expensive equipment, (iii) an overall limited number of uses, (iv) the change in dielectric properties that can occur as temperature increases, or (v) a combination thereof.

[0006] There remains a need for apparatuses, systems, and methods for performing chemical reactions, such as hydrogen-producing reactions, with microwaves that overcomePCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD one or more of these disadvantages, including apparatuses, systems, and methods that can be easily implemented at or near a site of hydrogen consumption. Brief Summary

[0007] Provided herein are apparatuses, systems, and methods that address one or more of the foregoing disadvantages.

[0008] In one aspect, methods of producing a product are provided. In some embodiments, the methods include irradiating a susceptor material with electromagnetic radiation, and contacting the susceptor material and a fluid to produce the product. The methods also may include collecting, storing, and / or transporting the product.

[0009] The irradiating of the susceptor material may (i) produce an electric current, (ii) produce a field, (iii) heat the susceptor material, or (iv) a combination thereof. The (a) electric current, (b) the field, or (c) a combination thereof may effect a chemical reaction of the fluid, or a component thereof, to produce the product. Due at least in part to the heating of the susceptor material, the contacting of the susceptor material and the fluid may effect a chemical reaction of the fluid, or a component thereof (such as by heating the fluid or the component thereof), to produce the product. In some embodiments, the fluid includes an aqueous fluid, the chemical reaction includes an electrolysis reaction of the water of the aqueous fluid, and the product includes a hydrogen product, such as hydrogen (H2). In some embodiments, the fluid includes an aqueous fluid, and the chemical reaction includes a hydrolysis reaction in which the water of the aqueous fluid is a reactant.

[0010] In another aspect, apparatuses and systems are provided. In some embodiments, the apparatuses include a susceptor material, as described herein, and a tube in which the susceptor material is disposed. The apparatuses and systems also may include an applicator, in which at least a portion of the tube, and at least a portion of the susceptor material are arranged. In some embodiments, the systems include two or more of the apparatuses described herein. A system may include a first apparatus and a second apparatus that are in fluid communication with each other, wherein the first apparatus is arranged upstream of the second apparatus. The first apparatus and the second apparatus may be identical, or the first apparatus and the second apparatus may differ in one or more ways. As an example, a first apparatus and a second apparatus may include different susceptor materials.

[0011] Additional aspects will be set forth in part in the description which follows, and in part will be obvious from the description, or may be learned by practice of the aspectsPCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD described herein. The advantages described herein may be realized and attained by means of the elements and combinations particularly pointed out in the appended claims. It is to be understood that both the foregoing general description and the following detailed description are exemplary and explanatory only and are not restrictive. Brief Description of the Drawings

[0012] FIG.1 depicts a flowchart of an embodiment of a method described herein.

[0013] FIG.2 depicts a flowchart of an embodiment of a method described herein.

[0014] FIG.3 depicts a flowchart of an embodiment of a method described herein.

[0015] FIG.4 depicts a flowchart of an embodiment of a method described herein.

[0016] FIG.5 depicts a flowchart of an embodiment of a method described herein.

[0017] FIG.6 depicts an embodiment of a susceptor material arranged in an embodiment of an apparatus. Detailed Description

[0018] Provided herein are methods, systems, and apparatuses for performing chemical reactions, such as chemical reactions that may generate a hydrogen product, such as hydrogen (H2). Methods

[0019] The methods provided herein generally may include irradiating a susceptor material with electromagnetic radiation, and contacting the susceptor material and a fluid to produce the product.

[0020] An embodiment of a method described herein is depicted at FIG.1. A susceptor material 110 is irradiated with electromagnetic radiation 130, and the susceptor material 110 is contacted with a fluid 120, which results in residual fluid and a product 140. The irradiating of the susceptor material 110 with the electromagnetic radiation 130 may occur before, during, and / or after, such as before and / or during, the contacting of the susceptor material 110 and the fluid 120.

[0021] The product may be produced from any of the chemical reactions described herein. The chemical reactions may (i) be caused, at least in part, and / or (ii) have a rate that is increased by the irradiating of the susceptor material, which may generate heat, an electric current, a field, or a combination thereof. Therefore, when an electric current, a field, and / or the heating of a susceptor material “effects” a chemical reaction, as described herein, thePCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD chemical reaction is (i) caused, at least in part, and / or (ii) has a rate that is increased by the electric current, the field, and / or the heated susceptor material.

[0022] In some embodiments, the irradiating of the susceptor material produces an electric current. The electric current may effect a chemical reaction of the fluid, or a component thereof, to produce the product. The electric current may be an alternating current or a direct current. The electric current may include a photocurrent. In some embodiments, the irradiating of the susceptor material produces a field. The field may effect a chemical reaction of the fluid, or a component thereof, to produce the product. In some embodiments, the fluid includes an aqueous fluid, and the chemical reaction includes an electrolysis reaction of the water of the aqueous fluid, thereby producing a hydrogen product, such as hydrogen (H2).

[0023] As used herein, the phrase “hydrogen product” refers to any product formed, in whole or in part, from hydrogen ions produced by a chemical reaction, such as the electrolysis of water. A chemical reaction, for example, may result in hydrogen ions that may form hydrogen (H2) molecules and / or other hydrogen products, such as ammonia, ammonium ions, hydronium ions, peroxides, ammonium salts (such as ammonium nitrates, ammonium nitrites, etc.), etc.

[0024] In some embodiments, especially those that produce hydrogen (H2) via electrolysis, the fluid has a temperature of about 30 °C to about 400 °C, about 50 °C to about 400 °C, about 75 °C to about 400 °C, about 100 °C to about 400 °C, about 100 °C to about 350 °C, about 100 °C to about 300 °C, about 100 °C to about 250 °C, about 100 °C to about 200 °C, about 125 °C to about 400 °C, about 150 °C to about 400 °C, about 150 °C to about 350 °C, about 150 °C to about 300 °C, about 150 °C to about 250 °C, about 150 °C to about 200 °C, about 175 °C to about 400 °C, about 250 °C to about 400 °C, or about 250 ℃ to about 350 ℃ after the contacting of the fluid and the susceptor material. Other temperatures are possible, however, including any of those described herein. When a fluid is passed through a volume of a susceptor material, such as a volume of particles of a susceptor material, the temperature may be reached after any number of passes, e.g., one, two, three, or more. When an electric field effects a chemical reaction of the fluid, as described herein, a temperature may be selected that contributes, at least in part, to achieving an electric field of a desired strength. For example, for some materials, such as semiconductors, a temperature, especially a relatively greater temperature, typically decreases resistance, thereby possibly increasing the strength of an electric field.PCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD

[0025] As used herein, the term “field” refers to and includes a region or space (e.g., within a tube described herein) in which a given effect exists, such as an effect imparted, at least in part, by irradiating a susceptor material, heating a fluid, etc., which may facilitate the formation, emission, and / or transporting of charged particles, charge carriers, etc. In some embodiments, the field includes an electric field, a magnetic field, a quantum field, or a combination thereof. The field may be a static field or a dynamic field. When a field is present, the field generally may be of any strength, including a strength that is capable of effecting a chemical reaction as described herein, and the strength of a field may have a strength that is substantially uniform within an apparatus, or varies from location to location. The strength of a field may be controlled by one or more of the parameters described herein.

[0026] In some embodiments, elements described herein, such as the irradiating of a susceptor material, may “produce” a field, such as a field that is effective to effect a chemical reaction, and, as used herein, a field is “produced” when the field is created, enhanced (such as by strengthening), concentrated, or a combination thereof.

[0027] Not wishing to be bound by any particular theory, it is believed that one or more different mechanisms may, but not necessarily, at least partly contribute to effecting a chemical reaction, as described herein, such as the hydrolysis of water. The contribution of any one or more of the mechanisms enumerated below (or other mechanism(s)) may depend at least in part on the size of a susceptor material, the shape or structural features of a susceptor material, the type of susceptor material(s), the proximity of two different types of susceptor materials, pressure, the velocity of a fluid, or a combination thereof. Non-limiting examples of mechanisms that may, but not necessarily, at least partly contribute to effecting a chemical reaction include sub-debye layer formation (“Virtual Breakdown” mechanism), spin torque, frequency mixing, arcing, redox cycling, thermionic fusion, Schottky-contact formation (such as when a susceptor material includes a semiconductor and a metal or metal oxide), plasmon formation and / or plasmon spoofing (sometimes referred to as mimicking), or a combination thereof (see, e.g., Wang, Y. et al. “Field-Assisted Splitting of Pure Water Based on Deep-Sub-Debye-Length Nanogap Electrochemical Cells,” ACS Nano 2017, 11, 8421-8428; Haosen, X. et al. “Pure Water Splitting Driven by Overlapping Electric Double Layers,” J. Am. Chem. Soc.2024, 146, 19720-19727; Ou, T. et al. “Plasmon-enhanced Sub- Debye-Length Nanogap Photoelectrochemical Cells for Field-Assisted Electrolyte-Free- Water Splitting,” Journal of Power Sources 617 (2024) 235093; and Pendry, J.B. et al. “Mimicking Surface Plasmons with Structured Surfaces,” Science, 2004, 305, 847-848). As shown at FIG.6, for example, a packed bed of irregularly shaped particles of susceptorPCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD materials may include a first and a second type of susceptor material, which may act as a cathode and anode, respectively, in embodiments of the methods described herein.

[0028] Specifically, FIG.6 depicts an embodiment of an applicator 600 and a tube 610 in which an embodiment of a susceptor material 620 is disposed. The susceptor material 620 is in the form of irregular particles of two different types of susceptor material (620a, 620b), which are shown in the enlarged cross-sectional view 621. The particles of the susceptor material 620 may have any of the features described herein, such as an average largest dimension of 1 mm or less. An enlarged view 622 of a pair of particles of the two different susceptor materials (620a, 620b) is shown. When the particles of the two different susceptor materials (620a, 620b) are irradiated with microwaves as shown, the particles are heated, and may (i) act as a cathode and anode, and / or (ii) facilitate one or more mechanisms described herein, due, for example, to one or more structural features of the particles, such as the recession that is (a) defined by the particle of type 620b, and (b) present at the interface of the two particles shown in the enlarged view 622. Due to the large number of particles of the susceptor material, the susceptor material 620 that is present in the tube 610 may include numerous, e.g., millions of, anodes and cathodes, sub-debye-length structures, sub- wavelength structures, and / or integrated circuits, etc.

[0029] The contacting of a susceptor material and a fluid may be performed at any point of the methods described herein (e.g., before, during, and / or after irradiating a susceptor material) and in any manner. For example, the contacting of a susceptor material and a fluid may include providing a stream that includes the fluid, and contacting the stream and the susceptor material at a flow rate, such as any of those described herein. A stream may contact a susceptor material once, or a stream may be recirculated so that it contacts a susceptor material two or more times. Recirculation, for example, may be used in order to raise the temperature of a fluid to a desired level, achieve a desired yield of a chemical reaction, or a combination thereof.

[0030] An embodiment of a method described herein is depicted at FIG.2. A susceptor material 110 is irradiated with electromagnetic radiation 130, and the susceptor material 110 is contacted with a fluid 120, which results in residual fluid and a product 140, which may be separated into streams containing the residual fluid 150 and the product 160. The product 160 may be collected, stored, transported, and / or consumed, as described herein. The residual fluid 150 may be recirculated at least once by combining 151 the residual fluid 150 with the fluid 120, and / or contacting 152 the susceptor material 110 directly with the residual fluid 150. The irradiating of the susceptor material 110 with the electromagneticPCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD radiation 130 may occur before and / or during the contacting of the susceptor material 110 and (i) the fluid 120 and / or (ii) the residual fluid 150.

[0031] In some embodiments, the irradiating of the susceptor material heats a susceptor material, and the contacting the susceptor material and a fluid effects a chemical reaction of the fluid, or a component thereof, to produce the product.

[0032] The products produced by the methods described herein may be collected, stored, transported, consumed, or a combination thereof using any known technique, equipment, etc.

[0033] The apparatuses, systems, and methods provided herein may include any of the elements and / or components described in WO 2021 / 158729A1, which is incorporated by reference herein. The apparatuses and systems may be used to perform any of the methods described herein. The methods, for example, may include passing a fluid through a tube containing a susceptor material irradiated with electromagnetic waves.

[0034] A fluid, or a portion thereof, may be passed through a tube one or more times until a desired yield of a chemical reaction and / or a desired temperature (of a susceptor material, fluid, etc.) is reached. A product and / or fluid heated by the apparatuses and methods herein may be collected, recirculated, transported, stored, and / or used in any manner.

[0035] In some embodiments, the methods include contacting a fluid with a heated susceptor material, such as susceptor particles, to thereby heat the fluid at a rate of at least 50 °C / min, at least 100 °C / min, at least 200 °C / min, at least 300 °C / min, at least 400 °C / min, or at least 500 °C / min. The methods may include a batch process or a continuous process.

[0036] In some embodiments, the methods include providing an apparatus as described herein; disposing a fluid in the inlet of the container (e.g., tube) at a flow rate; introducing a plurality of electromagnetic waves into the applicator to irradiate at least a portion of the susceptor material with the plurality of electromagnetic waves to generate heat to produce a heated fluid, a field, and / or an electric current while the fluid is in the tube; and collecting the product and / or heated fluid at the outlet of the tube.

[0037] In some embodiments, the methods also include (i) disposing at least a portion of the heated fluid in the inlet of the tube; (ii) introducing the plurality of electromagnetic waves into the applicator to irradiate at least a portion of the susceptor material with the plurality of electromagnetic waves to generate heat while the heated fluid is in the tube to produce a further heated fluid and / or an additional amount of product; and (iii) collecting the further heated fluid and / or the product at the outlet of the tube. Steps (i) to (iii) may be repeated one or more times to produce more of the product and / or a further heated fluidPCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD having an increased temperature. In some embodiments, the method also includes reducing a temperature of the heated fluid at least 5 % prior to disposing the heated fluid in the inlet. The steps of the methods described herein may be performed simultaneously, in a substantially continuous manner, or a combination thereof.

[0038] A fluid may remain in contact with a susceptor material for any desired time, or, in some embodiments, have any desired residence time in a container (e.g., tube). A fluid may contact a susceptor material for, or have a residence time of, not more than 10 minutes, 8 minutes, 5 minutes, 3 minutes, or 1 minute. In some embodiments, the fluid has a residence time of 0.1 to 5 minutes. As used herein, the phrase “residence time” refers to (i) the time a fluid spends in a container (e.g., tube) during one pass of a fluid through the container when the method is continuous, or (ii) the time a fluid maintains contact with irradiated susceptor particles.

[0039] A fluid may be disposed in a tube or contact a susceptor material at any flow rate. A flow rate may be selected based on a number parameters, such as the size of a tube, volume of the fluid, volume of susceptor material, etc. In some embodiments, the flow rate is about 0.1 liters / minute to about 1,000 liters / minute. In some embodiments, the flow rate is about 0.1 liters / minute to about 750 liters / minute. In some embodiments, the flow rate is about 0.1 liters / minute to about 500 liters / minute. In some embodiments, the flow rate is about 0.1 liters / minute to about 250 liters / minute. In some embodiments, the flow rate is about 0.1 liters / minute to about 100 liters / minute. In some embodiments, the flow rate is about 0.1 liters / minute to about 50 liters / minute. In some embodiments, the flow rate is about 0.1 liters / minute to about 25 liters / minute. In some embodiments, the flow rate is about 0.1 liters / minute to about 10 liters / minute. In some embodiments, the flow rate is about 0.1 liters / minute to about 5 liters / minute. In some embodiments, the flow rate is about 0.2 liters / minute to about 3 liters / minute. In some embodiments, the flow rate is about 0.2 liters / minute to about 1.2 liters / minute. In some embodiments, the flow rate is about 900 liters / minute to about 1,000 liters / minute. In some embodiments, the flow rate is about 800 liters / minute to about 1,000 liters / minute. In some embodiments, the flow rate is about 700 liters / minute to about 1,000 liters / minute. In some embodiments, the flow rate is about 600 liters / minute to about 1,000 liters / minute. In some embodiments, the flow rate is about 500 liters / minute to about 1,000 liters / minute. In some embodiments, the flow rate is about 400 liters / minute to about 1,000 liters / minute. In some embodiments, the flow rate is about 300 liters / minute to about 1,000 liters / minute. In some embodiments, the flow rate is about 250 liters / minute to about 1,000 liters / minute. In some embodiments, the flow rate is about 200PCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD liters / minute to about 1,000 liters / minute. In some embodiments, the flow rate is about 100 liters / minute to about 1,000 liters / minute. In some embodiments, the flow rate is about 75 liters / minute to about 1,000 liters / minute. In some embodiments, the flow rate is about 50 liters / minute to about 1,000 liters / minute. In some embodiments, the flow rate is about 10 liters / minute to about 1,000 liters / minute. In some embodiments, the flow rate is at least 5 liters / minute, at least 10 liters / minute, at least 15 liters / minute, or at least 20 liters / minute. When a container, such as a tube, is used to perform the methods described herein, the term “flow rate” refers to the rate at which a fluid is disposed in the inlet of a tube. As the temperature of a fluid increases, the viscosity of the fluid may decrease, thereby increasing the likelihood that the flow rate may increase. An apparatus or method may include one or more features that accommodates this phenomenon and / or counters the tendency of the flow rate to increase. Not wishing to be bound by any particular theory, a mass flow rate of a fluid may remain constant, even if a volume flow rate changes due to a change in density and / or other reason.

[0040] In some embodiments, a flow rate is modified one or more times. For example, an initial flow rate may be increased and / or decreased one or more times while performing a method described herein.

[0041] A flow rate may be selected and / or modified for one or more reasons, such as whether (i) desired thermal conditions within a tube are present, (ii) a fluid is pre-heated and / or recirculated through a tube, (iii) a desired contact time between the fluid and the susceptor material is achieved, (iv) a desired rate of chemical reaction is achieved, (v) a desired recovery of product is achieved, or (vi) a combination thereof. For example, a fluid at ambient temperature may be disposed in an inlet of a tube at an initial flow rate, and the initial flow rate may be modified, e.g., increased, when the fluid is recirculated, because the recirculated fluid may be at a temperature that exceeds the ambient temperature, thereby lessening the contact time between the recirculated fluid and the susceptor material that is needed to maintain and / or further increase the temperature of the recirculated fluid. Additionally or alternatively, a flow rate may be selected and / or modified to achieve a desired turbulence, stripping action, flow of reactant (such as water), and / or apply a force to a product, such as hydrogen gas. A force, for example, may move or relocate a product away from a reactive site and / or reduce or minimize gas crossover to electrodes, thereby benefitting a process, such as by maintaining or increasing a rate of chemical reaction, product recovery, etc.PCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD

[0042] Any known equipment may be used to contact a fluid and a susceptor material. For example, a fluid may be provided to a container (e.g., tube) by any known equipment. For example, a pump, such as a diaphragm pump or a centrifugal pump, may be used to dispose a fluid in a tube. In some embodiments, a pump, such as a positive displacement pump, is used to dispose a fluid in a tube at a flow rate. In some embodiments, a valve is used to impart a desired flow rate to a fluid disposed in a tube.

[0043] The contacting of a fluid and a susceptor material may occur at any pressure. Any pressure, for example, may be present inside a container (e.g., tube) during all or a portion of the methods provided herein. In some embodiments, the pressure inside the container (e.g., tube) is at least 2 times, at least 3 times, at least 4 times, or at least 5 times greater than the vapor pressure of the fluid. In some embodiments, the pressure inside the container (e.g., tube) is about 2 times to about 5 times, about 3 times to about 5 times, or about 4 to about 5 times greater than the vapor pressure of the fluid. In some embodiments, the pressure inside the container (e.g., tube) is less than or equal to the critical pressure of the fluid. In some embodiments, the pressure inside the tube is greater than the critical pressure of the fluid. In some embodiments, the pressure inside the tube exceeds the critical pressure of the fluid by at least 1 %, at least 5 %, at least 10 %, at least 25 %, or at least 50 %. In some embodiments, the pressure inside the container (e.g., tube) exceeds the critical pressure of the fluid by about 1 % to about 50 %, about 5 % to about 50 %, about 10 % to about 50 %, or about 25 % to about 50 %. This parameter may eliminate or reduce the likelihood that a liquid fluid converts to the gas phase. A fluid may be kept at a pressure above its critical pressure before, during, and after being disposed in a container (e.g., tube). In some embodiments, a fluid is pressurized (i) prior to being disposed in a container (e.g., tube), (ii) during and / or after its collection at the second end of the container (e.g., tube), or (iii) a combination thereof. Therefore, a heated fluid or further heated fluid may be kept at a pressure that exceeds the fluid’s critical pressure after its collection for further use. For example, when a method includes flowing a fluid through a volume the heated susceptor particles, the flowing of the fluid through the volume of the heated susceptor particles can be carried out at an elevated pressure to prevent vaporization of the liquid. In some embodiments, a pressure inside a container (e.g., tube) during all or a portion of the methods provided herein is about 1 bar to about 400 bar, about 1 bar to about 350 bar, about 1 bar to about 300 bar, about 1 bar to about 250 bar, about 1.1 bar to about 250 bar, about 5 bar to about 250 bar, about 5 bar to about 225 bar, about 5 bar to about 200 bar, about 5 bar to about 150 bar, about 5 bar to about 100 bar, or about 10 bar to about 100 bar. In somePCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD embodiments, a pressure inside a container (e.g., tube) during all or a portion of the methods provided herein is at least 2 bar, at least 5 bar, at least 10 bar, at least 25 bar, at least 50 bar, at least 100 bar, at least 150 bar, or at least 200 bar.

[0044] When a fluid contacts a susceptor material, such as when a fluid is disposed in a tube, a fluid may be at an ambient temperature that is greater than the freezing point of the fluid. In some embodiments, a fluid has a temperature of about 15 °C to about 35 °C when it contacts a susceptor material, such as when the fluid is disposed for the first time in a tube. In some embodiments, a fluid has a temperature of about 20 °C to about 30 °C when it contacts a susceptor material, such as when it is disposed for the first time in a tube. In some embodiments, after contacting a susceptor material, the fluid (such as the heated fluid or the further heated fluid described above) has a temperature of about 30 °C to about 1,500 °C, about 50 °C to about 1,500 °C, about 100 °C to about 1,250 °C, about 100 °C to about 1,000 °C, about 100 °C to about 900 °C, about 100 °C to about 800 °C, about 100 °C to about 700 °C, about 100 °C to about 600 °C, about 100 °C to about 500 °C, about 200 °C to about 500 °C, about 150 °C to about 400 °C, about 150 °C to about 350 °C, about 150 °C to about 300 °C, about 150 °C to about 250 °C, about 150 °C to about 200 °C, about 175 °C to about 400 °C, about 200 °C to about 400 °C, or about 250 °C to about 350 °C.

[0045] In some embodiments, a fluid is pre-heated above ambient temperature before it contacts a susceptor material. The pre-heating may be achieved with any known apparatus, including conventional heating apparatuses, such as those that do not rely on electromagnetic radiation. In some embodiments, the pre-heating is achieved with an apparatus described in WO2021158729A1.

[0046] In some embodiments, a susceptor material irradiated with electromagnetic radiation, as described herein, has a temperature of about 30 °C to about 1,500 °C, about 50 °C to about 1,500 °C, about 100 °C to about 1,250 °C, about 100 °C to about 1,000 °C, about 100 °C to about 900 °C, about 100 °C to about 800 °C, about 100 °C to about 700 °C, about 100 °C to about 600 °C, about 100 °C to about 500 °C, about 200 °C to about 500 °C, about 250 °C to about 350 °C, about 300 °C to about 500 °C, about 400 °C to about 500 °C. about 250 °C to about 1,500 °C, about 350 °C to about 1,500 °C, about 450 °C to about 1,500 °C, about 300 °C to about 1,000 °C, about 300 °C to about 800 °C, or about 300 °C to about 700 °C.

[0047] The methods provided herein may heat a fluid by any type of thermal energy transfer, e.g., convective, radiative, conductive, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the methods provided herein heat a fluid predominantly by heat exchange withPCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD a heated susceptor material. In other words, a majority (> 50 %) of the heat or temperature increase imparted to a fluid results from the heat exchange with a susceptor material. In some embodiments, less than 25 percent, less than 20 percent, less than 15 percent, less than 10 percent, or less than 5 percent of the heating of the fluid is caused by direct absorption of the electromagnetic energy. The ability of a fluid to absorb electromagnetic energy directly may decrease as its temperature increases. A temperature increase, for example, may cause a fluid’s dielectric constant to decrease, thereby increasing the percentage of heating achieved by an irradiated susceptor material. Chemical Reaction

[0048] The methods, systems, and apparatuses described herein generally may be used to perform any chemical reaction. As used herein, the phrase “chemical reaction” refers to a process that reversibly or irreversibly alters a connective and / or attractive association among one or more atoms of at least one starting material. For example, a chemical reaction may include the changing and / or forming of at least one chemical bond (e.g., ionic bond, covalent bond, hydrogen bond, metallic bond, etc.) of a starting material. The starting material may include a fluid or a component thereof. In other words, a fluid, such as a water or an organic liquid, may undergo a chemical reaction, and / or a component of the fluid, such as a dissolved or dispersed solid, may undergo a chemical reaction.

[0049] In some embodiments, the chemical reaction is an intermolecular chemical reaction, such as a transesterification reaction, a hydrolysis reaction, an aldol condensation reaction, etc. In some embodiments, the chemical reaction is an intramolecular chemical reaction, such as an electrolysis of water, various cyclization reactions, etc. Catalysts

[0050] The chemical reactions described herein may be catalyzed by a catalyst. A catalyst catalyzes a chemical reaction when the chemical reaction is facilitated, at least in part, by the catalyst, and / or the catalyst increase the rate of the chemical reaction.

[0051] A catalyst generally may be in any physical form. A catalyst, for example, may be monolithic, particulate, or a combination thereof.

[0052] A catalyst generally may be used in any manner, and at any location in the methods, systems, and apparatuses described herein.

[0053] In some embodiments, a catalyst is disposed in the fluid. Therefore, a catalyst, including a catalyst in the form of particles, may be carried by a fluid, especially if a susceptor material is disposed in a container, such as a tube, through which the fluid is passed one or more times. The catalyst may be soluble in the fluid, insoluble in the fluid, or partiallyPCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD soluble in the fluid. For example, in the embodiment depicted at FIG.2, a catalyst may be combined with the fluid 120, and recirculated via the residual fluid 150. Additionally or alternatively, one or more retention devices, as described herein, may be used to prevent at least a portion of a catalyst from being recirculated via the residual fluid 150.

[0054] As used herein, a material, such as a catalyst, is (i) soluble in a fluid when the material has a solubility of at least 1 g per 100 mL of the fluid, (ii) insoluble in a fluid when the material has a solubility of 0.1 g or less per 100 mL of the fluid, and (iii) partially soluble in a fluid when the material has a solubility of greater than 0.1 g and less than 1 g per 100 mL of the fluid.

[0055] In some embodiments, the catalyst is present as an additive of the susceptor material. The catalyst, for example, may be dispersed, evenly or unevenly, in the susceptor material.

[0056] An embodiment of a method described herein is depicted at FIG.3. A mixture that includes a susceptor material 110 and a catalyst 170 is irradiated with electromagnetic radiation 130, and the mixture of the susceptor material 110 and the catalyst 170 is contacted with a fluid 120, which results in residual fluid and a product 140, which may be separated into streams containing the residual fluid 150 and the product 160. The product 160 may be collected, stored, transported, and / or consumed, as described herein. The residual fluid 150 may be recirculated at least once by combining 151 the residual fluid 150 with the fluid 120, and / or contacting 152 the mixture of the catalyst 170 and the susceptor material 110 directly with the residual fluid 150. The irradiating of the susceptor material 110 with the electromagnetic radiation 130 may occur before and / or during the contacting of (A) the mixture of the susceptor material 110 and the catalyst 170, and (B)(i) the fluid 120 and (ii) the residual fluid 150. In some instances, a portion of the susceptor material 110 and / or a portion of the catalyst 170—particularly relatively smaller particles of the susceptor material 110 and / or catalyst 170—may depart its original location for one reason or another, such as a force imparted by a fluid flow and / or a changing physical state of the catalyst due to a temperature and / or pressure imparted during a method. For example, if a catalyst is in particulate form, at least a portion of the catalyst may remain in its original location and at least a portion may be moved to a different location via the fluid. Some particles of a catalyst may be recirculated with the fluid.

[0057] A catalyst and a susceptor material may be partially or completely separated in the methods, systems, and apparatuses described herein. Therefore, in some embodiments, the methods also include contacting the fluid and the catalyst. The contacting of the fluid andPCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD the catalyst may occur at any time, such as (i) before the contacting of the fluid and the susceptor material, (ii) after the contacting of the fluid and the susceptor material, or (iii) a combination thereof. For example, if a susceptor material is disposed in a container, such as a tube, the susceptor material and the catalyst may be arranged at separate locations in the tube, and these separate locations may be selected to permit a fluid to contact the susceptor material before the catalyst, or vice versa. If a catalyst is disposed in a container, such as a tube, which, in turn, is arranged in an applicator, then the catalyst may or may not be arranged in the container at a location that is also within the applicator. Separate locations of a susceptor material and a catalyst may be achieved in any manner, such as by using retention devices, as described herein.

[0058] An embodiment of a method described herein is depicted at FIG.4. A susceptor material 110 is irradiated with electromagnetic radiation 130, and the susceptor material 110 is contacted with a fluid 120. The fluid 120 and the catalyst 170 then are contacted, which results in residual fluid and a product 140, which may be separated into streams containing the residual fluid 150 and the product 160. The product 160 may be collected, stored, transported, and / or consumed, as described herein. The residual fluid 150 may be recirculated at least once by combining 151 the residual fluid 150 with the fluid 120, and / or contacting 152 the susceptor material 110 directly with the residual fluid 150. The irradiating of the susceptor material 110 with the electromagnetic radiation 130 may occur before and / or during the contacting of the susceptor material 110, and (i) the fluid 120 and (ii) the residual fluid 150.

[0059] The method of FIG.4, or any of the other methods described herein, such as those of FIGS.1-3, may include adding a starting material 180 to the fluid 120, so that the starting material 180 becomes a component of the fluid 120, as depicted at FIG.5. The starting material 180 may be combined 181 with the fluid 120 before the fluid contacts the susceptor material 110, and / or the starting material 180 and the susceptor material 110 may be directly contacted 182.

[0060] In some embodiments, the catalyst is the susceptor material. The susceptor material, therefore, may serve more than one purpose in the methods, systems, and apparatuses described herein. For example, the susceptor material may facilitate, at least in part, the production of heat, an electric current, a field, and / or act as a catalyst of a chemical reaction, as described herein. Susceptor MaterialPCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD

[0061] As used herein, the phrase “susceptor material” refers to a material that converts electromagnetic energy, such as microwaves, to heat and / or an electric current, and / or facilitates, at least in part, the formation of a field. A susceptor material may include a metal, a half metal, a dielectric, or a combination thereof.

[0062] A susceptor material may include a ferromagnetic material, an anti- ferromagnetic material, a ferrimagnetic material, a paramagnetic material, a ceramic, a semiconductor, or a combination thereof. For example, a susceptor material may include a ferromagnetic material and a ceramic. As a further example, a susceptor material may include a ferrimagnetic material and a ceramic. Any of these materials may be present at any amounts in a susceptor material. For example, in some embodiments, the ferromagnetic material or ferrimagnetic material is present in the susceptor material at an amount of about 50 % to about 70 %, by weight, based on the weight of the susceptor material, and the ceramic is present in the susceptor material at an amount of about 30 % to about 50 %, by weight, based on the weight of the susceptor material.

[0063] A susceptor material may include one or more metals, and each metal may consist of a single element or two or more elements, i.e., an alloy.

[0064] A susceptor material may include iron, cobalt, nickel, zinc, chromium, indium tin oxide (ITO), a rare-earth metal, a platinum group metal, an oxide thereof (e.g., an iron oxide, a cobalt oxide, a zinc oxide, a chromium oxide, a rare-earth metal oxide, a platinum group metal oxide, etc.), an alloy thereof, or a combination thereof. The alloy, for example, may include a nickel-cobalt ferrous alloy, such as KOVAR® alloy (CRS Holdings, Inc., USA). Additionally or alternatively, a susceptor material may include lithium, silicon carbide, or a combination thereof.

[0065] A susceptor material may include a metal oxide, such as an iron oxide. In some embodiments, the susceptor material includes silicon carbide. In some embodiments, the susceptor material includes silicon carbide, magnetite, zeolite, quartz, ferrite, carbon black, graphite, granite, or a combination thereof.

[0066] In some embodiments, the susceptor material includes magnetite. In some embodiments, the susceptor material includes magnetite at an amount of at least 25 %, at least 50 %, at least 75 %, or 100 %, by weight, based on the weight of the susceptor material. For example, the susceptor material may include (i) magnetite at an amount of at least 25 %, at least 50 %, at least 75 %, by weight, based on the weight of the susceptor material, and (ii) a filler and / or second susceptor material, such as nickel, an iron oxide other than magnetite, or a ceramic, such as silicon carbide. In some embodiments, the susceptor material includes aPCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD metal, a half metal, a dielectric, or a combination thereof at an amount of at least 5 %, at least 10 %, at least 15 %, at least 20 %, at least 25 %, at least 50 %, at least 75 %, or 100 %, by weight, based on the weight of the susceptor material.

[0067] In some embodiments, the susceptor material includes magnetite and silicon carbide, which may be present at any weight ratio. For example, the weight ratio of magnetite to silicon carbide in a susceptor material may be from about 5:95 to about 95:5, about 10:90 to about 90:10, about 20:80 to about 80:20, about 30:70 to about 70:30, or about 40:60 to about 60:40. As a further example, the ratio, by volume, of magnetite to silicon carbide in a susceptor material may be from about 5:95 to about 95:5, about 10:90 to about 90:10, about 20:80 to about 80:20, about 30:70 to about 70:30, or about 40:60 to about 60:40.

[0068] In some embodiments, the susceptor material includes magnetite and nickel, which may be present at any weight ratio. For example, the weight ratio of magnetite to nickel in a susceptor material may be from about 5:95 to about 95:5, about 10:90 to about 90:10, about 20:80 to about 80:20, about 30:70 to about 70:30, or about 40:60 to about 60:40. As a further example, the ratio, by volume, of magnetite to nickel in a susceptor material may be from about 5:95 to about 95:5, about 10:90 to about 90:10, about 20:80 to about 80:20, about 30:70 to about 70:30, or about 40:60 to about 60:40.

[0069] In some embodiments, the susceptor material includes (i) a semiconductor and (ii) a metal or metal oxide. For example, the weight ratio of the semiconductor to the metal / metal oxide in a susceptor material may be from about 5:95 to about 95:5, about 10:90 to about 90:10, about 20:80 to about 80:20, about 30:70 to about 70:30, or about 40:60 to about 60:40. When a susceptor material is selected, such as a susceptor material that includes (i) a semiconductor and (ii) a metal or metal oxide, the susceptor material may be selected to form diodes. For example, selections may be made to match n-type and p-type materials. The susceptor material may be selected to achieve or facilitate the formation of a Schottky diode.

[0070] At least a portion of a susceptor material may be soluble in the fluid, insoluble in the fluid, or partially soluble in the fluid.

[0071] A susceptor material may be in any form. For example, a susceptor material may be in a particulate form, a monolithic form, or a combination thereof. When the susceptor particles are in a particulate form, the particles may or may not be physically bound to one another. A susceptor material may include a sintered material, such as a plurality of sintered particles of a susceptor material. A susceptor material may include a porous material, such as porous particles of a susceptor material and / or a porous monolith of a susceptorPCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD material. In some embodiments, a susceptor material is in a form that permits a fluid to be disposed in and / or traverse a tube.

[0072] When a susceptor material is in the form of particles, each particle may be formed of one or more materials. For example, at least some of the susceptor material particles may include a core formed at least in part of a first susceptor material, and a coating formed at least in part of a second susceptor material, wherein the core is at least partially coated with the coating. The first and second susceptor materials may be any of those described herein. In some embodiments, the first susceptor material includes a ceramic, a semiconductor, or a combination thereof. The first susceptor material, therefore, may include silicon carbide. In some embodiments, the second susceptor material includes a ferromagnetic material and / or a ferrimagnetic material, such as iron or an iron oxide. The second susceptor material may include magnetite.

[0073] As a further example, at least some of the susceptor material particles may include a core formed at least in part of a non-susceptor material, and a coating formed at least in part of a susceptor material, wherein the core is at least partially coated with the coating. The susceptor material may be any of those described herein. When a susceptor material is a relatively more expensive material, applying the susceptor material as a coating of a non-susceptor material may reduce the cost of obtaining or producing the susceptor material.

[0074] As a still further example, at least some of the susceptor material particles may include a core formed at least in part of a susceptor material, and a coating formed at least in part of a non-susceptor material, wherein the core is at least partially coated with the coating. The susceptor material may be any of those described herein. When a core formed at least in part of a susceptor material is at least partially coated with the non-susceptor material, the coating may achieve or more advantages, such as protecting the core, achieving a desirable separation among particles, etc.

[0075] When a coating is present, the coating may be applied by any techniques known in the art, such as vapor deposition, electroplating, etc. A coating generally may be of any thickness. The thickness may be substantially uniform or non-uniform. A thickness of a coating may be selected in order to achieve a desired absorption, prevent reflection, etc.

[0076] The formation of particles that feature a core and a coating, as described above, may form after the initiation of embodiments of the methods described herein. The coating, which may include iron oxide, may form when the iron oxide “plates out” on thePCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD material(s) of the core. The plating out may occur at the temperatures and / or pressures that the susceptor materials are subjected to during embodiments of the methods described herein.

[0077] When a susceptor material is in a particulate form and includes two or more different materials, the particles of two or more different susceptor materials may be (i) kept separate from each other during the methods described herein, or (ii) dispersed in each other evenly or unevenly, and to any extent. In some embodiments, the susceptor material includes (i) a first region having a greater concentration of a first susceptor material, and (ii) a second region having a greater concentration of a second susceptor material. The first region and the second region may be separate and distinct regions. The first region may include a portion that includes only the first susceptor material, and a portion that includes an amount of the second susceptor material. The second region may include a portion that includes only the second susceptor material and a portion that includes an amount of the first susceptor material. The first region and the second region may be configured to provide, in the susceptor material, a consistent or inconsistent concentration gradient of the first and second susceptor materials.

[0078] The contacting of the fluid and the susceptor material may include contacting the fluid and the first region, and then contacting the fluid and the second region, or vice versa. The first and second susceptor materials may be any of those described herein. In some embodiments, the first susceptor material includes a ceramic, a semiconductor, or a combination thereof. The first susceptor material may include silicon carbide. In some embodiments, the second susceptor material includes a ferromagnetic material and / or a ferrimagnetic material, such as iron or an iron oxide. The second susceptor material may include magnetite.

[0079] When a susceptor material is in a particulate form, the particles may have a substantially uniform size, or a non-uniform size; and the particles may be of any regular and / or irregular shape (e.g., spheres, plugs, shavings, grounds, needles, etc.).

[0080] At least a portion of the susceptor material, such as one or more particles of the susceptor material, may have a feature, such as a surface, having a structure that is configured to facilitate or enhance one or more of the mechanisms described herein (see, e.g., Pendry, J.B. et al. “Mimicking Surface Plasmons with Structured Surfaces,” Science, 2004, 305, 847-848). For example, a susceptor material, especially a surface of a susceptor material, may define one or more ridges, one or more grooves, one or more recesses, one or more protrusions, one or more holes, one or more wells, or a combination thereof. These structural elements, alone or in combination, may provide a susceptor material with sub-PCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD debye-length structural features (e.g., gaps), sub-wavelength structural features, integrated circuits, etc. When a susceptor material is in the form of a plurality of particles, the use of a relatively large number of susceptor material particles having the one or more structural features may statistically ensure the presence of a desirable number of identical, similar, or varying sub-debye-length structural features (e.g., gaps), sub-wavelength structural features, etc., among the particles. The structural elements may be arranged in an ordered or disordered manner. Ordered structural elements, for example, may form a pattern. A diamond pattern, for instance, may be formed on a surface by knurling the surface to produce intersecting grooves. The structural elements may be present on commercially available susceptor materials. The structural elements may be imparted or improved by any known technique, which may include a physical technique, a chemical technique (e.g., an electrochemical technique), or a combination thereof, such as engraving (e.g., knurling), etching, a deposition technique (e.g., vapor deposition, electroplating, etc.), lithography (e.g., photolithography), grinding, chiseling, etc.

[0081] Therefore, in some embodiments, the susceptor material includes a surface, and at least a portion of the surface defines one or more grooves, one or more ridges, one or more recesses, one or more protrusions, one or more holes, one or more wells, or a combination thereof. The methods described herein may include structuring at least a portion of a surface of a susceptor material, so that the surface of the susceptor material defines one or more grooves, one or more ridges, one or more recesses, one or more protrusions, one or more holes, one or more wells, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the methods described herein may include providing a susceptor material, such as prior to the irradiating of the susceptor material, wherein the providing of the susceptor material including modifying at least a portion of a surface of the susceptor material to produce a modified surface, wherein the modified surface defines one or more grooves, one or more recesses, one or more protrusions, or a combination thereof. The modifying of the at least a portion of the surface may be achieved using any known technique, such as those described herein.

[0082] When in a particulate form, the susceptor material may have an average largest dimension of about 1 nm to about 10 mm, about 5 nm to about 10 mm, about 10 nm to about 10 mm, about 50 nm to about 10 mm, about 100 nm to about 10 mm, about 500 nm to about 10 mm about 1 µm to about 10 mm, about 25 µm to about 10 mm, about 75 µm to about 10 mm, about 0.1 mm to about 10 mm, about 0.5 mm to about 10 mm, about 0.5 mm to about 8 mm, about 0.5 mm to about 7 mm, about 0.1 mm to about 5 mm, about 0.5 mm to about 5 mm, about 0.5 mm to about 4 mm, about 0.5 mm to about 3 mm, or about 0.5 mm toPCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD about 2 mm. Other sizes are envisioned, however, including sizes less than 1 nm. In some embodiments, the susceptor material is in a particulate form, and the susceptor material has an average largest dimension of about 1 nm to about 50 nm, about 3 nm to about 40 nm, or about 3 nm to about 35 nm. For example, the susceptor material may include Fe3O4nanoparticles having an average diameter of about 3 nm to about 32 nm. The susceptor material may include nanoparticles synthesized by any known technique, such as a seed-less thermolysis technique (see, e.g., Mohapatra, J. et al. Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 2018, 20, 12879-12887). When the particles of a susceptor material are substantially spherical or spherical, the average largest dimension is the average largest diameter. Not wishing to be bound by any particular theory, it is believed that the selection of a size of the particles of a susceptor material may alter one or more characteristics of the methods herein, such as heating efficiency, pressure drop, etc., and, therefore, the particle size may be selected accordingly.

[0083] The susceptor material may include particles of different sizes. For example, the susceptor material may include a plurality of nanoparticles (e.g., 1 nm to 100 nm in size) and a plurality of microparticles (e.g., 0.1 µm to 1,000 µm in size). The differently sized particles may be configured to assist different aspects of the methods described herein. For example, a plurality of nanoparticles may facilitate more efficient heating, and a plurality of microparticles may facilitate the generation of an electric current and / or a field. Other possibilities are envisioned.

[0084] At least a portion of a susceptor material, at least a portion of a catalyst, or a combination thereof may be transported by one or more forces, such as one or more forces imparted by a fluid, especially a flowing fluid. As a result, the particle size and / or other features of a susceptor material and / or catalyst may be selected to ensure or increase the likelihood that a force, such as a force imparted by a flowing fluid, is sufficient to transport at least a portion of the particles of a susceptor material, at least a portion of the particles of a catalyst, or a combination thereof. When the methods described herein include flowing a fluid, the fluid may transport (e.g., circulate one or more times) at least a portion of a susceptor material, at least a portion of a catalyst, or a combination thereof in or through any apparatus or component thereof. Transported particles of (a) a susceptor material and / or a catalyst and (b) a fluid may be present, at any point, as a colloidal mixture. Particles of a susceptor material and / or particles of a catalyst having sizes (i) less than or equal to, and (ii) greater than a threshold particle size may be disposed in a tube or container at a location controlled by one or more retention devices, and the one or more retention devices may bePCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD configured to retain only the particles having sizes greater than the threshold size, thereby making it possible for the susceptor material particles and / or the catalyst particles having sizes less than or equal to the threshold size to be transported (e.g., circulated one or more times) in or through the tube or container by a force, such as a force imparted by a fluid, especially a flowing fluid. The one or more retention devices, for example, may include a screen having openings that correspond to the threshold size. Even if a retention device is configured to retain only the particles having sizes greater than the threshold size, at least a portion of the particles having sizes less than or equal to the threshold size may not traverse the retention device, due, for example, to an insufficient fluid flow rate, physical and / or attractive interactions among the susceptor material particles and / or catalyst particles, etc.

[0085] An internal reservoir of a tube may contain any amount of a susceptor material. In some embodiments, a susceptor material is present in an internal reservoir of a tube (or an available portion of the internal reservoir tube when one or more retention devices are present and, therefore, define the available portion) at an amount of about 30 % to about 100 % by volume of the internal reservoir or available portion thereof, about 50 % to about 100 % by volume of the internal reservoir or available portion thereof, about 70 % to about 100 % by volume of the internal reservoir or available portion thereof, about 90 % to about 100 % by volume of the internal reservoir or available portion thereof, or about 100 % by volume of the internal reservoir or available portion thereof. These values should be considered initial values in embodiments in which at least a portion of the susceptor material is capable of departing the internal reservoir of the tube for any reason, such as those described herein.

[0086] In some embodiments, an internal reservoir of a tube contains an amount of a susceptor material that permits a fluid to be disposed in the tube. In some embodiments, a susceptor material is present in an internal reservoir of a tube (or an available portion of the internal reservoir tube when one or more retention devices are present and, therefore, define the available portion) at an amount of about 30 % to about 90 % by volume of the internal reservoir or available portion thereof, about 30 % to about 80 % by volume of the internal reservoir or available portion thereof, about 30 % to about 70 % by volume of the internal reservoir or available portion thereof, about 40 % to about 60 % by volume of the internal reservoir or available portion thereof, or about 50 % by volume of the internal reservoir or available portion thereof. These values should be considered initial values in embodiments in which at least a portion of the susceptor material is capable of departing the internal reservoir of the tube for any reason, such as those described herein.PCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD

[0087] When a susceptor material is in a monolithic form, the monolith of susceptor material generally may have any size or shape that permits (i) its disposal in a tube or housing within a tube, (ii) a fluid to traverse the tube, or (iii) a combination thereof. In some embodiments, a monolith of a susceptor material includes one or more elongated monoliths having a length:width ratio of at least 3:1 (e.g., cylindrical in shape), thereby forming a “tube- within-a- tube” configuration in which a fluid may traverse an area defined at least in part by an outer surface of the elongated monolith and an inner surface of the tube. In some embodiments, two or more of the elongated monoliths are arranged, in any manner, in a tube. In some embodiments, the monolith of susceptor material has a size or shape that corresponds to the dimensions of an internal reservoir of a tube or available portion thereof, which may be desirable when a tube is configured to heat a fluid or material outside of a tube (e.g., a fluid or material contacting an outer surface of a tube). In some embodiments, the one or more monoliths include one or more capsule-shaped monoliths having a length: width ratio of less than 3:1 (e.g., spherical, rectangular, square, or elliptical in shape) arranged, in any manner, in a tube. When two or more monoliths are present in a tube, the two or more monoliths may be arranged in a tube in any regular or irregular pattern.

[0088] A susceptor material may include one or more additives. The one or more additives may include any material, such as a catalyst, electrolyte, or filler, that is (i) disposed in a tube with the susceptor material (e.g., dispersed evenly or unevenly in the susceptor material), and (ii) incapable of converting a plurality of microwaves to heat. An electrolyte may be added for any reason, such as to increase a rate of a chemical reaction. A filler may be included for any reason, such as to ease the handling of a susceptor material, reduce resistance to fluid flow in a tube, achieve a different dispersion of a susceptor material in a tube, etc. A filler may be used to achieve a concentration gradient of a susceptor material within a tube. For example, a filler may permit a fluid disposed in a tube to encounter a concentration or amount of a susceptor material that increases (or decreases) continually or intermittently as the fluid traverses the tube. The one or more additives may be present in a susceptor material at a total amount that does not exceed 50 %, by weight, based on the weight of the susceptor material. In other words, if a susceptor material including two additives has a mass of 100 g, then the sum of the masses of the two additives would not exceed 50 g. In some embodiments, one or more additives are present in a susceptor material at an amount of about 0.001 % to 10 %, by weight, based on the weight of the susceptor material. FluidsPCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD

[0089] Generally, any fluid may be used in the methods, systems, and apparatuses described herein. The term “fluid”, as used herein, refers to and includes any (i) one or more materials that are in a non-solid phase at room temperature and atmospheric pressure, and (ii) mixtures that include (a) one or more materials that are in a non-solid phase at room temperature and atmospheric pressure and (b) one or more solid phase materials (at room temperature and atmospheric pressure) that are at least partially dissolved or dispersed in the fluid at room temperature and pressure or at the temperatures and pressures to which a fluid is subjected in the methods, systems, and apparatuses herein. These one or more solid phase materials that are at least partially dissolved or dispersed in the fluids may be referred to herein as “components” of the fluid. The “components” may include an additive, a starting material that undergoes a chemical reaction, etc.

[0090] In some embodiments, the fluid includes an organic fluid. In some embodiments, the fluid includes an inorganic fluid. In some embodiments, the fluid includes carbon dioxide. The organic fluid may be a hydrocarbon, as defined herein.

[0091] In some embodiments, the fluid includes an aqueous fluid. As used herein, the phrase “aqueous fluid” refers to a fluid that includes water at an amount of greater than 50 %, by weight. Therefore, an aqueous fluid may consist of water, or an aqueous fluid may include saltwater. In some embodiments, the fluid includes an ionic liquid. In some embodiments, the fluid includes water and at least one organic fluid. In some embodiments, the fluid includes water, at least one organic fluid, at least one inorganic fluid, at least one ionic liquid, or a combination thereof. The fluid may be a polar fluid, a non-polar fluid, or a combination thereof. When the fluid includes an aqueous fluid, the fluid may include distilled water.

[0092] A fluid may include one or more solids, which may be dispersed and / or dissolved in the fluid. The fluid may be of any phase, such as a liquid phase, a gas phase, or a combination thereof. The fluid, for example, may be in the liquid phase when contacting a susceptor material, and when the susceptor material heats the fluid, the resulting heated fluid may be in the liquid phase, gas phase, or a combination thereof. A similar phase change may occur for the starting material and the product.

[0093] As used herein, the term “hydrocarbon” refers to compounds having structures formed of carbon and hydrogen, and, optionally, one or more substituents if the hydrocarbon is substituted. In some embodiments, the hydrocarbon is a C1-C40 hydrocarbon. In some embodiments, the hydrocarbon is a C1-C30hydrocarbon. In some embodiments, the hydrocarbon is a C1-C20 hydrocarbon. As used herein, the phrases “C1-C40 hydrocarbon”,PCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD “C1-C30 hydrocarbon”, “C1-C20 hydrocarbon”, and the like, generally refer to aliphatic hydrocarbons and / or aromatic hydrocarbons containing 1 to 40 carbon atoms, 1 to 30 carbon atoms, or 1 to 20 carbon atoms, respectively. Examples of C1-C40 hydrocarbons include, but are not limited to, an alkane, a cycloalkane, an alkene, a cycloalkene, an alkyne, a cycloalkyne, and the like, and includes all substituted, unsubstituted, branched, and linear analogs or derivatives thereof, in each instance having 1 to 40 carbon atoms. Examples of cyclic aliphatic or aromatic hydrocarbons include, but are not limited to, anthracene, azulene, biphenyl, fluorene, indan, indene, phenanthrene, benzene, naphthalene, toluene, xylene, mesitylene, and the like, including all substituted, unsubstituted, hydrogenated, and / or heteroatom-substituted derivatives thereof.

[0094] Unless otherwise indicated, the term "substituted," when used to describe a chemical structure or moiety, refers to a derivative of that structure or moiety wherein one or more of its hydrogen atoms is substituted with a chemical moiety or functional group such as alcohol, alkoxy, alkanoyloxy, alkoxy carbonyl, alkenyl, alkyl, cycloalkyl, alkenyl, cycloalkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkynyl, alkylcarbonyloxy (-OC(O)alkyl), amide (-C(0)NH-alkyl- or - alkylNHC(O)alkyl), tertiary amine (such as alkylamino, arylamino, arylalkylamino), aryl, arylalkyl, aryloxy, azo, carbamoyl (-NHC(O)O-alkyl- or -OC(O)NH-alkyl), carbamyl (e.g., CONTE, as well as CONH-alkyl, CONH-aryl, and CONH-arylalkyl), carboxyl, carboxylic acid, cyano, ester, ether (e.g., methoxy, ethoxy), halo, haloalkyl (e.g., -CCl3, -CF3, -C(CF3)3), heteroalkyl, isocyanate, isothiocyanate, nitrile, nitro, phosphodiester, sulfide, sulfonamido (e.g., SO2NH2, SO2NR’R”), sulfone, sulfonyl (including alkylsulfonyl, arylsulfonyl and arylalkylsulfonyl), sulfoxide, thiol (e.g., sulfhydryl, thioether) or urea. When a hydrocarbon is halo-substituted, the hydrocarbon may be substituted partially or completely with a halogen selected from fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, or a combination thereof. When completely substituted with one or more types of halogen atoms, the compound may be referred to as a “perhalocarbon”. For example, a fluoro-substituted hydrocarbon may be partially substituted with fluorine atoms, or completely substituted with fluorine atoms; and when completely substituted with fluorine atoms, the compound may be referred to as a perfluorocarbon.

[0095] Examples of alkyl groups include, but are not limited to, methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, n-butyl, t-butyl, isobutyl, pentyl, hexyl, isohexyl, heptyl, 4,4-dimethylpentyl, octyl, 2,2,4-trimethylpentyl, nonyl, decyl, undecyl and dodecyl. Cycloalkyl moieties may be monocyclic or multicyclic, and examples include cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, and adamantyl. Additional examples of alkyl moieties have linear, branched and / or cyclic portions (e.g., l-ethyl-4-methyl-cyclohexyl). Representative alkenyl moietiesPCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD include vinyl, allyl, 1-butenyl, 2-butenyl, isobutylenyl, 1-pentenyl, 2-pentenyl, 3-methyl-l- butenyl, 2-methyl-2-butenyl, 2,3-dimethyl-2-butenyl, 1-hexenyl, 2-hexenyl, 3-hexenyl, 1- heptenyl, 2-heptenyl, 3-heptenyl, 1-octenyl, 2-octenyl, 3-octenyl, 1-nonenyl, 2-nonenyl, 3- nonenyl, 1-decenyl, 2-decenyl and 3-decenyl. Representative alkynyl moieties include acetylenyl, propynyl, 1-butynyl, 2-butynyl, 1-pentynyl, 2-pentynyl, 3-methyl- 1-butynyl, 4- pentynyl, 1-hexynyl, 2-hexynyl, 5-hexynyl, 1-heptynyl, 2-heptynyl, 6-heptynyl, 1-octynyl, 2- octynyl, 7-octynyl, 1-nonynyl, 2-nonynyl, 8-nonynyl, 1-decynyl, 2-decynyl and 9-decynyl. Examples of aryl or arylalkyl moieties include, but are not limited to, anthracenyl, azulenyl, biphenyl, fluorenyl, indan, indenyl, naphthyl, phenanthrenyl, phenyl, 1,2,3,4-tetrahydro- naphthalene, tolyl, xylyl, mesityl, benzyl, and the like, including any heteroatom substituted derivative thereof.

[0096] A fluid may include one or more additives. In some embodiments, the one or more additives includes a tracer, such as a dye. The one or more additives may be present in a fluid at a total amount that does not exceed 10 %, by weight, based on the weight of the fluid. In other words, if a fluid including two additives has a mass of 100 g, then the sum of the masses of the two additives would not exceed 10 g. In some embodiments, one or more additives are present in a fluid at an amount of about 0.001 % to 5 %, by weight, based on the weight of the fluid. Containers / Tubes

[0097] The methods described herein may be performed in any of the apparatuses described herein, and the apparatuses may include a container, such as a tube. The container may define an internal volume configured to receive a susceptor material, such as particles of a susceptor material. The container may have an inlet, an outlet, or an inlet and an outlet. The inlet may be a fluid inlet for receiving the fluid in the internal volume, and the outlet may be a fluid outlet for discharging the fluid and / or a product from the internal volume. An apparatus may include one container (e.g., tube) or more than one (e.g., two) containers (e.g., tube). If a tube is described herein as having a feature, then such feature may be a feature of a container; conversely, if a container is described herein as having a feature, then such feature may be a feature of a tube.

[0098] A container, such as a tube, may have more than one inlet and more than one outlet. For example, a container may have a first inlet for a fluid and a second inlet for a starting material (see, e.g., FIG.5). As a further example, a container may have a first outlet through which a fluid exits a container, and a second outlet through which a product exits the container.PCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD

[0099] The container may be a tube. As used herein, the term “tube” refers to a container that (i) is elongated (e.g., a length: width ratio of at least 1.1:1, at least 1.5:1, or at least 2:1) or includes an elongated portion, (ii) defines an internal volume having, at any point, a cross- sectional shape that is non-polygonal (e.g., circular, elliptical, etc), or (iii) a combination thereof.

[0100] The internal reservoir of a container, such as a tube, may be in fluid connection with the inlet and the outlet, when an inlet and outlet are present. A container, such as a tube, may be (i) straight, curved (e.g., feature one or more coils), bent, or a combination thereof, (ii) have any outer or inner cross-sectional shape (e.g., polygonal, non- polygonal, etc.) or area, or (iii) have any outer or inner dimensions. The “inner cross- sectional shape” and the “inner dimensions” may refer to the cross-sectional shape, dimensions, and / or volume capacity of the internal reservoir. The “outer or inner dimensions” are outer or inner diameters, respectively, when the tube is substantially cylindrical or the internal reservoir has a substantially circular cross-sectional shape.

[0101] A container, such as a tube, may have any outer dimension(s) and any inner dimension(s). Since a difference between the outer dimension(s) and the inner dimension(s) determine the thickness of a container’s wall, the outer dimension(s) and inner dimension(s) may be selected so that a container’s wall can (i) withstand one or more parameters of the methods described herein, such as pressure, (ii) permit a susceptor material to be irradiated effectively or to a desired extent with microwaves (e.g., microwaves of a certain frequency and / or wavelength), (iii) retain at least a portion of a susceptor material and / or catalyst at a desired location, or (iv) a combination thereof. A container, such as a tube, may have an outer dimension of about 5 mm to about 3 m, about 10 mm to about 3 m, about 20 mm to about 3 m, about 50 mm to about 3 m, about 100 mm to about 3 m, about 250 mm to about 3 m, about 500 mm to about 3 m, about 1 m to about 3 m, or about 2 m to about 3 m, and an inner dimension may be selected to provide a desired thickness of a container’s (e.g., tube’s) wall.

[0102] In some embodiments, the tube, or at least a portion thereof, is substantially cylindrical, and has an internal reservoir having a substantially circular cross-sectional shape. As used herein, the phrase “substantially cylindrical” refers to an object or portion thereof having a substantially circular outer cross-sectional shape, wherein the smallest outer diameter of the object at any point along its length is less than its largest outer diameter at any point along its length by no more than 20 % (e.g., 100 and at least 80), 15 % (e.g., 100 and at least 85), 10 % (e.g., 100 and at least 90), 5 % (e.g., 100 and at least 95), or 1 % (e.g., 100 and at least 99). As used herein, the phrase “substantially circular” refers to a shape having aPCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD smallest diameter (e.g., outer diameter of tube, inner diameter of internal reservoir) that is less than its largest diameter (e.g., outer diameter of tube, inner diameter of internal reservoir) by no more than 20 % (e.g., 10 and at least 8), 15 % (e.g., 10 and at least 8.5), 10 % (e.g., 10 and at least 9), 5 % (e.g., 10 and at least 9.5), or 1 % (e.g., 10 and at least 9.9).

[0103] In some embodiments, a portion of a container, such as a tube, formed of an electromagnetic wave-transparent material is substantially cylindrical, and has an outer diameter of about 3 mm to about 200 mm, and an inner diameter of about 2 mm to about 150 mm. In some embodiments, a portion of a container, such as a tube, formed of an electromagnetic wave-transparent material is substantially cylindrical, and has an outer diameter of about 3 mm to about 150 mm, and an inner diameter of about 2 mm to about 100 mm. In some embodiments, a portion of a container, such as a tube, formed of an electromagnetic wave-transparent material is substantially cylindrical, and has an outer diameter of about 3 mm to about 75 mm, and an inner diameter of about 2 mm to about 60 mm. In some embodiments, a portion of a container, such as a tube, formed of an electromagnetic wave-transparent material is substantially cylindrical, and has an outer diameter of about 15 mm to about 75 mm, and an inner diameter of about 10 mm to about 60 mm. In some embodiments, a portion of a container, such as a tube, formed of an electromagnetic wave-transparent material is substantially cylindrical, and has an outer diameter of about 45 mm to about 60 mm, and an inner diameter of about 30 mm to about 44 mm. In some embodiments, a portion of a container, such as a tube, formed of an electromagnetic wave-transparent material is substantially cylindrical, and has an outer diameter of about 50 mm to about 54 mm, and an inner diameter of about 40 mm to about 44 mm. Other dimensions are envisioned, however, as the apparatuses herein, including the containers (e.g., tubes), may be scaled to accommodate any fluid flow. For example, a portion of a container, such as a tube, formed of an electromagnetic wave-transparent material may be substantially cylindrical, and have an outer diameter of about 0.5 m to about 3 m, about 1 m to 3 m, or about 2 m to about 3 m, and an inner diameter of about 0.4 m to about 2.9 m, about 0.9 m to about 2.9 m, or about 1.9 m to about 2.9 m.

[0104] A container (e.g., tube) may be a pressure container. A “pressure container” refers to a container configured to withstand a pressure of at least 1 bar, at least 5 bar, at least 10 bar, at least 15 bar, at least 20 bar, or at least 25 bar.

[0105] The inlet and the outlet, when present, may include a shared opening or two openings of any size and at any location that permit a fluid to enter and exit a container (e.g., tube), respectively. When, for example, the container is a tube, the tube may have an inletPCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD arranged at a first end or a second end of the tube, and a tube may have an outlet arranged at a second end or a first end, respectively, of the tube. Alternatively, a tube may have an inlet and an outlet arranged at the first end of a tube, or an inlet and an outlet arranged at a second end of a tube. As used herein, the phrases “first end”, “at a first end”, “second end”, “at a second end”, and the like refer to regions beginning at one of the terminal points of a container, such as a tube, and extending less than or equal to 50 % of the length of the container (e.g., tube) towards the opposite end of the container (e.g., tube).

[0106] A container, such as a tube, may be arranged at any orientation when used in the methods described herein. For example, a container, such as a tube, may be arranged so that a longitudinal axis of the container (e.g., tube) is parallel (0 °) to a surface (e.g., ground, floor, ceiling, wall, etc.) that supports an apparatus. As a further example, a container (e.g., tube) may be arranged so that its longitudinal axis is perpendicular (90 °) to a surface (e.g., ground, floor, ceiling, wall, etc.) that supports an apparatus. In some embodiments, a container (e.g., tube) is arranged at any angle from 0 ° to 90 ° relative to a surface (e.g., ground, floor, ceiling, wall, etc.) that supports an apparatus. For example, an angle between a longitudinal axis of the container (e.g., tube) and a surface (e.g., ground, floor, ceiling, wall, etc.) that supports the apparatus may be 0 ° to 90 °, 10 ° to 90 °, 20 ° to 90 °, 30 ° to 90 °, 40 ° to 90 °, 50 ° to 90 °, 60 ° to 90 °, 70 ° to 90 °, or 80 ° to 90 °. Therefore, when a container (e.g., tube) includes an inlet and an outlet, the container’s inlet and outlet may be arranged at the same or different heights relative to a surface (e.g., ground, floor, ceiling, etc.) that supports an apparatus. For example, an inlet of a tube may be arranged closer to a supporting surface than an outlet of the container, thereby allowing the container (e.g., tube) to operate in “upflow” mode. Alternatively, an outlet of a container (e.g., tube) may be arranged closer to a supporting surface than an inlet of the container (e.g., tube), thereby allowing the container (e.g., tube) to operate in “downflow” mode.

[0107] A container (e.g., tube) may be of any length, i.e., the distance of a straight line from a terminal point of the first end or, if present, first cap to the second end or, if present, second cap of the container (e.g., tube). A container (e.g., tube), for example, may have a length of about 0.1 m to about 5 m, about 0.1 m to about 4 m, about 0.1 m to about 3 m, about 0.5 m to about 3 m, about 0.5 m to about 2 m, about 0.5 m to about 1.5 m, or about 1 m to about 1.5 m. Other lengths are envisioned, however, as the apparatuses herein, including the containers, may be scaled to accommodate any fluid flow.

[0108] A container (e.g., tube) may include (e.g., be formed of) any material that permits a susceptor material in the container to be irradiated with electromagnetic waves,PCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD such as microwaves. In some embodiments, a container, at least in part, is formed of one or more materials that include an electromagnetic wave-transparent material. As used herein, the phrase “electromagnetic wave-transparent material” refers to materials that remain substantially unheated (i.e., a temperature increase of less than or equal to 5 %) when irradiated with one or more types of electromagnetic waves, such as those described herein, for a time sufficient to increase the temperature of 1L of water (originally at ambient temperature) by at least 5 %. In other words, the electromagnetic wave-transparent material is transparent with regard to the one or more types of electromagnetic waves selected for use, and not necessarily all electromagnetic waves. In some embodiments, a container (e.g., tube), at least in part, is formed of one or more materials that include a microwave- transparent material. As used herein, the phrase “microwave-transparent material” refers to materials, typically low-loss dielectric materials, that remain substantially unheated (i.e., a temperature increase of less than or equal to 5 %) when irradiated with microwaves for a time sufficient to increase the temperature of 1L of water (originally at ambient temperature) by at least 5 %. An electromagnetic wave-transparent material, such as a microwave-transparent material, may be selected from ceramic, polymer, glass, fiberglass, an inorganic compound (e.g., a mineral), or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the inorganic compound includes fused silica, which may be commonly referred to as quartz. In some embodiments, the electromagnetic wave-transparent material, such as a microwave-transparent material, includes silicon nitride. In some embodiments, the electromagnetic wave-transparent material, such as a microwave-transparent material, includes a ceramic. In some embodiments, the ceramic includes silicon, aluminum, nitrogen, and oxygen, which may be referred to as a “SiAlON” or “sialon” ceramic. In some embodiments, the ceramic includes alumina. The alumina may be a commercially available alumina, which may include up to 10 %, by weight, up to 5 %, by weight, or up to 1 %, by weight, of impurities, such as silica, calcia, magnesia, iron oxide, sodium oxide, titania, chromic oxide, potassium oxide, boron oxide, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the alumina is 99.8 % alumina (McDanel Advanced Ceramic Technologies, Pennsylvania, USA). In some embodiments, a material of a tube is annealed.

[0109] A container (e.g., tube) may be formed from one or more materials. For example, at least a portion of tube that is arranged in an applicator may be formed of one or more electromagnetic wave-transparent materials, while one or more other materials may be used to form the remainder of the container. For example, a container may be formed of a ceramic and a metal.PCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD

[0110] In some embodiments, the container (e.g., tube) is a monolithic structure formed of one or more electromagnetic wave-transparent materials. As used herein, the phrase “monolithic structure” refers to a structure formed of a single piece of a material (e.g., ceramic, metal, etc.). A container having a monolithic structure, for example, may be a tube that includes a single tube-shaped piece formed entirely of a ceramic. The ceramic monolithic structure may include an inlet and an outlet at a first end and second end, respectively. In some embodiments, a monolithic structure includes one or more structural features (e.g., a depression, groove, ridge, flange, etc.) to accommodate another part of the apparatuses provided herein, such as a clamp or other part of ahead unit. A monolithic structure, however, may lack one or more structural features configured to accommodate another part of the apparatuses provided herein.

[0111] In some embodiments, the container (e.g., tube) includes a first cap arranged at the first end of the container (e.g., tube), a second cap arranged at the second end of the container (e.g., tube), or a first cap and a second cap arranged at the first end and the second end of the container (e.g., tube), respectively. In some embodiments, the inlet of the container (e.g., tube) is provided by the first cap. In some embodiments, the outlet of the container (e.g., tube) is provided by the second cap. For example, the first cap and / or the second cap may define an aperture that permits fluid to enter or exit an internal reservoir of a container (e.g., tube), respectively. The first cap and / or second cap may be formed of any material. In some embodiments, the first cap and / or second cap is formed of a material having a coefficient of thermal expansion that is identical or similar (e.g., within 10 %) to the coefficient of thermal expansion of an electromagnetic wave-transparent material, such as a microwave-transparent material, of a container (e.g., tube). In some embodiments, the first cap and / or the second cap are formed of a metal. The metal may be an alloy, such as an alloy including iron, cobalt, and nickel (e.g., a KOVAR® alloy). In some embodiments, the first cap and / or the second cap includes a metal, a portion of the tube includes a ceramic, and the first cap, the second cap, or both the first cap and the second cap are adjoined in any manner, including a manner that forms a seal between the tube and the first cap, second cap, or both the first cap and the second cap. For example, a container (e.g., tube) may be adjoined to a first cap, a second cap, or a first cap and a second cap by (i) plating, (ii) a ceramic-to-metal braze, (iii) an adhesive, (iv) securing a threaded end of a tube into a first cap and / or second cap, which may also be threaded, or (v) a combination thereof. The braze may result in a seal, which may be sufficient to withstand one or more parameters of the methods described herein, such as pressure. In some embodiments, a portion of the container (e.g., tube) includesPCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD alumina, and the first cap, the second cap, or both the first cap and the second cap includes KOVAR® alloy. The KOVAR® alloy may be adjoined to a ceramic, such as alumina, by (i) a ceramic- to-metal braze, (ii) threading on one or both of the ceramic and KOVAR® alloy, or (iii) a combination thereof. The adhesive may be a ceramic adhesive, such as those that are commercially available from Sauereisen, Inc. (PA, USA). The first cap and / or second cap generally may have any shape. For example, a first cap and / or a second cap may have a feature (e.g., a depression, groove, ridge, flange, etc.) that corresponds to another part of a container (e.g., tube), system, or apparatus herein. In some embodiments, a first cap and / or second cap includes one or more features (e.g., a depression, a groove, ridge, flange, etc. of any polygonal or non-poly gonal shape), which may permit the first cap and / or the second cap to accommodate a clamp or other device, which may be used as, or as part of, a seal as described herein, such as a seal between the first cap and / or the second cap to another part (e.g., ahead unit) of the apparatuses or systems herein.

[0112] Embodiments of containers, such as tubes, that may be used in the methods described herein are depicted, for example, at FIG.1A-FIG.1H of WO2021158729A1

[0113] The outer dimensions of a container (e.g., tube) may be selected to conform with the dimensions of an applicator. An applicator, for example, may include a structure that defines one or more apertures in which a tube is arranged. The container (e.g., tube) may have an outer dimension that permits the container (e.g., tube) to contact at least a portion of one or more apertures of an applicator. The container (e.g., tube) may have an outer dimension that is about 0.1 mm to about 10 mm, about 0.1 mm to about 5 mm, about 2 mm to about 4 mm, or about 3 mm to about 3.5 mm less than a corresponding dimension of an aperture of an applicator. An applicator may include one or more chambers defined by walls, wherein each of the walls define an aperture in which a tube is arranged, and a relatively small difference between the outer dimension of the tube and the dimension of the aperture may reduce or eliminate microwave leakage. Retention Devices

[0114] An apparatus, system, or part thereof, such as a tube, may include one or more retention devices to (i) prevent a susceptor material from escaping an internal reservoir and / or cap of a container (e.g., tube), (ii) control a location of a susceptor material in an apparatus, system, or part thereof, such as an internal reservoir, cap, head unit, etc., (iii) prevent a susceptor material from contacting a fluid, or (iv) a combination thereof. As described herein, the one or more retention devices may be used in a similar manner with regard to a catalyst. Therefore, additionally or alternatively, the one or more retention devices to (i)PCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD prevent a catalyst from escaping an internal reservoir and / or cap of a container (e.g., tube), (ii) control a location of a catalyst in an apparatus, system, or part thereof, such as an internal reservoir, cap, head unit, etc., (iii) prevent a catalyst from contacting a fluid, or (iv) a combination thereof. The one or more retention devices “prevent a susceptor material [and / or catalyst] from escaping” a location when at least a portion of the susceptor material and / or at least a portion of the catalyst, such as at least a majority of the susceptor material and / or catalyst, by weight, is prevented from escaping the location.

[0115] The one or more retention devices may include a material that is permeable or impermeable to a fluid disposed in the inlet of a container (e.g., tube). The one or more retention devices may be located at any position in a system or apparatus. The one or more retention devices may be (i) disposed in or adjacent an internal volume defined by a container, such as a tube, and / or (ii) configured to retain the susceptor particles in the internal volume defined by a container while allowing a fluid to flow out of the internal volume. In some embodiments, the retention device includes a membrane. In some embodiments, the retention device includes a plurality of openings through which a fluid can pass, but a susceptor material, such as susceptor particles, cannot pass, or a majority, by weight, of a particulate susceptor material cannot pass. In some embodiments, the one or more retention devices include a screen. As described herein, a susceptor material may be in the form a particles, and a portion of the particles, due to their sizes, may be capable of traversing the plurality of openings.

[0116] The retention device (e.g., membrane, screen, etc.) may be positioned (e.g., fixably mounted) (i) in or adjacent to a container (e.g., tube), for example, at one or both ends of an internal reservoir, in a cap, or adjacent to a cap, (ii) in or adjacent to a head unit (e.g., in a head unit, between a head unit and cap, and / or in a pipe or other device through which a fluid exits a head unit), or (iii) a combination thereof.

[0117] As used herein, the phrases “fixably mounted”, “fixably adjoined”, and the like describe an affixed or secured connection that is configured to be non-elastic, including a connection that (i) is configured to be permanent (e.g., two objects are welded together, or an object, upon formation, includes two features), and / or (ii) includes one or more fasteners or features that (a) are (1) not removable by hand (e.g., a threaded fastener tightened with a tool, some types of adhesive, a tightened collar, a material providing friction between two objects, etc.) or (2) removable by hand without the aid of a loosening tool (e.g., objects connected by corresponding male and female features, such as a tab and slot, a ridge and groove, some types of adhesives, a material providing friction between objects, etc.), and / or (b) canPCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD withstand without failing one or more parameters of the methods herein, such as pressure, heat, force(s) imparted by thermal expansion, etc.

[0118] Any sieve designation may be selected for the retention device; for example, the retention device may have any suitable mesh number. In some embodiments, the retention device is a screen having a mesh number from 4 to 400, 10 to 200, 20 to 100, or 20 to 50. In some embodiments, the retention devices includes a 30-mesh screen. In some embodiments, the average open area of the openings in the retention mechanism is less than 20 square mm, 15 square mm, 10 square mm, 5 square mm, or 2 square mm. In some embodiments, the retention device includes a screen coupled to the container, a perforated plate coupled to the container, or a perforated wall of the container. In some embodiments, the at least one retention device includes a first retention structure position proximate to a fluid inlet of a container (e.g., tube) and a second retention structure position proximate to the fluid outlet. In addition to being permeable to a fluid disposed in the inlet of a container (e.g., tube), the one or more retention devices also may accommodate, via an aperture or otherwise, one or more other components of a container (e.g., tube).

[0119] In some embodiments, the one or more retention devices include one or more housings formed, at least in part, of an electromagnetic wave-transparent material, such as a microwave transparent material, which may be (i) impermeable to a fluid, and (ii) identical to or different than the electromagnetic wave-transparent material of a tube. A susceptor material may be disposed in the one or more housings. A housing generally may have any shape, and a container (e.g., tube) may include one or more housings in which a susceptor material is disposed. In some embodiments, a housing in which a susceptor material is disposed is an elongated housing having a length:width ratio of at least 3:1 (e.g., cylindrical in shape), thereby forming a “tube-within-a-tube” configuration in which a fluid traverses an area defined at least in part by an outer surface of the elongated housing and an inner surface of the tube. In some embodiments, two or more of the elongated housings are arranged, in any manner, in a container (e.g., tube). In some embodiments, the one or more housings include one or more capsules having a length:width ratio of less than 3:1 (e.g., spherical, elliptical, square, rectangular in shape) arranged, in any manner, in a container (e.g., tube). The susceptor material disposed in a housing may be in any form, including those described herein, such as a particulate form, monolithic form, or a combination thereof. Applicators

[0120] The apparatuses herein may include an applicator, such as a microwave applicator. The applicators may include any devices to which a container (e.g., tube) isPCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD mounted in any manner while a susceptor material is irradiated with a plurality of electromagnetic waves, such as a plurality of microwaves. The plurality of electromagnetic waves introduced into an applicator may include a plurality of radio waves, a plurality of microwaves, a plurality of infrared waves, a plurality of gamma rays, any other type of electromagnetic wave, or a combination thereof. A plurality of electromagnetic waves may be generated, at least in part, by a laser. Any of the applicators provided herein — including those referred to (i) as a “microwave applicator”, (ii) as hosting microwaves, or (iii) used with one or more microwave generators — may be used with each of the foregoing types of electromagnetic waves.

[0121] One or more containers (e.g., tubes) may be arranged at least partially in an applicator. At least a portion of a container (e.g., tube) and / or at least a portion of a susceptor material is arranged “in” an applicator when located at a position that permits at least a portion of electromagnetic waves disposed in the applicator to contact, traverse, and / or irradiate the at least a portion of the container and / or the at least a portion of the susceptor material, respectively. In some embodiments, an applicator includes more than one component, and the one or more containers (and, if present, a susceptor material in the one or more containers) are arranged at least partially in the component of the applicator in which electromagnetic waves are disposed (e.g., a vessel, modular unit, etc.). For example, one container, two containers, three containers, four containers, or more, may be arranged at least partially in an applicator. Each container may be independently arranged entirely or partially in an applicator. For example, when a container is a tube, the tube may be arranged completely within the applicator (e.g., none of the tube protrudes from the applicator), or partially within the applicator (e.g., a first end or both the first and second ends of the tube protrude from the applicator).

[0122] An applicator may include a single piece to which a container (e.g., tube) is mounted and in which electromagnetic waves, such as microwaves, are introduced (e.g., a vessel, modular unit, etc.). Alternatively, an applicator may include two or more pieces, such as a vessel or modular unit in which microwaves are introduced and at least one separate piece, such as a mounting apparatus, as described herein (e.g., a separate bracket and / or other structure (e.g., a pedestal, elongated support (e.g., a hanger, a wire, rod, cable rope, chain, piping (such as piping placing components of a system in fluid communication, etc.), etc.) to which a container (e.g., tube) is mounted in any manner. An applicator may include a vessel and at least one separate piece, and the vessel and at least one separate piece may be arranged at the same or different locations. For example, a vessel may be positioned on a floor,PCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD pedestal, first support, etc., and the at least one separate piece (to which the tube may be mounted in any manner) may be positioned at, or extend from, the floor, pedestal, support, or another location, such as the ceiling, wall, a second pedestal, a second support, etc. FIGS. 3A, 3B, 4C, 4D, 6A, 6B, 6C, 7, 8, 9A, 9B, 10, and 11, 12A, 12B, 12C, 12D, and 12E of WO 2021 / 158729 depicts examples of how a container, such as a tube, may be fixably or spring mounted to an applicator, but other configurations are envisioned.

[0123] In some embodiments, the applicator includes a vessel having a first end and a second end, and including one or more chambers defined by one or more outer walls of the vessel, one or more walls inside the vessel, or a combination thereof. The first end and second end of the vessel may include, for example, any two opposite outer walls of the vessel. The first end of the vessel, the second end of the vessel, the one or more walls inside the vessel, or a combination thereof may define an aperture. The aperture(s) may accommodate a tube. For example, a tube may be arranged in the apertures defined by (a) the first end of the vessel, (b) the second end of the vessel, (c) the one or more walls inside the vessel, or (d) a combination thereof.

[0124] In some embodiments, the applicator includes one, one to thirty, one to twenty -five, one to fifteen, one to ten, two to ten, two to eight, four to eight, or four to six chamber(s). A microwave generator may be positioned to introduce a plurality of microwaves into a chamber. The number of chambers may be greater than, equal to, or less than the number of microwave generators. A plurality of electromagnetic waves, such as microwaves, may be introduced into a chamber (i) via an aperture defined by an outer wall of the vessel, (ii) by a component of a microwave generator disposed in a chamber, (iii) by a component of a microwave generator disposed in a waveguide, or (iv) a combination thereof. As used herein, the phrase “microwave generator” refers to devices that generate microwaves, including the components of the devices, such as an antenna, coaxial cable, transmission lines, etc. When the methods described herein are performed with electromagnetic waves other than microwaves, the “microwave generators” may be replaced with generators of the other types of electromagnetic waves provided herein.

[0125] As used herein, the phrase “introduced into a chamber via an aperture defined by an outer wall of the vessel” refers to and includes introducing microwaves with a microwave generator positioned outside of a chamber, and introducing the microwaves into a chamber via an aperture defined by an outer wall of the vessel. Prior to traversing the aperture, the microwave may pass through a waveguide, coaxial cable, or other transmission line.PCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD

[0126] As used herein, the phrase “introduced into a chamber by a microwave generator disposed in a chamber” refers to introducing microwaves in a chamber with a microwave generator having at least one component, such as an antenna, that is arranged in a chamber. Other components of such a microwave generator may be arranged outside of the chamber, and may be connected, via a cable, to the one or more components, such as an antenna, that are arranged in the chamber. When microwaves are introduced inside a chamber with an antenna or otherwise, the microwaves may not pass through a waveguide arranged outside of chamber, and the chamber, therefore, may not include a waveguide.

[0127] As used herein, the phrase “introduced into a chamber by a microwave generator disposed in a waveguide” refers to generating microwaves with a microwave generator having at least one component, such as an antenna, that is arranged in a waveguide. Other components of such a microwave generator may be arranged outside of the waveguide, and may be connected, via a cable, to the one or more components, such as an antenna, that are arranged in the waveguide. When microwaves are generated inside a waveguide with an antenna or otherwise, the microwaves, before entering the chamber via an aperture defined by an outer wall of the vessel, may traverse at least a portion of the waveguide, including the portion of the waveguide that exists between (i) the component of the microwave generator in the waveguide and (ii) the chamber or aperture of the chamber.

[0128] In some embodiments, at least one of the one or more microwave generators is positioned to introduce a plurality of microwaves into at least one of the chambers. Each chamber may be associated with one or more microwave generators. In some embodiments, a first, second, third, etc. microwave generator is positioned to introduce a plurality of microwaves into a first, second, third, etc. chamber, respectively. In some embodiments, the number of chambers exceeds the number of microwave generators. Therefore, a microwave generator may not be positioned at every chamber. In some embodiments, the apparatus includes three to six microwave generators, and four to six chambers. In some embodiments, the number of chambers is less than the number of microwave generators. Therefore, two or more microwave generators may be positioned at one or more of the chambers. The chambers of an applicator may be single mode chambers or multimode chambers. In some embodiments, the chambers of an applicator including a vessel are multimode chambers.

[0129] In some embodiments, a susceptor material is irradiated with a plurality of electromagnetic waves that includes electromagnetic waves other than microwaves, and these non-microwave electromagnetic waves may be produced by one or more sources (e.g., aPCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD generator, an antenna, etc.) that may be located at any one or more of the locations that are described herein for a microwave generator.

[0130] The applicators also may include one or more waveguides. As used herein, the term “waveguide” refers to a device that is (i) arranged between a microwave generator and a chamber, and (ii) includes a passageway through which microwaves pass prior to entering a chamber, wherein the passageway is structured to reduce or eliminate energy loss of the microwaves as they traverse the passageway. A waveguide, therefore, may have any external shape, and the shape and dimensions of the passageway may be configured to reduce or eliminate energy loss of microwaves. When a waveguide is present, it may extend from and / or be attached at or near an aperture of a chamber. A microwave generator may be positioned and / or attached to the other end of the waveguide. The aperture of the chamber from which a waveguide extends and / or is attached may be at least partially covered with an electromagnetic-wave transparent material (e.g., a microwave-transparent material), such as a tile of alumina, TEFLON® polytetrafluoroethylene, fused silica, etc. In some embodiments, a waveguide is arranged between each chamber and microwave generator. One or more of the waveguides may include at least one tuning screw, which may be a feature that permits impedance matching.

[0131] An applicator may include a solid state microwave applicator. A solid state microwave applicator may include at least one antenna, a power component, and a cable (e.g., a coaxial cable) connecting the power component and each of the least one antenna.

[0132] One or more antenna may be arranged in a chamber of the applicators disclosed herein, and a wall at least partly defining each chamber may define an aperture that may accommodate a cable of a solid state microwave applicator. For example, an applicator may include six chambers, and any number of the six chambers may include at least one antenna, and the antenna may be connected to one or more power components. One or more antenna may be arranged in a waveguide of the applicators disclosed herein, and any wall defining each waveguide may define an aperture that may accommodate a cable of a solid state microwave applicator. For example, an applicator may include six waveguides, and any number of the six waveguides may include at least one antenna, and the antenna may be connected to one or more power components. As a further example, an applicator may include six chambers and one to six waveguides, and any number of the six chambers and one to six waveguides may include at least one antenna, and the antenna may be connected to one or more power components.PCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD

[0133] An applicator also may be formed of one modular applicator unit, or at least two modular applicator units. In some embodiments, the applicator includes one to thirty modular applicator units, one to twenty-five modular applicator units, one to twenty modular applicator units, one to fifteen modular applicator units, one to ten modular applicator units, two to ten modular applicator units. In some embodiments, the applicator includes four to six of the modular applicator units.

[0134] Each modular unit may include (i) a chamber having a first side and a second side, (ii) a first aperture defined by the first side, (iii) a second aperture defined by the second side, and (iv) a waveguide extending from a third aperture of the chamber. Each modular applicator unit of an applicator may be identical, or at least two of the modular applicator units may differ in any manner, such as the dimensions of a chamber, the dimensions of a waveguide, the orientation of a chamber, waveguide, and / or aperture, or a combination thereof. Whether identical or different, any two modular units of an applicator may be oriented in the same manner. The chamber of each modular unit may be a single mode chamber or a multimode chamber. In some embodiments, the chamber of each modular unit is a single mode chamber.

[0135] An embodiment of a modular applicator unit is depicted at FIG.4A (perspective view) and FIG.4B (cross-sectional view) of WO 2021 / 158729.

[0136] In some embodiments, at least two of the modular applicator units are arranged adjacent to each other, and a tube is arranged in the first and second apertures of the adjacent modular applicator units. In some embodiments, one to thirty modular applicator units, or two to ten modular applicator units are arranged adjacent to each other, and the tube is arranged in the first aperture and the second aperture of each modular applicator unit. When two modular applicator units are adjacent to each other, the two modular applicator units may or may not contact each other. When two modular applicator units contact each other, the two modular applicator units may be adjoined in any manner. For example, two modular applicator units may be fixably mounted to each other. In some embodiments, the modular applicator units include one or more structural features, such as corresponding male and female structural features, which may permit or ease the arrangement and / or adjoining of two modular applicator units.

[0137] In some embodiments, at least one of the one or more microwave generators is positioned to introduce a plurality of microwaves into at least one of the one to thirty modular applicator units. In some embodiments, the apparatus includes three to six microwavePCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD generators, and the applicator is an applicator that includes four to six of the modular applicator units.

[0138] An embodiment of an applicator and a tube mounted to the applicator is depicted at FIG.4C (side view) and FIG.4D (side view) of WO 2021 / 1158729.

[0139] A tube may be mounted to an applicator in any manner. As described herein, a tube can be mounted to an applicator by mounting (i) a portion of the tube, such as a cap, to an applicator, and / or (ii) a separate device that contacts a tube, such as a head unit, to an applicator (see, e.g., FIGS.12A-12E of WO 2021 / 158729). In some embodiments, a tube is spring mounted to an applicator. In some embodiments, a tube is fixably mounted to an applicator. In some embodiments, one part of a tube, such as a first end, is fixably mounted or spring mounted to an applicator, and another part of the tube, such as a second end, is fixably mounted or spring mounted to an applicator.

[0140] When a tube is mounted, either fixably mounted or spring mounted, to an applicator, a part of the tube, such as a first cap or second cap, or another part of the apparatus, such as a first or second head unit in contact with a tube, may be mounted (i) directly to a vessel of an applicator or one of the modular applicator units of the applicator, or (ii) to another part of the applicator, such as a mounting apparatus. The mounting apparatus may be a separate part (i.e., not connected to a vessel or modular applicator unit) that permits a portion of a tube to be mounted to an applicator. Non-limiting examples of mounting apparatuses include the pedestals, brackets, and elongated supports (e.g., hangers, chains, cables, ropes, wires, piping, hoses, etc.) of FIGS.12A-12E of WO 2021 / 158729. Therefore, the mounting apparatuses may include piping, hoses, or any connecting lines used in the systems provided herein.

[0141] As used herein, the phrase “spring mounted” describes a connection between two objects that is configured to be elastic, and, therefore, allows a first of the two objects to (i) move relative to the second object upon the application of a force to the first object, and (ii) return to a position at or near its original position upon removal of the force. A force, for example, may be applied by the expansion of part of an apparatus, such as a tube, that may occur during heating. When an end of a tube is spring mounted to an applicator, the apparatuses herein may include one or more devices for detecting (i) a force imparted by the thermal expansion of a tube, (ii) a distance a spring mounted object moves, or (iii) a combination thereof. For example, a distance-detecting laser may be fixably mounted to a spring mounted object (e.g., a head unit as described herein), and a change in distancePCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD determined by the laser and a spring constant may be used to calculate force. As a further example, a load cell may be used to detect or determine one or more forces.

[0142] In some embodiments, (i) the first end of a tube is spring mounted to an applicator, (ii) the second end of a tube is fixably mounted to an applicator, (iii) the first end of a tube is spring mounted to an applicator and the second end of a tube is fixably mounted to an applicator, (iv) the first end of a tube is fixably mounted to an applicator, (v) the second end of a tube is spring mounted to an applicator, (vi) the first end of a tube is fixably mounted to an applicator and the second end of a tube is spring mounted to an applicator, or (vii) the first end of a tube is spring mounted to an applicator and the second end of a tube is spring mounted to an applicator.

[0143] The apparatuses herein may include at least one head unit that is configured to (i) contact a tube, such as an end of a tube, and (ii) be mounted in any manner to an applicator.

[0144] A head unit, for example, may be mounted to a vessel, a modular applicator unit, or a mounting apparatus. A head unit may be mounted with one or more fasteners, such as a threaded fastener (e.g., a threaded or partially threaded bolt, screw, etc.). When a threaded or partially threaded fastener is used to secure a component to an applicator, the applicator may include a corresponding feature for receiving the threaded or partially threaded fastener, such as a threaded or partially threaded depression, a threaded or partially threaded socket protruding from the applicator, an aperture in which the fastener is arranged and secured with a nut, etc. In some embodiments, a head unit is mounted with one to thirty fasteners, one to twenty-five fasteners, one to twenty fasteners, one to fifteen fasteners, one to ten fasteners, one to eight fasteners, one to six fasteners, one to four fasteners, one to three fasteners, two fasteners, or one fastener. A head unit may be mounted by welding. A head unit may be an integral component of a vessel or modular applicator unit of an applicator. An apparatus may include one head unit, two head units, or more, and any feature described herein of “a first head unit” or “a second head unit” may be a feature of “a second head unit” or “a first head unit”, respectively, or any other head unit.

[0145] In some embodiments, the apparatuses herein include (i) a first head unit that defines a first aperture, (ii) a first fastener having a first end and a second end, wherein the first fastener is slidably arranged in the first aperture, and the second end of the first fastener is fixably mounted to the applicator, and (iii) a first elastically compressible apparatus arranged between the first head unit and the first end and / or second end of the first fastener. In some embodiments, the apparatuses herein include (i) a first head unit that defines a firstPCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD aperture and a second aperture, (ii) a first fastener having a first end and a second end, wherein the first fastener is slidably arranged in the first aperture, and the second end of the first fastener is fixably mounted to the applicator, (iii) a second fastener having a first end and a second end, wherein the second fastener is slidably arranged in the second aperture, and the second end of the first fastener is fixably mounted to the applicator, (iv) a first elastically compressible apparatus arranged between the first head unit and the first end and / or the second of the first fastener; and (v) a second elastically compressible apparatus arranged between the first head unit and the first end and / or second end of the second fastener, wherein the first end of the tube and first head unit contact each other. In some embodiments, the apparatus also includes (i) a third aperture defined by the first head unit, (ii) a third fastener having a first end and a second end, wherein the third fastener is slidably arranged in the third aperture, and the second end of the third fastener is fixably mounted to the applicator, (iii) a third elastically compressible apparatus arranged between the first head unit and the first end and / or second end of the third fastener. In some embodiments, the apparatus also includes (i) a fourth aperture defined by the first head unit, (ii) a fourth fastener having a first end and a second end, wherein the fourth fastener is slidably arranged in the fourth aperture, and the second end of the fourth fastener is fixably mounted to the applicator, and (iii) a fourth elastically compressible apparatus arranged between the first head unit and the first end and / or second end of the fourth fastener. When more than four fasteners having a first end and a second end are used to mount a head unit, then an elastically compressible apparatus may be arranged between the first head unit and each of the first ends and / or second ends of the more than four fasteners.

[0146] As used herein, the phrases “slidably mounted”, “slidably arranged”, and the like describe a connection between two objects that facilitates movement of at least one of the objects relative to the other object, either freely or upon the application of a force.

[0147] As used herein, the phrase “elastically compressible apparatus” refers to an active or passive apparatus that is configured to deviate from an original shape and / or position and return to the original shape and / or position upon application or removal of one or more forces. Generally, the elastically compressible apparatuses may be arranged at any position in the apparatuses provided herein (e.g., between a head unit and a vessel, between a head unit and a spacer block, between a head unit and a first end of a faster, between a head unit and a second end of a fastener, etc.). The elastically compressible apparatuses may be located at positions to accommodate the expansion of any component of the apparatuses provided herein, including, but not limited to, a tube, a head unit, a spacer block, etc. ThePCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD elastically compressible apparatuses (such as the first, second, third, and fourth elastically compressible apparatuses) may be the same or different. The elastically compressible apparatuses (such as the first, second, third, and fourth elastically compressible apparatuses) may include a spring, a pneumatic apparatus, such as a pneumatic piston, a hydraulic apparatus, such as a hydraulic cylinder, etc. The spring may include a coiled spring. The spring, in some embodiments, includes one or more disc springs slidably mounted on one or more fasteners, such as the first fastener, the second fastener, the third fastener, or the fourth fastener, respectively. The spring, in some embodiments, includes two or more disc springs slidably mounted on one or more fasteners, such as the first fastener, the second fastener, the third fastener, or the fourth fastener, respectively. In some embodiments, 1 to 1,000, 1 to 750, 1 to 500, 1 to 250, 1 to 100, 1 to 50, 1 to 25, or 2 to 24 disc springs are slidably mounted on the one or more fasteners, such as the first fastener, the second fastener, the third fastener, or the fourth fastener, respectively.

[0148] In some embodiments, the head unit includes at least one plate, and a portion configured to receive an end of a tube. In some embodiments, the apparatus includes a first head unit that includes (i) a portion configured to receive an end of a tube, and (ii) a plate that defines a first aperture, (iii) a first fastener having a first end and a second end, wherein the first fastener is slidably arranged in the first aperture, and the second end of the first fastener is fixably mounted to the applicator, and (iv) a first elastically compressible apparatus arranged between the plate and the first end and / or second end of the first fastener, wherein the portion configured to receive an end of a tube is (a) arranged between the applicator and the plate, and (b) in contact with the plate and the tube. The portion configured to receive an end of a tube may include a non-flat surface (e.g., rounded, curved, tapered, etc.) that contacts the plate. The plate may have a substantially flat surface that contacts a non-flat surface of the portion configured to receive an end of a tube. The non-flat surface may permit the portion configured to receive an end of a tube to move relative to the plate when a force is applied to the portion configured to receive an end of a tube, such as a force that may be applied during the methods described herein. The plate may include a non-flat surface (e.g., rounded, curved, tapered, etc.) that contacts the portion configured to receive an end of a tube. The portion configured to receive an end of a tube may have a substantially flat surface that contacts a non-flat surface of plate. The non-flat surface of the plate may permit the portion configured to receive an end of a tube to move relative to the plate when a force is applied to the portion configured to receive an end of a tube, such as a force that may be applied duringPCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD the methods described herein. In some embodiments, the portion configured to receive an end of a tube includes a flat surface that contacts a corresponding flat surface of the plate.

[0149] In some embodiments, the apparatus includes a first head unit that includes (i) a portion configured to receive an end of a tube, and (ii) a plate that defines a first aperture and a second aperture, a first fastener having a first end and a second end, wherein the first fastener is slidably arranged in the first aperture, and the second end of the first fastener is fixably mounted to the applicator, a second fastener having a first end and a second end, wherein the second fastener is slidably arranged in the second aperture, and the second end of the first fastener is fixably mounted to the applicator, a first elastically compressible apparatus arranged between the plate and the first end and / or second end of the first fastener, and a second elastically compressible apparatus arranged between the plate and the first end and / or second end of the second fastener, wherein the portion configured to receive an end of a tube is (a) arranged between the applicator and the plate, and (b) in contact with the plate and the tube. In some embodiments, the apparatus includes a third aperture defined by the plate, a third fastener having a first end and a second end, wherein the third fastener is slidably arranged in the third aperture, and the second end of the third fastener is fixably mounted to the applicator, and a third elastically compressible apparatus arranged between the plate and the first end and / or second end of the third fastener. In some embodiments, the apparatus includes a fourth aperture defined by the plate, a fourth fastener having a first end and a second end, wherein the fourth fastener is slidably arranged in the fourth aperture, and the second end of the fourth fastener is fixably mounted to the applicator, and a fourth elastically compressible apparatus arranged between the plate and the first end and / or second end of the fourth fastener. The first, second, third, and fourth elastically compressible apparatus may be the same or different. In some embodiments, the first, second, third, or fourth elastically compressible apparatus includes one or more disc springs slidably mounted on the first fastener, the second fastener, the third fastener, or the fourth fastener, respectively, of the first head unit. In some embodiments, the apparatus includes 1 to 1,000, 1 to 750, 1 to 500, 1 to 250, 1 to 100, 1 to 50, 1 to 25, or 2 to 24 disc springs slidably mounted on the first fastener, the second fastener, the third fastener, or the fourth fastener, respectively, of the first head unit.In some embodiments, the one or more disc springs of the apparatuses herein include KEY BELLEVILLES® disc springs (USA), which may be commonly referred to as “BELLEVILLE® Washers”. A first head unit may contact a portion of a tube, such as a first end of a tube. The first head unit may include a first seal, wherein a portion of a tube, such as a first end of a tube, contacts the first seal. The first seal mayPCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD include any known seal, and may be selected to prevent or eliminate the likelihood of fluid leakage, and / or withstand one or more parameters of the methods herein, such as pressure. The first seal may be arranged at any position that allows it to contact a first end of a tube and a first head unit. For example, a first seal may (i) circumvent an outer surface of a tube (e.g., a circumference of a substantially cylindrical tube), (ii) contact a terminal portion of a tube (e.g., a surface defining an inlet), or (iii) a combination thereof.

[0150] In some embodiments, the first seal includes rubber. For example, the first seal may include a rubber ring, which may be substantially circular when the portion of the tube, such as a first end (e.g., first cap), that contacts the first head unit is substantially cylindrical. In some embodiments, the first seal includes metal, such as a metal ring. In some embodiments, a first head unit includes a depression configured to receive a portion of a tube, such as a first end of the tube (e.g., first cap). The first seal, when present, may be arranged in the depression. In some embodiments, the first head unit includes a depression configured to receive at least a portion of a seal, and a seal is arranged in the depression of the first head unit. In some embodiments, the tube (e.g., a cap) includes a depression configured to receive at least a portion of a seal, and a seal is arranged in the depression of the tube. The depression of the tube may be located in a cap or other portion of the tube, and may, in some embodiments, circumvent an outer surface of the tube (e.g., a circumference of a substantially cylindrical tube). In some embodiments, the first head unit includes a depression configured to receive a first portion of a seal, and a tube (e.g., a cap) includes a depression configured to receive a second portion of the seal, and the seal is arranged in the depressions of the first head unit and the tube. The first head unit generally may have any shape that is capable of accommodating the apertures and contacting a tube.

[0151] As used herein, the term “seal”, the phrase “first seal”, the phrase “second seal”, and the like refer to a closure between two objects that eliminates or reduces the likelihood of fluid leakage between the two objects. A “seal” may include (i) contact between the two objects (e.g., two objects that are welded, brazed, fastened, clamped, adhered together with an adhesive, etc.), (ii) a device arranged between and in contact with both of the two objects, or (iii) a combination thereof. The device arranged between and in contact with both of the two objects may include, for example, a rubber seal (e.g., a VITON® rubber seal), a metal seal (e.g., a PARKER HANNIFIN® metal seal), a gasket, etc. A head unit may define one or more apertures configured to provide fluid to an inlet of a tube, or permit a fluid exiting an outlet of a tube to exit the head unit. The one or more apertures may include one or more channels, such as those depicted at FIG.5C of WO2021158729A1. A head unit mayPCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD define one or more apertures in which a fastener for securing a clamp or other device is slidably arranged.

[0152] Embodiments of head units are depicted at FIG.5A—5E of WO2021158729A1.

[0153] In some embodiments, a tube may include a cap, and the cap may be welded to, clamped to, or include a head unit (e.g., a cap and a head unit are integral parts of a single object). A seal, therefore, may not be included.

[0154] In some embodiments, the apparatus also includes a second head unit that defines a first aperture, a first fastener having a first end and a second end, wherein the first fastener is slidably arranged in the first aperture, and the second end of the first fastener is fixably mounted to the applicator, and a first elastically compressible apparatus arranged between the second head unit and the first end and / or second end of the first fastener.

[0155] In some embodiments, the apparatus also includes a second head unit that defines a first aperture and a second aperture, a first fastener having a first end and a second end, wherein the first fastener is slidably arranged in the first aperture, and the second end of the first fastener is fixably mounted to the applicator, a second fastener having a first end and a second end, wherein the second fastener is slidably arranged in the second aperture, and the second end of the first fastener is fixably mounted to the applicator, a first elastically compressible apparatus arranged between the second head unit and the first end and / or second end of the first fastener, and a second elastically compressible apparatus arranged between the second head unit and the first end and / or second end of the second fastener, wherein the second end of the tube and second head unit contact each other. In some embodiments, the apparatus includes a third aperture defined by the second head unit, a third fastener having a first end and a second end, wherein the third fastener is slidably arranged in the third aperture, and the second end of the third fastener is fixably mounted to the applicator, and a third elastically compressible apparatus arranged between the second head unit and the first end and / or second end of the third fastener. In some embodiments, the apparatus includes a fourth aperture defined by the second head unit, a fourth fastener having a first end and a second end, wherein the fourth fastener is slidably arranged in the fourth aperture, and the second end of the fourth fastener is fixably mounted to the applicator, and a fourth elastically compressible apparatus arranged between the second head unit and the first end and / or second end of the fourth fastener. The first, second, third, and fourth elastically compressible apparatus may be the same or different as those selected for a first head unit. In some embodiments, the first, second, third, or fourth elastically compressible apparatusPCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD includes one or more disc springs slidably mounted on the first fastener, the second fastener, the third fastener, or the fourth fastener, respectively, of the second head unit. In some embodiments, the apparatus includes 1 to 1,000, 1 to 750, 1 to 500, 1 to 250, 1 to 100, 1 to 50, 1 to 25, or 2 to 24 disc springs slidably mounted on the first fastener, the second fastener, the third fastener, or the fourth fastener, respectively, of the second head unit.

[0156] A second head unit may contact a portion of a tube, such as a second end of a tube. The second head unit may include a second seal, wherein a portion of a tube, such as a second end (e.g., second cap) of a tube, contacts the second seal. The second seal may include any known seal, and may be selected to prevent or eliminate the likelihood of fluid leakage, and / or withstand one or more parameters of the methods herein, such as pressure. In some embodiments, the second seal includes rubber. For example, the second seal may include a rubber ring, which may be substantially circular when the portion of the tube, such as a second end (e.g., second cap), that contacts the second head unit is substantially cylindrical. In some embodiments, the second seal includes metal, such as a metal ring. In some embodiments, a second head unit includes a depression configured to receive a portion of a tube, such as a second end of the tube (e.g., second cap). The second seal, when present, may be arranged in the depression. In some embodiments, the second head unit includes a depression configured to receive at least a portion of a seal, and a seal is arranged in the depression of the second head unit. In some embodiments, the tube (e.g., a cap) includes a depression configured to receive at least a portion of a seal, and the seal is arranged in the depression of the tube. In some embodiments, the second head unit includes a depression configured to receive a first portion of a seal, and a tube (e.g., a cap) includes a depression configured to receive a second portion of the seal, and the seal is arranged in the depressions of the second head unit and the tube. The second head unit generally may have any shape that is capable of accommodating the apertures and contacting a tube. The second head unit generally may have any shape that is capable of accommodating the apertures and contacting a tube.

[0157] In some embodiments, the apparatus includes a head unit that is fixably mounted to the applicator. In some embodiments, the apparatus includes a first head unit and a second head unit, and one or both of the first head unit and the second head unit is fixably mounted to the applicator.

[0158] In some embodiments, a head unit is fixably mounted to a tube. For example, (i) a first head unit may be fixably mounted to a first end of the tube, (ii) a second head unit may be fixably mounted to a second end of the tube, or (iii) the first head unit may be fixablyPCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD mounted to first end of the tube and the second head unit may be fixably mounted to the second end of the tube. A head unit may be fixably mounted to a tube by welding at least a portion of a head unit to at least a portion of a tube. When a tube, for example, includes a metal cap (e.g., a KOVAR® alloy metal cap), the metal cap may be welded to a head unit. In some embodiments, (i) a first head unit is welded to a first end of the tube, (ii) a second head unit is welded to a second end of the tube, or (iii) the first head unit is welded to the first end of the tube and the second head unit is welded to the second end of the tube.

[0159] An applicator generally may be made of any material, including a material that is capable of retaining microwaves. In some embodiments, the applicator is formed of a metal, such as stainless steel.

[0160] An applicator may have outer walls and / or internal walls (e.g., those dividing chambers of a vessel) of any thickness. In some embodiments, the outer walls and / or internal walls have a thickness of about 0.0002 m to about 0.05 m, about 0.0005 m to about 0.05 m, about 0.001 m to about 0.04 m, about 0.002 m to about 0.03 m, about 0.002 m to about 0.02 m, about 0.002 m to about 0.01 m, about 0.002 m to about 0.05 m, about 0.002 m to about 0.005 m, about 0.003 m to about 0.004 m, or about 0.003 m to about 0.0032 m. A vessel and the chamber(s) of a vessel generally may have any dimensions. If a vessel includes two or more chambers, then each of the chambers may have the same dimensions or different dimensions. A chamber of a vessel or modular unit may be a polygonal chamber (e.g., a cross-sectional shape that is square, rectangular, triangular, etc.) or anon-polygonal chamber (e.g., a cross-sectional shape that is circular, elliptical, etc.). A vessel and / or chamber in a vessel or modular unit may be configured (e.g., dimensioned) as a multimode chamber or a single mode chamber. A vessel and / or chamber in a vessel or modular unit may be configured (e.g., dimensioned) so that at least a portion of the electromagnetic waves, such as a plurality of microwaves, is directed to a tube or a susceptor material in a tube, which may improve heating efficiency.

[0161] In some embodiments, the applicators may include one or more sensors. The one or more sensors may include a temperature sensor, such as an infrared temperature sensor. A temperature sensor may be used to monitor or determine a temperature of a tube, such as the external temperature of a tube. One or more chambers of an applicator may include a temperature sensor, which may permit a temperature gradient along a tube to be determined and / or monitored. As a fluid passing through a tube is heated, the temperature of the tube may increase from its first end to its second end. By monitoring or determining this gradient, adjustments may be made to control the temperature gradient in any desirablePCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD manner. The one or more sensors may include a distance-detecting sensor. The one or more sensors may be in communication with a controller that adjusts one or more parameters of a component, such as a microwave generator, of an apparatus or system in response to data collected by the one or more sensors. For example, a controller may adjust one or more parameters (e.g., power, frequency, etc.) of a microwave generator in response to data collected from one or more sensors, such as a temperature sensor. Microwave Generators

[0162] Any known microwave generators may be included the apparatuses or used in the methods described herein. When an apparatus includes two or more microwave generators, the two or more microwave generators may be the same or different. When an apparatus includes two or more microwave generators, the two or more microwave generators may be operated at the same or different parameters (e.g., power, frequency, wavelength, etc.) during the methods described herein.

[0163] One or more of the microwave generators may be a space-based microwave generator. The space-based microwave generator may be configured to convert sunlight into electromagnetic waves, such as microwaves, which are transmitted to earth. In some embodiments, the space-based microwave generator includes a satellite. The satellite may include solar reflectors, solar panels, and transmitters. The solar reflectors may be oriented to reflect sunlight onto the solar panels. The sunlight may be converted into microwaves, which are transmitted from the satellite to a ground station. The microwaves transmitted from the satellite generally may have any frequency, such as any of those described herein, e.g., from about 915 MHz to 28 GHz, such as 5.8 GHz.

[0164] The one or more microwave generators may include magnetron continuous wave (CW) or pulse microwave generators, solid state fixed frequency or variable frequency microwave generators, or a combination thereof. The one or more microwave generators generally may be of any power (e.g., 200 W to 100 kW) and / or operate at any frequency (e.g., 915 MHz to 28 GHz) and / or wavelength (1 mm to 1 m). The one or more microwave generators may include commercially available microwave generators, such as SAIREM® microwave generators (Decines-Charpiue, France). The one or more microwave generators may include one or more microwave generators selected from the following table:PCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBDten microwave generators independently selected from Embodiments 1 to 12 of the foregoing table.

[0166] The one or more microwave generators may be configured to apply any desired total power. In some embodiments, the total power is about 2 kW to about 15 kW, about 3 kW to about 15 kW, about 4 kW to about 15 kW, about 5 kW to about 15 kW, about 6 kW to about 15 kW, about 7 kW to about 15 kW, about 8 kW to about 15 kW, about 9 kW to about 15 kW, about 10 kW to about 15 kW, about 11 kW to about 15 kW, about 12 kW to about 15 kW, about 13 kW to about 15 kW, about 14 kW to about 15 kW, about 2 kW to about 14 kW, about 2 kW to about 13 kW, about 2 kW to about 12 kW, about 2 kW to about 11 kW, about 2 kW to about 10 kW, about 2 kW to about 9 kW, about 2 kW to about 8 kW, about 2 kW to about 7 kW, about 2 kW to about 6 kW, about 2 kW to about 5 kW, about 2 kW to about 4 kW, about 2 kW to about 3 kW, about 4 kW to about 13 kW, about 4 kW to about 11 kW, or about 5 kW to about 10 kW.

[0167] A total power of the one or more microwave generators may be modified one or more times. For example, an initial total power may be increased and / or decreased one or more times while performing a method described herein. A total power may be modified for one or more reasons, such as whether (i) desired thermal conditions within a tube are present, (ii) a fluid is pre-heated and / or recirculated through a tube, (iii) whether a desired rate of chemical reaction is achieved, or (iv) a combination thereof. For example, a fluid at ambientPCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD temperature may be disposed in an inlet of a tube while an initial total power is employed, and the initial total power may be modified, e.g., decreased, when the fluid is recirculated, because the recirculated fluid may be at a temperature that exceeds the ambient temperature, thereby lessening the total power that is needed to maintain and / or further increase the temperature of the recirculated fluid.

[0168] If a multi-chambered applicator is used, then the total power may be (i) directed to one chamber, or (ii) achieved by applying equal and / or unequal fractions of the total power to any one or more of the chambers. For example, when a method uses a four- chambered applicator, and a total power of X, then equal and / or unequal fractions of the total power may be applied to the chambers (e.g., embodiments a-q), or the total power may be directed to one chamber (e.g., embodiments r-u), as shown, for example, at the following table: Embodiment Chamber 1 Chamber 2 Chamber 3 Chamber 4 a 0 03-05X 05-08X 0PCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD u 0 0 0 X

[0169] Also provided herein are systems that include the apparatuses described herein, including systems that may be used to perform the methods described herein. In some embodiments, the systems include a fluid source, a pump or compressor, a heat exchanger, or a combination thereof. An embodiment of a system is depicted at FIG.11 of WO 2021 / 158729A1.

[0170] The systems provided herein may also include one or more meters, such as a pressure meter, a flow meter, or a combination thereof. A pressure may be used, for example, to ensure that a pressure in at least part of a system exceeds a critical pressure of a fluid. A flow meter may be used, for example, to ensure a desired flow of a fluid, or monitor changes to a flow rate, which may occur when the heating of a fluid results in a corresponding decrease in viscosity.

[0171] In some embodiments, the systems include two or more of the apparatuses described herein. For example, a system may include a first apparatus and a second apparatus that are in fluid communication with each other, wherein the first apparatus is arranged upstream of the second apparatus. The first apparatus and the second apparatus may be identical, or the first apparatus and the second apparatus may differ in one or more ways. As an example, a first apparatus and a second apparatus may include different susceptor materials. The susceptor material of a first apparatus may be configured for efficiently pre- heating a fluid, such as water, and the susceptor material of a second apparatus may be configured for efficiently effecting a chemical reaction, as described herein. Therefore, a fluid, such as water, may be preheated with the first apparatus, and the preheated fluid may be forwarded to the second apparatus to effect a chemical reaction of the fluid, such as electrolysis. In some embodiments, the susceptor material of the first apparatus includes silicon carbide and magnetite, and the susceptor material of the second apparatus includes nickel and magnetite. Other configurations, however, are envisioned.

[0172] All referenced publications are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. Furthermore, where a definition or use of a term in a reference, which is incorporated by reference herein, is inconsistent or contrary to the definition of that term provided herein, the definition of that term provided herein applies and the definition of that term in the reference does not apply.PCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD

[0173] While certain aspects of conventional technologies have been discussed to facilitate disclosure of various embodiments, applicants in no way disclaim these technical aspects, and it is contemplated that the present disclosure may encompass one or more of the conventional technical aspects discussed herein.

[0174] The present disclosure may address one or more of the problems and deficiencies of known methods and processes. However, it is contemplated that various embodiments may prove useful in addressing other problems and deficiencies in a number of technical areas. Therefore, the present disclosure should not necessarily be construed as limited to addressing any of the particular problems or deficiencies discussed herein.

[0175] In this specification, where a document, act or item of knowledge is referred to or discussed, this reference or discussion is not an admission that the document, act or item of knowledge or any combination thereof was at the priority date, publicly available, known to the public, part of common general knowledge, or otherwise constitutes prior art under the applicable statutory provisions; or is known to be relevant to an attempt to solve any problem with which this specification is concerned.

[0176] In the descriptions provided herein, the terms “includes,” “is,” “containing,” “having,” and “comprises” are used in an open-ended fashion, and thus should be interpreted to mean “including, but not limited to.” When methods or apparatuses are claimed or described in terms of “comprising” various steps or components, the methods or apparatuses can also “consist essentially of’ or “consist of’ the various steps or components, unless stated otherwise.

[0177] The terms “a,” “an,” and “the” are intended to include plural alternatives, e.g., at least one. For instance, the disclosure of “a fluid,” “a product”, “a susceptor material,” “a tube”, and the like, is meant to encompass one, or mixtures or combinations of more than one fluid, product, susceptor material, tube, and the like, unless otherwise specified.

[0178] Various numerical ranges may be disclosed herein. When Applicant discloses or claims a range of any type, Applicant’s intent is to disclose or claim individually each possible number that such a range could reasonably encompass, including end points of the range as well as any sub-ranges and combinations of sub-ranges encompassed therein, unless otherwise specified. Moreover, all numerical end points of ranges disclosed herein are approximate. As a representative example, Applicant discloses, in some embodiments, that a tube has an inner diameter of about 30 mm to about 44 mm. This range should be interpreted as encompassing about 30 mm and about 44 mm, and further encompasses “about” each ofPCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD 31 mm, 32 mm, 33 mm, 34 mm, 35 mm, 36 mm, 37 mm, 38 mm, 39 mm, 40 mm, 41 mm, 42 mm, and 43 mm, including any ranges and sub-ranges between any of these values.

[0179] As used herein, the term “about” means plus or minus 10 % of the numerical value of the number with which it is being use.

[0180] Examples

[0181] The present disclosure is further illustrated by the following examples, which are not to be construed in any way as imposing limitations upon the scope thereof. On the contrary, it is to be clearly understood that resort may be had to various other aspects, embodiments, modifications, and equivalents thereof which, after reading the description herein, may suggest themselves to one of ordinary skill in the art without departing from the spirit of the present disclosure or the scope of the appended claims. Thus, other aspects of this disclosure will be apparent to those skilled in the art from consideration of the specification and practice of the disclosure disclosed herein.

[0182] Example 1 – Generation of Hydrogen Gas

[0183] In this example, hydrogen was generated with an embodiment of an apparatus described herein. The apparatus of this example included a tube that was formed of a microwave transparent material. The tube had a length of 23.5 inches (59.69 cm), and an inner diameter of 1.25 inches (3.175 cm). The tube had a monolithic structure, as described herein, and was spring mounted, at both ends, with disc springs and metal head units to a multi-chambered applicator. The applicator defined openings in which the tube was placed. The tube was arranged vertically in this example, with the inlet arranged at the “bottom” of the tube, and the outlet arranged at the “top” of the tube, thereby providing an upward fluid flow.

[0184] The tube had an internal volume in which particles of a susceptor material were disposed, and the position of the particles in the internal volume was controlled with two screen-containing retention devices. The susceptor material particles were disposed between the two retention devices.

[0185] The susceptor material of this example included a mixture of silicon carbide particles and magnetite particles. A mixture of nickel particles and magnetite particles also was tested. The silicon carbide particles, nickel particles, and magnetite particles used in this example were commercially available particles that were screened to obtain millimeter-scale particles of the materials, which were thoroughly mixed together before being disposed in the internal volume of the tube.PCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD

[0186] In this example, the fluid included water, and the fluid was flowed upwardly through the tube with a commercially available pump—and, optionally, recirculated through the tube one or more times—at a number of different flow rates. The initial flow rate was less than 1 L / minute, but the initial flow rate was increased when the fluid was recirculated in this example, because the temperature of the fluid increased with each pass through the tube.

[0187] Near the outlet of the tube, a commercially available temperature sensor was arranged in order to monitor the temperature of the fluid, and a commercially available hydrogen sensor was arranged downstream of the temperature sensor.

[0188] The fluid of this example was at ambient temperature (about 20 °C) when the fluid was initially disposed in the inlet of the tube, or prior to circulating the fluid. The fluid of this example flowed through the tube to contact the susceptor material particles, which were irradiated with microwaves at an initial total power of 7 kW. The power was reduced in this example by a value of about 1 kW to about 1.5 kW when the fluid was recirculated, but the extent of the power reduction depended, at least in part, on the flow rate. The total power was obtained by directing a fraction thereof to each chamber of the applicator. The fractions directed to the chambers were equal in some tests, and unequal in others.

[0189] As the fluid of this example was disposed in the inlet of the tube, and then recirculated, a pressure on the fluid was maintained as the fluid was heated, and the temperature and hydrogen sensors were monitored. When the temperature of the fluid of this example reached about 132 °C, according to the temperature sensor, the hydrogen sensor indicated the presence of hydrogen gas, which indicated that the amount of hydrogen generated by the method of this example exceeded the concentration of hydrogen that dissolved in the water. Concentrations of hydrogen gas of about 160,000 ppm were observed in the tests of this example, and greater concentrations were purposely avoided for safety reasons. The amount of hydrogen generated by the tests of this example can be controlled to obtain an amount that is desirable and / or safe under the conditions.

[0190] Embodiments

[0191] The following is a non-limiting listing of embodiments of the present disclosure. Methods

[0192] Embodiment 1. A method of producing a product, the method comprising, consisting essentially of, or consisting of:

[0193] irradiating a susceptor material with electromagnetic radiation; and

[0194] contacting the susceptor material and a fluid to produce the product.PCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD

[0195] Embodiment 2. The method of Embodiment 1, wherein the irradiating of the susceptor material produces an electric current, a field, or a combination thereof.

[0196] Embodiment 3. The method of Embodiment 2, wherein the field comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of an electric field, a magnetic field, a quantum field, or a combination thereof.

[0197] Embodiment 4. The method of Embodiment 2 or 3, wherein the field is a static field.

[0198] Embodiment 5. The method of Embodiment 2 or 3, wherein the field is a dynamic field.

[0199] Embodiment 6. The method of any one of Embodiments 2 to 5, wherein the irradiating of the susceptor material with electromagnetic radiation effects a chemical reaction of the fluid, or a combination thereof, to produce a product.

[0200] Embodiment 7. The method of any one of Embodiments 2 to 6, wherein the electric current, the field, or a combination thereof effects a chemical reaction of the fluid, or a component thereof, to produce the product.

[0201] Embodiment 8. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the fluid comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of an aqueous fluid, and the chemical reaction comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of an electrolysis reaction, a hydrolysis reaction, or a combination thereof of the water of the aqueous fluid.

[0202] Embodiment 9. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the product comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of a hydrogen product, such as hydrogen (H2).

[0203] Embodiment 10. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the fluid has a temperature of about 30 °C to about 400 °C, about 50 °C to about 400 °C, about 75 °C to about 400 °C, about 100 °C to about 400 °C, about 100 °C to about 350 °C, about 100 °C to about 300 °C, about 100 °C to about 250 °C, about 100 °C to about 200 °C, about 125 °C to about 400 °C, about 150 °C to about 400 °C, about 150 °C to about 350 °C, about 150 °C to about 300 °C, about 150 °C to about 250 °C, about 150 °C to about 200 °C, about 175 °C to about 400 °C, about 250 °C to about 400 °C, about 250 ℃ to about 350 ℃ after the contacting of the fluid and the susceptor material.

[0204] Embodiment 11. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the fluid has a critical pressure, and the contacting of the susceptor material and the fluid occurs, at least partially, at a pressure of about 1 bar to about 400 bar, about 1 bar to about 350 bar, about 1 bar to about 300 bar, about 1 bar to about 250 bar, about 1.1 bar to about 250PCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD bar, about 5 bar to about 250 bar, about 5 bar to about 225 bar, about 5 bar to about 200 bar, about 5 bar to about 150 bar, about 5 bar to about 100 bar, or about 10 bar to about 100 bar; or at least 2 bar, at least 5 bar, at least 10 bar, at least 25 bar, at least 50 bar, at least 100 bar, at least 150 bar, or at least 200 bar; or at a pressure that is at least 2 times, at least 3 times, at least 4 times, or at least 5 times greater than the vapor pressure of the fluid; or at a pressure that is about 2 times to about 5 times, about 3 times to about 5 times, or about 4 to about 5 times greater than the vapor pressure of the fluid.

[0205] Embodiment 12. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the irradiating of the susceptor material heats the susceptor material; and the contacting of the susceptor material and the fluid effects a chemical reaction of the fluid, or a component thereof, to produce the product.

[0206] Embodiment 13. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, further comprising, consisting essentially of, or consisting of collecting the product, storing the product, transporting the product, consuming the product, or a combination thereof.

[0207] Embodiment 14. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the contacting of the susceptor material and the fluid occurs before, during, and / or after the irradiating of the susceptor material.

[0208] Embodiment 15. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the contacting of the susceptor material and the fluid includes providing a stream comprising, consisting essentially of, or consisting of the fluid, and contacting the stream and the susceptor material at a flow rate; wherein, optionally, the flow is about 0.1 liters / minute to about 1,000 liters / minute, about 0.1 liters / minute to about 750 liters / minute, about 0.1 liters / minute to about 500 liters / minute, about 0.1 liters / minute to about 250 liters / minute, about 0.1 liters / minute to about 100 liters / minute, about 0.1 liters / minute to about 50 liters / minute, about 0.1 liters / minute to about 25 liters / minute, about 0.1 liters / minute to about 10 liters / minute, about 0.1 liters / minute to about 5 liters / minute, about 0.2 liters / minute to about 3 liters / minute, about 0.2 liters / minute to about 1.2 liters / minute, about 900 liters / minute to about 1,000 liters / minute, about 800 liters / minute to about 1,000 liters / minute, about 700 liters / minute to about 1,000 liters / minute, about 600 liters / minute to about 1,000 liters / minute, about 500 liters / minute to about 1,000 liters / minute, about 400 liters / minute to about 1,000 liters / minute, about 300 liters / minute to about 1,000 liters / minute, about 250 liters / minute to about 1,000 liters / minute, about 200 liters / minute to about 1,000 liters / minute, about 100 liters / minute to about 1,000 liters / minute, about 75 liters / minute to about 1,000 liters / minute, about 50 liters / minute to about 1,000 liters / minute,PCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD about 10 liters / minute to about 1,000 liters / minute, at least 5 liters / minute, at least 10 liters / minute, at least 15 liters / minute, or at least 20 liters / minute.

[0209] Embodiment 16. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the stream contacts the susceptor material once, or the stream is recirculated so that it contacts a susceptor material two or more times. Chemical Reaction

[0210] Embodiment 17. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the chemical reaction is an intermolecular chemical reaction.

[0211] Embodiment 18. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the chemical reaction is an intramolecular chemical reaction.

[0212] Embodiment 19. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the chemical reaction is an electrolysis reaction, a hydrolysis reaction, or a combination thereof. Electromagnetic Radiation

[0213] Embodiment 20. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the electromagnetic radiation comprises a plurality of microwaves.

[0214] Embodiment 21. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the electromagnetic radiation is provided by one or more microwave generators.

[0215] Embodiment 22. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the one or more microwave generators comprise a magnetron generator, a solid state generator, or a combination thereof.

[0216] Embodiment 23. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the electromagnetic radiation is provided by one or more space-based microwave generators.

[0217] Embodiment 24. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the one or more microwave generators has a power of about 200 W to about 100 kW, about 200 W to about 60 kW, or about 200 W to about 54 kW.

[0218] Embodiment 25. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein one or more microwaves of the plurality of microwaves has a frequency of 915 MHz, 2.45 GHz, 14 GHz, 18 GHz, or 28 GHz.

[0219] Embodiment 26. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the electromagnetic radiation comprises a plurality of radio waves, a plurality of infrared waves, a plurality of gamma rays, or a combination thereof. CatalystsPCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD

[0220] Embodiment 27. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the chemical reaction is catalyzed by a catalyst.

[0221] Embodiment 28. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the catalyst is disposed in the fluid.

[0222] Embodiment 29. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the catalyst is soluble in the fluid, insoluble in the fluid, or partially soluble in the fluid.

[0223] Embodiment 30. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the catalyst is the susceptor material.

[0224] Embodiment 31. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the catalyst is present as an additive of the susceptor material.

[0225] Embodiment 32. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, further comprising, consisting essentially of, or consisting of contacting the fluid and the catalyst.

[0226] Embodiment 33. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the contacting of the fluid and the catalyst occurs (i) before the contacting of the fluid and the susceptor material, (ii) after the contacting of the fluid and the susceptor material, or (iii) a combination thereof.

[0227] Embodiment 34. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the catalyst is in a particulate form or a monolithic form. Fluids

[0228] Embodiment 35. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the fluid comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of an aqueous fluid.

[0229] Embodiment 36. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the aqueous fluid consists of water.

[0230] Embodiment 37. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the aqueous fluid comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of saltwater.

[0231] Embodiment 38. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the fluid comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of an organic fluid.

[0232] Embodiment 39. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the component of the fluid comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of one or more solids (at room temperature and atmospheric pressure) that are (i) dispersed in the fluid, (ii) dissolved in the fluid, or (iii) a combination thereof.

[0233] Embodiment 40. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the fluid, prior to contacting the susceptor material, has a temperature of about 15 °C to aboutPCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD 200 °C, about 15 °C to about 150 °C, about 15 °C to about 100 °C, about 15 °C to about 50 °C, or about 20 °C to about 30 °C.

[0234] Embodiment 41. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the fluid, after contacting the susceptor material, has a temperature of about 250 °C to about 600 °C, about 250 °C to about 500 °C, about 150 °C to about 400 °C, about 150 °C to about 350 °C, about 150 °C to about 300 °C, about 150 °C to about 250 °C, about 150 °C to about 200 °C, about 175 °C to about 400 °C, about 250 °C to about 400 °C, or about 250 °C to about 350 °C.

[0235] Embodiment 42. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the fluid, after contacting the susceptor material, has a temperature of about 30 °C to about 1,500 °C, about 50 °C to about 1,500 °C, about 100 °C to about 1,250 °C, about 100 °C to about 1,000 °C, about 100 °C to about 900 °C, about 100 °C to about 800 °C, about 100 °C to about 700 °C, about 100 °C to about 600 °C, about 100 °C to about 500 °C, about 200 °C to about 500 °C, about 300 °C to about 500 °C, or about 400 °C to about 500 °C. Susceptor Material

[0236] Embodiment 43. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein (A) the susceptor material comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of a metal, a half metal, a dielectric, or a combination thereof, or (B) the susceptor material comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of a metal, a half metal, a dielectric, or a combination thereof at an amount of at least 5 %, at least 10 %, at least 15 %, at least 20 %, at least 25 %, at least 50 %, at least 75 %, or 100 %, by weight, based on the weight of the susceptor material.

[0237] Embodiment 44. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the susceptor material comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of iron oxide, silicon carbide, magnetite, zeolite, quartz, ferrite, carbon black, graphite, granite, or a combination thereof.

[0238] Embodiment 45. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the susceptor material comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of a ferromagnetic material, a ferrimagnetic material, or a combination thereof.

[0239] Embodiment 46. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the susceptor material comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of iron, cobalt, nickel, zinc, chromium, indium tin oxide (ITO), a platinum group metal, a rare-earth metal, an oxide thereof, an alloy thereof, or a combination thereof.PCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD

[0240] Embodiment 47. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the susceptor material comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of a metal alloy, such as a nickel-cobalt ferrous alloy, such as KOVAR® alloy (CRS Holdings, Inc. USA).,

[0241] Embodiment 48. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the susceptor material comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of magnetite.

[0242] Embodiment 49. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the susceptor material comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of magnetite and silicon carbide.

[0243] Embodiment 50. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the susceptor material comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of magnetite and nickel.

[0244] Embodiment 51. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the susceptor material comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of an anti-ferromagnetic material.

[0245] Embodiment 52. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the susceptor material comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of a paramagnetic material.

[0246] Embodiment 53. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the susceptor material comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of lithium.

[0247] Embodiment 54. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the susceptor material comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of a ceramic, a semiconductor, or a combination thereof.

[0248] Embodiment 55. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the susceptor material comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of silicon carbide.

[0249] Embodiment 56. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the susceptor material comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of (i) a ferromagnetic material and a ceramic, (ii) a ferrimagnetic material and a ceramic, or (iii) a ferromagnetic material, a ferrimagnetic material, and a ceramic.

[0250] Embodiment 57. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein (i) the ferromagnetic material, (ii) the ferrimagnetic material, or (iii) the ferromagnetic material and the ferrimagnetic material (in total) is present in the susceptor material at an amount of about 50 % to about 70 %, by weight, based on the weight of the susceptor material, and the ceramic is present in the susceptor material at an amount of about 30 % to about 50 %, by weight, based on the weight of the susceptor material.PCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD

[0251] Embodiment 58. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the susceptor material further comprises, consists essentially of, or consist of an additive, wherein, optionally, the additive comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of an electrolyte.

[0252] Embodiment 59. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the susceptor material is in a particulate form.

[0253] Embodiment 60. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the susceptor material includes microparticles, nanoparticles, or a combination thereof.

[0254] Embodiment 61. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the susceptor material is in the form of regularly shaped particles (e.g., spherical particles), irregularly shaped particles, or a combination thereof.

[0255] Embodiment 62. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the susceptor material includes a surface, and at least a portion of the surface defines one or more grooves, one or more ridges, one or more recesses, one or more protrusions, one or more holes, one or more wells, or a combination thereof.

[0256] Embodiment 63. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the method further comprises providing the susceptor material, such as prior to the irradiating of the susceptor material, wherein the providing of the susceptor material comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of modifying at least a portion of a surface of the susceptor material to produce a modified surface, wherein the modified surface defines one or more grooves, one or more ridges, one or more recesses, one or more protrusions, one or more holes, one or more wells, or a combination thereof.

[0257] Embodiment 64. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the modifying of the at least a portion of the surface of the susceptor material comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of subjecting the at least a portion of the surface to a physical technique, a chemical technique (e.g., an electrochemical technique), or a combination thereof.

[0258] Embodiment 65. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the physical technique, the chemical technique, or the combination thereof comprises engraving (e.g., knurling), etching, a deposition technique (e.g., vapor deposition, electroplating, etc.), lithography (e.g., photolithography), grinding, chiseling, etc.

[0259] Embodiment 66. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the one or more grooves, the one or more ridges, the one or more recesses, the one or more protrusions, one or more holes, one or more wells, or the combination thereof impart thePCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD susceptor material with a sub-debye-length structural feature (e.g., gap), a sub-wavelength structural feature, an integrated circuit, or a combination thereof.

[0260] Embodiment 67. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the contacting of the fluid and the susceptor material comprises flowing the fluid through a volume of particles of the susceptor material; wherein, optionally, (i) at least a portion of the susceptor material, (ii) at least a portion of the catalyst, or (iii) a combination thereof is transported by the fluid, such as transported by the fluid in or through the container or the tube (e.g., circulated one or more times).

[0261] Embodiment 68. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the flowing of the fluid through the volume of particles of the susceptor material occurs at a rate of about 0.1 L / minute to about 10 L / minute, about 0.1 L / minute to about 8 L / minute, about 0.1 L / minute to about 6 L / minute, about 0.1 L / minute to about 4 L / minute, about 0.1 L / minute to about 2 L / minute, or about 0.1 L / minute to about 1 L / minute.

[0262] Embodiment 69. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein one or more particles of the susceptor material comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of –

[0263] (A) (i) a core formed at least in part of a first susceptor material, and

[0264] (ii) a coating formed at least in part of a second susceptor material, wherein the core is at least partially coated with the coating; or

[0265] (B) (i) a core formed at least in part of a susceptor material, and

[0266] (ii) a coating formed at least in part of a non-susceptor material, wherein the core is at least partially coated with the coating; or

[0267] (C) (i) a core formed at least in part of a non-susceptor material, and

[0268] (ii) a coating formed at least in part of a susceptor material, wherein the core is at least partially coated with the coating.

[0269] Embodiment 70. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the susceptor material comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of –

[0270] (i) a first region having a greater concentration of a first susceptor material, and

[0271] (ii) a second region having a greater concentration of a second susceptor material.

[0272] Embodiment 71. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the contacting of the fluid and the susceptor material comprises, consists essentially of, orPCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD consists of contacting the fluid and the first region, and then contacting the fluid and the second region.

[0273] Embodiment 72. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the contacting of the fluid and the susceptor material comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of contacting the fluid and the second region, and then contacting the fluid and the first region.

[0274] Embodiment 73. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the first susceptor material comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of a ceramic, a semiconductor, or a combination thereof.

[0275] Embodiment 74. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the first susceptor material comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of silicon carbide.

[0276] Embodiment 75. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the second susceptor material comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of a ferromagnetic material, a ferrimagnetic material, or a combination thereof.

[0277] Embodiment 76. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the second susceptor material comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of iron.

[0278] Embodiment 77. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the second susceptor material comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of iron oxide.

[0279] Embodiment 78. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the second susceptor material comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of magnetite.

[0280] Embodiment 79. The method of any one of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the susceptor material, during or after being irradiated with electromagnetic radiation has a temperature of about 30 °C to about 1,500 °C, about 50 °C to about 1,500 °C, about 100 °C to about 1,250 °C, about 100 °C to about 1,000 °C, about 100 °C to about 900 °C, about 100 °C to about 800 °C, about 100 °C to about 700 °C, about 100 °C to about 600 °C, about 100 °C to about 500 °C, about 200 °C to about 500 °C, about 300 °C to about 500 °C, about 400 °C to about 500 °C. about 250 °C to about 1,500 °C, about 350 °C to about 1,500 °C, about 450 °C to about 1,500 °C, about 300 °C to about 1,000 °C, about 300 °C to about 800 °C, or about 300 °C to about 700 °C. Components of Apparatus

[0281] Embodiment 80. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the susceptor material is disposed in a container, such as a tube, formed at least in part of an electromagnetic wave-transparent material.PCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD

[0282] Embodiment 81. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the susceptor material is disposed in an internal reservoir of the tube, and the apparatus further comprises one or more retention devices arranged at a position to (i) prevent the susceptor material from escaping the internal reservoir of the tube, (ii) control a location of the susceptor material in the internal reservoir of the tube, (iii) prevent a susceptor material from contacting a fluid, (iv) prevent the catalyst from escaping the internal reservoir of the tube, (v) control a location of the catalyst in the internal reservoir of the tube, (vi) prevent a catalyst from contacting a fluid, or (vii) a combination thereof.

[0283] Embodiment 82. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the one or more retention devices comprise a screen, a housing, or a combination thereof.

[0284] Embodiment 83. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the tube comprises an inlet and an outlet, and the contacting of the fluid and the susceptor material comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of disposing the fluid in the inlet of the tube.

[0285] Embodiment 84. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, further comprising, consisting essentially of, or consisting of collecting at least a portion of the fluid and at least a portion of the product at the outlet of the tube; and optionally directing the at least a portion of the fluid collected at the outlet of the tube to the inlet of the tube.

[0286] Embodiment 85. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein (i) a first end of the tube is fixably mounted or spring mounted to an applicator, and (ii) at least a portion of the tube and at least a portion the susceptor material in the tube is arranged in the applicator.

[0287] Embodiment 86. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the applicator comprises (i) a vessel or a modular unit, and (ii) a separate mounting apparatus, wherein the separate mounting apparatus permits the first end of the tube to be fixably or spring mounted to the applicator.

[0288] Embodiment 87. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein a second end of the tube is fixably mounted or spring mounted to the applicator.

[0289] Embodiment 88. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the first end of the tube and the second end of the tube are spring mounted to the applicator.

[0290] Embodiment 89. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the electromagnetic radiation is provided by one or more microwave generators, wherein the one or more microwave generators are positioned to introduce a plurality of microwaves intoPCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD the applicator to irradiate the at least a portion of the susceptor material with the plurality of microwaves.

[0291] Embodiment 90. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the electromagnetic wave-transparent material comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of a microwave-transparent material.

[0292] Embodiment 91. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the microwave-transparent material comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of a ceramic, a polymer, a glass, or a combination thereof.

[0293] Embodiment 92. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the microwave-transparent material comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of alumina, mullite, sialon, zirconia, or a combination thereof.

[0294] Embodiment 93. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the microwave-transparent material is annealed.

[0295] Embodiment 94. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the microwave-transparent material comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of (i) alumina, (ii) fused silica, (iii) silicon nitride, (iv) a ceramic including silicon, aluminum, nitrogen, oxygen, or a combination thereof, or (v) a combination thereof.

[0296] Embodiment 95. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the tube has a monolithic structure.

[0297] Embodiment 96. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the first end of the tube is spring mounted to the applicator, and the apparatus further comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of (i) a first head unit defining a first aperture, a first fastener having a first end and a second end, wherein the first fastener is slidably arranged in the first aperture, and the second end of the first fastener is fixably mounted to the applicator, and a first elastically compressible apparatus arranged between the first head unit and the first end and / or the second end of the first fastener, wherein the first end of the tube and first head unit contact each other; or (ii) a first head unit defining a first aperture and a second aperture, a first fastener having a first end and a second end, wherein the first fastener is slidably arranged in the first aperture, and the second end of the first fastener is fixably mounted to the applicator, a second fastener having a first end and a second end, wherein the second fastener is slidably arranged in the second aperture, and the second end of the first fastener is fixably mounted to the applicator, a first elastically compressible apparatus arranged between the first head unit and the first end and / or the second end of the first fastener, and a second elastically compressible apparatus arranged between the first head unitPCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD and the first end and / or the second end of the second fastener; wherein the first end of the tube and first head unit contact each other.

[0298] Embodiment 97. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, further comprising a third aperture defined by the first head unit; a third fastener having a first end and a second end, wherein the third fastener is slidably arranged in the third aperture, and the second end of the third fastener is fixably mounted to the applicator; and a third elastically compressible apparatus arranged between the first head unit and the first end and / or the second end of the third fastener.

[0299] Embodiment 98. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, further comprising a fourth aperture defined by the first head unit; a fourth fastener having a first end and a second end, wherein the fourth fastener is slidably arranged in the fourth aperture, and the second end of the fourth fastener is fixably mounted to the applicator; and a fourth elastically compressible apparatus arranged between the first head unit and the first end and / or the second end of the fourth fastener.

[0300] Embodiment 99. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the first elastically compressible apparatus, the second elastically compressible apparatus, the third elastically compressive apparatus, the fourth elastically compressible apparatus, or a combination thereof comprises one or more disc springs slidably mounted on the first fastener, the second fastener, the third fastener, or the fourth fastener, respectively.

[0301] Embodiment 100. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the first elastically compressible apparatus, the second elastically compressible apparatus, the third elastically compressive apparatus, the fourth elastically compressible apparatus, or a combination thereof comprises 1 to 24 disc springs slidably mounted on the first fastener, the second fastener, the third fastener, or the fourth fastener, respectively.

[0302] Embodiment 101. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, further comprising a first seal that provides closure between the first head unit and the first end of the tube.

[0303] Embodiment 102. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the first seal comprises (i) rubber arranged between and in contact with the first head unit and the first end of the tube, (ii) a clamp and / or fastener that maintains contact between the first head unit and the first end of the tube, or (iii) a combination thereof.

[0304] Embodiment 103. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the first head unit comprises a depression configured to receive the first end of the tube.PCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD

[0305] Embodiment 104. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the apparatus further comprises a second head unit fixably mounted to the applicator; wherein the second end of the tube and second head unit contact each other; and wherein the second head unit comprises one or more elements of the first head unit.

[0306] Embodiment 105. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the applicator comprises a vessel (i) having a first end and a second end, and (ii) comprising one to thirty chambers defined by (a) one or more outer walls of the vessel, (b) one or more walls inside the vessel, or (c) a combination thereof, wherein the first end of the vessel, the second end of the vessel, the one or more walls inside the vessel, or a combination thereof define an aperture, and the tube is arranged in the apertures defined by (a) the first end of the vessel, (b) the second end of the vessel, (c) the one or more walls inside the vessel, or (d) a combination thereof. Embodiment 38. The apparatus of Embodiment 37, wherein the vessel further comprises at least one waveguide comprising a passageway through which the plurality of microwaves pass prior to entering one of the one to thirty chambers.

[0307] Embodiment 106. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the vessel comprises four to six chambers.

[0308] Embodiment 107. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the apparatus comprises three to six microwave generators, and the applicator comprises four to six chambers.

[0309] Embodiment 108. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein at least one of the one or more microwave generators (i) is positioned to introduce the plurality of microwaves into at least one of the one to thirty chambers via an aperture defined by the one or more outer walls of the vessel, (ii) is positioned in at least one of the one to thirty chambers, or (iii) a combination thereof.

[0310] Embodiment 109. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the one or more microwave generators are positioned to introduce the plurality of microwaves into at least one of the one to thirty chambers via the aperture defined by the one or more outer walls, and the one or more microwave generators is positioned in the at least one waveguide.

[0311] Embodiment 110. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the applicator comprises one to thirty modular applicator units, wherein each modular applicator unit comprises (i) a chamber having a first side and a second side, (ii) a first aperture defined by the first side, (iii) a second aperture defined by the second side, and (iv) a waveguide extending from a third aperture of the chamber; wherein the one to thirty modularPCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD applicator units are arranged adjacent to each other, and the tube is arranged in the first aperture and the second aperture of each modular applicator unit.

[0312] Embodiment 111. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the applicator comprises four to six of the modular applicator units.

[0313] Embodiment 112. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein at least one of the one or more microwave generators is positioned to introduce a plurality of microwaves into at least one of the one to thirty modular applicator units.

[0314] Embodiment 113. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the apparatus comprises three to six microwave generators, and the applicator comprises four to six of the modular applicator units.

[0315] Embodiment 114. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein a portion of the tube formed of the electromagnetic wave-transparent material is substantially cylindrical.

[0316] Embodiment 115. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the tube has an outer diameter of about 45 mm to about 60 mm, and an inner diameter of about 30 mm to about 44 mm.

[0317] Embodiment 116. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the tube has an outer diameter of about 50 mm to about 54 mm, and an inner diameter of about 40 mm to about 44 mm.

[0318] Embodiment 117. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the tube has a length of about 0.1 m to about 5 m, about 0.1 m to about 4 m, about 0.1 m to about 3 m, about 0.5 m to about 3 m, about 0.5 m to about 2 m, about 0.5 m to about 1.5 m, or about 1 m to about 1.5 m.

[0319] Embodiment 118. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein a longitudinal axis of the tube is parallel (0 °) or perpendicular (90 °) to a surface (e.g., ground, floor, ceiling, wall etc.) that supports the apparatus.

[0320] Embodiment 119. The method of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein an angle between a longitudinal axis of the tube and a surface (e.g., ground, floor, ceiling, wall etc.) that supports the apparatus is 0 ° to 90 °, 10 ° to 90 °, 20 ° to 90 °, 30 ° to 90 °, 40 ° to 90 °, 50 ° to 90 °, 60 ° to 90 °, 70 ° to 90 °, or 80 ° to 90 °.

[0321] Embodiment 120. An apparatus comprising, consisting essentially of, or consisting of any one or more elements (e.g., tube, susceptor material, catalyst, applicator, microwave generator, etc.) of any of the preceding Embodiments.PCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD

[0322] Embodiment 121. An apparatus comprising, consisting essentially of, or consisting of a susceptor material of any of the preceding Embodiments, and a tube of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the susceptor material is disposed in the tube.

[0323] Embodiment 122. The apparatus of Embodiment 121, further comprising, consisting essentially of, or consisting of one or more retention devices.

[0324] Embodiment 123. A system comprising, consisting essentially of, or consisting of the apparatus of any of the preceding Embodiments; a fluid source in which the fluid is disposed, wherein the fluid source is in fluid communication with the tube; and a pump configured to provide (i) the fluid from the fluid source to the tube, (ii) a pressure in the tube, wherein the pump is in fluid communication with the apparatus and the fluid source, or (iii) a combination thereof.

[0325] Embodiment 124. The system of any of the preceding Embodiments, further comprising a heat exchanger in fluid communication with the second end of the tube and the pump.

[0326] Embodiment 125. A system comprising, consisting essentially of, or consisting of two or more of the of any of the preceding Embodiments; whereinthe two or more apparatuses are in fluid communication.

[0327] Embodiment 126. The system of Embodiment 125, wherein the system comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of a first apparatus and a second apparatus, wherein the first apparatus is arranged upstream of the second apparatus, and wherein the first apparatus and the second apparatus are identical, or the first apparatus and the second apparatus differ in one or more ways described herein, e.g., applicator, tube, susceptor material, microwave generators, etc.

[0328] Embodiment 127. The system of Embodiment 126, wherein the first apparatus and the second apparatus include different susceptor materials.

[0329] Embodiment 128. The system of Embodiment 127, wherein the susceptor material of the first apparatus is configured for efficiently pre-heating a fluid, such as water, and the susceptor material of a second apparatus is configured for efficiently effecting a chemical reaction, as described herein.

[0330] Embodiment 129. The system of Embodiment 127 or 128, wherein the susceptor material of the first apparatus comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of silicon carbide and magnetite, and the susceptor material of the second apparatus comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of nickel and magnetite.PCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD

[0331] Embodiment 130. The method or system of any of the preceding Embodiments, wherein the one or more microwave generators are configured to apply a total power, wherein the total power is about 2 kW to about 15 kW, about 3 kW to about 15 kW, about 4 kW to about 15 kW, about 5 kW to about 15 kW, about 6 kW to about 15 kW, about 7 kW to about 15 kW, about 8 kW to about 15 kW, about 9 kW to about 15 kW, about 10 kW to about 15 kW, about 11 kW to about 15 kW, about 12 kW to about 15 kW, about 13 kW to about 15 kW, about 14 kW to about 15 kW, about 2 kW to about 14 kW, about 2 kW to about 13 kW, about 2 kW to about 12 kW, about 2 kW to about 11 kW, about 2 kW to about 10 kW, about 2 kW to about 9 kW, about 2 kW to about 8 kW, about 2 kW to about 7 kW, about 2 kW to about 6 kW, about 2 kW to about 5 kW, about 2 kW to about 4 kW, about 2 kW to about 3 kW, about 4 kW to about 13 kW, about 4 kW to about 11 kW, or about 5 kW to about 10 kW.

[0332] Embodiment 131. The method or system of Embodiment 130, wherein the total power of the one or more microwave generators is modified one or more times.

[0333] Embodiment 132. The method or system of Embodiment 130 or 131, wherein when a multi-chambered applicator is used, the total power is (i) directed to one chamber, or (ii) achieved by applying equal and / or unequal fractions of the total power to any one or more of the chambers.

Claims

PCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD We claim – 1. A method of producing a product, the method comprising: irradiating a susceptor material with electromagnetic radiation, wherein the irradiating of the susceptor material produces an electric current, a field, or a combination thereof; and contacting the susceptor material and a fluid, wherein the electric current, the field, or the combination thereof effects a chemical reaction of the fluid, or a component thereof, to produce the product.

2. The method of claim 1, wherein – (i) the fluid comprises an aqueous fluid; and (ii) the chemical reaction comprises an electrolysis reaction of the water of the aqueous fluid.

3. The method of claim 2, wherein the product comprises a hydrogen product.

4. The method of claim 3, wherein the hydrogen product comprises hydrogen (H2).

5. The method of claim 2, wherein the fluid has a temperature of about 30 ℃ to about 400 ℃ after the contacting of the fluid and the susceptor material.

6. The method of claim 2, wherein the fluid has a temperature of about 100 ℃ to about 250 ℃ after the contacting of the fluid and the susceptor material.

7. The method of claim 1, wherein the irradiating of the susceptor material produces the electric current.

8. The method of claim 1, wherein the irradiating of the susceptor material produces the field, wherein the field comprises an electric field, a magnetic field, or a combination thereof.

9. The method of claim 8, wherein the field comprises the electric field.PCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD 10. The method of claim 8, wherein the field comprises the magnetic field.

11. The method of claim 1, wherein the chemical reaction is an intermolecular chemical reaction.

12. The method of claim 1, wherein the chemical reaction is an intramolecular chemical reaction.

13. The method of claim 1, wherein the chemical reaction is an electrolysis reaction.

14. The method of claim 1, wherein the chemical reaction is catalyzed by a catalyst.

15. The method of claim 14, wherein the catalyst is disposed in the fluid, wherein the catalyst is soluble in the fluid, insoluble in the fluid, or partially soluble in the fluid.

16. The method of 14, wherein the catalyst is the susceptor material.

17. The method of claim 14, wherein the catalyst is present as an additive of the susceptor material.

18. The method of claim 14, further comprising contacting the fluid and the catalyst, wherein the contacting of the fluid and the catalyst occurs before and / or after the contacting of the fluid and the susceptor material.

19. The method of claim 14, wherein the catalyst is in a particulate form.

20. The method of claim 14, wherein the catalyst is in a monolithic form.

21. The method of claim 1, wherein the fluid is an aqueous fluid.

22. The method of claim 21, wherein the aqueous fluid consists of water.

23. The method of claim 21, wherein the aqueous fluid comprises saltwater.PCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD 24 The method of claim 1, wherein the fluid comprises water, an organic fluid, or a combination thereof.

25. The method of claim 1, wherein the component of the fluid comprises one or more solids that are (i) dispersed in the fluid, (ii) dissolved in the fluid, or (iii) a combination thereof.

26. The method of claim 1, wherein the susceptor material comprises a ferromagnetic material, a ferrimagnetic material, or a combination thereof.

27. The method of claim 1, wherein the susceptor material comprises iron, cobalt, nickel, zinc, chromium, indium tin oxide (ITO), a platinum group metal, a rare-earth metal, an oxide thereof, an alloy thereof, or a combination thereof.

28. The method of claim 1, wherein the susceptor material comprises iron oxide.

29. The method of claim 28, wherein the susceptor material comprises magnetite.

30. The method of claim 1, wherein the susceptor material comprises an anti- ferromagnetic material.

31. The method of claim 1, wherein the susceptor material comprises a paramagnetic material.

32. The method of claim 1, wherein the susceptor material comprises lithium.

33. The method of claim 1, wherein the susceptor material comprises a ceramic, a semiconductor, or a combination thereof.

34. The method of claim 1, wherein the susceptor material comprises magnetite and silicon carbide.

35. The method of claim 1, wherein the susceptor material comprises magnetite and nickel.PCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD 36. The method of claim 1, wherein the susceptor material comprises (i) a semiconductor, and (ii) a metal or a metal oxide.

37. The method of claim 1, wherein the susceptor material comprises silicon carbide.

38. The method of claim 1, wherein the susceptor material comprises: (i) a ceramic; and (ii) a ferromagnetic material, a ferrimagnetic material, or a combination thereof.

39. The method of claim 38, wherein the ferromagnetic material, the ferrimagnetic material, or the ferromagnetic material and the ferrimagnetic material (in total) is present at an amount of about 50 % to about 70 %, by weight, based on the weight of the susceptor material, and the ceramic is present at an amount of about 30 % to about 50 %, by weight, based on the weight of the susceptor material.

40. The method of claim 1, wherein the susceptor material further comprises an additive.

41. The method of claim 1, wherein the susceptor material comprises a surface, and at least a portion of the surface defines one or more grooves, one or more ridges, one or more recesses, one or more protrusions, one or more holes, one or more wells, or a combination thereof.

42. The method of claim 41, wherein the one or more grooves, the one or more ridges, the one or more recesses, the one or more protrusions, one or more holes, one or more wells, or the combination thereof impart the susceptor material with a sub-debye- length structural feature, a sub-wavelength structural feature, an integrated circuit, or a combination thereof.

43. The method of claim 1, wherein the method further comprises: providing the susceptor material prior to the irradiating of the susceptor material, wherein the providing of the susceptor material comprises –PCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD modifying at least a portion of a surface of the susceptor material to produce a modified surface, wherein the modified surface defines one or more grooves, one or more ridges, one or more recesses, one or more protrusions, one or more holes, one or more wells, or a combination thereof.

44. The method of claim 1, wherein the susceptor material is in a particulate form.

45. The method of claim 44, wherein the susceptor material comprises microparticles, nanoparticles, or a combination thereof.

46. The method of claim 44, wherein the contacting of the fluid and the susceptor material comprises flowing the fluid through a volume of particles of the susceptor material.

47. The method of claim 44, wherein one or more particles of the susceptor material comprises – (i) a core formed at least in part of a first susceptor material, and (ii) a coating formed at least in part of a second susceptor material, wherein the core is at least partially coated with the coating.

48. The method of claim 44, wherein one or more particles of the susceptor material comprises – (i) a core formed at least in part of a susceptor material, and (ii) a coating formed at least in part of a non-susceptor material, wherein the core is at least partially coated with the coating.

49. The method of claim 44, wherein one or more particles of the susceptor material comprises – (i) a core formed at least in part of a non-susceptor material, and (ii) a coating formed at least in part of a susceptor material, wherein the core is at least partially coated with the coating.

50. The method of claim 1, wherein the susceptor material comprises –PCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD (i) a first region having a greater concentration of a first susceptor material, and (ii) a second region having a greater concentration of a second susceptor material.

51. The method of claim 50, wherein the contacting of the fluid and the susceptor material comprises contacting the fluid and the first region, and then contacting the fluid and the second region.

52. The method of 50, wherein the first susceptor material comprises a ceramic, a semiconductor, or a combination thereof.

53. The method of claim 50, wherein the first susceptor material comprises silicon carbide.

54. The method of claim 50, wherein the second susceptor material comprises a ferromagnetic material, a ferrimagnetic material, or a combination thereof.

55. The method of claim 50, wherein the second susceptor material comprises iron.

56. The method of claim 55, wherein the second susceptor material comprises iron oxide.

57. The method of claim 56, wherein the second susceptor material comprises magnetite.

58. The method of any one of claims 1 to 57, wherein the susceptor material is disposed in a tube formed at least in part of an electromagnetic wave-transparent material.

59. The method of claim 58, wherein the tube comprises an inlet and an outlet.

60. The method of claim 59, wherein the contacting of the fluid and the susceptor material comprises disposing the fluid in the inlet of the tube; and the method further comprises – (i) collecting at least a portion of the residual fluid at the outlet of the tube;PCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD (ii) disposing the at least a portion of the fluid collected at the outlet of the tube in the inlet of the tube; (iii) collecting at least a portion of the product at the outlet of the tube; (iv) repeating steps (i) and (ii) at least once; or (v) a combination thereof.

61. The method of claim 58, wherein (i) a first end of the tube is fixably mounted or spring mounted to an applicator, and (ii) at least a portion of the tube and at least a portion the susceptor material in the tube is arranged in the applicator.

62. The method of claim 61, wherein a second end of the tube is fixably mounted or spring mounted to the applicator.

63. The method of claim 62, wherein the first end of the tube is spring mounted to the applicator, the second end of the tube is spring mounted to the applicator, or the first end and the second end of the tube are spring mounted to the applicator.

64. The method of claim 61, wherein the electromagnetic radiation is provided by one or more microwave generators, wherein the one or more microwave generators are positioned to introduce a plurality of microwaves into the applicator to irradiate the at least a portion of the susceptor material with the plurality of microwaves.

65. The method of claim 58, wherein the susceptor material is disposed in an internal reservoir of the tube, and the apparatus further comprises one or more retention devices arranged at a position to (i) prevent the susceptor material from escaping the internal reservoir of the tube, (ii) control a location of the susceptor material in the internal reservoir of the tube, (iii) prevent the catalyst from escaping the internal reservoir of the tube, (iv) control a location of the catalyst in the internal reservoir of the tube, (vi) prevent a catalyst from contacting the fluid, or (vii) a combination thereof.

66. The method of claim 1, wherein the electromagnetic radiation is provided by a space- based microwave generator.PCT Attorney Docket No.92351-TBD 67. A method of producing a product, the method comprising: irradiating a susceptor material with electromagnetic radiation, wherein the irradiating of the susceptor material heats the susceptor material; and contacting the susceptor material and a fluid to effect a chemical reaction of the fluid, or a component thereof, to produce the product.

68. An apparatus comprising: a tube formed at least in part of an electromagnetic wave-transparent material; and a susceptor material; wherein the susceptor material is disposed in an internal reservoir of the tube; and wherein the susceptor material comprises a surface, and at least a portion of the surface defines one or more grooves, one or more ridges, one or more recesses, one or more protrusions, one or more holes, one or more wells, or a combination thereof.

69. The apparatus of claim 68, further comprising a catalyst disposed in the internal reservoir of the tube.

70. The apparatus of claim 68, wherein the one or more grooves, the one or more ridges, the one or more recesses, the one or more protrusions, one or more holes, one or more wells, or the combination thereof impart the susceptor material with a sub-debye- length structural feature, a sub-wavelength structural feature, an integrated circuit, or a combination thereof.

71. The apparatus of claim 68, wherein the susceptor material comprises a ferromagnetic material, a ferrimagnetic material, or a combination thereof.

72. The apparatus of claim 68, wherein the susceptor material comprises iron, cobalt, nickel, zinc, chromium, indium tin oxide (ITO), a platinum group metal, a rare-earth metal, an oxide thereof, an alloy thereof, or a combination thereof.

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