Apparatus and method for generating propulsion forces

Abstract

An apparatus 100 for generating a propulsion force comprises: a laser arrangement 11; an optical device 120 comprising an optical region; and a coupling arrangement 140A comprising coils of optical fi

Description

Technical field The present disclosure relates to apparatus for generating propulsion forces by using matter-antimatter dipoles, for example by using matter-antimatter dipoles including a configuration of electrons and positrons. Moreover, the present disclosure relates to methods for (namely, to methods of) generating propulsion forces by using matter-antimatter dipoles, for example by using aforesaid apparatus. Background In a published PCT application WO2022 / 189964, "Vehicle and method for propelling vehicle", inventor Ian Clague, there is described a method for generating a propulsion force by using one or more matter-antimatter dipoles, for propelling a vehicle. Although the nature of antimatter has been studied in recent years, for example in the ALPHA project being implemented by CERN, it has been shown in recent scientific publications that antimatter has a negative mass and breaks the symmetry of Newton's Third Law of Motion. Such an observation leads to a given photon being considered to be a composite particle comprising an electron and a positron that, in aggregate, have zero mass and are thus able to propagate at "the speed c of light", namely 299,792,458 metres per second, in vacuum. An energy of the given photon (namely E = hf wherein h is Plank's constant, E is the energy of the given photon and fis the frequency of the photon) is determined by parameters of a precession orbit of the electron in relation to its corresponding positron in the given photon; for example, lower energy infra-red photons have a larger precession orbit and therefore a longer corresponding wavelength than, example, a gamma ray photon. Such orbits are, for example, manifest in interference fringes generated using photons, for example in optical diffraction gratings. These aforesaid recent publications surpass earlier publications in which antimatter was incorrectly assumed to have a positive mass. In modern physics, there occur "ordinary matter" (namely, positive matter) and corresponding antimatter (namely, negative matter). Antimatter may be conventionally thought of as being matter with reversed charge, parity and time, known as CPT reversal. Antimatter occurs in natural processes, for example in cosmic ray collisions occurring in the Earth's upper atmosphere and also as a component generated during radioactive decay, for example from radioactive decay giving rise to beta particles being emitted. On Earth, antimatter tends to annihilate with ordinary matter to generate corresponding electromagnetic radiation, for example photons. However, it is known to store antimatter under vacuum conditions in at least one of strong electrostatic fields and magnetic fields for periods of up to circa 1000 hours. For example, the ALPHA project at CERN is concerned with generating positrons for research purposes, wherein the ALPHA project makes use of a high-energy particle accelerator to generate high-energy ordinary matter particles at an energy of GeV that are applied to a high atomic weight ("high-Z") target to generate a range of secondary particles, wherein a portion of the secondary particles are positrons at high energy; a decelerator is then used to decelerate the high energy positrons to provide corresponding lower-energy positrons, and a vacuum storage ring arrangement is then used to store the lower-energy positrons for use in various experiments and research, for example for implementing anti-gravity research. Referring to FIG. 1, there is shown a pair of "ordinary matter" masses indicated generally by 10, wherein the pair of masses 10 includes a first ordinary matter mass Mi and a second ordinary matter mass M2 separated by a distance R. In an absence of other external gravitational forces acting on the masses Mi, M2, the masses Mi, M2 mutually attract with forces Fi, F2 mutually directed towards each other. The forces Fi, F2 each have a magnitude as given by Equation 1 (Eq. 1), pursuant to classical Newtonian mechanics: = Eq. 1 wherein G is a universal gravitational constant. The forces Fi, F2 are equal and directionally mutually opposite such that the masses Mi, M2 in aggregate provide a net zero force. In an event that the mass Mi is antimatter, the mass Mi has a negative sign in Equation 1, wherein the force Fi is directed away from the mass M2, such that the mass M2 appears to "chase” the mass Mi, and the mass Mi seeks to "escape" from the mass M2. The masses Mi, M2 in such a situation become an antimatter-matter dipole indicated generally by 20 in FIG. 1, which is not normally encountered on Earth, because the antimatter mass Mi would normally annihilate with air molecules to generate annihilation energy, unless the mass Mi were held within a vacuum vessel. Creating vacuum conditions on the Earth's surface for storing antimatter often requires ancillary equipment to be used such as a vacuum chamber and vacuum pumps, for example as aforementioned. Conventionally, antimatter is very difficult and costly to generate on Earth. Positrons are an example of an antimatter particle that are generated by directing high-energy GeV particles beams at high atomic number, namely "high-Z", targets, wherein a myriad of secondary particles are thereby generated of which a portion are positrons. Alternatively, positrons are generated when certain radioactive isotopes decay by giving rise to beta-particles (namely / ?-particles). Such beta-particles are effectively high-energy electrons; thus, radioactive beta-particle-emitting sources are used as positron generators in positron tomography apparatus. In view of aforesaid, antimatter has so far only been used in research studies and in specialist scientific equipment. However, astronomers are aware of examples of large quantities of antimatter present in the Universe, by inference of galaxy formations and from gravitational characteristics of black holes. Vacuum apparatus for storing antimatter is conventionally relatively large and heavy, namely rather unsuitable for incorporating into, for example, a missile or satellite. Such a practical limitation potentially hitherto limits the use of matterantimatter propulsion. Summary The present disclosure seeks to provide an improved practical apparatus for generating a propulsion force for propelling a vehicle. Moreover, the present disclosure seeks to provide a corresponding improved practical method for generating a propulsion force for propelling a vehicle, for example for propelling a space vehicle, a missile, a terrestrial vehicle and so forth. According to a first aspect, there is provided an apparatus for generating a propulsion force using a matter-antimatter dipole, as defined in the appended claim 1. The apparatus is of advantage in that the apparatus is susceptible to being implemented in a compact form, for example for incorporation into a satellite, a rocket, a missile or similar. According to a second aspect, there is provided a method for (namely, a method of) operating an apparatus for generating a propulsion force using a matterantimatter dipole, as defined in the appended claim 14. The method is of advantage in that the method is susceptible to being implement using an apparatus that has a compact form, for example suitable for incorporation into a satellite, a rocket, a missile or similar. According to a third aspect, there is provided a software product stored on a machine-readable data carrier, wherein the software product is executable on computing hardware for implementing the method of the second aspect. Beneficially, the one or more non-linear optical effects include an optical Kerr effect. The optical Kerr effect results in a refractive index change that causes the substrate electrons to group with other electrons, and likewise substrate positrons to group with other positrons, resulting in an enhanced positron-electron dipole, and thereby enhanced acceleration experienced by the electrons and the positrons within the apparatus. Embodiments of the present invention are susceptible to being used, for example alone or in combination with other propulsion systems, to enable a cost reduction in apparatus required for propelling payloads in Earth's atmosphere (for example, into geostationary orbit) or into space remote from the Earth. The payloads may be, for example satellites, interplanetary research probes and similar. It will be appreciated contemporarily that only 5% of a launch rocket is its payload, whereas 95% of a launch rocket includes items such as propellant fuel, rocket engines and associated support equipment. In certain configurations, embodiments of the present disclosure may help to ease requirements for achieving a speed of circa 3 kilometres / second to achieve a geostationary orbit as is conventionally required for satellites. Description of diagrams Embodiments of the invention will be described with reference to the following drawings, wherein: FIG. 1 is a schematic illustration of mutual gravitation forces acting on masses of various types; FIG. 2 is a schematic illustration of component parts of an apparatus of the present disclosure for generating a propulsion force by using a matterantimatter dipole, for example for propelling a vehicle such as a missile or satellite; FIG. 3 is a schematic cross-sectional view of a monomode optical fibre for use in the apparatus of FIG. 2; FIG. 4 is a schematic illustration a pair of waveguides of a waveguide arrangement of the apparatus of FIG. 2, wherein the waveguides are separated by a distance "x", have a thickness height "h" above a substrate, wherein each waveguide has a width "w”; FIG. 5 is an illustration of a waveguide arrangement for use in the apparatus of FIG. 2, wherein the waveguide arrangement is configured to use nonlinear optical effects, for example the Kerr effect, to separate photons into corresponding positrons and electrons, while maintaining coherence, to generate a matter-antimatter dipole for generating a propulsion force; FIG. 6 is a schematic illustration of a use application for the apparatus of FIG. 2 for a vehicle in space, wherein the apparatus is configured to provide forces selectively in respect of Cartesian axes and rotational axes; and FIG. 7 is a flow chart depicting steps of a method for generating a propulsion force from photons by using the apparatus of FIG. 2. Description of embodiments According to a first aspect, there is provided an apparatus for generating a propulsion force, wherein the apparatus includes: - a laser arrangement for generating photons; - an optical device including an optical region for spatially separating at least a portion of the photons into corresponding electrons and positrons; - a coupling arrangement for coupling the positrons and electrons into respective corresponding coils of optical fibre; wherein the optical device and the coils preserve a coherence of wavefunctions of the photons as they propagate in use around the coils; wherein the coils are disposed to be spatially mutually space apart or only partially spatially overlapping, for the electrons and positrons to generate a matterantimatter dipole for generating the propulsion force; and wherein the optical region of the optical device is configured to exhibit in use a non-linear optical effect for spatially separating the at least a portion of the photons into the corresponding electrons and positrons. Optionally, in the apparatus, the non-linear optical effect includes an optical Kerr effect that causes spatial separation of the photons into their corresponding electrons and positrons. Optionally, in the apparatus, the optical region includes one or more optical materials for use in generating the non-linear optical effect, wherein the one or more optical materials include at least one of: Lithium Niobate, Barium Titanate, Barium Niobate, Graphene, doped Graphene, n-doped optically-transmissive material, p-doped optically-transmissive material. Optionally, in the apparatus, the optical region includes one or more optical materials for use in generating the non-linear optical effect, wherein the one or more optical materials include a zero band-gap material. More optionally, in the apparatus, the one or more optical materials include one or more superconducting polymers for use in waveguides of the operating region, wherein the one or more superconducting polymers optionally include bis(ethylenedithio)-tetrathiafulvalen. Optionally, in the apparatus, the optical region is supported by at least one substrate that includes a dielectric material. More optionally, in the apparatus, the dielectric material of the at least one substrate includes at least one of: silica, quartz, sapphire. More optionally, in the apparatus, the at least one substrate includes a dielectric layer formed onto a bulk Silicon substrate, wherein the operating region is fabricated onto the dielectric layer, remote from the Silicon substrate. Optionally, in the apparatus, the optical region includes at least two waveguides, for example in a range of two to five hundred waveguides, that are mutually spatially disposed on the at least one substrate to support spatial segregation of the one or more electrons and the one or more positrons to generate the one or more corresponding matter-antimatter dipoles, and to maintain coherence of wavefunctions defining the one or more photons giving rise the one or more matter-antimatter dipoles as they propagate within the operating region and the coils. Optionally, in the apparatus, the optical device is configured to selectively propagate photons of Bloch modes, more optionally Floquet-Bloch modes. Optionally, the apparatus further includes an energy collection arrangement for extracting energy, wherein the energy collection arrangement includes one or more electrodes configured to have their elongate axes substantially parallel or in a curved formation in the optical region to collect electrons therefrom arising from the one or more antimatter-matter dipoles, wherein the one or more electrodes are configured to be included within wavefunctions of photons propagating in the optical region. More optionally, the apparatus is configured to provide at least a portion of the extracted energy to the laser arrangement. Optionally, the apparatus is configured to operate the laser arrangement in a pulsed mode to generate the photons in pulses. According to a second aspect, there is provided a method for (namely, a method of) operating an apparatus for generating a propulsion force, wherein the method includes: - configuring a laser arrangement of the apparatus to generate photons; - configuring an optical device of the apparatus to include an optical region to spatially separate at least a portion of the photons into corresponding electrons and positrons; - configuring a coupling arrangement of the apparatus to couple the at least a portion of positrons and electrons into respective corresponding coils of optical fibre; wherein the method further includes: - configuring the optical device and the coils to preserve a coherence of wavefunctions of the photons as they propagate in use around the coils; - configuring the coils to be disposed to be spatially mutually space apart or only partially spatially overlapping, for the electrons and positrons to generate a matter-antimatter dipole for generating the propulsion force; and - configuring the optical region of the optical device to exhibit in use a non-linear optical effect for spatially separating the at least a portion of the photons into the corresponding electrons and positrons. Optionally, in the method, the non-linear optical effect includes an optical Kerr effect that causes spatial separation of the photons into their corresponding electrons and positrons. Optionally, in the method, the optical region includes one or more optical materials for use in generating the non-linear optical effect, wherein the one or more optical materials include at least one of: Lithium Niobate, Barium Titanate, Barium Niobate, Graphene, doped Graphene, n-doped optically-transmissive material, p-doped optically-transmissive material. Optionally, in the method, the optical region includes one or more optical materials for use in generating the non-linear optical effect, wherein the one or more optical materials include a zero band-gap material. More optionally, in the method, the one or more optical materials include one or more superconducting polymers for use in waveguides of the operating region, wherein the one or more superconducting polymers include bis(ethylenedithio)-tetrathiafulvalen. Optionally, in the method, the optical region is supported by at least one substrate that includes a dielectric material. More optionally, in the method, the dielectric material of the at least one substrate includes at least one of: silica, quartz, sapphire. More optionally, in the method, the at least one substrate includes a dielectric layer formed onto a bulk Silicon substrate, wherein the operating region is fabricated onto the dielectric layer, remote from the Silicon substrate. Optionally, the method includes configuring the optical region to include at least two waveguides that are mutually spatially disposed on the at least one substrate to support spatial segregation of the one or more electrons and the one or more positrons to generate the one or more corresponding matter-antimatter dipoles, and to maintain coherence of wavefunctions defining the one or more photons giving rise the one or more matter-antimatter dipoles as they propagate within the operating region and the coils. Optionally, the method further includes configuring the optical device to selectively propagate photons of Bloch modes, more optionally Floquet-Bloch modes. Optionally, the method includes configuring the apparatus to further include an energy collection arrangement for extracting energy, wherein the energy collection arrangement includes one or more electrodes configured to have their elongate axes substantially parallel or in a curved formation in the optical region to collect electrons therefrom arising from the one or more antimatter-matter dipoles, wherein the one or more electrodes are configured to be included within wavefunctions of photons propagating in the optical region. Optionally, the method includes configuring the apparatus to provide at least a portion of the extracted energy to the laser arrangement. Optionally, the method includes configuring the apparatus to operate the laser arrangement in a pulsed mode to generate the photons in pulses. According to a third aspect, there is provided a software product stored on a machine-readable data carrier, wherein the software product is executable on computing hardware for implementing a method of the second aspect In overview, referring to FIG. 2, there is shown a schematic illustration of component parts of an apparatus for generating a propulsion force; the apparatus is indicated generally by 100. The apparatus 100 includes a laser arrangement 110 for generating at least one output light beam 115 comprising photons; for example, the laser arrangement 110 includes one or more lasers that are configured to function in a pulsed mode of operation. Moreover, the apparatus 100 further optionally includes a mode coupler 120 that is coupled to receive the at least one beam 115 from the laser arrangement 110 and to provide a corresponding mode-filtered output beam 125 to a waveguide arrangement 130 of the apparatus 100; when the mode coupler 120 is omitted, the laser arrangement 110 provides the at least one beam 115 directly to the waveguide arrangement 130. When the mode coupler 120 is included, the waveguide arrangement 130 is configured to receive the mode-filtered output beam 125 and to spatially separate photons thereof into corresponding electrons and positrons, namely to spatially separate the mode-filtered output beam 125 received thereat into: (i) a corresponding coherent positron-rich light beam for propagating coherently via an intermediate coupling optical fibre waveguide 170 to a first optical waveguide coil 140A; and (ii) a corresponding coherent electron-rich light beam for propagating coherently via an intermediate coupling optical fibre waveguide 170 to a second optical waveguide coil 140B. The waveguide arrangement 130 is beneficially configured to support propagation of preferred optical modes therein, for example propagation of Bloch optical modes therein. Moreover, the waveguide arrangement 130 is fabricated from a nonlinear optical material that exhibits, for example, an optical Kerr effect that spatially separates photons propagating therein into corresponding positrons and electrons, while preserving coherence of the photons. The coils 140A, 140B beneficially each comprise monomode optical fibre; for each coil 140A, 140B, the monomode optical fibre thereof is configured as a closed etalon loop with a spliced optical coupler 176 included in the loop for injecting positron-rich light or electron-rich light, as appropriate, via its corresponding intermediate coupling optical fibre waveguide 170. The positrons and electrons are preserved from annihilation or recombination within the optical fibre of the coils 140A, 140B by way of their wavefunctions of their corresponding photon wavefunctions being coherently preserved around the respective etalon loops of the coils 140A, 140B. A difference in enhanced positron concentration in the coil 140A and enhanced electron concentration on the coil 140B gives rise to a positron-electron dipole, namely a matter-antimatter dipole, that provides propulsion forces as denoted by 150A, 150B in FIG. 2. On account of the positrons having a negative mass, the symmetry of Newton's third law of motion (that pertains to positive masses) is violated (by asymmetry), such that the forces 150A, 150B are directed in a mutually same direction and thereby give rise to an aggregate propulsion force, for example for use in propelling a vehicle for space. Optionally, the mode coupler 120 is integral to the waveguide arrangement 130. Optionally, the laser arrangement 110, the mode coupler 120 and the waveguide arrangement 130 are mounted on a mutually common package, for example onto an integrated circuit header. However, alternative mounting arrangements may be used, for example forced-fluid-cooled heatsink assemblies and so forth, for example depending on a magnitude of the aggregate propulsion force that is to be generated in use by the apparatus 100. The apparatus 100 is of advantage in that it is potentially compact and lightweight, for example of similar size to an optical fibre inertial navigation system (INS) as used in conventional submarines, missiles, aircraft and robotic vehicles. Moreover, the apparatus 100 avoids a need for using a vacuum system for storing the positrons and electrons to form the matter-antimatter dipole. Moreover, the apparatus 100 is able to generate a propulsion force without a need to eject matter as in a conventional action-reaction rocket motor. A plurality of the apparatus 100 may be configured together to provide propulsion in a plurality of directions, for example for steering a vehicle in space, for de spinning a vehicle in space, for linearly accelerating or decelerating a vehicle 600 in space and so forth, for example as illustrated in FIG. 6. Next, component parts of the apparatus 100 will be described in greater detail with reference to FIGs. 2 to 5. The two coils 140A, 140B may be optionally wound onto a mutually same bobbin, wherein the coil 140A is wound onto a first spatial region of the bobbin and the coil 140B is wound onto a second spatial region of the bobbin. Optionally, each coil 140A, 140B includes several kilometres length of optical fibre 160 wound therein, for example in a range of 100 metres to 10 km length. Optionally, the first and second regions may be partially overlapping, alternatively spatially separate. Optionally, the bobbin is forced fluid cooled when the apparatus 100 is configured to generate a considerable aggregate force. Moreover, the bobbin is beneficially robustly attached, for example by mounting bolts or welds, to a structural frame of the vehicle (for example a rocket or missile). The optional fibre (fiber) 160 to be used for manufacturing the coils 140A, 140B is shown in FIG. 3. The fibre 160 is configured to be a monomode fibre for photon wavelengths that are used in the apparatus 100. For example, the optical fibre 160 is configured to support propagation of photons therein, wherein the photons have a wavelength within a range of 500 nm to 2000 nm, more optionally within a range of 1400 nm to 1700 nm, and yet more optionally substantially 1540 nm. A wavelength of substantially 1500 nm is used in the contemporary telecoms industry, enabling manufacturing of the apparatus 100 to benefit from standard off-the-shelf optical telecoms components. The fibre 160 is manufactured from high-purity Silica having a sufficiently low defect density, such that photons are able to propagate around the loops of the coils 140A, 140B without losing coherence. The fibre 160 includes an inner core 190 that is circumferentially surrounded by an outer sheath 180, wherein the inner core 190 has a higher refractive index than the outer sheath 180, wherein photons are able to propagate substantially along the inner core 190. The inner core 190 has a radius in an order of a few micrometres, whereas the outer sheath 180 has a radius of at least 100 micrometres. As aforementioned, the two coils 140A, 140B are each beneficially a closed etalon loop, such that the two coils 140A, 140B are each configured to function as an optical cavity or etalon in which photons are able to circulate while experience a low loss of energy and a low conversion from one mode to another, for example energy loss of less than 1 dB per kilometre length of optical fibre. When in use in the apparatus 100, the coils 140A, 140B are optionally mutually spaced apart by a distance in a range of 10 cm to 10 metres, for example 30 cm, for example to allow for efficient cooling of the coils 140A, 140B when the apparatus 100 is designed to provide appreciable aggregate force, for example tens of thousands of Newtons force for accelerating a missile. Moreover, the coils 140A, 140B beneficially have a diameter "d" in a range of 20 mm to 30 cm and a height "t" in a range of 5 mm to 20 cm. Other sizes for the diameter d and the height t may be optionally used. Optionally, the coils 140A, 140B are mutually similar in size; alternatively, the coils 140A, 140B are mutually different in size. Beneficially, the coils 140A, 140B are manufactured to use mutually similar types of optical fibre. Optionally, each coil 140A, 140B includes a length of the fibre in a range of 100 metres to 10 km. The laser arrangement 110 of the apparatus 100 beneficially includes one or more lasers, for example one or more solid-state lasers that are configured to function as one or more pulsed lasers, for example one or more solid-state picosecond pulsed lasers. The one or more lasers may, for example, be implemented using solid-state diode lasers, for example one or more proprietary HFL lasers manufactured by RPMC Lasers Inc., https Sum-pu^ed-nber-tesers / ; however, it will be appreciated that alternative laser products are provided by other manufacturers at various beam output powers. Such solid-state pulsed lasers are capable of functioning in a photon wavelength range of 1540 nm to 1560 nm, with a pulse duration in a range of 400 picoseconds to 50 nanoseconds, with a maximum average power dissipation of 150 Watts, and with a pulse energy of up to around 0.1 milliJoules. High-power solid-state lasers or arrays of multiple such solid-state lasers may optionally be used to implement the laser arrangement 110, for example when greater propulsion forces are required to be generated by the apparatus 100. The pulses beneficially include photons having electric fields that are sufficiently large in magnitude to induce non-linear optical effects in the waveguide arrangement 130 when the photons are propagating therein. The waveguide arrangement 130 is beneficially manufactured from a non-linear optical material, for example exhibiting a non-linear optical effect such as the Kerr effect. The non-linear optical material beneficially includes at least one of: Lithium Niobate, Lithium Niobate on insulator (LNOI), Barium Titanate, Barium Niobate, Graphene, doped Graphene and so forth. Conveniently, the waveguide arrangement 130 is supported on a substrate that is manufactured from a dielectric material, for example from Silicon Carbide, silica, quartz, sapphire or similar. Conveniently, optionally, the waveguide arrangement 130 is supported on a substrate such as monocrystalline Silicon or poly-crystalline Silicon. In the waveguide arrangement 130, there is included a configuration of waveguides, for example the waveguides 210A, 210B, wherein photons supplied from the laser arrangement 110 propagate to the configuration of waveguides 210A, 210B, for example via the mode coupler 120 when included. The mode coupler 120 may be beneficially implemented using at least one of: one or more diffraction gratings, one or more lenses, one of more tuned etalons and so forth; for example, the mode coupler 120 may be used to adjust finely an injection angle of photons into the waveguides 210A, 210B. It will be appreciated that the one or more beams provided by the laser arrangement 110 may include a plurality of different modes that are mutually superimposed, wherein the plurality of modes potentially cause decoherence of photons of the one or more laser beams when propagating in the waveguide arrangement 130. The mode coupler 120 is configured to selectively transmit only radiation of certain optical modes to the waveguide arrangement 130, for example radiation that propagate as Bloch modes, for example Floquet-Bloch modes, within the waveguide arrangement 130. When radiation of Bloch modes propagates in the non-linear optical material of the configuration of waveguides of the waveguide arrangement 130, positrons and electrons of photons are more efficiently spatially separated into positrons and electrons that may be selectively directed to their respective coils 140A, 140B. For example, the mode coupler 120 is configured to adjust an angle of injection of photons into the configuration of waveguides 210A, 210B of the waveguide arrangement 130, wherein the angle of injection is selected to enhance, for example optimize, spatial separation of positrons and electrons within the waveguide arrangement 130. There is thereby generated a matter-antimatter dipole in the coils 140A, 140B, when the apparatus 100 is in operation. The waveguide arrangement 130 may include a configuration of mutually parallel waveguides 210A, 210B, for example in a range of two to five hundred such waveguides. The configuration beneficially includes at least two waveguides, optionally more than ten such waveguides. The at least two waveguides 210A, 210B may be linear in their plan view; alternatively or additionally, the at least two waveguides 210A, 210B may be curved in their plan view, for example two waveguides 210A, 210B may be formed into a loop structure including a closed circular optical path on the substrate 200. The looped waveguide structure is fabricated so that a given photon wavefunction is coherently maintained when its corresponding positron and electron are circulating around the circular path, thereby avoiding annihilation of its positron with matter constituting the waveguide structure. As illustrated, the waveguide structure is beneficially implemented by using at least two optical waveguides 210A, 210B that are formed spatially sufficiently closely together in a parallel configuration on a substrate 200, for example as illustrated in FIG. 4, that a given photon wavefunction is able to spatially encompass the at least two waveguides 210A, 210B without causing decoherence of the photon wavefunction. Typically, the at least two waveguides 210A, 210B are spatially separated by a distance "x" which is comparable to, or less than, a wavelength of the photon wavefunction of photons propagating in operation along the at least two waveguides 210A, 210B. A height "h" is beneficially in a range of 50 nm to 200 nm, wherein "h" is chosen to suppress mode conversion of photons in the waveguide structure away from, for example, Bloch modes to other less-efficient modes that for which photons are not efficiently spatially separated into corresponding positrons and electrons while maintaining photon coherence. A waveguide width "w" is chosen to accommodate coherent and efficient propagation of photons along the waveguides 210A, 210B; for example, the width "w" is comparable to a wavelength of the photons; for example, the width "w" is in a range of 500 nm to 3000 nm. Conveniently, electrodes formed in the substrate 200, that are configured alongside the waveguides 210A, 210B of waveguide structure, are used to collect energy from the positrons and electrons propagating along the waveguides 210A, 210B, wherein bunching of the matter-antimatter dipoles is caused by using appropriate control signals applied to electrodes that are disposed orthogonally to the waveguide structure. The circular path thereby effectively becomes a resonant cavity for the matter-antimatter dipoles from which energy may be coupled out, to provide electrical output energy, for example providing power to the laser arrangement 110. It will be appreciated that the aforesaid optical Kerr effect causes photons to be separated spatially into their corresponding electrons and positrons, thereby causing spatial segregation of electrons with other electrons, and positrons with other positrons to occur in the waveguide structure. Conveniently, the substrate 200 is optionally fabricated from a dielectric material, for example from silica, quartz, sapphire or similar, and the waveguide structure is fabricated from an optically transmissive material that exhibits the aforesaid optical Kerr effect, for example Lithium Niobate, Lithium Niobate on insulator (LNOI), Barium Titanate, Barium Niobate, Graphene, doped Graphene and so forth. Optionally, the substrate 200 may be fabricated, at least in part, from Silicon, for example mono-crystalline or poly-crystalline Silicon, to provide satisfactory structural robustness and also removal of heat generated in the waveguides 210A, 210B when in operation. The substrate 200 and its corresponding components parts, as described in the foregoing, may be configured in plural form, namely in arrays to generate a larger aggregate force for propulsion. Optionally, the one or more lasers of the laser arrangement 110 are integrated into a same package as the substrate 200. The implementation, namely the apparatus 100 as illustrated in FIG. 2, is elucidated in the foregoing in overview. Next, a detailed reduction-to-practice of the apparatus 100 will be described. Referring next to FIG. 5, there is shown an illustration of an apparatus 100. The apparatus 100 includes at least one substrate 200, for example a plurality of such substrates 200. The at least one substrate 200 is manufactured from a dielectric material, for example silica, fused silica, quartz, sapphire, a ceramic material, or similar. The at least one substrate 200 is beneficially a planar element having an upper planar surface 250A and a lower planar surface 250B. The at least one lower planar surface 250B is useable to support the at least one substrate 200 mechanically. The at least one substrate 200 is beneficially in a range of 0.5 mm to 3 mm thick. The upper planar surface 250A is manufactured to a mirror finish, as required for the fabrication of microelectronic devices through use of microlithographic processes. During manufacture, a layer of optical material is formed, for example by using vapour phase deposition, on the upper planar surface 250A, wherein the optical material is patterned using one or more microlithographic processes to form an input waveguide structure 260, and also the waveguides 210A, 210B that are optically coupled at their first ends to the input waveguide structure 260, and are coupled at their second ends, at a peripheral edge of the substrate 200, to intermediate monomode optical fibres 170 via use of a UV-curable optically transparent adhesive 174 that has a substantially similar refractive index to a material of the waveguides 210A, 210B and to 190 central core of the intermediate monomode optical fibres 170; during manufacture of the apparatus 100, the central cores 190 of the intermediate monomode fibres 170 are spatially aligned to their respective second ends of the waveguides 210A, 210B, after which the aforesaid UV-curable adhesive 174 is applied and UV-set to become a solid optically-transparent coupling material, mechanically coupling the intermediate fibres to their respective waveguides 210A, 210B. The intermediate monomode optical fibres 170 are configured to convey photons and excess electrons, alternatively photons and excess positrons to their respective coils 140A, 140B. Optionally, the aforesaid layer of optical material used in manufacture includes at least one of: Lithium Niobate, Lithium Niobate on insulator (LNOI), Barium Titanate, Barium Niobate, Graphene, doped Graphene or any other material that exhibits a non-linear optical effect, in particular the optical Kerr effect that functions to segregate photons into their corresponding electrons and photons within a spatial envelope of their corresponding Schrodinger wavefunctions; the optical material is thereby referred as being a "non-linear optical material". The layer of optical material used in beneficially in a range of 50 nm to 3 p.m thick to allow for reactive ion etching (RIE) or wet chemical etching through a lithographically-defined resist during manufacture. The input waveguide structure 260 is used to couple photons from the laser arrangement 110, for example transmitted via the mode coupler 120. As an alternative or addition to using the input waveguide structure 260 to inject photons into the waveguides 210A, 210B, the substrate 200 may be illuminated in use with photons from above the waveguide structure, for illuminating the waveguides 210A, 210B with an evanescent optical beam that skims the upper planar surface 250A. The photons may be generated from one or more lasers of the laser arrangement 110, for example one or more pulsed lasers; optionally, the one or more lasers are packaged together with the substrate 200 in a protective enclosure, for example a canned semiconductor DIL-type package. As another example, the substrate 200 may be mounted between a pair of planar mirrors whose planes are mutually substantially parallel and are substantially orthogonal to a plane of the upper planar surface 250A, 250B; optionally, the mirrors are slightly curved to distribute light generated by the one or more lasers of the laser arrangement 110; optionally, the mirrors are implemented as a single cylindrical mirror encompassing the substrate 200; the plane mirrors form an optical cavity in which the substrate 200 is mounted in use and is bathed in a photon plasma generated from at least one of: one or more lasers of the laser arrangement 110, alternatively or additionally collected solar radiation. Thus, photons for the apparatus 100 may, for example, be provided from collected solar radiation. As aforementioned, the two waveguides 210A, 210B are fabricated from a thin layer, for example less than 100 nm thick, of non-linear optical material, for example Lithium Niobate, Barium Titanate, Barium Niobate, Graphene, doped Graphene and so forth; the non-linear material is chosen to exhibit the optical Kerr effect when in use that causes photons present in the waveguides 210A, 210B to spatially separate into corresponding electrons and positrons. Optionally, the waveguides 210A, 210B are mutually differently doped, for example one of the waveguides 210A, 210B being n-type doped and the other waveguide 210A, 210B being p-type doped, to enhance spatial segregation of photons between the waveguides 210A, 210B, to form matter-antimatter dipoles. The distance x is sufficiently small, such that a coherence of wavefunction is maintained between the waveguides 210A, 210B, for photons and their corresponding matterantimatter dipoles propagating therealong. Thus, the waveguides 210A, 210B exhibit the optical Kerr effect, that results in photons spatially separating out into a surplus of electrons propagating along one of the waveguides 210A, 210B, for example the waveguide 210A, and a surplus of positrons propagating along the other of the waveguides 210A, 210B, for example the waveguide 210B. This spatial separation occurs while the wavefunctions of the photons have a spatial extent that includes both of the waveguides 210A, 210B, thereby preventing the positrons of the photons annihilating with the waveguides 210A, 210B. The spatial separation of the electrons and their respective positrons creates corresponding matter-antimatter dipoles that are able to propagate within the waveguide arrangement 130; on account of the dipoles being able to create a force that is moving, energy may be optionally extracted from the substrate 200 and its associated structures. Electrodes 270 disposed alongside the one of the waveguides 210A, 210B that has excess electrons allows power to be extracted by at least one of electromagnetic induction and capacitive coupling to be output as an electrical signal. Further electrodes 290 are disposed orthogonally to the waveguides 210A, 210B, wherein the electrodes 290 are insulated from the electrodes 280 by a dielectric layer such vapour-phase deposited Silicon Dioxide, where they mutually overlap. The further electrodes 290 are optionally used as control electrodes to modulate movement of the matter-antimatter dipoles to arrange them into bunches to create oscillations of dipole density propagating within the waveguide structure 130; the further electrodes 290 either straggle both of the waveguides 210A, 210B, or only one of the waveguides 210A, 210B. The oscillations allow for the aforesaid at least one of electromagnetic induction and capacitive coupling to the electrodes 270 to generate the electrical signal. Positrons and electrons that are mutually spatially separated in the waveguides 210A, 210B are coupled from open ends of the waveguides 210A, 210B (namely "second ends") into the intermediate optical fibres 170 that are in turn coupled to the coils 410A, 410B. Next, operation of the apparatus 100 will be described with reference to FIG. 5. In operation, the electrodes 280 are used to control separation of the photons between the waveguides 210A, 210B into regions of excess electrons and excess positrons in combination with the optical Kerr effect, as well as controlling a direction of propagation along the waveguides 210A, 210B, and also control bunching of the photons around the waveguides 210A, 210B, so that the electrodes 270 are most efficiently able to couple to the waveguides 210A, 210B to generate the aforesaid signal corresponding to electrical energy extracted from the apparatus 100. Optionally, when the apparatus 100 is provided with photons from the aforesaid one or more lasers of the laser arrangement 110, the one or more lasers are optionally operated in pulsed mode, wherein control signals applied to the electrodes 280 are temporally synchronized to pulses of the one or more lasers. At least one of the aforesaid bunching and the one or more lasers being operated in pulse modes, assists electrical energy coupling from the waveguides 210A, 210B to the electrodes 270. Alternatively, optionally, the one or more lasers are operated in a continuous manner, and electrons are steadily removed via the electrodes 270 as they occur in the waveguides 210A, 210B. However, it will be appreciated that more than the aforesaid two waveguide 210A, 210B may be used in the apparatus 100. At least a portion of the energy collected at the electrodes 270 may be fed back to provide operating power to the laser arrangement 110, as aforementioned. Beneficially, the electrodes 270 are optionally coupled to a capacitor arrangement 320, for example implemented as a chip capacitor that is flip mounted to the substrate 200. Moreover, for a cycle of operation, the one or more lasers of the laser arrangement 110 are beneficially operated in a given pulse mode, wherein the capacitor arrangement 320 is set to a starting potential prior to the one or more lasers being pulsed; photons provided from the one or more lasers are pulsed and propagate to the waveguide arrangement 130, wherein the photons are spatially separated into corresponding electrons and positrons on account of the non-linear optical Kerr effect, thereby forming corresponding matterantimatter dipoles that propagate around or along the waveguide arrangement 130, wherein the matter-antimatter dipoles accelerate; accelerated electrons of the matter-antimatter dipoles are coupled to the electrodes 270 and charge the capacitor arrangement 320. After the pulses of the one or more lasers have ceased, the capacitor arrangement 320 is discharged to extract energy therefrom to provide energy output from the apparatus 100, for example back energize the laser arrangement 110, wherein the capacitor arrangement 320 is returned to the starting potential. Optionally, the cycle is repeated, for example at a repetition rate in excess of 100 MHz. On account of the apparatus 100 utilizing the substrate 200 manufactured from an environmentally benign dielectric material, the apparatus 100 is environmentally friendly in its manufacture, and does not give rise to toxic and dangerous by-products when in operation, for example greenhouse gas emissions such as Carbon Dioxide. Thus, use of the apparatus 100 is capable of reducing Carbon Dioxide emissions to atmosphere, thereby mitigating anthropogenically-forced climate change. As the substrate 200 is optionally beneficially manufactured from silica or quartz, made essentially from types of sands, the apparatus 100 may be manufactured from materials that are plentifully available to industry, namely using sustainable technology. Optionally, for the aforesaid apparatus 100, the substrate 200 is mounted on a major plane of a magnet arrangement, for example a flat planar Neodymium magnet, whose magnetic field lines are arranged to be orthogonal to a plane of the substrate 200. Beneficially, the magnetic field lines assist the non-linear characteristics of the apparatus 100, to cause separation of the photons into their respective electrons and positrons in the at least two waveguides 210A, 210B of the apparatus 100. The magnitude of the aforementioned aggregate force generated by the coils 140A, 140B is beneficially controlled by at least one of: (i) varying or adjusting a pulse rate of the one or more lasers of the laser arrangement 110 used to generate electrons and positrons in the coils 140A, 140B; (ii) varying or adjusting a pulse energy of the one or more lasers of the laser arrangement 110 used to generate electrons and positrons in the coils 140A, 140B; and (iii) varying or adjusting a matching performance or one or more mode selection characteristics of the mode coupler 120 controlling a selection of one or more modes transmitted to the waveguide arrangement 130. Referring next to FIG. 7, there is shown steps of an algorithm, also referred to as being a method, indicated generally by 600. Optionally, the algorithm 600 is beneficially implemented using a computing device ("COMPUTER") 650 that is configured to execute a software product recorded on a machine-readable data storage medium. Such control includes operation of the one or more lasers of the laser arrangement 110, and voltages applied to the electrodes 270, 280; it will be appreciated that the one or more lasers may be operated in a continuous mode, alternatively a pulsed mode, or switchable therebetween. Moreover, potentials applied to the 270, 280 may be constant voltages or varied in a pulsed manner, or switchable therebetween. The algorithm 600 is used to convert one or more photons at least one of input or generated within the apparatus 100 into one or more propulsion forces. Beneficially, the algorithm 600 includes steps 610 to 640. In the step 610, the algorithm 600 includes configuring the apparatus 100 to include at least one substrate 200 including an operating region, for example the at least two waveguide 210A, 210B, in which the one or more photons are able to propagate. Optionally, for example, the operating region includes a loop waveguide structure formed on the at least one substrate 200. In the step 620, the algorithm 600 includes spatially separating the one or more photons to generate corresponding one or more electron-positron matterantimatter dipoles in the operating region on the substrate 200, wherein the operating region is configured to support propagation of the one or more matterantimatter dipoles therearound ortherealong when in operation and to divert the positrons and electrons to their respective coils 140A, 140B. On account of photons being capable of being coherently propagated around the coils 140A, 140B, their respective positrons or electrons are also capable of propagating around the coils 140A, 140B without decoherence or annihilation occurring. In the step 630, the algorithm 600 includes arranging for the difference in the number of electrons circulating around one of the coils 140A, 140B and a corresponding number of positrons circulating around the other of coils 140A, 140B, to generate a matter-antimatter dipole between the coils 140A, 140B that gives rise to the aforesaid aggregate propulsion force. In the step 630, the algorithm 600 includes using an energy collection arrangement, for example implemented using the electrodes 270, 280 of the apparatus 100, to extract energy from the propagating one or more matterantimatter dipoles along the waveguides 210A, 210B to generate electrical energy; optionally, the electrical energy may be fed back to provide at least a portion of electrical power to operate the laser arrangement 110. In the optional step 640, the algorithm 600 includes configuring the apparatus 100 to be included in plurality in an array formation. Optionally, the array formation has its multiple apparatus 100 configured to provide individually-controllable propulsion forces in x, y, z Cartesian axis directions, and also in rotational directions around those Cartesian axes, for example for use in steering and manoeuvring a space vehicle, for example a satellite in orbit. It is to be understood that arrangements of components illustrated in the aforesaid diagrams and described above are exemplary and that other arrangements may be possible within the scope of the claims as appended herewith. Although the disclosure and its advantages have been described in detail, it is to be understood that various changes, substitutions, and alterations may be made herein without departing from the spirit and scope of the disclosure as defined by the appended claims.

Claims

1. An apparatus (100) for generating a propulsion force, wherein the apparatus (200) includes:- a laser arrangement (110) for generating photons;- an optical device (120; 200, 210A, 210B) including an optical region for spatially separating at least a portion of the photons into corresponding electrons and positrons;- a coupling arrangement for coupling the positrons and electrons into respective corresponding coils of optical fibre (410A, 410B);wherein the optical device (120; 200, 210A, 210B) and the coils (410A, 410B) preserve a coherence of wavefunctions of the photons as they propagate in use around the coils (410A, 410B);wherein the coils (410A; 410B) are disposed to be spatially mutually spaced apart or only partially spatially overlapping, for the electrons and positrons to generate a matter-antimatter dipole for generating the propulsion force; andwherein the optical region of the optical device (120; 200, 210A, 210B) is configured to exhibit in use a non-linear optical effect for spatially separating the at least a portion of the photons into the corresponding electrons and positrons.

2. An apparatus (100) of claim 1, wherein the non-linear optical effect includes an optical Kerr effect that causes spatial separation of the photons into their corresponding electrons and positrons.

3. An apparatus (100) of claim 1 or 2, wherein the optical region includes one or more optical materials for use in generating the non-linear optical effect, wherein the one or more optical materials include at least one of: Lithium Niobate, Barium Titanate, Barium Niobate, Graphene, doped Graphene, n-doped optically-transmissive material, p-doped optically-transmissive material.

4. An apparatus (100) of claim 1, 2 or 3, wherein the optical region includes one or more optical materials for use in generating the non-linear optical effect, wherein the one or more optical materials include a zero band-gap material.

5. An apparatus (100) of claim 4, wherein the one or more optical materials include one or more superconducting polymers for use in waveguides of the operating region, wherein the one or more superconducting polymers optionally i ncl ude bis(ethylenedithio)-tetrathiafulvalen.

6. An apparatus (100) of one of the preceding claims, wherein the optical region is supported by at least one substrate (200) that includes a dielectric material.

7. An apparatus (100) of claim 6, wherein the dielectric material of the at least one substrate (200) includes at least one of: silica, quartz, sapphire.

8. An apparatus (100) of claim 6, wherein the at least one substrate (200) includes a dielectric layer formed onto a bulk Silicon substrate, wherein the operating region is fabricated onto the dielectric layer, remote from the Silicon substrate.

9. An apparatus (100) of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the optical region includes at least two waveguides (210A, 210B) that are mutually spatially disposed on the at least one substrate (200) to support spatial segregation of the one or more electrons and the one or more positrons to generate the one or more corresponding matter-antimatter dipoles, and to maintain coherence of wavefunctions defining the one or more photons giving rise the one or more matter-antimatter dipoles as they propagate within the operating region and the coils (410A, 410B).

10. An apparatus (100) of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the optical device (120; 200, 210A, 210B) is configured to selectively propagate photons of Bloch modes, more optionally Floquet-Bloch modes.

11. An apparatus (100) of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the apparatus (100) further includes an energy collection arrangement for extracting energy, wherein the energy collection arrangement includes one or more electrodes (270, 280) configured to have their elongate axes substantially parallel or in a curved formation in the optical region to collect electrons therefrom arising from the one or more antimatter-matter dipoles, wherein the one or more electrodes (270, 280) are configured to be included within wavefunctions of photons propagating in the optical region.

12. An apparatus (100) of claim 11, wherein the apparatus (100) is configured to provide at least a portion of the extracted energy to the laser arrangement (110), for example to assist to energize the laser arrangement (110).

13. An apparatus (100) of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the apparatus (100) is configured to operate the laser arrangement (100) in a pulsed mode to generate the photons in pulses.

14. A method (600) for operating an apparatus (100) for generating a propulsion force, wherein the method (600) includes:- configuring a laser arrangement (110) of the apparatus (100) to generate photons;- configuring an optical device (120; 200, 210A, 210B) of the apparatus (100) to include an optical region to spatially separate at least a portion of the photons into corresponding electrons and positrons;- configuring a coupling arrangement of the apparatus (100) to couple the at least a portion of positrons and electrons into respective corresponding coils of optical fibre (410A, 410B);wherein the method (600) further includes:- configuring the optical device (120; 200, 210A, 210B) and the coils (410A, 410B) to preserve a coherence of wavefunctions of the photons as they propagate in use around the coils (410A, 410B);- configuring the coils (410A; 410B) to be disposed to be spatially mutually spaced apart or only partially spatially overlapping, for the electrons and positrons to generate a matter-antimatter dipole for generating the propulsion force; and- configuring the optical region of the optical device (120; 200, 210A, 210B) to exhibit in use a non-linear optical effect for spatially separating the at least a portion of the photons into the corresponding electrons and positrons.

15. A method (600) of claim 14, wherein the non-linear optical effect includes an optical Kerr effect that causes spatial separation of the photons into their corresponding electrons and positrons.

16. A method (600) of claim 14 or 15, wherein the optical region includes one or more optical materials for use in generating the non-linear optical effect, wherein the one or more optical materials include at least one of: Lithium Niobate, Barium Titanate, Barium Niobate, Graphene, doped Graphene, n-doped optically-transmissive material, p-doped optically-transmissive material.

17. A method (600) of claim 14, 15 or 16, wherein the optical region includes one or more optical materials for use in generating the non-linear optical effect, wherein the one or more optical materials include a zero band-gap material.

18. A method (600) of claim 17, wherein the one or more optical materials include one or more superconducting polymers for use in waveguides (210A, 210B) of the operating region, wherein the one or more superconducting polymers i ncl ude bis(ethylenedithio)-tetrathiafulvalen.

19. A method (600) of one of claims 14 to 18, wherein the optical region is supported by at least one substrate (200) that includes a dielectric material.

20. A method (600) of claim 19, wherein the dielectric material of the at least one substrate (200) includes at least one of: silica, quartz, sapphire.

21. A method (600) of claim 19 or 20, wherein the at least one substrate (200) includes a dielectric layer formed onto a bulk Silicon substrate, wherein theoperating region is fabricated onto the dielectric layer, remote from the Silicon substrate.

22. A method (600) of any one of claims 14 to 21, wherein the method (600) includes configuring the optical region to include at least two waveguides (210A, 210B) that are mutually spatially disposed on the at least one substrate (200) to support spatial segregation of the one or more electrons and the one or more positrons to generate the one or more corresponding matter-antimatter dipoles, and to maintain coherence of wavefunctions defining the one or more photons giving rise the one or more matter-antimatter dipoles as they propagate within the operating region and the coils (410A, 410B).

23. A method (600) of any one of claims 14 to 22, wherein the method (600) further includes configuring the optical device (120; 200, 210A, 210B) to selectively propagate photons of Bloch modes, more optionally Floquet-Bloch modes.

24. A method (600) of any one of claims 14 to 23, wherein the method (600) includes configuring the apparatus (100) to further include an energy collection arrangement for extracting energy, wherein the energy collection arrangement includes one or more electrodes (270, 280) configured to have their elongate axes substantially parallel or in a curved formation in the optical region to collect electrons therefrom arising from the one or more antimatter-matter dipoles, wherein the one or more electrodes (270, 280) are configured to be included within wavefunctions of photons propagating in the optical region.

25. A method (600) of any one of claims 14 to 24, wherein the method (600) includes configuring the apparatus (100) to provide at least a portion of the extracted energy to the laser arrangement (110).

26. A method (600) of any one of claims 14 to 25, wherein the method (600) includes configuring the apparatus (100) to operate the laser arrangement (100) in a pulsed mode to generate the photons in pulses.

27. A software product stored on a machine-readable data carrier, wherein the software product is executable on computing hardware (650) for implementing a method (600) of any one of claims 14 to 26.5

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