Prevention and treatment of teratoma formation in stem cell-based therapies using alternating electric fields

Abstract

To selectively remove residual undifferentiated pluripotent stem cells from the pre-transplanted cells while sparing their differentiated progeny cells.SOLUTION: In the context of a stem cell-based therapy in which differentiated cells are derived from pluripotent stem cells, this application discloses approaches for eliminating residual pluripotent stem cells that may remain in a batch of differentiated progeny cells. The approach advantageously prevents the formation of teratoma tumors when the differentiated cells are eventually used for the therapy. This can be accomplished by exposing the batch of differentiated progeny cells and the residual pluripotent stem cells to an alternating electric field for a period of time. The frequency and field strength of the alternating electric field are such that the pluripotent stem cells die off as a result of exposure to the alternating electric fields, while the differentiated cells remain substantially unharmed. This results in a purified batch of differentiated progeny cells that is rendered safe for use in the stem cell-based therapy.SELECTED DRAWING: Figure 1

Description

[Technical Field]

[0001] CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62 / 749,305, filed October 23, 2018, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. [Background technology]

[0002] Regenerative medicine is a game-changing field of medicine that involves the process of creating living, functional tissues to restore or replace the function of tissues or organs lost due to age, disease, injury, or congenital defects. This field holds the promise of repairing or replacing damaged tissues and organs within the body by introducing foreign cells, tissues, or even entire organs to integrate with and become part of the tissue, or by replacing entire organs. Importantly, regenerative medicine has the potential to alleviate the shortage of donor organs for patients in need of life-saving organ transplants.

[0003] One key aspect of successful regenerative medicine strategies has been the ability to isolate and generate stem cells, including pluripotent stem cells. Pluripotent stem cells, including embryonic stem cells (ESCs or ES cells) and induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs or iPS cells), are prime candidates for cell-based therapies due to their ability to self-renew indefinitely and differentiate into any cell type in the body, regardless of which cell type is needed to replace tissue damaged by disease or injury. This type of treatment could be used, for example, to replace neurons damaged by stroke, spinal cord injury, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, or other neurological disorders. Pancreatic cells grown to produce insulin could treat people with diabetes, and heart cells could repair damage after a heart attack. This list could conceivably include any injured or diseased tissue. Stem cell treatments could also be used to help the body's own cells fight cancer by engineering the immune system to fight cancer through stem cells.

[0004] Despite their therapeutic promise, a significant safety concern for the clinical introduction of human pluripotent stem cells is their potential for in vivo teratoma formation. Teratomas are complex tumors caused by contamination of therapeutic stem cell-derived cells with residual pluripotent stem cells that have escaped the differentiation process. Even small amounts of undifferentiated pluripotent stem cells injected into tissues (e.g., 10,000 ES cells injected into skeletal muscle) can cause teratomas. See, e.g., Lee et al. (2009) Cell Cycle 8: 2608-2612. Therefore, overcoming this obstacle is essential before stem cell therapy can be approved for human use. [Prior art documents] [Patent documents]

[0005] [Patent Document 1] U.S. Patent No. 7,565,205 [Non-patent literature]

[0006] [Non-Patent Document 1] Lee et al. (2009) Cell Cycle 8: 2608-2612 [Non-patent document 2] Yuasa et al. (2005) Nat. Biotechnol. 23(5):607-11 [Non-patent document 3] Xu et al., Regen Med. 2011 Jan;6(l):53-66 [Non-patent document 4] Mignone et al., Circ J. 2010 74(l2):2517~26 [Non-Patent Document 5] Takei et al., Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2009 296(6):Hl793~803 [Non-patent document 6] Fujiwara, PLoS One. 2011 6(2):el6734 [Non-licensed Document 7] Dambrot, Biochem J. 2011 434(l): pages 25~35 [Non-licensed Document 8] Foldesら, J Mol Cell Cardiol. 2011 50(2):367~76 pages [Non-licensed Document 9] Wangら, Sci China Life Sci. 2010 53(5):58l~9 pages [Non-licensed Document 10] Chen, J Cell Biochem. 2010 11 l(l):29~39 [Non-licensed Document 11] Janssensら, (2006), Lancet, 367: pp. 113-121 [Non-licensed Document 12] Sherman, (2003) Basic Appl. Myol. 13: pages 11~14 [Non-licensed Document 13] Patelら, (2005) The Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery 130: Pages 1631~38 [Non-licensed Document 14] Perri, (2003) Circulation 107: Pages 2294~2302 [Non-licensed Document 15] Dawnら, (2005) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 102, pages 3766~3771 [Non-licensed Document 16] Morizane (2008), Cell Tissue Res., 33 l(l):323-326. [Non-licensed Document 17] Coutts and Keirstead (2008), Exp. Neurol., 209(2): pages 368~377 [Non-licensed Document 18] Goswami and Rao (2007), Drugs, 10(10): pp. 713-719 [Non-Patent Document 19] Burns et al. (2006) Curr. Stem Cell Res. Ther., 2:255-266 [Non-Patent Document 20] Childs et al. (2000), N. Engl. J. Med., 343:750-758 Summary of the Invention [Problem to be solved by the invention]

[0007] Several attempts have been made to selectively remove residual undifferentiated pluripotent stem cells from pre-transplantation cells while sparing their differentiated progeny, including the use of cytotoxic antibodies (Tan et al., 2009; Choo et al., 2008), specific antibody cell sorting (Tang et al., 2011; Fong et al., 2009), genetic manipulations including the introduction of suicide genes (Blum et al., 2009; Schuldiner et al., 2003), pharmacological approaches (Lee et al., 2013; Ben-David et al., 2013; Lin et al., 2017), and radiation therapy (Lee et al., 2017). However, each of these methods has significant drawbacks, such as high cost (cytotoxic antibodies and specific antibody cell sorting), variability between different lots (cytotoxic antibodies and specific antibody cell sorting), non-specific binding (cytotoxic antibodies), the need for genetic manipulation and stable incorporation of toxic genes (genetic manipulation), time-consuming procedures (genetic manipulation, specific antibody cell sorting, and cytotoxic antibodies), and the use of ionizing irradiation (radiotherapy). Many studies have attempted to prevent teratoma formation from residual pluripotent stem cells, but a clinically applicable strategy to eliminate teratoma formation has yet to be developed. [Means for solving the problem]

[0008] One embodiment of the present invention relates to a first method for preventing iatrogenic teratoma tumors in stem cell-based cancer therapy by removing remaining pluripotent stem cells from a batch of differentiated progeny cells. The first method includes exposing the batch of differentiated progeny cells and the remaining pluripotent stem cells to an alternating current electric field for a period of time. The alternating current electric field has a frequency and field strength such that (a) exposure to the alternating current electric field for a period of time results in death of the pluripotent stem cells, thereby resulting in a purified batch of differentiated progeny cells that are rendered safe for subsequent use in stem cell-based therapy, and (b) the differentiated cells exposed to the alternating current electric field for a period of time remain substantially intact. The first method also includes using the purified batch of differentiated progeny cells to treat cancer after exposure.

[0009] In some examples of the first method, the stem cell-based cancer therapy is a stem cell-based therapy for leukemia. In some examples of the first method, the stem cell-based cancer therapy is a stem cell-based therapy for lymphoma.

[0010] Another aspect of the present invention relates to a second method for removing remaining pluripotent stem cells from a batch of differentiated progeny cells to prevent teratoma formation in stem cell-based therapy. The second method comprises exposing the batch of differentiated progeny cells and the remaining pluripotent stem cells to an alternating electric field for a period of time. The alternating electric field has a frequency and field strength such that (a) exposure to the alternating electric field for a period of time results in death of the pluripotent stem cells, thereby resulting in a purified batch of differentiated progeny cells that are rendered safe for subsequent use in stem cell-based therapy, and (b) the differentiated cells exposed to the alternating electric field for a period of time remain substantially intact.

[0011] In some examples of the second method, the purified batch contains fewer than 100,000 pluripotent stem cells. In some examples of the second method, the purified batch contains fewer than 10,000 pluripotent stem cells. In some examples of the second method, the purified batch contains fewer than 1,000 pluripotent stem cells. In some examples of the second method, the purified batch contains fewer than 100 pluripotent stem cells. In some examples of the second method, the period of time is at least 12 hours. In some examples of the second method, the period of time is at least 2 days. In some examples of the second method, the alternating electric field has an orientation that switches between at least two different directions every time during the period of time.

[0012] In some examples of the second method, the alternating electric field has a frequency of 50 kHz to 500 kHz. In some of these examples, the alternating electric field has a field strength of at least 1 V / cm.

[0013] In some examples of the second method, the AC field has a frequency of 250 kHz to 350 kHz and a field strength of at least 1 V / cm. In some examples of the second method, the AC field has a frequency of 50 kHz to 500 kHz and a field strength of at least 1 V / cm, and the period of time is at least 12 hours. In some examples of the second method, the AC field has a frequency of 250 kHz to 350 kHz and a field strength of at least 1 V / cm, and the period of time is at least 3 days.

[0014] Some examples of the second method further include, after the exposing, using the batch of differentiated cells for therapeutic or diagnostic purposes.

[0015] In some examples of the second method, prior to the exposing, the batch of differentiated progeny cells is obtained by expanding the pluripotent stem cells and differentiating the expanded pluripotent stem cells into the batch of differentiated progeny cells.

[0016] In some examples of the second method, the exposing step is performed in vitro. In some examples of the second method, the exposing step is performed in vivo. In some examples of the second method, the pluripotent stem cells include one or more of induced pluripotent stem cells, embryonic stem cells, cancer stem cells, and embryonic germ cells. In some examples of the second method, the differentiated progeny cells comprise cardiomyocytes or cardiomyocyte precursors. In some examples of the second method, the pluripotent stem cells and differentiated progeny cells are human cells. [Brief explanation of the drawings]

[0017] [Figure 1] FIG. 1 shows a flowchart illustrating the steps of one exemplary approach to stem cell-based therapy that dramatically reduces the risk of teratoma formation. [Figure 2] Figure 2A shows cell counts assessed by trypan blue cell staining of H7 human embryonic stem cells (H7-ESCs) exposed to alternating current electric fields at different frequencies over time compared to unexposed controls. Figure 2B shows an expanded version of the data shown in Figure 2A for H7-ESCs exposed to alternating current electric fields at different frequencies over time. [Figure 3] Figure 1 shows the cell viability over time of human ESCs (H7 line) exposed to AC electric fields at different frequencies compared to unexposed controls. Luminescence output was positively correlated with cell number (R2=0.942). RLU stands for relative luminescence units. [Figure 4] Figure 1 shows cell counts of ESC-derived cardiomyocytes, assessed by trypan blue cell staining, after exposure to AC electric fields at different frequencies compared to unexposed control cardiomyocytes. No significant differences in cardiomyocyte counts were observed before and after AC electric field application for any of the five frequencies tested. [Figure 5]Figure 5A shows the results of a contractility assay that measured the beating rate of ESC-derived cardiomyocytes after exposure to an AC electric field, compared with unexposed (untreated) controls. There was no significant difference in beating rate between ESC-CMs exposed to an AC electric field and those not exposed. Figure 5B shows the results of a contractility assay that measured the contraction rate of ESC-derived cardiomyocytes after exposure to an AC electric field, compared with unexposed (untreated) controls. There was no significant difference in contraction rate between ESC-CMs exposed to an AC electric field and those not exposed. Figure 5C shows the results of a contractility assay that measured the acceleration of ESC-derived cardiomyocytes after exposure to an AC electric field, compared with unexposed (untreated) controls. There was no significant difference in acceleration between ESC-CMs exposed to an AC electric field and those not exposed. [Figure 6] Figures 6A-6C show BLI signals at three different time points after cell injection of H7-ESCs into live mice. Note the dramatic difference in BLI signals between the side injected with ESCs treated with an AC electric field and the side injected with untreated ESCs. No BLI signal was detected in the left flank of mice injected with ESCs treated with an AC electric field. [Figure 7] 7A-7B show the results of cell cycle analysis for control ESCs that were not exposed to an AC electric field (FIG. 7A) and ESCs that were subjected to AC electric field treatment at 300 kHz for 3 days (FIG. 7B). DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

[0018] Various embodiments are described in detail below with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which like reference numerals represent like elements.

[0019] Eliminating the risk of residual pluripotent stem cells (which can induce teratomas) prior to stem cell-based therapy has previously been extremely difficult. The embodiments described herein use a novel approach that overcomes this difficulty.

[0020] "Pluripotency" and pluripotent stem cells refer to the ability of such cells to differentiate into any type of cell within an organism. The term "induced pluripotent stem cells" encompasses pluripotent cells that, like embryonic stem (ES) cells, can be cultured for long periods of time while maintaining the ability to differentiate into any type of cell within an organism, but unlike ES cells (derived from the inner cell mass of a blastocyst), are derived from differentiated somatic cells, i.e., cells that have a narrower, more limited potential and cannot be induced to produce any type of cell within an organism in the absence of experimental manipulation. iPS cells have an ESC-like morphology, growing as flat colonies with a high nucleocytoplasmic ratio, defined borders, and prominent nuclei. In addition, iPS cells express one or more important pluripotency markers known to those skilled in the art, including, but not limited to, alkaline phosphatase, SSEA3, SSEA4, Sox2, Oct3 / 4, Nanog, TRA160, TRA181, TDGF1, Dnmt3b, FoxD3, GDF3, Cyp26al, TERT, and Zfp42. In addition, iPS cells have the ability to form teratomas. In addition, iPS cells have the ability to form or donate ectodermal, mesodermal, or endodermal tissues within an organism.

[0021] Figure 1 is a flow chart illustrating the steps of one exemplary approach for stem cell-based therapy that dramatically reduces the risk of teratoma formation. (Abbreviations: ESC - embryonic stem cell, iPSC - induced pluripotent stem cell, PPSC - pluripotent stem cell). The first four steps (i.e., steps 20-26) are similar to the corresponding steps in prior art approaches for stem cell-based therapy. Improvements over prior art approaches are presented in the remaining steps (i.e., steps 30-35).

[0022] The entry point in the flowchart (FIG. 1) depends on whether the process is based on induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) or embryonic stem cells (ESCs). For iPSC-based processes, the process begins at step 20, where cells are isolated from a subject to obtain an initial cell population that will be reprogrammed to generate pluripotent stem cells from which therapeutic cells for stem cell-based therapy will be derived. Alternatively, cells can be extracted / isolated from a different donor. Cells can be first isolated from the subject (or other donor), for example, from a skin sample or by drawing blood from a person.

[0023] "Starting cell population" or "initial cell population" refers to somatic cells, usually primary or non-transformed somatic cells, that are subjected to nuclear reprogramming toward pluripotency. The starting cell population can be a cell population of any mammalian species, but particularly includes human cells. Sources of starting cell populations include individuals seeking cell therapy, individuals with genetic defects of interest for research, etc.

[0024] In some embodiments, human cells obtained from a subject for regenerative purposes may be selected from any human cell type, including fibroblasts, adipose tissue cells, mesenchymal cells, bone marrow cells, stomach cells, liver cells, epithelial cells, nasal epithelial cells, mucosal epithelial cells, follicular cells, connective tissue cells, muscle cells, bone cells, chondrocytes, gastrointestinal cells, spleen cells, kidney cells, lung cells, testicular cells, neural tissue cells, etc. In some embodiments, the human cell type is a fibroblast, which may be conveniently obtained from a subject by punch biopsy.

[0025] Next, in step 22, the initial cell population is reprogrammed to generate induced pluripotent stem cells (e.g., iPSCs). This can be performed using any of a variety of approaches that will be apparent to those skilled in the relevant art. As used herein, "reprogramming factor" refers to a cocktail of one or more biologically active factors that act on cells to alter transcription, thereby reprogramming the cells toward multipotency or pluripotency. Reprogramming factors can be provided to cells, e.g., cells derived from an individual with a desired family history or genetic makeup for heart disease, such as fibroblasts, adipocytes, etc., individually or as a single composition, i.e., a premixed composition of reprogramming factors. Factors can be provided in the same or different molar ratios. Factors can be provided one or more times during the course of culturing the cells. In some embodiments, the reprogramming factors are transcription factors, including, but not limited to, Oct3 / 4, Sox2, Klf4, c-Myc, Nanog, and Lin-28.

[0026] The somatic cells are contacted with reprogramming factors (as defined above) in a combination and amount sufficient to reprogram the cells toward pluripotency. The reprogramming factors can be provided to the somatic cells individually or as a single composition, i.e., a premixed composition of reprogramming factors. In some embodiments, the reprogramming factors are provided as multiple coding sequences on a vector.

[0027] Optionally, genes can be introduced into somatic cells or somatic cell-derived iPS cells for various purposes, such as to replace genes with loss-of-function mutations, provide marker genes, etc. Alternatively, vectors expressing antisense mRNA or ribozymes can be introduced to block expression of undesired genes. Other methods of gene therapy include the introduction of drug resistance genes, such as multidrug resistance (MDR) genes, or anti-apoptotic genes, such as bcl-2, which give normal progenitor cells an advantage and allow them to undergo selection pressure. Various techniques known in the art can be used to introduce nucleic acids into target cells, such as electroporation, calcium precipitated DNA, fusion, transfection, lipofection, infection, etc., as discussed above. The particular method by which DNA is introduced is not critical.

[0028] Note that instead of starting with somatic cells isolated from a subject or other donor and reprogrammed to form induced pluripotent stem cells (as described above in connection with steps 20-22), the pluripotent stem cells used in subsequent steps can also be obtained using alternative approaches. For example, embryonic stem cells can be obtained using any conventional approach for obtaining such cells. In this situation, the entry point into the flowchart of FIG. 1 would be step 20', where ESCs are isolated.

[0029] As described above, after pluripotent stem cells (PPSCs) are obtained, step 24 is performed (i.e., using steps 20-22 in the case of induced pluripotent stem cells, or step 20' in the case of embryonic stem cells). In step 24, an initial quantity of pluripotent stem cells is expanded using any of a variety of approaches that will be recognized by those skilled in the art. For example, the initial quantity of pluripotent stem cells may be cultured and supplemented with an appropriate nutrient medium until a batch of pluripotent stem cells large enough for the intended use is obtained.

[0030] Next, in step 26, the batch of pluripotent stem cells is differentiated to form a batch of specialized cells of the desired type (which will depend on the nature of the treatment that will ultimately be required). For example, if the ultimate goal is the introduction of cardiomyocytes into patients with heart disease, the differentiation process in step 26 should differentiate the pluripotent stem cells into cardiomyocytes.

[0031] Examples of differentiated cells include any differentiated cell from an ectodermal (e.g., neuron and fibroblast), mesodermal (e.g., cardiomyocyte), or endodermal (e.g., pancreatic cell) lineage. The differentiated cell can be one or more of cholinergic, serotonergic, GABAergic, glutamatergic neuronal cells, pancreatic beta cells, neural stem cells, neurons (e.g., dopaminergic neurons), retinal ganglion cells, photoreceptor cells (rods and cones), retinal pigment epithelial cells, oligodendrocytes, oligodendrocyte progenitor cells, hepatocytes, hepatic stem cells, chondrocytes, bone cells, connective tissue cells, glial cells, astrocytes, muscle cells, hematopoietic cells, egg or sperm cells, pacemaker cells, or cardiomyocytes.

[0032] Although the methods described herein are not limited to the production of cardiomyocytes, the following example of differentiating a batch of pluripotent stem cells into a batch of cardiomyocytes is provided for illustrative purposes. Pluripotent cells can be differentiated into somatic cells, including, but not limited to, cardiomyocytes. Inhibition of bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signaling can result in the generation of cardiac muscle cells (or cardiomyocytes); see, e.g., Yuasa et al. (2005), Nat. Biotechnol., 23(5):607-11. Thus, in one embodiment, pluripotent cells are cultured in the presence of noggin for about 2 to about 6 days, e.g., about 2 days, about 3 days, about 4 days, about 5 days, or about 6 days, after which embryoid bodies are allowed to form, and the embryoid bodies are cultured for about 1 week to about 4 weeks, e.g., about 1 week, about 2 weeks, about 3 weeks, or about 4 weeks.

[0033] Cardiomyocyte differentiation can be promoted by including cardiac agents, such as activin A and / or bone morphogenetic protein-4, in the culture (see the Examples herein; Xu et al., Regen Med. 2011 Jan;6(1):53-66; Mignone et al., Circ J. 2010 74(12):2517-26; Takei et al., Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2009 296(6):H1793-803, each of which is specifically incorporated herein by reference). Examples of such protocols include, for example, adding a Wnt agonist, such as Wnt 3A, optionally in the presence of cytokines, such as BMP4, VEGF, and activin A, followed by culturing in the presence of a Wnt antagonist, such as soluble frizzled protein. However, any suitable method for inducing cardiomyocyte differentiation may be used, such as cyclosporine A as described by Fujiwara et al., PLoS One. 2011 6(2):16734; Dambrot et al., Biochem J. 2011 434(1):25-35, which are specifically incorporated herein by reference; equiaxial cyclic stretch, angiotensin II, and phenylephrine (PE) as described by Foldes et al., J Mol Cell Cardiol. 2011 50(2):367-76; ascorbic acid, dimethyl sulfoxide, and 5-aza-2'-deoxycytidine as described by Wang et al., Sci China Life Sci. 2010 53(5):581-9; and endothelial cells as described by Chen et al., J Cell Biochem. 2010 11 1(1):29-39.

[0034] Cells are harvested (e.g., at about 1-4 weeks) at an appropriate developmental stage, which can be determined based on marker expression and phenotypic characteristics of the desired cell type. Cultures can be experimentally tested, such as by staining for the presence or absence of markers of interest, by morphological determination, etc. Cells are optionally enriched before or after a positive selection step, such as by drug selection, panning, density gradient centrifugation, etc.

[0035] "Cardiomyocyte precursors" are defined as cells capable of inducing progeny, including cardiomyocytes. Cardiomyocyte phenotypes arising during mammalian cardiac development can be distinguished into primary, nodal, conducting, and working cardiomyocytes. All cardiomyocytes possess sarcomeres and sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR), are connected by gap junctions, and exhibit automaticity. Cells of the primary heart tube are characterized by high automaticity, low conduction velocity, low contractility, and low SR activity. This phenotype persists primarily in nodal cells. In contrast, atrial and ventricular working cardiomyocytes exhibit virtually no automaticity, well-connected cells, well-developed sarcomeres, and high SR activity. Conducting cells from the atrioventricular bundle, bundle branches, and peripheral ventricular conduction system exhibit poorly developed sarcomeres, low SR activity, but are well-connected and exhibit high automaticity.

[0036] Developmental changes have been observed in differentiated ES cell cultures for α-Mhc, β-Mhc, and cardiac troponin I, as well as slow skeletal troponin I. Although Mlc2v and Anf expression are often used to distinguish ventricular- and atrial-like cells, respectively, in ES cell cultures, Anf expression does not exclusively identify atrial cardiomyocytes in ES-derived cells (ESDCs), and Anf may be a general marker of working cardiomyocytes.

[0037] At this point in the process (i.e., at the end of step 26), a batch of differentiated progeny cells of the desired type (e.g., cardiomyocytes) is obtained. However, because the differentiated progeny cells were created using a process involving pluripotent stem cells, it is highly likely that not all of the pluripotent stem cells differentiated into the desired cell type. This means that there is a high probability that remaining pluripotent stem cells will remain intermixed with the batch of differentiated cells. Therefore, before the batch of differentiated progeny cells can be used for therapeutic purposes, the batch of differentiated progeny cells should be purified (preferably to the greatest extent possible) by removing any remaining pluripotent stem cells that remain intermixed with the batch of differentiated cells. This will prevent the formation of teratoma tumors when the batch of differentiated progeny cells is ultimately used in stem cell-based therapies.

[0038] This purification occurs in step 30. More specifically, in step 30, the batch of differentiated progeny cells, along with any remaining pluripotent stem cells intermixed therein, is exposed to an alternating current electric field for a period of time. The alternating current electric field has frequency and field strength characteristics such that exposure to the alternating current field for a period of time results in the death of the pluripotent stem cells, thereby resulting in a purified batch of differentiated progeny cells that are rendered safe for subsequent use in stem cell-based therapies. Incidentally, the frequency and field strength of the alternating current electric field are also such that the differentiated cells exposed to the alternating current field for a period of time remain substantially intact.

[0039] Importantly, it is not necessary to kill all of the pluripotent stem cells for a purified batch to be safe. Rather, a small number of pluripotent stem cells may persist, as long as their numbers are small enough that use of a purified batch of differentiated progeny cells in stem cell-based therapies will not pose an undue risk for teratoma formation. In this example, with numbers used in the mouse context, there are fewer than 10,000 pluripotent stem cells when injected into skeletal muscle and fewer than 100,000 pluripotent stem cells when injected into cardiac muscle. In some preferred embodiments, the number of pluripotent stem cells is reduced to the maximum extent possible (e.g., fewer than 1000, or fewer than 100 pluripotent stem cells).

[0040] A series of experiments was performed to determine suitable representative frequencies and field strengths for the electric field, which revealed that frequencies between 50 kHz and 500 kHz and field strengths between 1 and 4 V / cm were effective in purifying differentiated progeny cells by removing rapidly dividing pluripotent stem cells from the starting pre-purified batch.

[0041] Tumor-treating fields (TTFields) are an FDA-approved therapy for solid tumors that works by delivering low-intensity (e.g., 1-4 V / cm) alternating electric fields in the mid-frequency range (e.g., 50-500 kHz) to tumors. Additionally, approaches for applying TTFields to cultures in vitro or to subjects in vivo are known, either of which can be used to apply an alternating electric field to a batch of differentiated progeny cells mixed with residual pluripotent stem cells in order to purify the batch of differentiated cells and thereby prevent the formation of teratoma tumors. Because TTFields are alternating electric fields, one example of an approach that can be used to remove pluripotent stem cells from a batch of differentiated progeny cells that contains residual pluripotent stem cells is the use of the Novocure INOVITRO™ System. The INOVITRO™ System consists of a software-controlled TTFields generator and a base plate with an ultra-high dielectric constant ceramic Petri dish. The INOVITRO™ system, which allows researchers to set the target TTFields intensity and frequency in each ceramic dish, was used to perform the in vitro experiments described herein.

[0042] The TTFields in vitro application system consists of a Petri dish with a high-permittivity ceramic core unit (i.e., lead magnesium niobate-lead titanate [PMN-PT]). Two electrode pairs are printed vertically on a circuit board attached to the bottom of the TTFields ceramic dish, allowing for the application of an electric field from two longitudinal directions parallel to the surface of the dish. This configuration optimizes the proportion of metaphase-spread cells exposed to the AC electric field. Because cell division can occur at any time, prolonged exposure to the electric field is required for maximum efficacy.

[0043] Electric current was applied through the electrodes by attaching the ceramic dish to a base plate (which in turn was connected to a power box connected to a sinusoidal waveform generator and amplifier). This configuration allowed the application of TTFields in the frequency range of 50–500 kHz with field strengths of 1–4 V / cm. To dissipate excess heat, the TTFields dish was kept inside a temperature-controlled incubator preset to 20–27°C. The temperature of the medium within the wells of the ceramic dish was controlled by constantly monitoring the dish temperature via a temperature probe printed on the circuit board at the bottom of the dish. Temperature and field strength were kept constant through computer-controlled regulation of voltage and current (applied to the bottom of the circuit board by the INOVITRO™ system).

[0044] A typical workflow for conducting cardiac stem cell therapy experiments using the INOVITRO™ system is described here. Depending on the nature of the experiment, either (a) ESC-derived cardiomyocytes or (b) ESCs were seeded onto Matrigel-coated coverslips. The coverslips were then transferred to ceramic dishes pre-filled with the appropriate medium (approximately 2 mL). A cover lid was placed on the ceramic dish to mitigate evaporation during the TTFields experiment. The ceramic dish was then attached to a TTFields baseplate. The experimental dish, placed on the baseplate, was transferred to a specialized incubator for AC electric field conditions. The baseplate was then connected to the TTFields generator using a flat cable connector. After configuring the treatment settings using the INOVITRO™ software, the experiment was initiated. TTFields, set to 1–4 V / cm, were applied via the INOVITRO™ power generator. TTFields frequencies selected included 50 kHz, 100 kHz, 200 kHz, 300 kHz, 400 kHz, and 500 kHz. The target temperature for the ceramic dishes during TTFields application was 37°C, and the incubation temperature ranged from 20 to 27°C. Throughout the experiment, the culture medium was manually changed every 24 hours. The treatment period lasted anywhere from 3 to 4 days, after which the coverslips were removed and cell counts or cell viability assays were performed. Control dishes were placed in a separate tissue culture incubator set at 37°C, 95% air, and 5% CO2. Unless otherwise noted, all experiments were performed with triplicate samples per condition.

[0045] In each experiment, the same number of cells was seeded onto each coverslip, with a range of seeding densities from 50,000 to 500,000 cells per coverslip used depending on the individual experiment.

[0046] Importantly, while the INOVITRO™ system was used to perform the in vitro experiments described herein, the methods described herein are not limited to applying AC electric fields using the INOVITRO™ system. Instead, AC electric fields can be applied using any of a variety of alternative approaches, including, but not limited to, systems similar to the INOVITRO™ system (but scaled up in size to increase the amount of cells to which the AC electric field is applied).

[0047] Types of pluripotent stem cells include both embryonic stem cells (ESCs) and induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), and although the experiments described herein were performed on embryonic stem cells, the results should also apply to other types of pluripotent stem cells.

[0048] In some experiments, H7-ESCs were transfected with a lentiviral vector expressing luciferase and Tomato Red under the EF1 promoter. It was advantageous to transfect embryonic stem cells with this lentiviral vector because Tomato Red allows ESCs to be visualized when illuminated with light of the appropriate wavelength, and luciferase allows ESCs to be visualized when luciferin is available to the cells.

[0049] Figures 2A and 2B show the results of an initial experiment measuring cell numbers over time for H7 human embryonic stem cells exposed to AC electric fields at frequencies of 50 kHz, 100 kHz, 200 kHz, 300 kHz, 400 kHz, and 500 kHz, as well as for controls to which no AC electric field was applied. (Figures 2A and 2B show the same data but with different y-axis scales.) Untreated control ESCs increased in number by more than 3600% after 3 days in an incubator (i.e., jumping from approximately 45,000 ESCs [baseline] on day 0 to approximately 1.7 million cells on day 3) (Figure 2B). Of the frequencies tested, 300 kHz produced the highest ESC killing rate. It is believed that prolonged exposure to AC electric fields will eradicate virtually all ESCs.

[0050] Figure 3 shows the cell viability of ESCs over time upon exposure to AC electric fields of different frequencies. Viability was determined based on luminescence signals obtained from the Cell Titer Glo assay at baseline before the start of AC electric field therapy and on day 3 after the start of AC electric field therapy. Untreated control ESCs increased their luminescence output by more than 450% after 3 days in the incubator. However, at all five frequencies shown, ESCs exposed to AC electric fields for 3 days were virtually completely eradicated. (Note that the data points in Figure 3 for 100 kHz, 200 kHz, 300 kHz, 400 kHz, and 500 kHz all overlap with values ​​very close to zero.) The frequency that showed the highest ESC killing rate was 300 kHz (a cell killing rate of over 99.9% when compared to the baseline starting value). Cell number correlated with luminescence output (R2 = 0.942). RLU stands for relative luminescence units.

[0051] In another experiment, bright-field images were also used to observe the effects of AC electric fields on embryonic stem cells. In this experiment, bright-field images of dishes of ESCs were acquired at baseline before the start of the experiment. Some dishes were exposed to an AC electric field with a frequency of 300 kHz for three days, while other dishes (i.e., control dishes) were not exposed to the AC field for the same period. At the end of the experiment, bright-field images of the dishes were visually inspected and it was found that the amount of embryonic stem cells rapidly increased in dishes that had not been exposed to the AC field, but appeared to be completely eradicated in dishes that had been exposed to the AC field.

[0052] These experiments demonstrate that exposing pluripotent stem cells to alternating electric fields at the above frequencies causes the cells to die.

[0053] Additional experiments were conducted to determine what would occur when differentiated cells derived from pluripotent stem cells were exposed to AC electric fields of the same frequency. More specifically, in this experiment, dishes of ESC-derived cardiomyocytes (ESC-CMs) were visually inspected before and after AC electric fields were applied to the cells at five different frequencies (50, 100, 200, 300, and 400 kHz) for three days. In addition, control dishes were visually inspected before and after the AC electric field was applied for three days. Visual inspection of the dishes revealed no significant differences in the cardiomyocyte wells before and after the AC electric field application.

[0054] In addition to visual observation, cell counts were also performed, and Figure 4 shows the results of cell counts of ESC-derived cardiomyocytes (ESC-CMs) after exposure to AC electric fields of different frequencies. At the end of the 3-day period, cell counts were performed using a trypan blue cytometry assay. Cell counts revealed that the difference in cardiomyocyte counts before and after application of the AC electric field was not statistically significant for any of the five frequencies tested.

[0055] ESC-derived cardiomyocytes also beat both before and after application of the AC electric field, indicating an intact functional phenotype (i.e., no deleterious effects due to the AC electric field were observed).

[0056] Decreased beat-to-beat variability was also observed in ESC-derived cardiomyocytes after AC electric field exposure, whereas improved electromechanical properties were observed, which may indicate a more mature cardiomyocyte profile.

[0057] Figures 5A-5C show the results of a contractility assay that measured the beating rate, contraction rate, and acceleration of ESC-derived cardiomyocytes after exposure to a 300 kHz AC electric field, as well as control ESC-CMs that were not exposed to an AC electric field. No statistically significant differences were found in the beating rate, contraction rate, and acceleration of cardiomyocytes between ESC-CMs exposed to an AC electric field and those not exposed to an AC electric field. This provides further evidence that cardiomyocytes were not harmed by the AC electric field.

[0058] Collectively, these experiments demonstrate that exposure of batches of differentiated cells (e.g., cardiomyocytes) derived from stem cells to AC electric fields at these frequencies leaves the cells substantially intact. In particular, the results observed for the differentiated progeny cells (which were not harmed by the AC electric field, see e.g., Figure 4) are in stark contrast to those observed for the stem cells (which died when exposed to the AC electric field, see e.g., Figure 3).

[0059] Figures 6A-6C show BLI signals at three different time points after cell injection of approximately 500,000 human H7-ESCs into the right flank of mice (Figure 6A: day 1, Figure 6B: day 3, and Figure 6C: day 7). BLI signals at three different time points are also shown for AC electric field-treated ESCs injected into the left flank of mice (AC electric field treatment at 300 kHz for 3 days) and for a mouse injected with Matrigel alone into the left scapula (serving as a control for the present invention). Note the dramatic difference in BLI signals between the AC electric field-treated and untreated ESC-injected sides. No BLI signal was detected in the left flank of mice injected with AC electric field-treated ESCs. Luminescence signals were expressed in photons per second per square centimeter per steradian (photons / second / cm). 2 This was quantified in radiance as α / sr, demonstrating that exposure of pluripotent stem cells to an AC electric field reduces the number of pluripotent stem cells to the point where teratomas do not form in vivo.

[0060] Figures 7A-7B show the results of cell cycle analysis, showing that ESCs treated with an AC electric field at 300 kHz for 3 days (Figure 7B) were arrested at the G2 / M checkpoint of the cell cycle compared to untreated control ESCs (Figure 7A). This provides important insights into the mechanism of action of AC electric fields on rapidly dividing cells, such as stem cells and tumor cells.

[0061] "Treatment" refers to both therapeutic treatment and prophylactic or preventative measures. Those in need of treatment include those already with the disorder as well as those who are to be prevented from having the disorder.

[0062] "Mammal," for purposes of treatment, refers to any animal classified as a mammal, including humans, domestic and farm animals, and zoo, sport, or pet animals, such as dogs, horses, cats, cows, etc. In some preferred embodiments, the mammal is a human.

[0063] This application describes methods for removing residual pluripotent stem cells from a batch of differentiated progeny cells to prevent teratoma tumor formation in stem cell-based therapies. In some embodiments, the cell populations purified by the methods described herein are 10 7 In some embodiments, the cell population purified by the methods described herein is purified to have fewer than 1 in 100,000 pluripotent stem cells. In some embodiments, the cell population purified by the methods described herein is purified to have fewer than 10,000 pluripotent stem cells. In some embodiments, the cell population purified by the methods described herein is purified to have fewer than 1,000 pluripotent stem cells. In some embodiments, the cell population purified by the methods described herein is purified to have fewer than 100 pluripotent stem cells.

[0064] For in vitro embodiments, the cell population may include any population suspected of containing a mixture of differentiated and pluripotent cells. Of particular interest are differentiated cells prepared as therapeutic agents, e.g., cultures of cells differentiated into a desired pathway, where the differentiated cells are derived from stem cells and residual stem cells may be present within the batch of differentiated cells.

[0065] When removing pluripotent cells from a batch of differentiated progeny cells, a suitable solution can be used for dispersion or suspension. Such solutions are typically balanced salt solutions, such as normal saline, PBS, Hank's balanced salt solution, and the like, conveniently supplemented with fetal bovine serum or other naturally occurring factors, along with a low concentration, typically 5-25 mM, of an acceptable buffer. Convenient buffers include HEPES, phosphate buffer, lactate buffer, and the like.

[0066] Pluripotent cells can be removed from a complex mixture of cells by suspending the cells in a medium and, optionally, adhering the cells to a surface. The cells are then subjected to a low-intensity alternating electric field in the mid-frequency range (50-500 kHz) for a period of time.

[0067] In some embodiments, the frequency of the AC electric field is about 200 kHz to about 400 kHz, about 250 kHz to about 350 kHz, or can be about 300 kHz. In some embodiments, the field is at least 1 V / cm. In some embodiments, the field is 1-4 V / cm. In other embodiments, a combination of field strengths is applied, such as combining two or more frequencies simultaneously and / or applying two or more frequencies at different times.

[0068] The exposure may last for at least 12 hours, at least 24 hours, at least 36 hours, at least 48 hours, or at least 72 hours, or longer.

[0069] In some embodiments, the cell cultures include artificial organs cultured in vitro, e.g., where one or more different tissue types or tissue layers are co-cultured, and the artificial organ is treated by exposure to an alternating electric field to remove pluripotent cells before the organ is implanted into the body.

[0070] In some embodiments, the AC electric field is combined with an effective dose of an agent that targets dividing cells, including, but not limited to, alkylating agents. Alkylating agents are known to act through the alkylation of macromolecules, such as the DNA of cancer cells, and are typically strong electrophiles. This activity can disrupt DNA synthesis and cell division. Examples of alkylating agents suitable for use herein include nitrogen mustards, including cyclophosphamide, ifosfamide, chlorambucil, estramustine, mechlorethamine hydrochloride, melphalan, and uracil mustard, as well as analogs and derivatives thereof. Other examples of alkylating agents include alkyl sulfonates (e.g., busulfan), nitrosoureas (e.g., carmustine, lomustine, and streptozocin), triazenes (e.g., dacarbazine and temozolomide), ethylenimines / methylmelamines (e.g., altretamine and thiotepa), and methylhydrazine derivatives (e.g., procarbazine). The group of alkylating agents includes alkylating platinum-containing drugs, including carboplatin, cisplatin, and oxaliplatin.

[0071] Additional drugs may include, but are not limited to, folic acid, pyrimidine, purine, and cytidine analogs and derivatives. Among drugs suitable for use herein, members of the folic acid group include, but are not limited to, methotrexate (amethopterin), pemetrexed, and analogs and derivatives thereof. Pyrimidine drugs suitable for use herein include, but are not limited to, cytarabine, floxuridine, fluorouracil (5-fluorouracil), capecitabine, gemcitabine, and analogs and derivatives thereof. Purine drugs suitable for use herein include, but are not limited to, mercaptopurine (6-mercaptopurine), pentostatin, thioguanine, cladribine, and analogs and derivatives thereof. Cytidine agents suitable for use herein include, but are not limited to, cytarabine (cytosine arabinoside), azacitidine (5-azacytidine), and analogs and derivatives thereof.

[0072] Antimitotic agents suitable for use herein include, but are not limited to, the vinca alkaloids vinblastine, vincristine, vindesine, vinorelbine, and their analogs and derivatives, and podophyllotoxins (including, but not limited to, etoposide, teniposide, and their analogs and derivatives). Antitumor agents suitable for use herein include, but are not limited to, belomycin, dactinomycin, doxorubicin, idarubicin, epirubicin, mitomycin, mitoxantrone, pentostatin, plicamycin, and their analogs and derivatives. Camptothecin analogs and derivatives suitable for use herein include camptothecin, topotecan, and irinotecan.

[0073] The number of pluripotent cells remaining in a population can be assessed, for example, by culturing an aliquot of the population for the presence of teratoma-forming cells or by analyzing for markers of pluripotency, such as staining for the presence of markers such as Oct-4, Sox2, Nanog, KLF4, TRA-1-60 / TRA-1-81 / TRA-2-54, SSEA1, SSEA4, etc. For example, an aliquot of cells can be stained with an antibody that binds to one or more of such markers indicative of pluripotency. The antibody is added to a suspension of cells and incubated for a period of time sufficient to bind to available cell surface antigens, and the cells that bind to such antibody are quantified.

[0074] As defined above, differentiated progeny cells exposed to an AC electric field remain substantially intact. However, it should be noted that this is analyzed from a global perspective and that a small proportion of differentiated progeny cells may die. Preferably, less than 5% of the differentiated progeny cells die. In alternative embodiments, less than 10%, 15%, or 25% of the differentiated progeny cells die. In other words, some killing of differentiated progeny cells may be observed, but it is desirable for the viability of the differentiated progeny cells after the purification process to be at least 75%, at least 85%, at least 90%, at least 95%, or more.

[0075] Purified batches of differentiated progeny cells (lacking residual pluripotent stem cells) can be resuspended in any suitable medium that maintains cell viability. A variety of media are commercially available, including dMEM, HBSS, dPBS, RPMI, Iscove's medium, etc., frequently supplemented with fetal bovine serum, and can be used based on the nature of the cells.

[0076] Purified batches of differentiated progeny cells can be used immediately. Alternatively, the cells can be frozen at liquid nitrogen temperatures and stored for long periods, thawed, and reused. In such cases, the cells will typically be frozen in 10% DMSO, 50% serum, 40% buffered media, or some other such solution commonly used in the art for maintaining cells at such freezing temperatures, and thawed in a manner commonly known in the art for thawing frozen cells.

[0077] Returning to Figure 1, the purified batch of differentiated progeny cells can be used therapeutically to treat a subject in step 35 or can be used for diagnostic purposes. Therapy can be aimed at treating the cause of the disease, or alternatively, therapy can be to treat the effects of a disease or condition. The induced cells can be transplanted at or near the site of injury within the subject, or the cells can be introduced into the subject in a manner that allows the cells to migrate or home to the site of injury. The transplanted cells can advantageously replace damaged or injured cells and can improve the overall condition of the subject. In some instances, the transplanted cells can stimulate tissue regeneration or repair.

[0078] The differentiated progeny cells can be transplanted into subjects suffering from a wide range of diseases or disorders. Degenerative heart diseases, such as ischemic cardiomyopathy, conduction disorders, and congenital defects, may benefit from regenerative cell therapy; see, e.g., Janssens et al. (2006), Lancet, 367:113-121.

[0079] In some embodiments, the purified batch of differentiated progeny cells comprises cardiomyocytes differentiated in vitro from a pluripotent stem cell population. ESC-derived cardiomyocytes after treatment with an AC electric field have been found to exhibit reduced beat-to-beat variability and demonstrate improved electromechanical properties suggestive of a more mature cardiomyocyte profile. In some embodiments, the cardiomyocytes exhibit enhanced structural and functional maturation compared to similarly differentiated cardiomyocytes that were not exposed to an AC electric field.

[0080] In such embodiments involving cardiomyocytes, a purified batch of differentiated cardiomyocytes or a population of cardiomyocyte progenitor cells can be administered to the heart of a subject in need thereof via injection. In one embodiment, the injection is intramyocardial. Those skilled in the art are familiar with the advantages of delivering cardiac stem cells via intramyocardial injection, as the heart is a functional muscle. Intramyocardial injection minimizes loss of injected cells due to the contractile motion of the heart. Alternatively, treated cells can be administered transendocardially or transepicardially via injection. In one embodiment, a catheter-based approach is used to deliver the transendocardial injection. The use of a catheter eliminates more invasive delivery methods, such as those requiring opening the chest cavity. As those skilled in the art will appreciate, optimal recovery times may be possible with minimally invasive procedures. A catheter approach may involve the use of techniques such as the NOGA catheter or similar systems. The NOGA catheter system facilitates guided administration by providing electromechanical mapping of the desired area as well as a retractable needle that can be used to deliver targeted injections or impregnate the target area with a therapeutic agent. The methods described herein can be practiced through the use of such a system to deliver injections. Those skilled in the art will recognize alternative systems that also have the ability to achieve targeted treatment by integrating imaging and catheter delivery systems that can be used with the methods described herein. Information regarding the use of NOGA and similar systems can be found, for example, in Sherman, (2003) Basic Appl. Myol. 13: 11-14; Patel et al., (2005) The Journal of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery 130: 1631-38; and Perri et al., (2003) Circulation 107: 2294-2302. In another embodiment, stem cell-derived cardiac cells can be administered via an intracoronary route.Those skilled in the art will recognize other useful delivery or transplantation methods that can be used in conjunction with the methods described herein, including those described in Dawn et al. (2005) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 102, 3766-3771.

[0081] Subjects suffering from neurological diseases or disorders can benefit from regenerative cell therapy. In some approaches, purified batches of differentiated progeny cells are neural stem cells or neurons that are transplanted into the site of injury to treat neurological conditions, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, cerebral infarction, spinal cord injury, or other central nervous system disorders; see, e.g., Morizane et al. (2008), Cell Tissue Res., 33 l(l):323-326; Coutts and Keirstead (2008), Exp. Neurol., 209(2):368-377; Goswami and Rao (2007), Drugs, 10(10):713-719.

[0082] Endothelial cells are useful in improving vascular structure and function, enhancing angiogenesis, and improving perfusion, for example, in peripheral arterial disease. Pancreatic islet cells (or primary cells from the islets of Langerhans) can be transplanted into subjects suffering from diabetes (e.g., type 1 diabetes), see, e.g., Burns et al. (2006) Curr. Stem Cell Res. Ther., 2:255-266. In some embodiments, pancreatic β cells are transplanted into subjects suffering from diabetes (e.g., type 1 diabetes). In other examples, hepatocytes or precursors are transplanted into subjects suffering from liver disease, such as hepatitis, cirrhosis, or liver failure.

[0083] Hematopoietic cells or hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) can be transplanted into subjects suffering from blood cancers or other hematological or immune disorders. Examples of blood cancers that may be treated with hematopoietic cells or HSCs include acute lymphoblastic leukemia, acute myeloblastic leukemia, chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML), Hodgkin's disease, multiple myeloma, and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. Often, subjects suffering from such diseases must undergo irradiation and / or chemotherapy treatment to kill rapidly dividing blood cells. Introducing HSCs derived from the methods described herein into such subjects can help restore a depleted cellular reservoir. In some cases, hematopoietic cells or HSCs derived by transdifferentiation can also be used to directly combat cancer. For example, transplantation of allogeneic HSCs shows promise in the treatment of renal cancer; see, e.g., Childs et al. (2000), N. Engl. J. Med., 343:750-758. In some embodiments, HSCs derived from inducer cells, whether allogeneic or autologous, can be introduced into a subject to treat renal or other cancers. Hematopoietic cells or HSCs derived from inducer cells can also be introduced into a subject to generate or repair cells or tissues other than blood cells, such as muscle, blood vessels, or bone. Such treatments can be useful for a number of disorders.

[0084] The number of treatment doses administered to a subject can vary. Introducing a purified batch of differentiated progeny cells into a subject can be a one-off event, but in certain circumstances, such treatment may only elicit improvement for a limited period of time and may require a continuous series of repeated treatments. In other circumstances, multiple administrations of cells may be required before an effect is observed. The exact protocol will depend on the disease or condition, the stage of the disease, and the parameters of the individual subject being treated.

[0085] The cells may be introduced into a subject by any of the following routes: parenterally, intravenously, intraarterially, intramuscularly, subcutaneously, transdermally, intratracheally, intraperitoneally, or into the spinal fluid.

[0086] Purified batches of differentiated progeny cells can be administered in any physiologically acceptable medium. For example, the differentiated progeny cells can be provided alone or with a suitable substrate or matrix to support their proliferation and / or organization within the transplanted tissue. Cells can be introduced by injection, catheter, etc. Cells can be frozen at liquid nitrogen temperature and stored long-term for use upon thawing. If frozen, cells will typically be stored in 10% DMSO, 50% FCS, 40% RPMI 1640 medium. Once thawed, cells can be expanded using growth factors and / or stromal cells associated with the proliferation and differentiation of progenitor cells.

[0087] Although the in vitro experiments described above were performed using the above frequencies, field strengths, and durations, these parameters may be varied: for example, the frequency may be 50-500 kHz, the field strength may be 0.5-5 V / cm, and the duration may be any time longer than 12 hours.

[0088] In in vitro experiments using the Inovitro™ system described herein, the direction of the AC electric field was switched between two perpendicular directions at 1 second intervals. However, in alternative embodiments, the direction of the AC electric field is switched more rapidly (e.g., at intervals of 1-1000 ms) or more slowly (e.g., at intervals of 1-100 seconds).

[0089] In vitro experiments using the Inovitro™ system described herein switched the direction of an AC electric field between two orthogonal directions by applying an AC voltage to two pairs of electrodes positioned in alternating order and spaced 90° apart from each other in two-dimensional space. However, in alternative embodiments, the direction of the AC electric field can be switched between two non-orthogonal directions, or between three or more directions (provided additional pairs of electrodes are provided), by rearranging the pairs of electrodes. For example, the direction of the AC electric field can be switched between three directions, each determined by the placement of a dedicated pair of electrodes. Optionally, these three pairs of electrodes can be positioned so that the resulting field is spaced 90° apart from each other in three-dimensional space. In other alternative embodiments, the field direction remains constant.

[0090] Because the Inovitro™ system uses conductive electrodes placed on the exterior surface of the dish's sidewalls, and the ceramic material of the sidewalls acts as a dielectric, in vitro experiments using the Inovitro™ system described herein capacitively coupled the electric field to the cultures. However, in alternative embodiments, the electric field can be applied directly to the cells without capacitive coupling (e.g., by modifying the Inovitro™ system configuration so that the conductive electrodes are placed on the interior surface of the sidewalls instead of the exterior surface).

[0091] The methods described herein can also be applied in an in vivo context by applying an alternating current electric field to a target region of a living subject's body to prevent the development of teratomas or treat teratomas that have already begun to develop. This can be achieved, for example, using the Novocure Optune system (or variations thereof), which applies an alternating current electric field to a living subject's body. See, for example, U.S. Patent No. 7,565,205, which is incorporated herein by reference. In this context, electrodes are placed on or implanted within the subject's body (e.g., directly under the subject's skin or near the target region), and an AC voltage is applied between the electrodes to induce an alternating current electric field within the target region of the subject's body. Optionally, the orientation of the alternating current electric field can be periodically switched between two or more different directions.

[0092] In this in vivo situation, pluripotent stem cells are removed in vivo to prevent the formation of teratomas or to treat existing teratomas. This is achieved by exposing the pluripotent stem cells to an alternating current electric field for a period of time, the alternating current electric field having a certain frequency and field strength. The frequency and field strength of the alternating current electric field are such that, as a result of exposure to the alternating current electric field for a period of time, the number of pluripotent stem cells is killed until the number is low enough to (a) prevent the formation of teratomas or (b) treat already formed teratomas. The frequency and field strength of the alternating current electric field are such that differentiated cells in the subject's body exposed to the alternating current electric field remain substantially intact.

[0093] experiment The following examples are presented so as to fully disclose and illustrate to those of ordinary skill in the art how to practice the methods described herein, but are not intended to limit the scope of what the inventors regard as their invention, nor are they intended to represent that the experiments described below are all or the only experiments performed. Efforts have been made to ensure accuracy with respect to numbers used (e.g., amounts, temperatures, etc.), but some experimental error and variation should be allowed for. Unless otherwise specified, parts are parts by weight, molecular weight is weight average molecular weight, temperature is in degrees Celsius, and pressure is at or near atmospheric. [Example]

[0094] Cell seeding onto coverslips. Human pluripotent stem cells (including human embryonic stem cells [ESCs] and human induced pluripotent stem cells [iPSCs]) were maintained in Essential 8 (E8) medium supplemented with 10 μM ROCK inhibitor Y-27632. ESCs (WA07 [H7] line) or iPSCs were seeded onto the center of 22 mm diameter glass or plastic coverslips in 6-well plates. Coverslips were pre-coated with Matrigel diluted 1:200 in DMEM / F12 for at least 1 hour at 37°C in a conventional tissue culture incubator (37°C, 95% air, 5% CO2). Once cells adhered to the coverslips, a total of 2 mL of E8 medium supplemented with 10 μM ROCK inhibitor Y-27632 was added to each well. Upon cell harvest, the medium was changed daily for 1–2 days, after which the coverslips were transferred to the ceramic dish of the Inovitro™ TTFields device (Novocure Inc., Haifa, Israel).

[0095] The seeding procedure for human ESC- or iPSC-derived cardiomyocytes (ESC-CMs or iPSC-CMs) was similar to that for pluripotent stem cells, except that the recovery period after seeding was longer (approximately 5 days) until clear spontaneous beating was observed. ESC-CMs and iPSC-CMs were also maintained in RPMI 1640 medium containing B27 supplement and insulin. After a monolayer of beating cardiac cells was visualized on the coverslip, tumor treatment field experiments were initiated. Cell imaging was performed using a Leica DM IL LED inverted fluorescence microscope (Leica Microsystems, Buffalo Grove, IL) or a Revolve microscope (Echo Laboratories, San Diego, CA).

[0096] Trypan blue cell counting assay using an automated cell counter. Coverslips in ceramic dishes were prepared for cell counting by washing twice with 2 mL of PBS and removing the medium. The coverslips were then transferred to a 6-well plate, and 0.5 mL of trypsin-LE (TrypLE) was immediately added. Detached cells were suspended in a 15 mL Falcon tube containing 4.5 mL of E8 medium (for ESCs and iPSCs) supplemented with 10 μM of the ROCK inhibitor Y-27632 or RPMI 1640 medium containing B27 supplement and insulin (for ESC-CMs and iPSC-CMs). The cells were centrifuged at 300 g for 5 minutes at room temperature. Once the pellet was obtained, the supernatant was aspirated, and the cells were resuspended in 10 mL of Essential 8 medium or RPMI 1640 medium for cell counting.

[0097] After mixing the cell culture suspension, a 10 μL aliquot was removed and placed in a 1.5 mL Eppendorf tube. 10 μL of 0.4% trypan blue solution was then added to the cell culture aliquot, mixed by pipetting up and down, and loaded into one well of a cell counting slide. Cell numbers were counted using a LUNA-FL Dual Fluorescence Automated Cell Counter (Logos Biosystems, Annandale, VA, USA). For each experimental condition (e.g., control [no TTF], 50 kHz, 100 kHz, 200 kHz, 300 kHz, 400 kHz, and 500 kHz), the total live and dead cell counts from three technical replicates were calculated and averaged. Total cell counts were extrapolated from the original cell suspension based on a 1:10 dilution factor.

[0098] Quantitative Measurement of Cell Viability Using the CELLTITER-GLO 2.0 Assay. Cell viability of human pluripotent stem cells and stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes was quantitatively measured using the CellTiter-Glo 2.0 Assay (Promega, Madison, WI, USA). The CellTiter-Glo 2.0 Assay provides a homogenous method for determining the number of viable cells in culture by quantifying ATP abundance, which indicates the presence of metabolically active cells. Addition of one oxygen atom of luciferin to Mg 2+Luminescence is catalyzed by luciferase in the presence of ATP (contributed by viable cells), and molecular oxygen. A volume of CellTiter-Glo 2.0 reagent equal to the volume of cell culture medium present in each well was added (e.g., 0.5 mL of CellTiter-Glo 2.0 reagent was added to 0.5 mL of medium containing cells). The contents were mixed on an orbital shaker for 2 minutes to induce cell lysis. The 6-well plate was incubated at room temperature for 10 minutes to stabilize the luminescence signal. 50 μl from each well was then transferred in triplicate to a white 96-well plate. Luminescence was recorded on a Synergy HTX multimode plate reader (BioTek, Winooski, VT, USA) using a 1-second integration time step. BioTek Gen5 3.03 software was used to analyze the luminescence signal.

[0099] Contractility assay. Contractility measurements of stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes were assessed using a Sony SI8000 live cell imaging system (Sony Biotechnology, San Jose, CA) before and after tumor treatment electric field therapy. ESC-CMs or iPSC-CMs were treated with various AC electric field frequencies (e.g., 50 kHz, 100 kHz, 200 kHz, 300 kHz, 400 kHz, and 500 kHz) for 72 hours. No AC electric field was applied to control dishes. Data were acquired using a high-performance video camera (utilizing proprietary motion vector software to capture cell movement with high temporal and spatial fidelity). After image acquisition, the displacement and extent of cell movement were calculated using a motion detection algorithm developed by Sony Biotechnology. Regions of interest (ROIs) were placed on single cells or clusters of cardiac cells, and various contraction and relaxation parameters were calculated.

[0100] Fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) and cell cycle analysis. For FACS and cell cycle analysis, H7 ESCs were harvested after the specified AC electric field experimental conditions and washed with PBS. Cells were then fixed in ice-cold 70% ethanol at -20°C for 2 hours. After fixation, cells were collected by centrifugation and stained with 1.0 mL of PBS containing 10 μg / mL propidium iodide (PI), 100 μg / mL RNase A, and 0.05% Triton X-100. Cells were incubated in the PI solution for 15 minutes at room temperature, protected from light, washed once with PBS, resuspended in 0.5 mL of PBS, and evaluated for live and dead cells using InCyte software on a Guava FACS analyzer (EMD Millipore, Burlington, MA) and cell cycle status using Guava cell cycle analysis software. Results were analyzed using FlowJo software (Tree Star, Ashland, OR) to measure live / dead cells and cell cycle status.

[0101] Culture and maintenance of human pluripotent stem cells (hESCs and hiPSCs) Generation of iPSCs. Dermal fibroblasts obtained from healthy human donors were reprogrammed into iPSCs using non-integrating Sendai virus vectors carrying the following transcription factors: Oct4, Sox2, Nanog, and cMyc.

[0102] Culture and maintenance of ESCs. The human ESC line used in this experiment was the WA07 (H7) line transfected with a lentiviral vector expressing luciferase and Tomato Red under the EFla promoter. ESCs were grown to 90% confluence on Matrigel-coated plates (ESC-competent, BD Biosciences, San Diego, CA) using chemically defined E8 medium as previously described. The medium was changed daily, and cells were passaged with EDTA (Thermo Fisher Scientific, CA) every 3–4 days. To prevent apoptosis, cells were dissociated and supplemented with 10 μM of the ROCK inhibitor Y-27632 before plating.

[0103] Cardiac differentiation. Human pluripotent stem cells were grown to 90% confluence and then differentiated into beating cardiomyocytes as previously described (Burridge et al., 2014; Burridge et al., 2015). Based on flow cytometry staining of cells for cardiac markers, such as troponin T and α-actinin, 80–90% cardiac cell purity was obtained. Briefly, on day 0, cells were supplemented with basal medium (RPMI 1640 [Thermo Fisher Scientific] and 2% B27 supplement (insulin-free) [Thermo Fisher Scientific]) and 6 μM CHIR-99021 [Selleck Chemicals], a selective inhibitor of glycogen synthase kinase 3β (which activates the canonical Wnt signaling pathway). On day 2, the medium was replaced with basal medium without CHIR-99021. On day 3, cells were treated with 5 μM IWR-1 (Selleck Chemicals), a Wnt antagonist, for 2 days. On day 5 and every other day thereafter until harvest, the medium was replaced with fresh basal medium. To dissociate into single cells, cardiomyocytes were treated with 10× TrypTE at 37°C for 10 minutes. After dissociation, ESC-CMs or iPSC-CMs were replated onto freshly Matrigel-coated 6-well plates in RPMI 1640 medium supplemented with 10% knockout serum supplement, B27 supplement with insulin, and 1 μM thiazovivin.

[0104] Cell injection into mice. Female immunodeficient nude (NU / NU) mice were anesthetized with 2% isoflurane and injected subcutaneously with approximately 500,000 H7 ESCs. H7 ESCs were suspended in 100 μL of Matrigel and injected into the right flank of the mice using a 28-gauge needle. Additionally, H7 ESCs treated with an AC electric field (i.e., ESCs treated at 300 kHz for 3–4 days) were injected subcutaneously into the left flank of the mice. Matrigel alone was injected into the left scapula as a control. To prevent Matrigel from solidifying at room temperature, syringes were kept on ice before injection. All animal procedures were approved by the Stanford Administrative Panel on Laboratory Animal Care.

[0105] Bioluminescence imaging (BLI) of transplanted cells to assess cell survival and teratoma formation. During the study, BLI was performed to track cell proliferation. In vivo BLI was performed on an IVIS Spectrum Imaging System (LifeSciences, Alameda, CA) for up to 5 weeks after cell injection. Cell survival and proliferation were monitored at days 0, 1, 3, and 7 after cell transplantation, and every 7 days for up to 35 days. One gram of firefly D-luciferin potassium salt was diluted in 23 mL of PBS, and 300 μl of this mixture was administered intraperitoneally using a 28-gauge insulin needle. Ten minutes after intraperitoneal injection, animals were imaged for 20 minutes using an acquisition window ranging from 1 second to 5 minutes. Living images software (Caliper LifeSciences, version 4.3.1) was used to analyze bioluminescence images at different time points. ROIs were drawn from the cell injection site and control area. The luminescence signal was expressed as photons per second, per square centimeter, per steradian (photons / sec / cm 2 / sr) and quantified in radians.

[0106] Teratoma explantation and histology. After the teratomas grew to a size of approximately 15 mm in diameter, the mice were euthanized, and the teratomas were excised, fixed with 4% paraformaldehyde, and sent to the pathology core lab for paraffin sectioning and H&E staining.

[0107] Statistical analysis. Statistical analysis was performed using GraphPad Prism (version 7.04) and SPSS (IBM, version 21). Tests with a significance level α set at P<0.05 were considered significant. Data are reported as mean ± standard deviation unless otherwise specified.

[0108] List of Materials. The following materials were used in the experiments described herein: Falcon 6-well clear flat-bottom plates (Corning, Catalog Number: 353046); Essential 8™ Medium (ThermoFisher Scientific, Catalog Number: A1517001); RPMI 1640 Medium (ThermoFisher Scientific, Catalog Number: 11875093); Phosphate Buffered Saline, 10x Solution, Fisher BioReagents™ (ThermoFisher Scientific, Catalog Number: BP3994); CHIR-99021 (Selleck, Catalog Number: S2924); IWR-1 (Selleck, Catalog Number: S7086); B-27™ Supplement (50x), serum-free (ThermoFisher Scientific, Catalog Number: 17504044); B-27™ Supplement, insulin-free (ThermoFisher Scientific, Catalog Number: A1895601); Corning Matrigel Growth Factor-Reduced (ThermoFisher Scientific, Catalog No.: 356231); TrypLE™ Select Enzyme (10x), Phenol Red-Free (ThermoFisher Scientific, Catalog No.: A1217701); BD Lo-Dose U-100 Insulin Syringe 0.5mL (ThermoFisher Scientific, Catalog No.: 329461); CellTiter-Glo 2.0 (Promega, Catalog No.: G9242); Paraformaldehyde 20% Solution EM Grade (Electron Microscopy Sciences, Catalog No.: 15713-S); Propidium Iodide (Sigma-Aldrich, Catalog No.: P4170); RNase A (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Catalog No.: EN0531); Triton X-100 (Sigma-Aldrich, Catalog No.: X100); XenoLight D-Luciferin Potassium Salt (PerkinElmer, Catalog No.: 122799); DM IL LED Inverted Fluorescence Microscope (Leica Microsystems, Buffalo Grove, IL); Revolve Microscope (Echo Laboratories, San Diego, CA); Sony SI8000 Live Cell Imaging System (Sony Biotechnology, San Jose, CA); Synergy HTX Multimode Plate Reader (BioTek, Winooski, VT, USA); LUNA-FL Dual Fluorescence Automated Cell Counter (Logos Biosystems, Annandale, VA, USA); Guava easyCyte HT Flow Cytometer (EMD Millipore, Burlington, MA); Inovitro™ In-Vitro TTFields Device (Novocure Inc., Haifa, Israel).

[0109] [Table 1] [Table 2] [Table 3]

[0110] Although the present invention has been disclosed with reference to particular embodiments, numerous modifications, alterations, and variations to the described embodiments are possible without departing from the sphere and scope of the invention, as defined in the appended claims. Accordingly, it is intended that the present invention not be limited to the described embodiments, but that the invention have the full scope defined by the language of the following claims and equivalents thereof.

Claims

1. 1. An apparatus for removing residual pluripotent stem cells from a batch of differentiated progeny cells to prevent teratoma formation in stem cell-based therapy, the apparatus comprising: a device for exposing the batch of differentiated progeny cells and the remaining pluripotent stem cells to an alternating electric field for a period of time, the alternating electric field having a frequency and a field strength; the frequency and field strength of the alternating electric field are such that exposure to the alternating electric field for the period results in the death of the pluripotent stem cells and in a purified batch of differentiated progeny cells rendered safe for subsequent use in the stem cell-based therapy; wherein the frequency and field strength of the alternating electric field are such that differentiated cells exposed to the alternating electric field for the period of time remain substantially intact. Including, the device is for use in a cell in vitro or in a human; the frequency is 50 kHz to 500 kHz, the field strength is at least 1 V / cm; Device.

2. 10. The device of claim 1, wherein the purified batch contains less than 100,000 pluripotent stem cells.

3. 10. The device of claim 1, wherein the purified batch contains less than 10,000 pluripotent stem cells.

4. 10. The device of claim 1, wherein the period is at least 12 hours.

5. The device of claim 1 , wherein the period is at least two days.

6. The apparatus of claim 1 , wherein the alternating electric field has an orientation that switches from time to time between at least two different directions during the period.

7. 10. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the frequency is between 250 kHz and 350 kHz and the field strength is at least 1 V / cm.

8. 10. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the frequency is between 50 kHz and 500 kHz, the field strength is at least 1 V / cm, and the duration is at least 12 hours.

9. 10. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the frequency is between 250 kHz and 350 kHz, the field strength is at least 1 V / cm, and the duration is at least 3 days.

10. 2. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein prior to said exposing, said batch of differentiated progeny cells is obtained by expanding pluripotent stem cells and differentiating said expanded pluripotent stem cells into said batch of differentiated progeny cells.

11. 10. The device of claim 1, wherein the pluripotent stem cells comprise one or more of induced pluripotent stem cells, embryonic stem cells, cancer stem cells, and embryonic germ cells.

12. The device of claim 1 , wherein the pluripotent stem cells and the differentiated progeny cells are human cells.

13. 1. A method for removing residual pluripotent stem cells from a batch of differentiated progeny cells to prevent teratoma formation in stem cell-based therapy, said method comprising: exposing the batch of differentiated progeny cells and the remaining pluripotent stem cells to an alternating electric field for a period of time, the alternating electric field having a frequency and a field strength; the frequency and field strength of the alternating electric field are such that exposure to the alternating electric field for the period results in the death of the pluripotent stem cells and in a purified batch of differentiated progeny cells rendered safe for subsequent use in the stem cell-based therapy; wherein the frequency and field strength of the alternating electric field are such that differentiated cells exposed to the alternating electric field for the period of time remain substantially intact. Including, the method is for the in vitro purification of a batch of cells, the frequency is 50 kHz to 500 kHz, the field strength is at least 1 V / cm; method.

14. 14. The method of claim 13, wherein the purified batch contains less than 100,000 pluripotent stem cells.

15. 14. The method of claim 13, wherein the purified batch contains less than 10,000 pluripotent stem cells.

16. 14. The method of claim 13, wherein the period is at least 12 hours.

17. 14. The method of claim 13, wherein the period is at least two days.

18. 14. The method of claim 13, wherein the alternating electric field has an orientation that switches between at least two different directions from time to time during the period.

19. 14. The method of claim 13, wherein the frequency is between 250 kHz and 350 kHz and the field strength is at least 1 V / cm.

20. 14. The method of claim 13, wherein the frequency is between 50 kHz and 500 kHz, the field strength is at least 1 V / cm, and the duration is at least 12 hours.

21. 14. The method of claim 13, wherein the frequency is between 250 kHz and 350 kHz, the field strength is at least 1 V / cm, and the duration is at least 3 days.

22. 14. The method of claim 13, wherein prior to said exposing, said batch of differentiated progeny cells is obtained by expanding pluripotent stem cells and differentiating said expanded pluripotent stem cells into said batch of differentiated progeny cells.

23. 14. The method of claim 13, wherein the pluripotent stem cells comprise one or more of induced pluripotent stem cells, embryonic stem cells, cancer stem cells, and embryonic germ cells.

24. 14. The method of claim 13, wherein the differentiated progeny cells comprise cardiomyocytes or cardiomyocyte precursors.

25. 14. The method of claim 13, wherein the pluripotent stem cells and the differentiated progeny cells are human cells.

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