Interpenetrating polymer network and compositions and methods of use thereof

Abstract

In various aspects, the present invention provides a composition having orthogonally tunable elasticity and viscosity. In some embodiments, the composition comprises an interpenetrating polymer network comprising viscous and elastic polymer networks that are not covalently bonded. In some embodiments, the composition is a viscoelastic hydrogel. In some embodiments, the composition mimics the viscoelasticity of at least one organ, organoid, or tissue of interest (e.g., brain, pancreas, brain tumor, etc.). In various aspects, the present invention provides a device (e.g., 3-dimensional cell culture platform) comprising said composition. In some aspects, the present invention provides a method of preparing said devices. In some embodiments, the method comprises bioprinting.

Description

[0001]Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO TITLE OF THE INVENTION INTERPENETRATING POLYMER NETWORK AND COMPOSITIONS AND METHODS OF USE THEREOF CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims priority to and the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 63 / 519,682, filed August 15, 2023, the disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference herewith in its entirety. STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT This invention was made with government support under Grant no. R01 CA241927 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Glioblastoma (GBM), a grade IV astrocytoma, is a highly aggressive brain cancer with a median survival time of only 15 months (Desland et al., 2020, International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 21:7358; Baid et al., 2020, Frontiers in Computational Neuroscience, 14). Current standard of treatment includes resection of the solid tumor followed by treatment with temozolomide (TMZ) and radiation therapy. Due to the tumor location, surgeons must minimize areas that they resect (Fernandes et al., 2017, Codon Publications, 197-241). Thus, after resection, diffusively invading cells are left behind. These cells are believed to seed recurrent tumors and be treatment resistant (Lee et al., 2017, Onco Targets and Therapy, 10:265-270). For these reasons, treatment often fails to fully eliminate GBM cells leading to recurrence of treatment-resistant tumors in nearly all GBM patients. Diffusively invading single cells that migrate from the tumor periphery are believed to be responsible for recurrent tumors. GBM, unlike many other cancers, rarely metastasizes outside the brain, indicating a preference for the mechanics and composition of brain tissue (Lun et al., 2011, Journal of Neuro- Oncology, 105:261-73). The mechanics of the extracellular matrix (ECM) can influence a variety of cellular behaviors, including migration and proliferation (Lie at al., 2021, Acta Biomaterialia, 131:326-340). Most studies, which have investigated how ECM mechanical properties affect Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO GBM cells, have used purely elastic biomaterial-based environments with a single elasticity. Native tissues display viscoelastic properties, which is often not captured in in vitro cell culture models. Thus, developing a viscoelastic hydrogel to identify how the mechanics of the ECM contribute to GBM cell migration in a more physiologically relevant model is needed. Brain ECM is soft and viscoelastic, allowing it to exhibit liquid and solid-like behaviors on different time scales (Staunton et al., 2019, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116:14448-14455; Calhoun et al., 2019, ACS Biomaterials Science & Engineering, 5:3964- 3973). The mechanical properties of the brain are known to influence the phenotype of the cells that reside in the brain. For example, the viscoelasticity of the ECM regulates cellular processes, such as growth, proliferation, cell differentiation, and migration (Staunton et al., 2019, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116:14448-14455; Chaudhuri et al., 2017, Biomaterials Science, 5:1480-1490; Slater et al., 2021, Soft Matter, 17:10274-10285; Lou et al., 2018, Biomaterials, 154:213-222). Conventional 3D in vitro hydrogel models do not account for the viscoelastic nature of the brain, instead they often focus only on the elastic modulus (Umesh et al., 2014, PLoS ONE, 9:e101771; Marhuenda et al., 2021, Journal of Experimental & Clinical Cancer Research, 40:139; Ulrich et al., 2009, Cancer Research, 69:4167-4174; Xiao et al., 2018, Cancer Research, 78:1358-1370; Mekhdjian et al., 2017, Molecular biology of the cell, 28:1467- 1488). Most models utilize single polymer networks, which do not allow for the ability to tune the elasticity (G’) independently of the viscosity (G”). In these models, cell function is often altered, leading to results that may not be physiologically relevant. The lack of conclusive results on migratory behavior may be due to models not capturing the viscosity on which cells rely. Therefore, viscoelastic materials are needed to accurately capture the mechanics of biological tissues. Existing viscoelastic models use materials that are either not compatible for cell studies or not biologically relevant, do not have temporal control over when the network forms, or are unable to capture the range of mechanical properties to recapitulate soft tissues. Thus, there is a need in the art for compositions having orthogonally tunable elasticity and viscosity properties for modeling various organs, organoids, tissues, and / or tumors of interest. The present invention addresses this unmet need. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In some aspects, the present invention provides a composition having orthogonally Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO tunable elasticity and viscosity properties. In some embodiments, the composition comprises an interpenetrating polymer network. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises a viscous polymer network and an elastic polymer network that are not covalently bonded. In some embodiments, the viscous polymer network comprises at least one chemically cross-linked polymer, at least one physically cross-linked polymer, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the elastic polymer network comprises at least one chemically cross-linked polymer, at least one physically cross-linked polymer, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the viscous polymer network and the elastic polymer network independently comprise at least one polymer having a molecular weight between about 1 kDa to about 1,500 kDa. In some embodiments, the viscous polymer network and the elastic polymer network independently comprise at least one polymer having a molecular weight between about 100 kDa to about 1,500 kDa. In some embodiments, the at least one polymer is independently selected from the group consisting of hyaluronic acid, polyethylene glycol (PEG), polysaccharide, alginate, gelatin, gelatin-methacrylate, polynorbornene, polystyrene, polyacrylate, polymethacrylate, agarose, and any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the at least one polymer comprises an unfunctionalized polymer, functionalized polymer, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the functionalized polymer comprises a functional group selected from the group consisting of a thiol, disulfide, amino, amido, azido, imino, acrylate, methacrylate, sulfone, vinyl, vinyl sulfone, hydroxyl, hydrazone, hydrazine, hydrazide, adipic acid dihydrazide, aldehyde, carboxyl, norbornene, and any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the elastic polymer network comprises a thiol functionalized polymer, norbornene functionalized polymer, adipic acid dihydrazide functionalized polymer, carboxyl functionalized polymer, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the thiol functionalized polymer comprises a thiol functionalized hyaluronic acid, a thiol functionalized PEG, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the norbornene functionalized polymer comprises a norbornene functionalized hyaluronic acid, a norbornene functionalized PEG, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the adipic acid dihydrazide functionalized polymer comprises an adipic acid dihydrazide functionalized hyaluronic acid, an adipic acid dihydrazide Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO functionalized PEG, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the carboxyl functionalized polymer comprises a carboxyl functionalized hyaluronic acid, a carboxyl functionalized PEG, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the viscous polymer network comprises a hydrazone functionalized polymer, hydrazine functionalized polymer, hydrazide functionalized polymer, adipic acid dihydrazide functionalized polymer, aldehyde functionalized polymer, carboxyl functionalized polymer, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the hydrazone functionalized polymer comprises a hydrazone functionalized hyaluronic acid, a hydrazone functionalized PEG, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the hydrazine functionalized polymer comprises a hydrazine functionalized hyaluronic acid, a hydrazine functionalized PEG, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the hydrazide functionalized polymer comprises a hydrazide functionalized hyaluronic acid, a hydrazide functionalized PEG, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the adipic acid dihydrazide functionalized polymer comprises an adipic acid dihydrazide functionalized hyaluronic acid, an adipic acid dihydrazide functionalized PEG, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the aldehyde functionalized polymer comprises an aldehyde functionalized hyaluronic acid, an aldehyde functionalized PEG, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the carboxyl functionalized polymer comprises a carboxyl functionalized hyaluronic acid, a carboxyl functionalized PEG, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network further comprises at least one small molecule. In some embodiments, the small molecule comprises an initiator, arginylglycylaspartic acid (RGD), surfactant, crosslinker, peptide (e.g., bioactive peptide), or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has a shear storage modulus (G’) between about 100 Pa to about 2,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has a shear loss modulus (G”) between about 1 Pa to about 500 Pa. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has a shear loss modulus (G”) between about 10 Pa to about 500 Pa. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has a shear loss modulus (G”) between about 1 Pa to about 50 Pa. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has tan ^ between about Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO 0.005 to about 0.08. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has tan ^ between about 0.005 to about 0.05. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has a Young’s modulus (E) between about 500 Pa to about 15,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has a Young’s modulus (E) between about 2,000 Pa to about 7,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 30 wt% of hyaluronic acid. In some embodiments, the composition is a viscoelastic hydrogel. In some embodiments, the composition mimics the viscoelasticity of at least one organ, organoid, or tissue of interest. In some embodiments, the at least one organ of interest comprises a brain, pancreas, spinal cord, solid tumor, soft tissue organ, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the at least one tissue of interest comprises a skin tissue, soft tissue, cornea tissue, brain tissue, pancreatic tissue, spinal cord tissue, solid tumor tissue, soft tissue organ tissue, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the composition regulates at least one cellular process of a cell of interest. In some embodiments, the at least one cellular process comprises a cellular growth, cellular proliferation, cellular cell differentiation, cellular migration, adhesion, differentiation, metabolism, drug response, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the cell of interest comprises a neuron, brain cell, pancreatic cell, spinal cord cell, stem cell, skin cell, tumor cell, soft tissue cell, endothelial cell, immune cell, or any combination thereof. In some aspects, the present invention provides a device comprising at least one composition of the present invention. In some embodiments, the device comprises a 3- dimensional cell culture platform, organ model, organoid model, tissue model, brain model, pancreas model, spinal cord model, skin model, tumor model, solid tumor model, soft tissue model, brain implant, spinal cord implant, skin implant, soft tissue implant, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the 3-dimensional cell culture platform comprises at least one tumor cell. In some embodiments, the at least one tumor cell comprises a brain tumor cell, pancreatic tumor cell, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the brain tumor cell comprises a glioblastoma tumor cell, astrocytoma tumor cell, metastatic brain tumor cell, pediatric brain tumor cell, diffuse intrinsic pontine gliomas (DIPGs) tumor cell, or any Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO combination thereof. In other aspects, the present invention provides a method of preparing a 3-dimensional cell culture platform, organ model, organoid model, tissue model, tumor model, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the method comprises fabricating the 3-dimensional cell culture platform, organ model, organoid model, tissue, tumor model, or any combination thereof using the composition of the present invention. In some embodiments, the 3-dimensional cell culture platform further comprises at least one tumor cell. In some embodiments, the organ model comprises a brain model, pancreas model, spinal cord model, solid tumor model, soft tissue organ model, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the tissue model comprises a skin tissue model, soft tissue model, cornea tissue model, brain tissue model, pancreatic tissue model, spinal cord tissue model, solid tumor tissue model, soft tissue organ tissue model, brain implant, spinal cord implant, skin implant, soft tissue implant, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the method comprises bioprinting the 3-dimensional cell culture platform, organ model, organoid model, tissue model, tumor model, or any combination thereof. Thus, in some aspects, the present invention provides a method of bioprinting a 3- dimensional cell culture platform, organ model, organoid model, tissue model, tumor model, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the method comprises fabricating the 3- dimensional cell culture platform, one organ model, organoid model, tissue model, tumor model, or any combination thereof using the composition of the present invention. In other aspects, the present invention provides a method of identifying a therapeutic effective in the treatment or prevention of cancer. In some embodiments, the method comprises: culturing a cancer cell in a 3-dimensional cell culture platform comprising at least one composition of the present invention; applying a candidate therapeutic to the cultured cancer cell in the 3-dimensional cell culture platform; and measuring the effect of the candidate therapeutic on the cultured cancer cell in the 3-dimensional cell culture platform. In other aspects, the present invention provides a method of treating or preventing cancer in a subject in need thereof. In some embodiments, the method comprises administering to the subject at least one therapeutic identified using the method of the present invention. In some embodiments, the cancer comprises a brain cancer, pancreatic cancer, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the brain cancer comprises a glioblastoma, Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO astrocytoma, brain metastases, pediatric brain tumor, diffuse intrinsic pontine gliomas (DIPGs), or any combination thereof. In other aspects, the present invention provides a method of generating at least one synthetic tumor of interest. In some embodiments, the method comprises culturing at least one tumor cell in a 3-dimensional cell culture platform, organ model, organoid model, tissue model, tumor model, or any combination thereof comprising at least one composition of the present invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The following detailed description of various embodiments of the invention will be better understood when read in conjunction with the appended drawings. For the purpose of illustrating the invention, there are shown in the drawings illustrative embodiments. It should be understood, however, that the invention is not limited to the precise arrangements and instrumentalities of the embodiments shown in the drawings. Figure 1 depicts a schematic representation of an interpenetrating polymer network (IPN). The elastic gel contains non-reversible bonds between thiol and norbornene groups. The viscous gel contains reversible bonds between hydrazine and aldehyde groups. Figure 2 depicts representative1H NMR spectrum of HA-SH. Figure 3 depicts representative results demonstrating elasticity (G’), viscoelasticity (tan ^), and stress relaxation of soft single network and soft PIN. The addition of the viscous network increased the viscoelasticity, tan ^, of the hydrogel by threefold while maintaining similar G’. Hydrogels were tested with 1% strain at a frequency of 1 hz. Values displayed at 1 Hz. n = 25 for soft gels and n = 22 for stiff gels. Unpaired t-test, **** p < 0.0001, *** p < 0.001, * p < 0.05. Figure 4 depicts representative results demonstrating stress relaxation of soft single network and soft IPN. IPN hydrogels exhibited faster stress relaxation compared to a single network. Hydrogels underwent stress relaxation at 10% strain for 30 minutes (n > 6) and 20% strain for 1 hr (n = 4). Unpaired t-test, **** p < 0.0001, *** p < 0.001, * p < 0.05. Figure 5 depicts representative results demonstrating stress relaxation of soft single network and soft IPN at 1 hr. Figure 6 depicts representative results demonstrating the standard curve of aldehyde concentrations. Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO Figure 7 depicts representative results demonstrating Young’s modulus (E) of each gel condition. Gels underwent 200 um compression at room temperature and the corresponding force for compression was calculated. n > 10. Figure 8 depicts representative results demonstrating that the IPN conditions swelled significantly more than the single network gels. Following gelation, hydrogels were weighed, then swelled in PBS at room temperature overnight and weighed again. n > 20. Unpaired t-test, **** p < 0.0001. Figure 9 depicts representative results demonstrating hydrogel diffusion as evaluated by fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) of hydrogels that were swollen in 10 uM / mL 70kDa FITC-Dextran and 150 kDa FITC-Dextran in the dark overnight. Fluorescent recovery was calculated using ImageJ. There were no significant differences within stiffness conditions. n = 9 for 70 Kda and n= 5 for 150 kDa. Figure 10 depicts representative results demonstrating the IPNs utility in bioprinting. Soft IPN precursor solution and soft single network solution (no UV crosslinking) were loaded into the Bio X6 bioprinter from CellInk. The pneumatic 3 mL printhead with a 22 gauge printing nozzle was used (0.410 mm) and precursor solutions were printed with a pressure of 25 kPa and a speed of 8 mm / s onto a glass slide. The viscosity of the single network solution was not viscous enough, and it did not form any lines. Figure 11 depicts representative results demonstrating that IPNs was able to support glioblastoma (GBM) cell lines. Patient derived primary GBM cell lines, HK177 and GS54 were used for the GBM study. An EdU assay was used to determine the fraction of cells proliferating in each hydrogel condition 3 days after encapsulation. Cells were incubated with EdU for 4 hr then EdU+ cells were measured using flow cytometry. Proliferation rates among conditions were normalized by day. HK177 cells in both IPN stiffness conditions had higher proliferation rates compared to the single network while there were no statistical differences for GS54. n = 4 for HK177 and n = 3 for GS54. Figure 12 depicts a schematic representation of GBM tumor cells encapsulated in a hydrogel with a stiffness interface. Figure 13 depicts representative results demonstrating that cell phenotypes change along the mechanical gradient. As distance from light source increases, a softer gel is hypothesized to have formed with enhanced single cell migration. Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO Figure 14 depicts a representative diagram of viscous gel chemistry. HA is modified with adipic hydrazide (ADH) using 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl) carbodiimide / N- hydroxysuccinimide (EDC / NHS) chemistry. Reversible hydrazone bonds are formed between the hydrazine and aldehyde groups. Figure 15 depicts representative NMR results for HA-ADH. Figure 16, comprising Figure 16A and Figure 16B, depicts representative results demonstrating the characteristics of the hydrogels. Figure 16A depicts representative results demonstrating that IPNs displayed faster reduction in overall hydrogel weight compared to the single networks with the additional of hyaluronidase. Hydrogels swelled at room temperature in PBS overnight. Hyaluronidase was added at 5 U / mL in PBS. n = 8. Unpaired t-test, **** p < 0.0001, * p < 0.05. Figure 16B depicts representative results demonstrating diffusion of 70 kDa FITC-dextran is the same in all gel conditions. Gels were swollen in 10 uM / mL 70 kDa FITC- Dextran in the dark overnight. Gels were bleached for 3 minutes, and fluorescent recovery was recorded for 20 minutes (step size 2.575 s). Fluorescent recovery was calculated using ImageJ. t1 / 2 was compared for each group. The diffusion coefficients were calculated using ^ = r2 / 4t1 / 2. n = 6. One-way ANOVA, no significance between hydrogel conditions. Figure 17, comprising Figure 17A through Figure 17C, representative phenotype of GBM cells in hydrogel conditions. Figure 17A depicts representative images of patient derived GBM spheroids that were encapsulated into the hydrogel conditions and imaged on day 7. Figure 17B depicts representative results of EdU assay to determine fraction of cell population proliferating in hydrogels 3 days after encapsulation. EdU+ cells were measured using flow cytometry. n = 1. Figure 17C depicts representative results demonstrating the viability of cells in hydrogel conditions 3 days after encapsulation. Cells were stained with 7aad and were measured using flow cytometry. n = 2. Figure 18 depicts representative results demonstrating viability rates of mouse neural stem cells (mNSC) in IPN. n = 3 Figure 19 depicts representative results demonstrating proliferation rates of mNSC in IPN. n = 3 DETAILED DESCRIPTION The present invention is based, in part, on the unexpected results that combining an Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO elastic polymer network comprising cross-linked thiol functionalized hyaluronic acid and a viscous polymer network comprising cross-linked hydrazone functionalized hyaluronic acid generated an interpenetrating polymer network having orthogonally tunable elasticity and viscosity properties. As such, in various aspects, the present invention provides a composition having orthogonally tunable elasticity and viscosity. In some embodiments, the composition comprises an interpenetrating polymer network comprising a viscous polymer network and an elastic polymer network that are not covalently bonded. In some embodiments, the elastic polymer network comprises at least one chemically cross-linked polymer (e.g., chemically cross- linked thiol functionalized hyaluronic acid) and / or at least one physically cross-linked polymer (e.g., physically cross-linked hydrazone functionalized hyaluronic acid) and the viscous polymer network comprises at least one chemically cross-linked polymer (e.g., chemically cross-linked thiol functionalized hyaluronic acid) and / or at least one physically cross-linked polymer (e.g., physically cross-linked hydrazone functionalized hyaluronic acid). In some embodiments, the composition is a viscoelastic hydrogel. In some embodiments, the composition mimics the viscoelasticity of at least one organ of interest (e.g., brain, pancreas, solid tumor, such as a brain tumor, etc.), at least one organoid of interest (e.g., tumor), at least one tissue of interest (e.g., skin), or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the composition regulates at least one cellular process of a cell of interest. In some embodiments, the at least one cellular process comprises a cellular growth, cellular proliferation, cellular cell differentiation, cellular migration, adhesion, differentiation, metabolism, drug response, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the cell of interest comprises a neuron, brain cell, pancreatic cell, spinal cord cell, stem cell, skin cell, tumor cell, soft tissue cell, endothelial cell, immune cell, or any combination thereof. In various aspects, the present invention provides a device comprising at least one composition of the present invention. In some embodiments, the device is a 3-dimensional cell culture platform, an organ model of interest (e.g., brain, pancreas, spinal cord, solid tumor, etc.), an organoid model of interest, a tissue model of interest (e.g., a skin model), a tumor model of interest (e.g., solid tumor, brain tumor, pancreatic tumor, etc.), an implant, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the device comprises at least one cell of interest (e.g., a tumor cell, such as a brain tumor cell, glioblastoma tumor cell, astrocytoma tumor cell, metastatic brain tumor cell, pediatric brain tumor cell, diffuse intrinsic pontine gliomas (DIPGs) tumor cell, Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO pancreatic tumor cell, etc.) derived from a subject of interest. In some aspects, the present invention provides a method of preparing a 3-dimensional cell culture platform, an organ model of interest (e.g., brain model, pancreas model, solid tumor model, brain tumor model, pancreatic tumor model, etc.), an organoid model of interest (e.g., tumor model), a tissue model of interest (e.g., skin model), or any combination thereof using at least one composition of the present invention. In some embodiments, the method comprises bioprinting. In some aspects, the present invention provides a method of identifying a therapeutic effective in the treatment or prevention of a disease or disorder (e.g., cancer, such as a brain cancer, glioblastoma, brain metastases (e.g., from lung or breast tumors), astrocytoma, pediatric brain tumors (e.g., DIPGs), pancreatic cancer, etc.) using the compositions or devices of the present invention (e.g., the 3-dimensional cell culture platform). In other aspects, the present invention provides a method of treating or preventing a disease or disorder (e.g., cancer, such as a brain cancer, glioblastoma, astrocytoma, brain metastases (e.g., from lung or breast tumors), pediatric brain tumors (e.g., DIPGs), pancreatic cancer, etc.) in a subject in need thereof by administering to the subject at least one therapeutic identified using the method of the present invention. Definitions Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs. As used herein, each of the following terms has the meaning associated with it in this section. The articles “a” and “an” are used herein to refer to one or to more than one (i.e., to at least one) of the grammatical object of the article. By way of example, “an element” means one element or more than one element. “About” as used herein when referring to a measurable value, for example numerical values and / or ranges, such as an amount, a temporal duration, and the like, is meant to encompass variations of ±20%, ±10%, ±5%, ±1%, or ±0.1% from the specified value, as such variations are appropriate to perform the disclosed methods. For example, “about 40 [units]” Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO may mean within ± 25% of 40 (e.g., from 30 to 50), within ± 20%, ± 15%, ± 10%, ± 9%, ± 8%, ± 7%, ± 6%, ± 5%, ± 4%, ± 3%, ± 2%, ± 1%, less than ± 1%, or any other value or range of values therein or therebelow. Furthermore, the phrases “less than about [a value]” or “greater than about [a value]” should be understood in view of the definition of the term “about” provided herein. As used herein, the term “analog,” “analogue,” or “derivative” is meant to refer to a chemical compound or molecule made from a parent compound or molecule by one or more chemical reactions. As such, an analog can be a structure having a structure similar to that of the small molecule therapeutic agents described herein or can be based on a scaffold of a small molecule therapeutic agents described herein, but differing from it in respect to certain components or structural makeup, which may have a similar or opposite action metabolically. An analog or derivative can also be a small molecule that differs in structure from the reference molecule, but retains the essential properties of the reference molecule. An analog or derivative may change its interaction with certain other molecules relative to the reference molecule. An analog or derivative molecule may also include a salt, an adduct, tautomer, isomer, prodrug, or other variant of the reference molecule. The term “tautomers” are constitutional isomers of organic compounds that readily interconvert by a chemical process (tautomerization). The term “isomers” or “stereoisomers” refers to compounds, which have identical chemical constitution, but differ with regard to the arrangement of the atoms or groups in space. The term “polymer” in the sense of the invention refers to a macromolecule formed by linear or branched chains and whose structure results mainly from the repetition of constituent units derived from monomers. As used herein, the term “HA” or “hyaluronic acid” is synonymous with “hyaluronic acid polymer” and “hyaluronate polymer,” which refers to an anionic, non-sulfated glycosaminoglycan polymer comprising disaccharide units, which themselves include D- glucuronic acid and D-N-acetylglucosamine monomers, linked together via alternating beta-1,4 and beta-1,3 glycosidic bonds and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof. Hyaluronan polymers can be purified from animal and non-animal sources. Polymers of hyaluronan can range in size from about 1,000 Da to about 2,500,000 Da. Any hyaluronan polymer is useful in the hydrogels disclosed herein with the proviso that the hyaluronan can form hydrogel having a Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO gel formation temperature at 30 ° C. to 37 ° C. with the polymer of PEO and PPO. The “high molecular weight” HA refers to hyaluronan polymers having a mean molecular weight of 1,000,000 Da or greater. Non-limiting examples of a high molecular weight hyaluronan polymers include hyaluronan polymers about 1,500,000 Da, about 2,000,000 Da, about 2,500,000 Da, about 3,000,000 Da, about 3,500,000 Da, about 4,000,000 Da, about 4,500,000 Da, and about 5,000,000 Da. The “low molecular weight” HA refers to hyaluronan polymers having mean molecular weight of less than 1,000,000 Da. Non-limiting examples of low molecular weight hyaluronan polymers include hyaluronan polymers of about 1,000 Da, about 5,000 Da, about 9,000 Da, about 20,000 Da, about 50,000 Da, about 100,000 Da, about 250,000 Da, about 700,000 Da, about 1,500,000 Da, about 2,000,000 Da and about 2,200,000 Da. For example, the molecular weight of hyaluronan polymer ranges from about 1,000 Da to about 2,5000,000 Da, about 1,000 Da to about 1,0000,000 Da, about 1,000 Da to about 250,000 Da, about 9,000 Da to about 2,5000,000 Da, about 9,000 Da to about 22000,000 Da, about 9,000 Da to about 1,5000,000 Da, about 9,000 Da to about 700,000 Da, about 9,000 Da to about 50,000 Da, about 50,000 Da to about 700,000 Da, about 700,000 Da to about 1,500,000 Da, about 700,000 Da to about 2,200,000 Da, about 700,000 Da to about 2,500,000 Da, about 1,500,000 Da to about 2,500,000 Da. In other embodiments, the molecular weight of hyaluronan polymer is about 1,000 Da to about 10,000,000 Da or about 1,000 Da to about 250,000 Da or about 100,000 Da to about 1,500,000 Da. The term “copolymer” in the sense of the invention refers to a polymer whose constituent units are derived from more than one type of monomer. The term “polymer network” within the meaning of the invention refers to a network of one or more crosslinked polymers (or copolymers), that is, one or more polymers whose chains are interconnected with covalent bonds. The term “interpenetrated polymer network” (IPN) within the meaning of the present invention refers to a matrix or assembly consisting of at least two crosslinked polymers thereby forming two or more networks. This mixture of polymers thus combines the properties of the polymers that form it. The term “hydrogel” as used herein refers to a three-dimensional, hydrophilic or amphiphilic polymeric network capable of taking up large quantities of water. The networks are composed of homopolymers or copolymers, and are insoluble due to the presence of covalent Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO chemical or physical (ionic, hydrophobic interactions, entanglements) crosslinks. The crosslinks provide the network structure and physical integrity. Hydrogels exhibit a thermodynamic compatibility with water that allow them to swell in aqueous media. The term “crosslinked” as used herein refers to a composition containing intramolecular and / or intermolecular crosslinks, whether arising through covalent or noncovalent bonding. “Noncovalent” bonding includes both hydrogen bonding and electrostatic (ionic) bonding. As used herein, the term “substituted” or “functionalized” means that an atom or group of atoms has replaced hydrogen as the substituent attached to another group. The term “substituted” or “functionalized” further refers to any level of substitution, namely mono-, di-, tri-, tetra-, or penta-substitution, where such substitution is permitted. The substituents are independently selected, and substitution may be at any chemically accessible position. In one embodiment, the substituents vary in number between one and four. In another embodiment, the substituents vary in number between one and three. In yet another embodiment, the substituents vary in number between one and two. The term “substituted” or “functionalized” refers for example to the substitution of a hydrogen atom in a given structure with a radical selected from the group consisting of thiol, disulfide, amino, amido, azido, imino, acrylate, methacrylate, sulfone, vinyl, vinyl sulfone, hydroxyl, hydrazone, hydrazine, hydrazide, adipic acid dihydrazide, aldehyde, carboxyl, norbornene, alkyl, heteroalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, a polar group, a halogen, halogen alkyl, etc. When more than one position can be substituted, the substituents may be the same or different in each position. As used herein, the term “optionally substituted” or “optionally functionalized” means that the referenced group may be substituted or unsubstituted. In one embodiment, the referenced group is optionally substituted with zero substituents, i.e., the referenced group is unsubstituted. In another embodiment, the referenced group is optionally substituted with one or more additional group(s) individually and independently selected from groups described herein. For example, in one embodiment, the substituents are independently selected from the group consisting of thiol, disulfide, amino, amido, azido, imino, acrylate, methacrylate, sulfone, vinyl, vinyl sulfone, hydroxyl, hydrazone, hydrazine, hydrazide, aldehyde, carboxyl, oxo, halogen, -CN, -NH2, -OH, -NH(CH3), -N(CH3)2, alkyl (including straight chain, branched and / or unsaturated alkyl), substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted heterocycloalkyl, fluoro alkyl, substituted or unsubstituted heteroalkyl, substituted or Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO unsubstituted alkoxy, fluoroalkoxy, -S-alkyl, S(=O)2alkyl, S(=O)2N[H, alkyl, or aryl], - C(=O)NH[substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or substituted or unsubstituted phenyl], -C(=O)N[H or substituted or unsubstituted alkyl or aryl]2, -OC(=O)N[substituted or unsubstituted alkyl]2, -NHC(=O)NH[substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, or substituted or unsubstituted phenyl], -NHC(=O)alkyl, -N[substituted or unsubstituted alkyl]C(=O)[substituted or unsubstituted alkyl], -NHC(=O)[substituted or unsubstituted alkyl], -C(OH)[substituted or unsubstituted alkyl]2, and - C(NH2)[substituted or unsubstituted alkyl]2. In another embodiment, by way of example, an optional substituent is selected from thiol, disulfide, amino, amido, hydroxyl, hydrazone, hydrazine, hydrazide, adipic acid dihydrazide, aldehyde, carboxyl, norbornene, oxo, fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, -CN, -NH2, -OH, -NH(CH3), -N(CH3)2, -CH3, -CH2CH3, -CH(CH3)2, - CF3, -CH2CF3, -OCH3, -OCH2CH3, -OCH(CH3)2, -OCF3, - OCH2CF3, -S(=O)2-CH3, - C(=O)NH2, -C(=O)-NHCH3, -NHC(=O)NHCH3, -C(=O)CH3, -ON(O)2, and -C(=O)OH. In yet one embodiment, the substituents are independently selected from the group consisting of thiol, disulfide, amido, hydroxyl, hydrazone, hydrazine, hydrazide, adipic acid dihydrazide, aldehyde, carboxyl, norbornene, C1-6 alkyl, -OH, C1-6 alkoxy, halo, amino, acetamido, oxo and nitro. As used herein, where a substituent is an alkyl or alkoxy group, the carbon chain may be branched, straight or cyclic. The term “polar groups” refers for example to thiol, ester, ether, amino, amido, alcohol, - CN, -COOH, -OH, -NH2, -SH, -SO3H, etc. The term “thiol”, as used herein, represents a group of the formula -SH. The term “sulfonic acid”, as used herein, represents a group of the formula -SO3H. The term “sulfonamide”, as used herein, represents a group of the formula -SO2NH2. The term “cyano”, as used herein, represents a group of the formula -CN. The term “nitro”, as used herein, represents a group of the formula -NO2. The term “nitrooxy”, as used herein, represents a group of the formula -ONO2. The term “amino” refers to a group of the formula -NRaRa, -NHRa, or -NH2, where each Ra is, independently, an alkyl, alkenyl or alkynyl group as defined above containing 1 to 20 carbon atoms. Unless stated otherwise specifically in the specification, an alkylamino group can be optionally substituted. The term “amido” is defined as including a group of formula -CONH2or -CONHR1or - CONR1R2wherein R1and R2are as defined above. Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO The term “azido”, as used herein, represents a group of the formula -N3. The term “hydroxy” or “hydroxyl” refers to a group of the formula -OH group. As used herein, the term “alkoxy” employed alone or in combination with other terms means, unless otherwise stated, an alkyl group having the designated number of carbon atoms, as defined above, connected to the rest of the molecule via an oxygen atom, such as, for example, methoxy, ethoxy, 1-propoxy, 2-propoxy (isopropoxy) and the higher homologs and isomers. The term “carboxy”, as used herein, represents a group of the formula -COOH. The term “ester” as used herein is defined as including a group of formula -COO-R1wherein R1is as defined above except oxy derivative, thio derivative or amino derivative. The term “ether” is defined as including a group selected from C1-50-straight or branched alkyl, or C2-50-straight or branched alkenyl or alkynyl groups or a combination of the same, interrupted by one or more oxygen atoms. As used herein, the term “halo”, “halide”, or “halogen” alone or as part of another substituent means, unless otherwise stated, a fluorine, chlorine, bromine, or iodine atom. As used herein, the term “alkyl,” by itself or as part of another substituent means, unless otherwise stated, a straight or branched chain hydrocarbon having the number of carbon atoms designated (i.e., C1-50means one to fifty carbon atoms) and including straight, branched chain, or cyclic substituent groups. Examples include methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, butyl, isobutyl, tert-butyl, pentyl, neopentyl, hexyl, and cyclopropylmethyl. As used herein, the term “heteroalkyl” by itself or in combination with another term means, unless otherwise stated, a stable straight or branched chain alkyl group consisting of the stated number of carbon atoms and one or two heteroatoms selected from the group consisting of O, N, and S, and wherein the nitrogen and sulfur atoms may be optionally oxidized and the nitrogen heteroatom may be optionally quaternized. The heteroatom(s) may be placed at any position of the heteroalkyl group, including between the rest of the heteroalkyl group and the fragment to which it is attached, as well as attached to the most distal carbon atom in the heteroalkyl group. Examples include -O-CH2-CH2-CH3, -CH2-CH2-CH2-OH, -CH2-CH2-NH-CH3, -CH2-S-CH2-CH3, and -CH2CH2-S(=O)-CH3. Up to two heteroatoms may be consecutive, such as, for example, -CH2-NH-OCH3, or -CH2-CH2-S-S-CH3. As used herein, the term “aromatic” refers to a carbocycle or heterocycle with one or Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO more polyunsaturated rings and having aromatic character, i.e. having (4n + 2) delocalized ^ (pi) electrons, where n is an integer. As used herein, the term “aryl,” employed alone or in combination with other terms, means, unless otherwise stated, a carbocyclic aromatic system containing one or more rings (typically one, two or three rings), wherein such rings may be attached together in a pendent manner, such as a biphenyl, or may be fused, such as naphthalene. Examples of aryl groups include phenyl, anthracyl, and naphthyl. As used herein, the term “heteroaryl” or “heteroaromatic” refers to a heterocycle having aromatic character. A polycyclic heteroaryl may include one or more rings that are partially saturated. Examples include the following moieties: . 2- and 4-pyrimidinyl), pyridazinyl, thienyl, furyl, pyrrolyl (particularly 2-pyrrolyl), imidazolyl, thiazolyl, oxazolyl, pyrazolyl (particularly 3- and 5-pyrazolyl), isothiazolyl, 1,2,3-triazolyl, 1,2,4-triazolyl, 1,3,4-triazolyl, tetrazolyl, 1,2,3-thiadiazolyl, 1,2,3-oxadiazolyl, 1,3,4-thiadiazolyl and 1,3,4-oxadiazolyl. The term “therapeutic” as used herein means a treatment and / or prophylaxis. A therapeutic effect is obtained by suppression, diminution, remission, or eradication of at least one sign or symptom of a disease or disorder state. As used herein, the terms “therapeutic”, “therapeutic compound”, “therapeutic agent”, “drug”, “active pharmaceutical”, and “active pharmaceutical ingredient” are used interchangeably to refer to chemical entities that display certain pharmacological effects in a body and are administered for such purpose. Non-limiting examples of therapeutic agents include, but are not limited to, hydrophilic therapeutic agents, hydrophobic therapeutic agents, Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO antibiotics, antibodies, small molecules, anti-cancer agents, chemotherapeutic agents, immunomodulatory agents, RNA molecules, siRNA molecules, DNA molecules, gene editing agents, gene-silencing agents, CRISPR-associated agents (e.g., guide RNA molecules, endonucleases, and variants thereof), analgesics, vaccines, anticonvulsants; anti-diabetic agents, antifungal agents, antineoplastic agents, anti-parkinsonian agents, anti-rheumatic agents, appetite suppressants, biological response modifiers, cardiovascular agents, central nervous system stimulants, contraceptive agents, dietary supplements, vitamins, minerals, lipids, saccharides, metals, amino acids (and precursors), nucleic acids and precursors, contrast agents, diagnostic agents, dopamine receptor agonists, erectile dysfunction agents, fertility agents, gastrointestinal agents, hormones, immunomodulators, antihypercalcemia agents, mast cell stabilizers, muscle relaxants, nutritional agents, ophthalmic agents, osteoporosis agents, psychotherapeutic agents, parasympathomimetic agents, parasympatholytic agents, respiratory agents, sedative hypnotic agents, skin and mucous membrane agents, smoking cessation agents, steroids, sympatholytic agents, urinary tract agents, uterine relaxants, vaginal agents, vasodilator, anti-hypertensive, hyperthyroids, anti-hyperthyroids, anti-asthmatics and vertigo agents. In certain embodiments, the one or more therapeutic agents are water-soluble, poorly water-soluble drug or a drug with a low, medium or high melting point. The therapeutic agents may be provided with or without a stabilizing salt or salts. Some examples of active ingredients suitable for use in the pharmaceutical formulations and methods of the present invention include: hydrophilic, lipophilic, amphiphilic or hydrophobic, and that can be solubilized, dispersed, or partially solubilized and dispersed, on or about the nanocluster. The active agent-nanocluster combination may be coated further to encapsulate the agent-nanocluster combination and may be directed to a target by functionalizing the nanocluster with, e.g., aptamers and / or antibodies. Alternatively, an active ingredient may also be provided separately from the solid pharmaceutical composition, such as for co- administration. Such active ingredients can be any compound or mixture of compounds having therapeutic or other value when administered to an animal, particularly to a mammal, such as drugs, nutrients, cosmeceuticals, nutraceuticals, diagnostic agents, nutritional agents, and the like. The active agents described herein may be found in their native state, however, they will generally be provided in the form of a salt. The active agents described herein include their isomers, analogs and derivatives. Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO An “effective amount” as used herein, means an amount which provides a therapeutic or prophylactic benefit. The term “therapeutically effective amount” refers to the amount of the subject compound that will elicit the biological or medical response of a tissue, system, or subject that is being sought by the researcher, veterinarian, medical doctor or other clinician. The term “therapeutically effective amount” includes that amount of a compound that, when administered, is sufficient to prevent development of, or alleviate to some extent, one or more of the signs or symptoms of the disorder or disease being treated. The therapeutically effective amount will vary depending on the compound, the disease and its severity and the age, weight, etc., of the subject to be treated. The terms “patient,” “subject,” “individual,” and the like are used interchangeably herein, and refer to any animal, or cells thereof whether in vitro or in situ, amenable to the methods described herein. In certain non-limiting embodiments, the patient, subject or individual is a human. A “disease” is a state of health of an animal wherein the animal cannot maintain homeostasis, and wherein if the disease is not ameliorated then the animal’s health continues to deteriorate. In contrast, a “disorder” in an animal is a state of health in which the animal is able to maintain homeostasis, but in which the animal’s state of health is less favorable than it would be in the absence of the disorder. Left untreated, a disorder does not necessarily cause a further decrease in the animal’s state of health. “Cancer,” as used herein, refers to the abnormal growth or division of cells. Generally, the growth and / or life span of a cancer cell exceeds, and is not coordinated with, that of the normal cells and tissues around it. Cancers may be benign, pre-malignant or malignant. Cancer occurs in a variety of cells and tissues, including the oral cavity (e.g., mouth, tongue, pharynx, etc.), digestive system (e.g., esophagus, stomach, small intestine, colon, rectum, liver, bile duct, gall bladder, pancreas, etc.), respiratory system (e.g., larynx, lung, bronchus, etc.), bones, joints, skin (e.g., basal cell, squamous cell, meningioma, etc.), breast, genital system, (e.g., uterus, ovary, prostate, testis, etc.), urinary system (e.g., bladder, kidney, ureter, etc.), eye, nervous system (e.g., brain, etc.), endocrine system (e.g., thyroid, etc.), and hematopoietic system (e.g., lymphoma, myeloma, leukemia, acute lymphocytic leukemia, chronic lymphocytic leukemia, Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO acute myeloid leukemia, chronic myeloid leukemia, etc.). To “treat” a disease as the term is used herein, means to reduce the frequency or severity of at least one sign or symptom of a disease or disorder experienced by a subject. As used herein, “treating a disease or disorder” means reducing the frequency with which a symptom of the disease or disorder is experienced by a patient. Disease and disorder are used interchangeably herein. As used herein, the term “bioprinting” can refer to a method of biofabrication using a printer to print materials incorporated with living cells or structures that are used for culturing cells or for tissue interactions. Bioprinting can include two-dimensional (2D) bioprinting and three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting. Additionally, bioprinting can refer to extrusion bioprinting or droplet-based bioprinting (like inkjet). As used herein, the term “2D bioprinting” can refer to a particular means of fabrication of planar biomedical constructs. For example, 2D bioprinting can refer to the deposition of a single layer of microdroplets or material to generate a planar biomedical construct. As used herein, the term “3D bioprinting” can refer to a particular means of fabrication of 3D biomedical constructs. As an example, 3D bioprinting can refer to particularly processes where successive layers or rows of microdroplets or material are deposited under computer control to generate the 3D biomedical construct. As an example, a 3D biomedical construct can include a complex biological structure comprising one or more independent three-dimensional constructs. As used herein, the term “biomedical construct” can refer to a combination of one or more bioprinted materials that incorporate visible living cells. Examples of biomedical constructs include artificial tissues, tissue models, functional biomaterials, biomolecules, biomedical devices (e.g., including multiple components like bioelectronics and high-throughput point-of- care devices), scaffolds, and the like. In some instances, biomedical constructs can be planar 2D structures fabricated via 2D bioprinting. In other instances, biomedical constructs can be 3D structures fabricated via 3D bioprinting. As used herein, the term “bioprinter” can refer to a 3D printer with one or more printheads coupled to one or more reservoirs that contain different bioinks used for bioprinting biomedical constructs. The bioprinter can be coupled to a computing device (e.g., a controller) to facilitate the construction of the biomedical constructs based on a software model of the Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO biomedical construct. Examples of biomedical constructs that can be fabricated, at least in part, using a bioprinter include artificial tissues, tissue models, functional biomaterials, biomolecules, biomedical devices, scaffolds, and the like. As used herein, the term “extrusion” when used in connection with bioprinting can include both extrusion (used by an extrusion bioprinter) and ejection (used by an ink jet bioprinter), unless noted otherwise. As used herein, the term “printhead” can refer to a movable part of the bioprinter that contains printing elements to form at least a portion of the printed biomedical construct. As used herein, the term “bioink” can refer to a fluid, solid, or hydrogel deposited by a bioprinter. The composition of the bioink can include one or more biological active components, like cells, growth factors, cytokines, anti-infection agents, adhesive molecules, nanoparticles, or the like. Ranges: throughout this disclosure, various aspects of the invention can be presented in a range format. It should be understood that the description in range format is merely for convenience and brevity and should not be construed as an inflexible limitation on the scope of the invention. Accordingly, the description of a range should be considered to have specifically disclosed all the possible subranges as well as individual numerical values within that range. For example, description of a range such as from 1 to 6 should be considered to have specifically disclosed subranges such as from 1 to 3, from 1 to 4, from 1 to 5, from 2 to 4, from 2 to 6, from 3 to 6 etc., as well as individual numbers within that range, for example, 1, 2, 2.7, 3, 4, 5, 5.3, and 6. This applies regardless of the breadth of the range. Description The present invention is based, in part, on the unexpected results that combining an elastic polymer network comprising cross-linked thiol functionalized hyaluronic acid and a viscous polymer network comprising cross-linked hydrazone functionalized hyaluronic acid generated an interpenetrating polymer network having orthogonally tunable elasticity and viscosity properties. As such, in various aspects, the present invention provides a composition having orthogonally tunable elasticity and viscosity. In some embodiments, the composition comprises an interpenetrating polymer network comprising a viscous polymer network and an elastic polymer network that are not covalently bonded. In some embodiments, the elastic Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO polymer network comprises at least one chemically cross-linked polymer (e.g., chemically cross- linked thiol functionalized hyaluronic acid) and / or at least one physically cross-linked polymer (e.g., physically cross-linked hydrazone functionalized hyaluronic acid) and the viscous polymer network comprises at least one chemically cross-linked polymer (e.g., chemically cross-linked thiol functionalized hyaluronic acid) and / or at least one physically cross-linked polymer (e.g., physically cross-linked hydrazone functionalized hyaluronic acid). In some embodiments, the composition is a viscoelastic hydrogel. In some embodiments, the composition mimics the viscoelasticity of at least one organ of interest (e.g., brain, pancreas, solid tumor, such as a brain tumor, etc.), at least one organoid of interest (e.g., tumor), at least one tissue of interest (e.g., skin), or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the composition regulates at least one cellular process of a cell of interest. In some embodiments, the at least one cellular process comprises a cellular growth, cellular proliferation, cellular cell differentiation, cellular migration, adhesion, differentiation, metabolism, drug response, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the cell of interest comprises a neuron, brain cell, pancreatic cell, spinal cord cell, stem cell, skin cell, tumor cell, soft tissue cell, endothelial cell, immune cell, or any combination thereof. In various aspects, the present invention provides a device comprising at least one composition of the present invention. In some embodiments, the device is a 3-dimensional cell culture platform, an organ model of interest (e.g., brain, pancreas, spinal cord, solid tumor, etc.), an organoid model of interest, a tissue model of interest (e.g., a skin model), a tumor model of interest (e.g., solid tumor, brain tumor, pancreatic tumor, etc.), an implant, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the device comprises at least one cell of interest (e.g., a tumor cell, such as a brain tumor cell, glioblastoma tumor cell, astrocytoma tumor cell, metastatic brain tumor cell, pediatric brain tumor cell, DIPGs tumor cell, pancreatic tumor cell, etc.) derived from a subject of interest. In some aspects, the present invention provides a method of preparing a 3-dimensional cell culture platform, an organ model of interest (e.g., brain model, pancreas model, solid tumor model, brain tumor model, pancreatic tumor model, etc.), an organoid model of interest (e.g., tumor model), a tissue model of interest (e.g., skin model), or any combination thereof using at least one composition of the present invention. In some embodiments, the method comprises bioprinting. Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO In some aspects, the present invention provides a method of identifying a therapeutic effective in the treatment or prevention of a disease or disorder (e.g., cancer, such as a brain cancer, glioblastoma, brain metastases (e.g., from lung or breast tumors), astrocytoma, pediatric brain tumors (e.g., DIPGs), pancreatic cancer, etc.) using the compositions or devices of the present invention (e.g., the 3-dimensional cell culture platform). In other aspects, the present invention provides a method of treating or preventing a disease or disorder (e.g., cancer, such as a brain cancer, glioblastoma, astrocytoma, brain metastases (e.g., from lung or breast tumors), pediatric brain tumors (e.g., DIPGs), pancreatic cancer, etc.) in a subject in need thereof by administering to the subject at least one therapeutic identified using the method of the present invention. Compositions The present invention provides a composition having orthogonally tunable elasticity and viscosity properties. In various embodiments, the composition comprises an interpenetrating polymer network. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has orthogonally tunable elasticity and viscosity properties. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has a shear storage modulus (G’) between about 100 Pa to about 10,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has a shear storage modulus (G’) between about 100 Pa to about 5,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has a shear storage modulus (G’) between about 100 Pa to about 2,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has a shear storage modulus (G’) between about 100 Pa to about 1,500 Pa. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has a shear storage modulus (G’) between about 100 Pa to about 1,200 Pa. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has a shear storage modulus (G’) between about 100 Pa to about 1,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has a shear storage modulus (G’) between about 200 Pa to about 1,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has a shear storage modulus (G’) between about 250 Pa to about 900 Pa. For example, in some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has a shear storage modulus (G’) between about 100 Pa to about 2,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has a shear loss modulus Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO (G”) between about 1 Pa to about 500 Pa. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has a shear loss modulus (G”) between about 1 Pa to about 50 Pa. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has a shear loss modulus (G”) between about 10 Pa to about 50 Pa. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has a shear loss modulus (G”) between about 20 Pa to about 50 Pa. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has a shear loss modulus (G”) between about 30 Pa to about 50 Pa. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has a shear loss modulus (G”) between about 40 Pa to about 50 Pa. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has a shear loss modulus (G”) between about 1 Pa to about 10 Pa. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has a shear loss modulus (G”) between about 1 Pa to about 30 Pa. For example, in some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has a shear loss modulus (G”) between about 1 Pa to about 50 Pa. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has a shear loss modulus (G”) between about 10 Pa to about 500 Pa. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has a Young’s modulus (E) between about 100 Pa to about 20,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has a Young’s modulus (E) between about 1,000 Pa to about 7,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has a Young’s modulus (E) between about 2,000 Pa to about 7,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has a Young’s modulus (E) between about 2,000 Pa to about 6,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has a Young’s modulus (E) between about 2,000 Pa to about 4,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has a Young’s modulus (E) between about 5,000 Pa to about 7,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has a Young’s modulus (E) between about 5,000 Pa to about 6,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has a Young’s modulus (E) between about 500 Pa to about 15,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.001 to about 0.7. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.01 to about 0.7. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.1 to about 0.7. In Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.1 to about 0.6. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.1 to about 0.5. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.1 to about 0.45. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.2 to about 0.45. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.25 to about 0.45. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.3 to about 0.45. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.3 to about 0.45. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.01 to about 0.3. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.01 to about 0.1. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.01 to about 0.07. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.01 to about 0.06. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.01 to about 0.05. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.01 to about 0.045. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.02 to about 0.045. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.025 to about 0.045. For example, in some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.03 to about 0.045. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has tan ^ between about 0.005 to about 0.08. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has tan ^ between about 0.005 to about 0.05. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises at least two polymer networks. In some embodiments, the at least two polymer networks may form at the Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO same time, or may form sequentially, i.e. a first network polymer is formed and the second network polymer subsequently forms within the first polymer. In some embodiments, the first polymer network is a viscous polymer network. In some embodiments, the second polymer network is an elastic polymer network. Thus, in some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises a viscous polymer network and an elastic polymer network that are not covalently bonded. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises at least one polymer. In some embodiments, the at least one polymer comprises a chemically cross-linked polymer, physically cross-linked polymer, or a combination thereof. In one embodiment, the viscous polymer network comprises at least one polymer. In some embodiments, the at least one polymer comprises a chemically cross-linked polymer, physically cross-linked polymer, or a combination thereof. For example, in some embodiments, the viscous polymer network comprises a chemically cross-linked polymer, physically cross- linked polymer, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the elastic polymer network comprises a chemically cross-linked polymer, physically cross-linked polymer, or a combination thereof. In one embodiment, the viscous polymer network comprises at least one chemically cross-linked polymer. In one embodiment, the elastic polymer network comprises at least one chemically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the chemically cross-linked polymer comprises at least one thiol cross-linking bond, disulfide cross-linking bond, sulfonic acid cross-linking bond, sulfonamide cross-linking bond, hydrazone cross-linking bond, hydrazine cross-linking bond, hydrazide cross-linking bond, aldehyde cross-linking bond, carboxyl cross-linking bond, amino cross- linking bond, amido cross-linking bond, azido cross-linking bond, cyano cross-linking bond, nitro cross-linking bond, nitrooxy cross-linking bond, hydroxyl cross-linking bond, alkoxy cross- linking bond, ester cross-linking bond, ether cross-linking bond, halo cross-linking bond, alkyl cross-linking bond, heteroalkyl cross-linking bond, aryl cross-linking bond, heteroaryl cross- linking bond, sulfone cross-linking bond, vinyl cross-linking bond, vinyl sulfone cross-linking bond, acrylate cross-linking bond, acrylate-derived cross-linking bond, thiol-acrylate cross- linking bond, methacrylate cross-linking bond, methacrylate-derived cross-linking bond, or norbornene cross-linking bond. For example, in some embodiments, the viscous polymer network comprises at least one chemically cross-linked polymer comprising at least one thiol Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO cross-linking bond. In some embodiments, the elastic polymer network comprises at least one chemically cross-linked polymer comprising at least one thiol cross-linking bond. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 100 w / v% of the chemically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 90 w / v% of the chemically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 80 w / v% of the chemically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 70 w / v% of the chemically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 60 w / v% of the chemically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 50 w / v% of the chemically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 40 w / v% of the chemically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 30 w / v% of the chemically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 20 w / v% of the chemically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 10 w / v% of the chemically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.5 w / v% to about 20 w / v% of the chemically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 5 w / v% to about 20 w / v% of the chemically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 5 w / v% of the chemically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 2.5 w / v% of the chemically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 2 w / v% of the chemically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 1 w / v% of the chemically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 0.5 w / v% of the chemically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 0.4 w / v% of the chemically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 0.3 w / v% of the chemically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 0.2 w / v% of the chemically cross-linked polymer. For example, in some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 1 w / v% of the chemically cross- linked polymer. In one embodiment, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises about 0.5 w / v% of the chemically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 100 wt% of the chemically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 90 wt% of the chemically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 80 wt% of the chemically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 70 wt% of the chemically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 60 wt% of the chemically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 50 wt% of the chemically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 40 wt% of the chemically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 30 wt% of the chemically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 20 wt% of the chemically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 10 wt% of the chemically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.5 wt% to about 20 wt% of the chemically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 5 wt% to about 20 wt% of the chemically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 5 wt% of the chemically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 2.5 wt% of the chemically cross- Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 2 wt% of the chemically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 1 wt% of the chemically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 0.5 wt% of the chemically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 0.4 wt% of the chemically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 0.3 wt% of the chemically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 0.2 wt% of the chemically cross-linked polymer. For example, in some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 1 wt% of the chemically cross-linked polymer. In one embodiment, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises about 0.5 wt% of the chemically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the viscous polymer network has a shear storage modulus (G’) between about 100 Pa to about 10,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the viscous polymer network has a shear storage modulus (G’) between about 100 Pa to about 5,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the viscous polymer network has a shear storage modulus (G’) between about 100 Pa to about 2,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the viscous polymer network has a shear storage modulus (G’) between about 100 Pa to about 1,500 Pa. In some embodiments, the viscous polymer network has a shear storage modulus (G’) between about 100 Pa to about 1,200 Pa. In some embodiments, the viscous polymer network has a shear storage modulus (G’) between about 100 Pa to about 1,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the viscous polymer network has a shear storage modulus (G’) between about 200 Pa to about 1,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the viscous polymer network has a shear storage modulus (G’) between about 250 Pa to about 900 Pa. In some embodiments, the viscous polymer network has a shear loss modulus (G”) between about 1 Pa to about 500 Pa. In some embodiments, the viscous polymer network has a shear loss modulus (G”) between about 1 Pa to about 50 Pa. In some embodiments, the viscous polymer network has a shear loss modulus (G”) between about 10 Pa to about 50 Pa. In some embodiments, the viscous polymer network has a shear loss modulus (G”) between about 20 Pa Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO to about 50 Pa. In some embodiments, the viscous polymer network has a shear loss modulus (G”) between about 30 Pa to about 50 Pa. In some embodiments, the viscous polymer network has a shear loss modulus (G”) between about 40 Pa to about 50 Pa. In some embodiments, the viscous polymer network has a shear loss modulus (G”) between about 1 Pa to about 10 Pa. In some embodiments, the viscous polymer network has a shear loss modulus (G”) between about 1 Pa to about 30 Pa. For example, in some embodiments, the viscous polymer network has a shear loss modulus (G”) between about 1 Pa to about 50 Pa. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has a shear loss modulus (G”) between about 10 Pa to about 500 Pa. In some embodiments, the viscous polymer network has a Young’s modulus (E) between about 100 Pa to about 20,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the viscous polymer network has a Young’s modulus (E) between about 1,000 Pa to about 7,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the viscous polymer network has a Young’s modulus (E) between about 2,000 Pa to about 7,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the viscous polymer network has a Young’s modulus (E) between about 2,000 Pa to about 6,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the viscous polymer network has a Young’s modulus (E) between about 2,000 Pa to about 4,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the viscous polymer network has a Young’s modulus (E) between about 5,000 Pa to about 7,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the viscous polymer network has a Young’s modulus (E) between about 5,000 Pa to about 6,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has a Young’s modulus (E) between about 500 Pa to about 15,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the viscous polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.001 to about 0.7. In some embodiments, the viscous polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.01 to about 0.7. In some embodiments, the viscous polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.1 to about 0.7. In some embodiments, the viscous polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.1 to about 0.6. In some embodiments, the viscous polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.1 to about 0.5. In some embodiments, the viscous polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.1 to about 0.45. In some embodiments, the viscous polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.2 to about 0.45. In some embodiments, the Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO viscous polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.25 to about 0.45. In some embodiments, the viscous polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.3 to about 0.45. In some embodiments, the viscous polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.3 to about 0.45. In some embodiments, the viscous polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.01 to about 0.3. In some embodiments, the viscous polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.01 to about 0.1. In some embodiments, the viscous polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.01 to about 0.07. In some embodiments, the viscous polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.01 to about 0.06. In some embodiments, the viscous polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.01 to about 0.05. In some embodiments, the viscous polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.01 to about 0.045. In some embodiments, the viscous polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.02 to about 0.045. In some embodiments, the viscous polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.025 to about 0.045. In some embodiments, the viscous polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.03 to about 0.045. For example, in some embodiments, the viscous polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.01 to about 0.015. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has tan ^ between about 0.005 to about 0.08. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has tan ^ between about 0.005 to about 0.05. In one embodiment, the elastic polymer network comprises at least one polymer. In some embodiments, the at least one polymer comprises a chemically cross-linked polymer, physically cross-linked polymer, or a combination thereof. For example, in one embodiment, the elastic polymer network comprises at least one physically cross-linked polymer. In one embodiment, the viscous polymer network comprises at least one physically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the physically cross-linked polymer comprises at least one thiol bond, disulfide bond, sulfonic acid bond, sulfonamide bond, hydrazone bond, hydrazine bond, hydrazide bond, aldehyde bond, carboxyl bond, amino bond, amido bond, azido bond, cyano Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO bond, nitro bond, nitrooxy bond, hydroxyl bond, alkoxy bond, ester bond, ether bond, halo bond, alkyl bond, heteroalkyl bond, aryl bond, heteroaryl bond, sulfone bond, vinyl bond, vinyl sulfone bond, acrylate bond, acrylate-derived bond, thiol-acrylate bond, methacrylate bond, methacrylate-derived bond, or norbornene bond. For example, in one embodiment, the elastic polymer network comprises at least one physically cross-linked polymer comprising at least one hydrazone bond. In one embodiment, the viscous polymer network comprises at least one physically cross-linked polymer comprising at least one hydrazone bond. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 100 w / v% of the physically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 90 w / v% of the physically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 80 w / v% of the physically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 70 w / v% of the physically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 60 w / v% of the physically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 50 w / v% of the physically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 40 w / v% of the physically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 30 w / v% of the physically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 20 w / v% of the physically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 10 w / v% of the physically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.5 w / v% to about 20 w / v% of the physically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 5 w / v% to about 20 w / v% of the physically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 5 w / v% of the physically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 2.5 w / v% of the physically cross- linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO about 0.1 w / v% to about 2 w / v% of the physically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 1 w / v% of the physically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 0.5 w / v% of the physically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 0.4 w / v% of the physically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 0.3 w / v% of the physically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 0.2 w / v% of the physically cross-linked polymer. For example, in some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 1 w / v% of the physically cross-linked polymer. In one embodiment, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises about 0.5 w / v% of the physically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 100 wt% of the physically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 90 wt% of the physically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 80 wt% of the physically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 70 wt% of the physically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 60 wt% of the physically cross- linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 50 wt% of the physically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 40 wt% of the physically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 30 wt% of the physically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 20 wt% of the physically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 10 wt% of the physically cross- linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.5 wt% to about 20 wt% of the physically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 5 wt% to about 20 wt% of the physically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 5 wt% of the physically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 2.5 wt% of the physically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 2 wt% of the physically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 1 wt% of the physically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 0.5 wt% of the physically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 0.4 wt% of the physically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 0.3 wt% of the physically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 0.2 wt% of the physically cross-linked polymer. For example, in some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 1 wt% of the physically cross-linked polymer. In one embodiment, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises about 0.5 wt% of the physically cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the elastic polymer network has a shear storage modulus (G’) between about 100 Pa to about 20,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the elastic polymer network has a shear storage modulus (G’) between about 100 Pa to about 10,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the elastic polymer network has a shear storage modulus (G’) between about 100 Pa to about 5,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the elastic polymer network has a shear storage modulus (G’) between about 100 Pa to about 2,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the elastic polymer network has a shear storage modulus (G’) between about 100 Pa to about 1,500 Pa. In some embodiments, the elastic polymer network has a shear storage modulus (G’) between about 100 Pa to about 1,200 Pa. In some embodiments, the elastic polymer network has a shear storage modulus (G’) between about 100 Pa to about 1,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the elastic polymer network has a shear storage modulus (G’) between about 200 Pa to about 1,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the elastic polymer network has a shear storage modulus (G’) between about 250 Pa to about 900 Pa. For example, in some embodiments, the elastic polymer network has a Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO shear storage modulus (G’) between about 90 Pa to about 200 Pa. In some embodiments, the elastic polymer network has a shear loss modulus (G”) between about 1 Pa to about 500 Pa. In some embodiments, the elastic polymer network has a shear loss modulus (G”) between about 1 Pa to about 50 Pa. In some embodiments, the elastic polymer network has a shear loss modulus (G”) between about 10 Pa to about 50 Pa. In some embodiments, the elastic polymer network has a shear loss modulus (G”) between about 20 Pa to about 50 Pa. In some embodiments, the elastic polymer network has a shear loss modulus (G”) between about 30 Pa to about 50 Pa. In some embodiments, the elastic polymer network has a shear loss modulus (G”) between about 40 Pa to about 50 Pa. In some embodiments, the elastic polymer network has a shear loss modulus (G”) between about 1 Pa to about 10 Pa. In some embodiments, the elastic polymer network has a shear loss modulus (G”) between about 1 Pa to about 30 Pa. For example, in some embodiments, the elastic polymer network has a shear loss modulus (G”) between about 1 Pa to about 50 Pa. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has a shear loss modulus (G”) between about 10 Pa to about 500 Pa. In some embodiments, the elastic polymer network has a Young’s modulus (E) between about 100 Pa to about 20,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the elastic polymer network has a Young’s modulus (E) between about 1,000 Pa to about 7,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the elastic polymer network has a Young’s modulus (E) between about 2,000 Pa to about 7,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the elastic polymer network has a Young’s modulus (E) between about 2,000 Pa to about 6,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the elastic polymer network has a Young’s modulus (E) between about 2,000 Pa to about 4,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the elastic polymer network has a Young’s modulus (E) between about 5,000 Pa to about 7,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the elastic polymer network has a Young’s modulus (E) between about 5,000 Pa to about 6,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has a Young’s modulus (E) between about 500 Pa to about 15,000 Pa. In some embodiments, the elastic polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.001 to about 0.7. In some embodiments, the elastic polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.01 to about 0.7. In some embodiments, the elastic polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.1 to about 0.7. In some embodiments, the elastic polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.1 Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO to about 0.6. In some embodiments, the elastic polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.1 to about 0.5. In some embodiments, the elastic polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.1 to about 0.45. In some embodiments, the elastic polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.2 to about 0.45. In some embodiments, the elastic polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.25 to about 0.45. In some embodiments, the elastic polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.3 to about 0.45. In some embodiments, the elastic polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.3 to about 0.45. In some embodiments, the elastic polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.01 to about 0.3. In some embodiments, the elastic polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.01 to about 0.1. In some embodiments, the elastic polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.01 to about 0.07. In some embodiments, the elastic polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.01 to about 0.06. In some embodiments, the elastic polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.01 to about 0.05. In some embodiments, the elastic polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.01 to about 0.045. In some embodiments, the elastic polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.02 to about 0.045. In some embodiments, the elastic polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.025 to about 0.045. In some embodiments, the elastic polymer network has a tan ^, determined using shear theory at 1 Hz (or 2 pi), between about 0.03 to about 0.045. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has tan ^ between about 0.005 to about 0.08. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network has tan ^ between about 0.005 to about 0.05. In some embodiments, the molar ratio of the chemically cross-linked polymer to the physically cross-linked polymer is about 99 : 1. In some embodiments, the molar ratio of the chemically cross-linked polymer to the physically cross-linked polymer is about 95 : 5. In some embodiments, the molar ratio of the chemically cross-linked polymer to the physically cross- linked polymer is about 90 : 10. In some embodiments, the molar ratio of the chemically cross- Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO linked polymer to the physically cross-linked polymer is from about 80 : 20. In some embodiments, the molar ratio of the chemically cross-linked polymer to the physically cross- linked polymer is from about 70 : 30. In some embodiments, the molar ratio of the chemically cross-linked polymer to the physically cross-linked polymer is from about 60 : 40. In some embodiments, the molar ratio of the chemically cross-linked polymer to the physically cross- linked polymer is from about 55 : 45. In some embodiments, the molar ratio of the chemically cross-linked polymer to the physically cross-linked polymer is from about 50 : 50. In some embodiments, the molar ratio of the chemically cross-linked polymer to the physically cross- linked polymer is from about 45 : 55. In some embodiments, the molar ratio of the chemically cross-linked polymer to the physically cross-linked polymer is from about 40 : 60. In one embodiments, the molar ratio of the chemically cross-linked polymer to the physically cross- linked polymer is from about 30 : 70. In some embodiments, the molar ratio of the chemically cross-linked polymer to the physically cross-linked polymer is from about 20 : 80. In some embodiments, the molar ratio of the chemically cross-linked polymer to the physically cross- linked polymer is from about 10 : 90. In some embodiments, the molar ratio of the chemically cross-linked polymer to the physically cross-linked polymer is from about 5 : 95. In some embodiments, the molar ratio of the chemically cross-linked polymer to the physically cross- linked polymer is from about 1 : 99. In some embodiments, the polymer has a molecular weight between about 1 kDa to about 5,000,000 kDa. For example, in one embodiment, the polymer has a molecular weight between about 1 kDa to about 2,000,000 kDa, about 1 kDa to about 1,000,000 kDa, about 1 kDa to about 500,000 kDa, about 1 kDa to about 2,000 kDa, between about 1 kDa to about 1,500 kDa, between about 1 kDa to about 1,000 kDa, between about 5 kDa to about 800 kDa, between about 5 kDa to about 750 kDa, between about 5 kDa to about 500 kDa, between about 5 kDa to about 300 kDa, between about 5 kDa to 250 kDa, between about 5 kDa to 200 kDa, between about 800 kDa to about 3,000 kDa, or between about 100 kDa to about 1,500 kDa, or. For example, in one embodiment, the polymer has a molecular weight of about 1 kDa. In another embodiment, the polymer has a molecular weight of about 5 kDa. In another embodiment, the polymer has a molecular weight of about 20 kDa. In another embodiment, the polymer has a molecular weight of about 100 kDa. In another embodiment, the polymer has a molecular weight of about 250 kDa. In another embodiment, the polymer has a molecular weight Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO of about 750 kDa. In some embodiments, the polymer has a molecular weight of about 1,000 kDa. In some embodiments, the polymer has a molecular weight of about 1,500 kDa. In some embodiments, the polymer comprises a straight chain polymer (i.e., linear polymer) a branched chain polymer (i.e., branched polymer), including hyperbranched polymers, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the polymer comprises a cross-linked polymer. In some embodiments, the polymer comprises a neutral polymer, ionic polymer, anionic polymer, cationic polymer, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the polymer comprises a homopolymer, copolymer, block copolymer, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the block copolymer comprises a triblock, tetrablock, pentablock, and / or at least six block copolymer. In some embodiments, the polymer comprises an unfunctionalized polymer, functionalized polymer, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the functionalized polymer comprises any functional group known in the art. Examples of such functional groups include, but are not limited to, a thiol, disulfide, sulfonic acid, sulfonamide, hydrazone, hydrazine, hydrazide, adipic acid dihydrazide, aldehyde, carboxyl, amino, amido, azido, imino, cyano, nitro, nitooxy, hydroxyl, alkoxy, ester, ether, halo, alkyl, alkylene, heteroalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, sulfone, vinyl, vinyl sulfone, acrylate, acrylate-derived group, thiol-acrylate, methacrylate, methacrylate-derived group, norbornene, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the functional group is a thiol, disulfide, amino, amido, hydroxyl, hydrazone, hydrazine, hydrazide, adipic acid dihydrazide, aldehyde, carboxyl, norbornene, or any combination thereof. For example, in some embodiments, the viscous polymer network comprises a thiol functionalized polymer (e.g., thiol functionalized hyaluronic acid). In some embodiments, the elastic polymer network comprises a hydrazone functionalized polymer (e.g., hydrazone functionalized hyaluronic acid), adipic acid dihydrazide functionalized polymer (e.g., adipic acid dihydrazide functionalized hyaluronic acid), aldehyde functionalized polymer (e.g., aldehyde functionalized PEG). For example, in some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.01 w / v% to about 100 w / v% of the functional group. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 50 w / v% of the functional group. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO between about 0.1 w / v% to about 40 w / v% of the functional group. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 30 w / v% of the functional group. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 20 w / v% of the functional group. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 10 w / v% of the functional group. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.5 w / v% to about 20 w / v% of the functional group. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 5 w / v% to about 20 w / v% of the functional group. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 5 w / v% of the functional group. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 2.5 w / v% of the functional group. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 2 w / v% of the functional group. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 1 w / v% of the functional group. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 0.5 w / v% of the functional group. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 0.4 w / v% of the functional group. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 0.3 w / v% of the functional group. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 0.2 w / v% of the functional group. For example, in one embodiment, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises about 0.5 w / v% of the functional group. In another embodiment, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises less than about 30 w / v% of the functional group. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.01 wt% to about 100 wt% of the functional group. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 50 wt% of the functional group. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 40 wt% of the functional group. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 30 wt% of the functional group. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 20 wt% of the functional group. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 10 wt% of the functional group. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.5 wt% to about 20 wt% of the functional group. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 5 wt% to about 20 wt% of the functional group. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 5 wt% of the functional group. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 2.5 wt% of the functional group. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 2 wt% of the functional group. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 1 wt% of the functional group. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 0.5 wt% of the functional group. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 0.4 wt% of the functional group. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 0.3 wt% of the functional group. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 0.2 wt% of the functional group. For example, in one embodiment, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises about 0.5 wt% of the functional group. In another embodiment, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises less than about 30 wt% of the functional group. In one embodiment, the polymer comprises a biodegradable polymer, biocompatible polymer, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the polymer comprises polyester, polyolefin, poly(vinyl chloride), polystyrene, polycaprolactone, polyethylene, polycarbonate, polyalkyleneimine (e.g., polyethyleneimine), polyallylamine, polyamidoamine, poly(amino-co-ester), or any combination thereof. In one embodiment, the polymer comprises an organic polymer. Examples of such organic polymers include, but are not limited to, polyalkenes (e.g., polyethylene, polyisobutene, polybutadiene), polyacrylics (e.g., polyacrylate, polymethyl methacrylate, polycyanoacrylate), polyvinyls (e.g., polyvinyl alcohol, polyvinyl acetate, polyvinyl butyral, polyvinyl chloride), polystyrenes, polycarbonates, polyesters, polyurethanes, polyamides, polyimides, polysulfone, polysiloxanes, polyheterocycles, cellulose derivative (e.g., methyl cellulose, cellulose acetate, Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO nitrocellulose), polysilanes, fluorinated polymers, epoxies, polyethers, phenolic resins (e.g., Cognard, J. Alignment of Nematic Liquid Crystals and Their Mixtures, in Mol. Cryst. Liq. Cryst. 1: 1-74 (1982)), polydimethylsiloxane, polyethylene, polyacrylonitrile, cellulosic materials, polycarbonates, polyvinyl pyridinium, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the polymer comprises any polymer known in the art. Examples of such polymers include, but are not limited to hyaluronic acid, polyethylene glycol (PEG), polysaccharide, alginate, gelatin, gelatin-methacrylate, gelatin-acrylate, 1,2-distearoyl-sn- glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine (DSPE), 1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine- polyethylene glycol (DSPE-PEG), 1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine-N- [amino(polyethylene glycol)-2000] (DSPE-PEG(2000)-amine), polyethyleneimine (PEI), poly(lactide-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA), biodegradable PLGA, poly(lactide-co-glycolic acid)- polyethylene glycol (PLGA-PEG), biodegradable PLGA-PEG, poly(lactide-co-glycolic acid)- block-polyethylene glycol (PLGA-b-PEG), biodegradable PLGA-b-PEG, poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO), PEO block copolymer, poly(ethylethylene) (PEE), poly(butadiene) (PB or PBD), poly(styrene) (PS), poly(isoprene) (PI), polyanhydride, polyanhydride-block- PEG copolymers, zwitterionic poly(carbobetaine), zwitterionic poly(sulfobetaine)-containing, zwitterionic poly(carbobetaine) and zwitterionic poly(sulfobetaine)-containing copolymers, poly(acrylic acid- co-distearin acrylate), poly(trimethylene carbonate)-block-poly(L-gluatamic acid), poly(ethylene glycol-block-L-aspartic acid), poly(2-hydroxyethyl-co-octadecyl aspartamide), poly(ethylene glycol-co-trimethylene carbonate-co-caprolactone, polypropylene oxide block copolymers, polyethylene oxide-block-polypropylene oxide copolymers, poly(^-caprolactone) (PCL), PCL diblock co-polymer, poly(ethylene oxide)-block-poly(^-caprolactone) (PEO-b-PCL) based diblock copolymers, poly(lactic acid), poly(glycolide), poly(lactic-coglycolic acid), poly(3- hydroxybutyrate), polyamine, polyalkyleneimine (e.g., polyethyleneimine), polyallylamine, polyamidoamine, poly(amino-co-ester), chitosan, poly(2-N,N-dimethylaminoethylmethacrylate), poly-L-lysine, maleimide PEG (mPEG), DSPE-PEG-DBCO, 1-(monomethoxy-polyethyleneglycol)-2,3-dimyristoylglycerol (PEG-s- DMG), DOPE-PEG- Azide, DSPE-PEG-Azide, DPPE-PEG-Azide, DSPE-PEG-Carboxy-NHS, DOPE-PEG- Carboxylic Acid, DSPE-PEG-Carboxylic acid, PEG-modified phosphatidylethanolamine, PEG- modified phosphatidic acid, PEG-modified ceramides (e.g., PEG-CerC14 or PEG-CerC20), PEG-modified dialkylamines, PEG-modified diacylglycerols, PEG-modified dialkylglycerols, Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO PEG-c-DOMG, PEG-c-DMA, PEG-s-DMG, polyethylene glycol-lipid is N-[(methoxy poly(ethylene glycol)2000)carbamyl]-1,2-dimyristyloxlpropyl-3-amine (PEG-c-DMA), polyethylene glycol-lipid is PEG-c-DOMG), pegylated diacylglycerol (PEG-DAG), 1-(monomethoxy-polyethyleneglycol)-2,3-dimyristoylglycerol (PEG-DMG), pegylated phosphatidylethanoloamine (PEG-PE), PEG succinate diacylglycerol (PEG-S-DAG) such as 4- O-(2’,3’-di(tetradecanoyloxy)propyl-1-O-(ω-methoxy(polyethoxy)ethyl)butanedioate (PEG-S- DMG), pegylated ceramide (PEG-cer), PEG dialkoxypropylcarbamate, or any combination thereof. For example, in some embodiments, the polymer comprises hyaluronic acid, PEG (e.g., linear PEG, branched PEG, etc.), polysaccharide, alginate, gelatin, gelatin-methacrylate, gelatin- acrylate, polysaccharide, alginate, gelatin, gelatin-methacrylate, polynorbornene, polystyrene, polyacrylate, polymethacrylate, agarose, or any combination thereof. For example, in some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 50 w / v% of the hyaluronic acid. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 40 w / v% of the hyaluronic acid. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 30 w / v% of the hyaluronic acid. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 20 w / v% of the hyaluronic acid. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 10 w / v% of the hyaluronic acid. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.5 w / v% to about 20 w / v% of the hyaluronic acid. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 5 w / v% to about 20 w / v% of the hyaluronic acid. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 5 w / v% of the hyaluronic acid. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 2.5 w / v% of the hyaluronic acid. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 2 w / v% of the hyaluronic acid. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 1 w / v% of the hyaluronic acid. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 0.5 w / v% of the hyaluronic acid. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 0.4 w / v% of the hyaluronic acid. In some embodiments, the Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 0.3 w / v% of the hyaluronic acid. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 w / v% to about 0.2 w / v% of the hyaluronic acid. For example, in one embodiment, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises about 0.5 w / v% of the hyaluronic acid. In another embodiment, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises less than about 30 w / v% of the hyaluronic acid. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 50 wt% of the hyaluronic acid. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 40 wt% of the hyaluronic acid. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 30 wt% of the hyaluronic acid. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 20 wt% of the hyaluronic acid. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 10 wt% of the hyaluronic acid. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.5 wt% to about 20 wt% of the hyaluronic acid. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 5 wt% to about 20 wt% of the hyaluronic acid. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 5 wt% of the hyaluronic acid. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 2.5 wt% of the hyaluronic acid. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 2 wt% of the hyaluronic acid. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 1 wt% of the hyaluronic acid. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 0.5 wt% of the hyaluronic acid. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 0.4 wt% of the hyaluronic acid. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 0.3 wt% of the hyaluronic acid. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 0.2 wt% of the hyaluronic acid. For example, in one embodiment, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises about 0.5 wt% of the hyaluronic acid. In another embodiment, the interpenetrating polymer network comprises less than about 30 wt% of the hyaluronic acid. Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network optionally comprises at least one agent selected from a small molecule (e.g., arginylglycylaspartic acid (RGD)), initiator, catalyst, surfactant, crosslinker, peptide (e.g., bioactive peptide), or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the initiator comprises a photo initiator, photoredox initiator, photothermal initiator, thermal initiator, redox initiator, radical initiator, or any combination thereof. Examples of such initiators include, but are not limited to, an azo initiator, an azo ester initiator, a peroxide initiator, a peroxydicarbonate initiator, or some other suitable initiator. Suitable initiators include, but are not limited to, lithium phenyl-2,4,6-trimethylbenzoylphosphinate (LAP), Irgacures (e.g., 2959, 184, 651, 819), 2-hydroxy-4-(2-hydroxyethoxy)-2-methylpropiophenone, benzophenone, 2-A dimethylbenzophenone, benzoin, benzophenone ion-based initiator, such as chloride trimethylmethylammonium benzophenone-4, the sodium salt of 4-sulfomethylbenzyl, aromatic ketones and aldehydes, such as benzaldehyde, acetophenone, biacetyl, parachlorobenzophenone, ferulic acid, azobis(isobutyronitrile) (AIBN), 4,4-azobis(4- cyanovaleric acid), benzoyl peroxide, lauroyl peroxide, potassium persulfate, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network optionally comprises at least one photo initiator. In some embodiments, the photo initiator is a UV-activated photo initiator, visible light-activated photo initiator, or a combination thereof. For example, in some embodiments, the photo initiator is a UV / visible light-activated photo initiator at a wavelength between 190 and 800 nm. In some embodiments, the photo initiator is any photo initiator known in the art. Examples of such photo initiators include, but are not limited to, lithium phenyl-2,4,6- trimethylbenzoylphosphinate (LAP), Irgacures (e.g., 2959, 184, 651, 819), 2-hydroxy-4-(2- hydroxyethoxy)-2-methylpropiophenone, benzophenone, 2-A dimethylbenzophenone, benzoin, benzophenone ion-based initiator, such as chloride trimethylmethylammonium benzophenone-4, the sodium salt of 4-sulfomethylbenzyl, aromatic ketones and aldehydes, such as benzaldehyde, acetophenone, biacetyl, parachlorobenzophenone, ferulic acid, azobis(isobutyronitrile) (AIBN), 4,4-azobis(4-cyanovaleric acid), benzoyl peroxide, lauroyl peroxide, potassium persulfate, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network optionally comprises at least one thermal initiator. In some embodiments, the thermal initiator is any photo initiator known in Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO the art. In the event that the initiator comprises a thermal initiator, it may have a 10 hr half-life temperature of between about 20 to about 80 °C., or about 20 to 70, 40 to 70, 40 to 60, 50 to 80, 60 to 80 or 50 to 70 °C., e.g. about 20, 23, 30, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75 or 80 °C. It will be recognized that the half-life of an initiator may be dependent in part on the medium in which it is measured. The above 10 hr half-life temperature may be as measured in toluene, or may be as measured in the polymerization mixture. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network optionally comprises at least one crosslinker. In some embodiments, the crosslinker is a molecule comprising two or more functional groups that are reactive with other functional groups and that is capable of linking two or more monomers or polymers through chemical bonds. In some embodiments, the crosslinker is any crosslinker known in the art. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network optionally comprises at least one surfactant. In some embodiments, the surfactant is an amphiphilic compound which decrease surface or interfacial tensions. In some embodiments, the surfactant includes reference to all forms of the surfactant, including surfactant salts, and reference to the weight percentage of a surfactant includes the complete weight of the specified form such as chelants and / or the counterion of any surfactant salts. In some embodiments, the surfactant comprises an anionic surfactant wherein the hydrophilic or polar group has an anionic charge. In some embodiments, the surfactant comprises a non-ionic surfactant wherein the hydrophilic or polar group does not have an ionic charge. In some embodiments, the surfactant comprises a cationic surfactant wherein the hydrophilic or polar group has a cationic charge. In some embodiments, the surfactant is any crosslinker known in the art. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network optionally comprises at least one radical scavenger or radical polymerization inhibitor. In some embodiments, the radical scavenger or radical polymerization inhibitor is any radical scavenger or radical polymerization inhibitor known in the art. This may for example be a quinone type inhibitor such as MEHQ (hydroquinone monomethyl ether). The inhibitor may be supplied with the non-crosslinking monomer or with the crosslinking monomer or with both. It may be present in sufficiently low concentration that during the free radical polymerization process it is entirely consumed by the free radical initiator. It may be present at a mole ratio to the free radical initiator of less than about 20%, or less than about 10 or 5%, e.g. at about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 15 or 20 mol %. Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network optionally comprises at least one solvent. In some embodiments, the solvent is any solvent known in the art. Suitable solvents include, but are not limited to, organic liquids and mixtures, such as homogeneous mixtures, thereof. Thus, when mixtures are used, the two or more liquids should be miscible in the proportion in which they are used. Suitable solvents include, but are not limited to, water, DMSO, ethanol, toluene, acetone, diethyl ether, 1,4-dioxane, benzene, ethyl acetate, glyme, diglyme, and any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network optionally comprises a solids content of from about 5 to about 100% w / v, or from about 5 to 99, 5 to 98, 5 to 95, 5 to 90, 5 to 80, 5 to 70, 5 to 60, 5 to 50, 5 to 40, 5 to 30, 5 to 20, 5 to 15, 10 to 20 or 7 to 15%, e.g. about 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24 or 25%. In this context, “solids content” refers to the weight of all materials other than the solvent in 100 mL of solution. Thus “solids” may in fact not be in solid form. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network optionally comprises a solids content of from about 5 to about 100 wt%, or from about 5 to 99, 5 to 98, 5 to 95, 5 to 90, 5 to 80, 5 to 70, 5 to 60, 5 to 50, 5 to 40, 5 to 30, 5 to 20, 5 to 15, 10 to 20 or 7 to 15 wt%, e.g. about 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24 or 25%. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network is permeable to gases, liquids, molecules in solution, or any combination thereof. Thus, in some embodiments, the composition is permeable to gases, liquids, molecules in solution, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network is impermeable to gases, liquids, molecules in solution, or any combination thereof. Thus, in some embodiments, the composition is impermeable to gases, liquids, molecules in solution, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the interpenetrating polymer network is a biodegradable interpenetrating polymer network, biocompatible interpenetrating polymer network, or a combination thereof. Thus, in some embodiments, the composition is a biodegradable composition, biocompatible composition, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the composition optionally comprises at least one biomolecule of interest. Examples of such biomolecules include, but are not limited to proteins, polypeptides, amino acids, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, or any combination thereof. Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO In some embodiments, the composition optionally comprises at least one cell of interest. In some embodiments, the cell of interest is selected from a human cell, mammalian cell, vertebrate cell, invertebrate cell, bacterial cell, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the cell of interest is a mammalian cell (e.g., human cell, canine cell, feline cell, bovine cell, swine / porcine cell, sheep cell, goat cell, horse cell, etc.), avian cell (e.g., chicken cell, duck cell, turkey cell, quail cell, etc.), piscine muscle cell (e.g., tuna cell, salmon cell, snapper cell, cod cell, etc.), shellfish cell (e.g., lobster cell, crab cell, shrimp cell, crayfish cell, clam cell, oyster cell, mussel cell, etc.), or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the cell of interest is a cancer cell, tissue cell, epithelial cell, endothelial cell, fibroblast, muscle cell, myoblast cell, neuron, adipocyte, cardiac cell, stem cell (e.g., a muscle stem cell, mesenchymal stem cell, epithelial stem cell, etc.), fat cells, hematopoietic stem cell, bone marrow cell, gland cell, mammary gland cell, human mammary gland cell, lactocytes, hepatic cell, beta cells pancreatic cell, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the cell of interest is a tumor cell. Examples of such tumor cells include, but are not limited to, a brain tumor cell (e.g., glioblastoma tumor cell, astrocytoma tumor cell, metastatic brain tumor cell, pediatric brain tumor cell, DIPGs tumor cell, etc.), spinal cord tumor cell, heart tumor cell, liver tumor cell, spleen tumor cell, kidney tumor cell, pancreatic tumor cell, gallbladder tumor cell, lung tumor cell, eye tumor cell, soft tissue tumor cell, solid tumor cell (e.g., glioblastoma tumor cell, astrocytoma tumor cell, metastatic brain tumor cell, pediatric brain tumor cell, DIPGs tumor cell, etc.), skin tumor cell, metastatic brain tumor cell, vasculature tumor cell, endothelial tumor cell, pericyte tumor cell, neuron tumor cell, glia tumor cell, immune tumor cell, microglia tumor cell, macrophage tumor cell, cornea tumor cell, pancreatic tumor cell, or any combination thereof. In various embodiments, the cell is derived from a subject of interest. In some embodiments, the subject of interest has cancer, is at risk of having cancer, or a combination thereof. For example, in some embodiments, the composition comprises at least one tumor cell, such as a brain cancer tumor cell (e.g., glioblastoma tumor cell, astrocytoma tumor cell, metastatic brain tumor cell, pediatric brain tumor cell, DIPGs tumor cell, etc.) derived from a subject having brain cancer (e.g., glioblastoma, astrocytoma, brain metastases, pediatric brain tumor, DIPGs, etc.), pancreatic cancer cell derived from a subject having pancreatic cancer, or any combination thereof. Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO The following are non-limiting examples of cancers that can be treated by the disclosed methods and compositions: acute lymphoblastic; acute myeloid leukemia; adrenocortical carcinoma; adrenocortical carcinoma, childhood; appendix cancer; basal cell carcinoma; bile duct cancer, extrahepatic; bladder cancer; bone cancer; osteosarcoma and malignant fibrous histiocytoma; brain stem glioma, childhood; brain tumor, adult; brain tumor, brain stem glioma, childhood; brain tumor, central nervous system atypical teratoid / rhabdoid tumor, childhood; central nervous system embryonal tumors; cerebellar astrocytoma; cerebral astrocytotna / malignant glioma; craniopharyngioma; ependymoblastoma; ependymoma; medulloblastoma; medulloepithelioma; pineal parenchymal tumors of intermediate differentiation; supratentorial primitive neuroectodermal tumors and pineoblastoma; visual pathway and hypothalamic glioma; brain and spinal cord tumors; breast cancer; bronchial tumors; Burkitt lymphoma; carcinoid tumor; carcinoid tumor, gastrointestinal; central nervous system atypical teratoid / rhabdoid tumor; central nervous system embryonal tumors; central nervous system lymphoma; cerebellar astrocytoma cerebral astrocytoma / malignant glioma, childhood; cervical cancer; chordoma, childhood; chronic lymphocytic leukemia; chronic myelogenous leukemia; chronic myeloproliferative disorders; colon cancer; colorectal cancer; craniopharyngioma; cutaneous T-cell lymphoma; esophageal cancer; Ewing family of tumors; extragonadal germ cell tumor; extrahepatic bile duct cancer; eye cancer, intraocular melanoma; eye cancer, retinoblastoma; gallbladder cancer; gastric (stomach) cancer; gastrointestinal carcinoid tumor; gastrointestinal stromal tumor (gist); germ cell tumor, extracranial; germ cell tumor, extragonadal; germ cell tumor, ovarian; gestational trophoblastic tumor; glioma; glioma, childhood brain stem; glioma, childhood cerebral astrocytoma; glioma, childhood visual pathway and hypothalamic; hairy cell leukemia; head and neck cancer; hepatocellular (liver) cancer; histiocytosis, langerhans cell; Hodgkin lymphoma; hypopharyngeal cancer; hypothalamic and visual pathway glioma; intraocular melanoma; islet cell tumors; kidney (renal cell) cancer; Langerhans cell histiocytosis; laryngeal cancer; leukemia, acute lymphoblastic; leukemia, acute myeloid; leukemia, chronic lymphocytic; leukemia, chronic myelogenous; leukemia, hairy cell; lip and oral cavity cancer; liver cancer; lung cancer, non-small cell; lung cancer, small cell; lymphoma, aids-related; lymphoma, burkitt; lymphoma, cutaneous T-cell; lymphoma, non- Hodgkin lymphoma; lymphoma, primary central nervous system; macroglobulinemia, Waldenstrom; malignant fibrous histiocvtoma of bone and osteosarcoma; medulloblastoma; Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO melanoma; melanoma, intraocular (eye); Merkel cell carcinoma; mesothelioma; metastatic squamous neck cancer with occult primary; mouth cancer; multiple endocrine neoplasia syndrome, (childhood); multiple myeloma / plasma cell neoplasm; mycosis; fungoides; myelodysplastic syndromes; myelodysplastic / myeloproliferative diseases; myelogenous leukemia, chronic; myeloid leukemia, adult acute; myeloid leukemia, childhood acute; myeloma, multiple; myeloproliferative disorders, chronic; nasal cavity and paranasal sinus cancer; nasopharyngeal cancer; neuroblastoma; non-small cell lung cancer; oral cancer; oral cavity cancer; oropharyngeal cancer; osteosarcoma and malignant fibrous histiocytoma of bone; ovarian cancer; ovarian epithelial cancer; ovarian germ cell tumor; ovarian low malignant potential tumor; pancreatic cancer; pancreatic cancer, islet cell tumors; papillomatosis; parathyroid cancer; penile cancer; pharyngeal cancer; pheochromocytoma; pineal parenchymal tumors of intermediate differentiation; pineoblastoma and supratentorial primitive neuroectodermal tumors; pituitary tumor; plasma celt neoplasm / multiple myeloma; pleuropulmonary blastoma; primary central nervous system lymphoma; prostate cancer; rectal cancer; renal cell (kidney) cancer; renal pelvis and ureter, transitional cell cancer; respiratory tract carcinoma involving the nut gene on chromosome 15; retinoblastoma; rhabdomyosarcoma; salivary gland cancer; sarcoma, ewing family of tumors; sarcoma, Kaposi; sarcoma, soft tissue; sarcoma, uterine; sezary syndrome; skin cancer (nonmelanoma); skin cancer (melanoma); skin carcinoma, Merkel cell; small cell lung cancer; small intestine cancer; soft tissue sarcoma; squamous cell carcinoma, squamous neck cancer with occult primary, metastatic; stomach (gastric) cancer; supratentorial primitive neuroectodermal tumors; T-cell lymphoma, cutaneous; testicular cancer; throat cancer; thymoma and thymic carcinoma; thyroid cancer; transitional cell cancer of the renal pelvis and ureter; trophoblastic tumor, gestational; urethral cancer; uterine cancer, endometrial; uterine sarcoma; vaginal cancer; vulvar cancer; Waldenstrom macroglobulinemia; and Wilms tumor. In some embodiments, the composition mimics the viscoelasticity of at least one material of interest. In some embodiments, the material of interest is an organ, organoid, tissue, tumor, or any combination thereof. Thus, in some embodiments, the composition mimics the viscoelasticity of at least one organ of interest, at least one organoid of interest, at least one tissue of interest, at least one tumor of interest, or any combination thereof. Examples of such organs of interest include, but are not limited to, a brain, spinal cord, Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO heart, liver, spleen, kidney, pancreas, gallbladder, lung, eye, vasculature, soft tissue organ, solid tumor (e.g., glioblastoma tumor or metastatic brain tumor), or any combination thereof. Examples of such tissues of interest include, but are not limited to, a skin, cornea tissue, or any combination thereof. Examples of such tumors of interest include, but are not limited to, a brain tumor (e.g., glioblastoma tumor cell, astrocytoma tumor cell, metastatic brain tumor cell, pediatric brain tumor cell, DIPGs tumor cell, etc.), spinal cord tumor, heart tumor, liver tumor, spleen tumor, kidney tumor, pancreatic tumor, gallbladder tumor, lung tumor, eye tumor, soft tissue tumor, solid tumor (e.g., glioblastoma tumor or metastatic tumor), metastatic brain tumor, vasculature tumor, skin tumor, cornea tumor, pancreatic tumor, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the composition regulates at least one cellular process of a cell of interest. Examples of such cellular processes include, but are not limited to, a cellular growth, cellular proliferation, cellular cell differentiation, cellular migration, adhesion, differentiation, metabolism, drug response, or any combination thereof. Examples of such cells of interest include, but are not limited to, a neuron, brain cell, pancreatic cell, spinal cord cell, stem cell, skin cell, tumor cell, soft tissue cell, endothelial cell, immune cell, or any combination thereof. Gels and Hydrogels In some embodiments, the composition is a viscoelastic hydrogel. In some embodiments, the viscoelastic hydrogel comprises between about 1 to about 99% water by weight. In some embodiments, the viscoelastic hydrogel comprises between about 5 to about 90% water by weight. In some embodiments, the viscoelastic hydrogel comprises between about 10 to about 80% water by weight. In some embodiments, the viscoelastic hydrogel comprises between about 20 to about 70% water by weight. In some embodiments, the viscoelastic hydrogel comprises between about 30 to about 60% water by weight. In some embodiments, the viscoelastic hydrogel comprises between about 40 to about 50% water by weight. In some embodiments, the viscoelastic hydrogel comprises between about 1 to about 50% water by weight. In some embodiments, the viscoelastic hydrogel comprises between about 1 to about 40% water by weight. In some embodiments, the viscoelastic hydrogel comprises between about 1 to about 30% water by weight. In some embodiments, the viscoelastic hydrogel comprises between about 1 to about 20% water by weight. In some embodiments, the Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO viscoelastic hydrogel comprises between about 1 to about 10% water by weight. In some embodiments, the viscoelastic hydrogel comprises between about 1 to about 5% water by weight. In some embodiments, the viscoelastic hydrogel comprises between about 5 to about 10% water by weight. In some embodiments, the viscoelastic hydrogel may further optionally comprise at least one wetting agent. In some embodiments, the wetting agent comprises a nonionic polymer, cationic polymer, glycol compound, alpha hydroxy acid, polyhydric alcohol, urea, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the hydrogen ion concentration of the viscoelastic hydrogel may have a pH of 4 to 10. In some embodiments, the hydrogen ion concentration of the viscoelastic hydrogel may have a pH of 5 to 9. In some embodiments, the hydrogen ion concentration of the viscoelastic hydrogel may have a pH of 6 to 8. In some embodiments, the hydrogen ion concentration of the viscoelastic hydrogel may have a pH of 7 to 10. In some embodiments, the hydrogen ion concentration of the viscoelastic hydrogel may have a pH of 4 to 7. In some embodiments, the hydrogen ion concentration may be adjusted for known acids and bases. In some embodiments, the gel and / or viscoelastic hydrogel optionally comprises at least one biomolecule of interest. Examples of such biomolecules include, but are not limited to proteins, polypeptides, amino acids, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the gel and / or viscoelastic hydrogel optionally comprises at least one cell of interest. In some embodiments, the at least cell of interest is any cell described herein. For example, in some embodiments, the cell of interest is a cancer cell, tissue cell, epithelial cell, endothelial cell, fibroblast, muscle cell, myoblast cell, neuron, adipocyte, cardiac cell, stem cell (e.g., a muscle stem cell, mesenchymal stem cell, epithelial stem cell, etc.), fat cells, hematopoietic stem cell, bone marrow cell, gland cell, mammary gland cell, human mammary gland cell, lactocytes, hepatic cell, beta cells pancreatic cell, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the cell of interest is a tumor cell. Examples of such tumor cells include, but are not limited to, a brain tumor cell (e.g., glioblastoma tumor cell, astrocytoma tumor cell, metastatic brain tumor cell, pediatric brain tumor cell, DIPGs tumor cell, etc.), pancreatic tumor cell, spinal cord tumor cell, heart tumor cell, liver tumor cell, spleen tumor cell, kidney tumor cell, pancreatic tumor cell, gallbladder tumor cell, lung tumor cell, eye tumor cell, Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO soft tissue tumor cell, solid tumor cell (e.g., glioblastoma tumor cell, astrocytoma tumor cell, metastatic brain tumor cell, pediatric brain tumor cell, DIPGs tumor cell, etc.), skin tumor cell, metastatic brain tumor cell, vasculature tumor cell, endothelial tumor cell, pericyte tumor cell, neuron tumor cell, glia tumor cell, immune tumor cell, microglia tumor cell, macrophage tumor cell, cornea tumor cell, or any combination thereof. In various embodiments, the cell is derived from a subject of interest. In some embodiments, the subject of interest has cancer, is at risk of having cancer, or a combination thereof. For example, in some embodiments, the gel and / or viscoelastic hydrogel comprises at least one tumor cell, such as a brain cancer tumor cell (e.g., glioblastoma tumor cell, astrocytoma tumor cell, metastatic brain tumor cell, pediatric brain tumor cell, DIPGs tumor cell, etc.) derived from a subject having brain cancer (e.g., glioblastoma, astrocytoma, brain metastases, pediatric brain tumor, DIPGs, etc.), pancreatic cancer cell derived from a subject having pancreatic cancer, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the composition comprises a “chemical gel”, “physical gel”, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the “chemical gel” comprises at least one covalent polymer network, e.g., a network formed by crosslinking polymer chains or by nonlinear polymerization. In some embodiments, the “chemical gel” is a supramolecular assembly whose molecules are associated by high energy bonds (covalent bonds). In some embodiments, the stability of this assembly is very large. In some embodiments, the “chemical gel” has improved chemical stability, the only way to degrade them is to destroy the covalent network bonding. In some embodiments, the “physical gel” is a polymer network formed through the physical aggregation or supramolecular assembly of polymer chains, caused, for example, by low energy bonds such as hydrogen bonds or Van der Waals bonds, crystallization, helix formation, complexation, that results in regions of local order acting as the network junction points. In some embodiments, the stability of this assembly is associated with a specific range of physico-chemical conditions (pH, concentration of molecules, temperature, solvent quality, ionic strength, etc). Outside this range, the mixture is liquid. Thus, a change in the parameters of the medium can lead to the destruction of the scaffold and induce a gel / sol transition. In some embodiments, the “physical gel” is obtained from macromolecules or polymers of natural origin, Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO such as proteins, polysaccharides, gelatin, alginate, pectin, and / or starch. In some embodiments, the composition of the present invention comprises a self- supported gel that can be dehydrated in order to be stored and transported dried. The material according to the present invention can thus be reversibly dehydrated and rehydrated. The material according to the invention can be dehydrated and then rehydrated between about 25 to about 100%, for example between about 45 to about 95%. Thus, in a particular embodiment of the present invention, here is provided a material according to the present invention which is dehydrated and has a moisture content of about 2 to 10% in weight, particularly about 2 to 5% in weight. The drying of the material according to the invention can be achieved according to any technique known by the man skilled in the art and typically, the material can be disposed into an oven at a temperature comprised between 40 and 60 °C. for a sufficient time to evaporate the contained water and to obtain a material with a moisture content of about 2 to 10% in weight, particularly about 3 to 5% in weight. Devices In various aspects, the present invention provides a device comprising at least one composition of the present invention. In some embodiments, the device is a 3-dimensional cell culture platform, an organ model of interest, an organoid model of interest, a tissue model of interest, a tumor model of interest, an implant, or any combination thereof. Examples of such organ models of interest include, but are not limited to, a brain model, spinal cord model, heart model, liver model, spleen model, kidney model, pancreas model, gallbladder model, lung model, eye model, vasculature model, soft tissue organ model, metastatic brain tumor model, solid tumor model (e.g., glioblastoma tumor model, astrocytoma tumor model, metastatic brain tumor model, pediatric brain tumor model, DIPGs tumor model, etc.), pancreatic tumor model, or any combination thereof. Examples of such tissue models of interest include, but are not limited to, a skin model, a cornea model, or any combination thereof. Examples of such tumor models of interest include, but are not limited to, a brain tumor model (e.g., glioblastoma tumor model, astrocytoma tumor model, metastatic brain tumor model, Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO pediatric brain tumor model, DIPGs tumor model, etc.), pancreatic tumor model, spinal cord tumor model, heart tumor model, liver tumor model, spleen tumor model, kidney tumor model, pancreatic tumor model, gallbladder tumor model, lung tumor model, eye tumor model, soft tissue tumor model, metastatic brain tumor model, vasculature tumor model, solid tumor model (e.g., glioblastoma tumor model, astrocytoma tumor model, metastatic brain tumor model, pediatric brain tumor model, DIPGs tumor model, etc.), skin tumor model, cornea tumor model, or any combination thereof. Examples of such implants include, but are not limited to, a brain implant (e.g., glioblastoma implant), spinal cord implant, heart implant, heart valve implant, liver implant, spleen implant, kidney implant, pancreas implant, gallbladder implant, lung implant, eye implant, soft tissue implant, solid implant (e.g., glioblastoma implant), skin implant, vasculature implant, cornea implant, breast implant, buttock implant, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the device comprises at least one cell of interest. In some embodiments, the at least cell of interest is any cell described herein. For example, in some embodiments, the cell of interest is a cancer cell, tissue cell, epithelial cell, endothelial cell, fibroblast, muscle cell, myoblast cell, neuron, adipocyte, cardiac cell, stem cell (e.g., a muscle stem cell, mesenchymal stem cell, epithelial stem cell, etc.), fat cells, hematopoietic stem cell, bone marrow cell, gland cell, mammary gland cell, human mammary gland cell, lactocytes, hepatic cell, beta cells pancreatic cell, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the cell of interest is a tumor cell. Examples of such tumor cells include, but are not limited to, a brain tumor cell (e.g., glioblastoma tumor cell, astrocytoma tumor cell, metastatic brain tumor cell, pediatric brain tumor cell, DIPGs tumor cell, etc.), spinal cord tumor cell, heart tumor cell, liver tumor cell, spleen tumor cell, kidney tumor cell, pancreatic tumor cell, gallbladder tumor cell, lung tumor cell, eye tumor cell, soft tissue tumor cell, solid tumor cell (e.g., glioblastoma tumor cell, astrocytoma tumor cell, metastatic brain tumor cell, pediatric brain tumor cell, DIPGs tumor cell, etc.), skin tumor cell, metastatic brain tumor cell, vasculature tumor cell, endothelial tumor cell, pericyte tumor cell, neuron tumor cell, glia tumor cell, immune tumor cell, microglia tumor cell, macrophage tumor cell, cornea tumor cell, pancreatic tumor cell, or any combination thereof. In various embodiments, the cell is derived from a subject of interest. In some Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO embodiments, the subject of interest has cancer, is at risk of having cancer, or a combination thereof. For example, in some embodiments, the 3-dimensional cell culture platform comprises at least one tumor cell, such as a brain cancer tumor cell (e.g., glioblastoma tumor cell, astrocytoma tumor cell, metastatic brain tumor cell, pediatric brain tumor cell, DIPGs tumor cell, etc.) derived from a subject having brain cancer (e.g., glioblastoma, astrocytoma, brain metastases, pediatric brain, DIPGs, etc.), pancreatic cancer derived from a subject having pancreatic cancer, or a combination thereof. In various embodiments, the device cultures the at least one cell of interest. In some embodiments, the device optionally comprises at least one biomolecule of interest. Examples of such biomolecules include, but are not limited to proteins, polypeptides, amino acids, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, or any combination thereof. Method of Preparing Devices In various aspects, the present invention also provides a method of preparing the device of the present invention. In some embodiments, the method comprises fabricating the device using at least one composition of the present invention. In some embodiments, the method comprises bioprinting the device using a bioink that comprises at least composition of the present invention. For example, in one embodiment, the method comprises bioprinting the device using a bioink that comprises at least hydrogel of the present invention. Thus, in various aspects, the present invention also provides a method of bioprinting the device of the present invention. For example, in some embodiments, the present invention provides a method of bioprinting at least one 3-dimensional cell culture platform, organ model, organoid model, tissue model, tumor model, or implant of the present invention. In some embodiments, the bioprinting comprises any bioprinting method and / or any bioprinter known in the art. For example, in one embodiment the bioprinter comprises an extrusion bioprinter head, extrusion bioprinter nozzle, or a combination thereof. Methods of Use In various aspects, the present invention provides a method of modeling / mimicking at least one material of interest using the composition or the device of the present invention. In Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO some embodiments, the method comprises modeling / mimicking the viscoelasticity of the at least one material of interest using the composition or the device of the present invention. In some embodiments, the material of interest is any organ, organoid, tissue, and / or tumor described herein. Examples of such organs of interest include, but are not limited to, a brain, spinal cord, heart, liver, spleen, kidney, pancreas, gallbladder, lung, eye, vasculature, soft tissue organ, solid tumor (e.g., glioblastoma tumor or metastatic brain tumor), or any combination thereof. Examples of such tissues of interest include, but are not limited to, a skin, cornea tissue, or any combination thereof. Examples of such tumors of interest include, but are not limited to, a brain tumor (e.g., glioblastoma tumor cell, astrocytoma tumor cell, metastatic brain tumor cell, pediatric brain tumor cell, DIPGs tumor cell, etc.), spinal cord tumor, heart tumor, liver tumor, spleen tumor, kidney tumor, pancreatic tumor, gallbladder tumor, lung tumor, eye tumor, soft tissue tumor, solid tumor (e.g., glioblastoma tumor, astrocytoma tumor, metastatic brain tumor, pediatric brain tumor, DIPGs tumor, etc.), metastatic brain tumor model, vasculature tumor model, skin tumor, or any combination thereof. In various aspects, the present invention provides a method of promoting a repair of at least one organ, organoid, or tissue of interest using the composition or the device of the present invention. In other aspects, the present invention provides a method of repairing at least one organ, organoid, or tissue of interest using the composition or the device of the present invention. In some embodiments, the organ, organoid, or tissue of interest is any organ, organoid, or tissue described herein. For example, in some embodiments, the present invention provides a method of promoting a repair of soft tissue using the hydrogel of the present invention. In other aspects, the present invention provides a method of repairing soft tissue using the hydrogel of the present invention. Cell Culture In various aspects, the present invention provides a method for culturing at least one cell of interest using the composition or the device of the present invention. In some embodiments, the at least one cell of interest is any cell of interest described herein (e.g., cancer cell). In various aspects, the present invention provides a method of generating a synthetic Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO tumor. In some embodiments, the synthetic tumor is any synthetic tumor described herein (e.g., solid tumor, such as glioblastoma tumor, tumor organoid, tumor spheroid, etc.). In some embodiments, the method comprises culturing the at least one cell of interest (e.g., cancer cell) using any cell culturing method known in the art and using the device of the present invention as a medium and / or a container of the cell culture. For example, in some embodiments, the method comprises encapsulating and / or surrounding cells by the compositions, gels (e.g., hydrogels), and / or devices (e.g., 3-dimensional cell culture platform) of the present invention. In some embodiments, the method comprises culturing the at least one cell of interest (e.g., cancer cell) until cell culture media and nutrients are removed from cultured environments. In some embodiments, the method comprises culturing the at least one cell of interest for at least 1 hr. In some embodiments, the method comprises culturing the at least one cell of interest for at least 2 hr. In some embodiments, the method comprises culturing the at least one cell of interest for at least 3 hr. In some embodiments, the method comprises culturing the at least one cell of interest for at least 4 hr. In some embodiments, the method comprises culturing the at least one cell of interest for at least 5 hr. In some embodiments, the method comprises culturing the at least one cell of interest for at least 6 hr. In some embodiments, the method comprises culturing the at least one cell of interest for at least 7 hr. In some embodiments, the method comprises culturing the at least one cell of interest for at least 8 hr. In some embodiments, the method comprises culturing the at least one cell of interest for at least 9 hr. In some embodiments, the method comprises culturing the at least one cell of interest for at least 10 hr. In some embodiments, the method comprises culturing the at least one cell of interest for at least 11 hr. In some embodiments, the method comprises culturing the at least one cell of interest for at least 12 hr. In some embodiments, the method comprises culturing the at least one cell of interest for at least 14 hr. In some embodiments, the method comprises culturing the at least one cell of interest for at least 15 hr. In some embodiments, the method comprises culturing the at least one cell of interest for at least 24 hr. In some embodiments, the method comprises culturing the at least one cell of interest for at least 48 hr. In some embodiments, the method comprises culturing the at least one cell of interest for at least 72 hr. In some embodiments, the method comprises culturing the at least one cell of interest for at least 2 weeks. In some embodiments, the method comprises culturing the at least one cell of interest for at least 1 month. In some Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO embodiments, the method comprises culturing the at least one cell of interest for at least 2 months. In some embodiments, the method comprises culturing the at least one cell of interest for at least 3 months. In some embodiments, the method comprises culturing the at least one cell of interest for at least 4 months. In some embodiments, the method comprises culturing the at least one cell of interest for at least 5 months. In some embodiments, the method comprises culturing the at least one cell of interest for at least 6 months. Methods of Identifying and Screening Therapeutics In various aspects, the present invention provides a method of identifying a therapeutic effective in the treatment or prevention of cancer using the composition or the device of the present invention. In some embodiments, the method comprises: a) culturing at least one cancer cell in the composition or the device of the present invention; b) applying a candidate therapeutic to the cultured cancer cell in the composition or the device; and c) measuring the effect of the candidate therapeutic on the cultured cancer cell in the composition or the device. For example, in some embodiments, the method comprises: a) culturing a cancer cell in the 3-dimensional cell culture platform of the present invention; b) applying a candidate therapeutic to the cultured cancer cell in the 3-dimensional cell culture platform; and c) measuring the effect of the candidate therapeutic on the cultured cancer cell in the 3-dimensional cell culture platform. In some embodiments, measuring the effect of the candidate therapeutic on the cultured cancer cell is performed by measuring a variable of the cultured cancer cell. In various embodiments, the method further comprises the step of d) determining the candidate therapeutic is effective when the variable of the cultured cancer cell decreased when compared to a comparator. The present invention also provides a method of evaluating a cancer treatment using the composition or the device of the present invention. In some embodiments, the method comprises a) manufacturing at least one synthetic tumor or tumor model of the present invention; b) applying the cancer treatment to the synthetic tumor or tumor model; and c) measuring a variable of the synthetic tumor or tumor model. In various embodiments, the method further comprises the step of d) determining the cancer treatment is effective when the variable of the synthetic tumor or tumor model decreased Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO when compared to a comparator. In some embodiments, the variable of the cultured cancer cell, synthetic tumor, and / or tumor model comprises at least one selected from a size of the cultured cancer cell, synthetic tumor, and / or tumor model, viability of the cultured cancer cell, synthetic tumor, and / or tumor model, metabolic activity of the cultured cancer cell, synthetic tumor, and / or tumor model, cellular behavior of the cultured cancer cell, synthetic tumor, and / or tumor model, proteomics of the cultured cancer cell, synthetic tumor, and / or tumor model, lipidomics of the cultured cancer cell, synthetic tumor, and / or tumor model, transcriptomics of the cultured cancer cell, synthetic tumor, and / or tumor model, metabolomics of the cultured cancer cell, synthetic tumor, and / or tumor model, or secretome of the cultured cancer cell, synthetic tumor, and / or tumor model. In various embodiments of the methods of the invention, the variable of the cultured cancer cell, synthetic tumor, and / or tumor model is determined to be decreased when the variable of the cultured cancer cell, synthetic tumor, and / or tumor model is decreased by at least 0.1%, by at least 5%, by at least 10%, by at least 20%, by at least 30%, by at least 40%, by at least 50%, by at least 60%, by at least 70%, by at least 80%, by at least 90%, by at least 100%, by at least 125%, by at least 150%, by at least 175%, by at least 200%, by at least 250%, by at least 300%, by at least 400%, by at least 500%, by at least 600%, by at least 700%, by at least 800%, by at least 900%, by at least 1000%, by at least 1500%, by at least 2000%, by at least 2500%, by at least 3000%, by at least 4000%, or by at least 5000%, when compared to a comparator. In various embodiments of the methods of the invention, the variable of the cultured cancer cell, synthetic tumor, and / or tumor model is determined to be decreased when the variable of the cultured cancer cell, synthetic tumor, and / or tumor model is decreased by at least 0.01 fold, at least 0.05 fold, at least 0.07 fold, at least 0.076 fold, at least 0.1 fold, at least 0.18 fold, at least 0.19 fold, at least 0.3 fold, at least 0.36 fold, at least 0.37 fold, at least 0.38 fold, at least 0.4 fold, at least 0.43 fold, at least 1 fold, at least 1.1 fold, at least 1.2 fold, at least 1.3 fold, at least 1.4 fold, at least 1.5 fold, at least 1.6 fold, at least 1.7 fold, at least 1.8 fold, at least 1.9 fold, at least 2 fold, at least 2.1 fold, at least 2.2 fold, at least 2.3 fold, at least 2.4 fold, at least 2.5 fold, at least 2.6 fold, at least 2.7 fold, at least 2.8 fold, at least 2.9 fold, at least 3 fold, at least 3.5 fold, at least 4 fold, at least 4.5 fold, at least 5 fold, at least 5.5 fold, at least 6 fold, at least 6.5 fold, at least 7 fold, at least 7.5 fold, at least 8 fold, at least 8.5 fold, at least 9 fold, at least 9.5 fold, at least 10 fold, at least 11 fold, at least 12 fold, at least 13 fold, at least 14 fold, at least 15 fold, at Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO least 16 fold, at least 16.3 fold, at least 16.31 fold, at least 20 fold, at least 25 fold, at least 26 fold, at least 26.7 fold, at least 26.72 fold, at least 30 fold, at least 40 fold, at least 50 fold, at least 75 fold, at least 100 fold, at least 192 fold, at least 192.4 fold, at least 192.44 fold, at least 200 fold, at least 250 fold, at least 500 fold, or at least 1000 fold, or at least 10000 fold, when compared to a comparator. In various embodiments, the comparator is the variable of the cultured cancer cell, synthetic tumor, and / or tumor model before applying a cancer treatment and / or a candidate therapeutic. In one embodiment, the comparator is the variable of the cultured cancer cell, synthetic tumor, and / or tumor model that did not receive a cancer treatment and / or a candidate therapeutic. In another embodiment, the comparator is the variable of the cultured cancer cell, synthetic tumor, and / or tumor model that received a non-cancer treatment and / or a non-anti- cancer candidate therapeutic. In another embodiment, the comparator is the variable of the cultured cancer cell, synthetic tumor, and / or tumor model that received a different cancer treatment and / or a different candidate therapeutic. Method of Preventing or Treating In various aspects, the present invention provides a method of treating or preventing a disease, disorder, or condition in a subject in need thereof using at least one composition or device (e.g., an implant) of the present invention. In some embodiments, the disease, disorder, or condition is a tissue damage (e.g., tissue damaged after brain injury, spinal cord injury, stroke, neurodegeneration, pancreas injury, etc.). Thus, in some aspects, the present invention provides a method of treating a tissue damage (e.g., tissue damaged after brain injury, spinal cord injury, stroke, neurodegeneration, pancreas injury, etc.) in a subject in need thereof using at least one composition or device (e.g., an implant) of the present invention. In some embodiments, the method comprises repairing the tissue (e.g., tissue damaged after brain injury, spinal cord injury, stroke, neurodegeneration, pancreas injury, etc.) in the subject in need thereof using at least one composition or device (e.g., an implant) of the present invention In some embodiments, the condition is a skin burn. Thus, in some aspects, the present invention provides a method of preventing or treating a skin burn in a subject in need thereof using at least one skin implant of the present invention. Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO In some embodiments, the disease, disorder, or condition is an eye disease, disorder, or condition. Thus, in some aspects, the present invention provides a method of preventing or treating an eye disease, disorder, or condition in a subject in need thereof using at least one eye implant of the present invention. In some embodiments, the disease, disorder, or condition is a cornea disease, disorder, or condition. Thus, in some aspects, the present invention provides a method of preventing or treating a cornea disease, disorder, or condition in a subject in need thereof using at least one cornea implant of the present invention. In various aspects, the present invention provides a method of treating or preventing cancer in a subject in need thereof using at least one therapeutic identified to be effective in the prevention or treatment of the cancer using the method of the present invention. In some embodiments, the cancer is any cancer described herein. For example, in some embodiments, the cancer is a brain cancer, pancreatic cancer, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the brain cancer is a glioblastoma, brain metastases (e.g., from lung or breast tumors), pediatric brain tumors (e.g., DIPGs), astrocytoma tumor, or any combination thereof. In some embodiment, the method comprises administering to the subject at least one therapeutic identified to be effective in the prevention or treatment of cancer using the method of the present invention. In various embodiments, the at least one therapeutic identified to be effective in the prevention or treatment of cancer is administered to the subject using any administering method known in the art. In some embodiment, the method comprises administering to the subject at least one therapeutic identified to be effective in the prevention or treatment of cancer using the method of the present invention in conjunction with a second therapeutic. In various embodiments, the second therapeutic is administered to the subject using any administering method known in the art. In various embodiments the second therapeutic optionally comprises at least one anti- cancer agent. The anti-cancer agent can be any anti-cancer agent known in the art. In certain embodiments, the anti-cancer agent may be effective for treating one or more of brain cancer, such as a glioblastoma, astrocytoma, brain metastases (e.g., from lung or breast tumors), pediatric brain tumors (e.g., DIPGs), pancreatic cancer, esophageal cancer, rectal cancer, colon cancer, prostate cancer, kidney cancer, liver cancer, breast cancer, ovarian cancer, and stomach Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO cancer. Examples of anti-cancer agents include, but are not limited to, chemotherapeutic agents, antiproliferative agents, anti-tumor agents, checkpoint inhibitors, and anti-angiogenic agents. For example, in one embodiment, the anti-cancer agent is gemcitabine, doxorubicin, 5-FU, tyrosine kinase inhibitors, sorafenib, trametinib, rapamycin, fulvestrant, ezalutamide, or paclitaxel. Examples of chemotherapeutic agents include, but are not limited to, cytotoxic agents (e.g., 5-fluorouracil, cisplatin, carboplatin, methotrexate, daunorubicin, doxorubicin, vincristine, vinblastine, oxorubicin, carmustine (BCNU), lomustine (CCNU), cytarabine USP, cyclophosphamide, estramucine phosphate sodium, altretamine, hydroxyurea, ifosfamide, procarbazine, mitomycin, busulfan, cyclophosphamide, mitoxantrone, carboplatin, cisplatin, interferon alfa-2a recombinant, paclitaxel, teniposide, and streptozoci), cytotoxic alkylating agents (e.g., busulfan, chlorambucil, cyclophosphamide, melphalan, or ethylesulfonic acid), alkylating agents (e.g., asaley, AZQ, BCNU, busulfan, bisulphan, carboxyphthalatoplatinum, CBDCA, CCNU, CHIP, chlorambucil, chlorozotocin, cis-platinum, clomesone, cyanomorpholinodoxorubicin, cyclodisone, cyclophosphamide, dianhydrogalactitol, fluorodopan, hepsulfam, hycanthone, iphosphamide, melphalan, methyl CCNU, mitomycin C, mitozolamide, nitrogen mustard, PCNU, piperazine, piperazinedione, pipobroman, porfiromycin, spirohydantoin mustard, streptozotocin, teroxirone, tetraplatin, thiotepa, triethylenemelamine, uracil nitrogen mustard, and Yoshi-864), antimitotic agents (e.g., allocolchicine, Halichondrin M, colchicine, colchicine derivatives, dolastatin 10, maytansine, rhizoxin, paclitaxel derivatives, paclitaxel, thiocolchicine, trityl cysteine, vinblastine sulfate, and vincristine sulfate), plant alkaloids (e.g., actinomycin D, bleomycin, L-asparaginase, idarubicin, vinblastine sulfate, vincristine sulfate, mitramycin, mitomycin, daunorubicin, VP-16-213, VM-26, navelbine and taxotere), biologicals (e.g., alpha interferon, BCG, G-CSF, GM-CSF, and interleukin-2), topoisomerase I inhibitors (e.g., camptothecin, camptothecin derivatives, and morpholinodoxorubicin), topoisomerase II inhibitors (e.g., mitoxantron, amonafide, m-AMSA, anthrapyrazole derivatives, pyrazoloacridine, bisantrene HCL, daunorubicin, deoxydoxorubicin, menogaril, N,N-dibenzyl daunomycin, oxanthrazole, rubidazone, VM-26 and VP-16), and synthetics (e.g., hydroxyurea, procarbazine, o,p'-DDD, dacarbazine, CCNU, BCNU, cis- diamminedichloroplatimun, mitoxantrone, CBDCA, levamisole, hexamethylmelamine, all-trans retinoic acid, gliadel and porfimer sodium), or any combination thereof. Antiproliferative agents are compounds that decrease the proliferation of cells. Examples Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO of antiproliferative agents include, but are not limited to, temozolomide, alkylating agents, antimetabolites, enzymes, biological response modifiers, miscellaneous agents, hormones and antagonists, androgen inhibitors (e.g., flutamide and leuprolide acetate), antiestrogens (e.g., tamoxifen citrate and analogs thereof, toremifene, droloxifene and roloxifene), levamisole, gallium nitrate, granisetron, sargramostim strontium-89 chloride, filgrastim, pilocarpine, dexrazoxane, ondansetron, or any combination thereof. For example, in one embodiment, the antiproliferative agent comprises temozolomide. Examples of anti-tumor agents include, but are not limited to, cytotoxic / antineoplastic agents and anti-angiogenic agents. Cytotoxic / anti-neoplastic agents are defined as agents which attack and kill cancer cells. Some cytotoxic / anti-neoplastic agents are alkylating agents, which alkylate the genetic material in tumor cells, e.g., cis-platin, cyclophosphamide, nitrogen mustard, trimethylene thiophosphoramide, carmustine, busulfan, chlorambucil, belustine, uracil mustard, chlomaphazin, and dacabazine. Other cytotoxic / anti-neoplastic agents are antimetabolites for tumor cells, e.g., cytosine arabinoside, fluorouracil, methotrexate, mercaptopuirine, azathioprime, and procarbazine. Other cytotoxic / anti-neoplastic agents are antibiotics, e.g., doxorubicin, bleomycin, dactinomycin, daunorubicin, mithramycin, mitomycin, mytomycin C, and daunomycin. There are numerous liposomal formulations commercially available for these compounds. Still other cytotoxic / anti-neoplastic agents are mitotic inhibitors (vinca alkaloids). These include vincristine, vinblastine and etoposide. Miscellaneous cytotoxic / anti-neoplastic agents include taxol and its derivatives, L-asparaginase, anti-tumor antibodies, dacarbazine, azacytidine, amsacrine, melphalan, VM-26, ifosfamide, mitoxantrone, and vindesine. Anti-angiogenic agents are well known to those of skill in the art. Examples of anti- angiogenic agents include, but are not limited to, anti-VEGF antibodies, including humanized and chimeric antibodies, anti-VEGF aptamers, antisense oligonucleotides, angiostatin, endostatin, interferons, interleukin 1 (including alpha and beta) interleukin 12, retinoic acid, and tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinase-1 and -2. (TIMP-1 and -2), small molecules, including topoisomerases such as razoxane, a topoisomerase II inhibitor with anti-angiogenic activity, or any combination thereof. Examples of other anti-cancer agents include, but are not limited to: acivicin; aclarubicin; acodazole hydrochloride; acronine; adozelesin; aldesleukin; altretamine; ambomycin; ametantrone acetate; aminoglutethimide; amsacrine; anastrozole; anthramycin; asparaginase; Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO asperlin; azacitidine; azetepa; azotomycin; batimastat; benzodepa; bicalutamide; bisantrene hydrochloride; bisnafide dimesylate; bizelesin; bleomycin sulfate; brequinar sodium; bropirimine; busulfan; cactinomycin; calusterone; caracemide; carbetimer; carboplatin; carmustine; carubicin hydrochloride; carzelesin; cedefingol; chlorambucil; cirolemycin; cisplatin; cladribine; crisnatol mesylate; cyclophosphamide; cytarabine; dacarbazine; dactinomycin; daunorubicin hydrochloride; decitabine; dexormaplatin; dezaguanine; dezaguanine mesylate; diaziquone; docetaxel; doxorubicin; doxorubicin hydrochloride; droloxifene; droloxifene citrate; dromostanolone propionate; duazomycin; edatrexate; eflornithine hydrochloride; elsamitrucin; enloplatin; enpromate; epipropidine; epirubicin hydrochloride; erbulozole; esorubicin hydrochloride; estramustine; estramustine phosphate sodium; etanidazole; etoposide; etoposide phosphate; etoprine; fadrozole hydrochloride; fazarabine; fenretinide; floxuridine; fludarabine phosphate; fluorouracil; fluorocitabine; fosquidone; fostriecin sodium; gemcitabine; gemcitabine hydrochloride; hydroxyurea; idarubicin hydrochloride; ifosfamide; ilmofosine; interleukin II (including recombinant interleukin II, or rIL2), interferon alfa-2a; interferon alfa-2b; interferon alfa-n1; interferon alfa-n3; interferon beta- I a; interferon gamma-I b; iproplatin; irinotecan hydrochloride; lanreotide acetate; letrozole; leuprolide acetate; liarozole hydrochloride; lometrexol sodium; lomustine; losoxantrone hydrochloride; masoprocol; maytansine; mechlorethamine hydrochloride; megestrol acetate; melengestrol acetate; melphalan; menogaril; mercaptopurine; methotrexate; methotrexate sodium; metoprine; meturedepa; mitindomide; mitocarcin; mitocromin; mitogillin; mitomalcin; mitomycin; mitosper; mitotane; mitoxantrone hydrochloride; mycophenolic acid; nocodazole; nogalamycin; ormaplatin; oxisuran; paclitaxel; pegaspargase; peliomycin; pentamustine; peplomycin sulfate; perfosfamide; pipobroman; piposulfan; piroxantrone hydrochloride; plicamycin; plomestane; porfimer sodium; porfiromycin; prednimustine; procarbazine hydrochloride; puromycin; puromycin hydrochloride; pyrazofurin; riboprine; rogletimide; safingol; safingol hydrochloride; semustine; simtrazene; sparfosate sodium; sparsomycin; spirogermanium hydrochloride; spiromustine; spiroplatin; streptonigrin; streptozocin; sulofenur; talisomycin; tecogalan sodium; tegafur; teloxantrone hydrochloride; temoporfin; teniposide; teroxirone; testolactone; thiamiprine; thioguanine; thiotepa; tiazofurin; tirapazamine; toremifene citrate; trestolone acetate; triciribine phosphate; trimetrexate; trimetrexate glucuronate; triptorelin; tubulozole hydrochloride; uracil mustard; uredepa; vapreotide; verteporfin; Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO vinblastine sulfate; vincristine sulfate; vindesine; vindesine sulfate; vinepidine sulfate; vinglycinate sulfate; vinleurosine sulfate; vinorelbine tartrate; vinrosidine sulfate; vinzolidine sulfate; vorozole; zeniplatin; zinostatin; zorubicin hydrochloride. Other anti-cancer drugs include, but are not limited to: 20-epi-1,25 dihydroxyvitamin D3; 5-ethynyluracil; abiraterone; aclarubicin; acylfulvene; adecypenol; adozelesin; aldesleukin; ALL-TK antagonists; altretamine; ambamustine; amidox; amifostine; aminolevulinic acid; amrubicin; amsacrine; anagrelide; anastrozole; andrographolide; angiogenesis inhibitors; antagonist D; antagonist G; antarelix; anti-dorsalizing morphogenetic protein-1; antiandrogen, prostatic carcinoma; antiestrogen; antineoplaston; antisense oligonucleotides; aphidicolin glycinate; apoptosis gene modulators; apoptosis regulators; apurinic acid; ara-CDP-DL-PTBA; arginine deaminase; asulacrine; atamestane; atrimustine; axinastatin 1; axinastatin 2; axinastatin 3; azasetron; azatoxin; azatyrosine; baccatin III derivatives; balanol; batimastat; BCR / ABL antagonists; benzochlorins; benzoylstaurosporine; beta lactam derivatives; beta-alethine; betaclamycin B; betulinic acid; bFGF inhibitor; bicalutamide; bisantrene; bisaziridinylspermine; bisnafide; bistratene A; bizelesin; breflate; bropirimine; budotitane; buthionine sulfoximine; calcipotriol; calphostin C; camptothecin derivatives; canarypox IL-2; capecitabine; carboxamide-amino-triazole; carboxyamidotriazole; CaRest M3; CARN 700; cartilage derived inhibitor; carzelesin; casein kinase inhibitors (ICOS); castanospermine; cecropin B; cetrorelix; chlorins; chloroquinoxaline sulfonamide; cicaprost; cis-porphyrin; cladribine; clomifene analogues; clotrimazole; collismycin A; collismycin B; combretastatin A4; combretastatin analogue; conagenin; crambescidin 816; crisnatol; cryptophycin 8; cryptophycin A derivatives; curacin A; cyclopentanthraquinones; cycloplatam; cypemycin; cytarabine ocfosfate; cytolytic factor; cytostatin; dacliximab; decitabine; dehydrodidemnin B; deslorelin; dexamethasone; dexifosfamide; dexrazoxane; dexverapamil; diaziquone; didemnin B; didox; diethylnorspermine; dihydro-5-azacytidine; dihydrotaxol, 9-; dioxamycin; diphenyl spiromustine; docetaxel; docosanol; dolasetron; doxifluridine; droloxifene; dronabinol; duocarmycin SA; ebselen; ecomustine; edelfosine; edrecolomab; eflornithine; elemene; emitefur; epirubicin; epristeride; estramustine analogue; estrogen agonists; estrogen antagonists; etanidazole; etoposide phosphate; exemestane; fadrozole; fazarabine; fenretinide; filgrastim; finasteride; flavopiridol; flezelastine; fluasterone; fludarabine; fluorodaunorunicin hydrochloride; forfenimex; formestane; fostriecin; fotemustine; gadolinium texaphyrin; gallium nitrate; galocitabine; ganirelix; Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO gelatinase inhibitors; gemcitabine; glutathione inhibitors; hepsulfam; heregulin; hexamethylene bisacetamide; hypericin; ibandronic acid; idarubicin; idoxifene; idramantone; ilmofosine; ilomastat; imidazoacridones; imiquimod; immunostimulant peptides; insulin-like growth factor-1 receptor inhibitor; interferon agonists; interferons; interleukins; iobenguane; iododoxorubicin; ipomeanol, 4-; iroplact; irsogladine; isobengazole; isohomohalicondrin B; itasetron; jasplakinolide; kahalalide F; lamellarin-N triacetate; lanreotide; leinamycin; lenograstim; lentinan sulfate; leptolstatin; letrozole; leukemia inhibiting factor; leukocyte alpha interferon; leuprolide+estrogen+progesterone; leuprorelin; levamisole; liarozole; linear polyamine analogue; lipophilic disaccharide peptide; lipophilic platinum compounds; lissoclinamide 7; lobaplatin; lombricine; lometrexol; lonidamine; losoxantrone; lovastatin; loxoribine; lurtotecan; lutetium texaphyrin; lysofylline; lytic peptides; maitansine; mannostatin A; marimastat; masoprocol; maspin; matrilysin inhibitors; matrix metalloproteinase inhibitors; menogaril; merbarone; meterelin; methioninase; metoclopramide; MIF inhibitor; mifepristone; miltefosine; mirimostim; mismatched double stranded RNA; mitoguazone; mitolactol; mitomycin analogues; mitonafide; mitotoxin fibroblast growth factor-saporin; mitoxantrone; mofarotene; molgramostim; monoclonal antibody, human chorionic gonadotrophin; monophosphoryl lipid A+myobacterium cell wall sk; mopidamol; multiple drug resistance gene inhibitor; multiple tumor suppressor 1- based therapy; mustard anticancer agent; mycaperoxide B; mycobacterial cell wall extract; myriaporone; N-acetyldinaline; N-substituted benzamides; nafarelin; nagrestip; naloxone+pentazocine; napavin; naphterpin; nartograstim; nedaplatin; nemorubicin; neridronic acid; neutral endopeptidase; nilutamide; nisamycin; nitric oxide modulators; nitroxide antioxidant; nitrullyn; O6-benzylguanine; octreotide; okicenone; oligonucleotides; onapristone; ondansetron; ondansetron; oracin; oral cytokine inducer; ormaplatin; osaterone; oxaliplatin; oxaunomycin; paclitaxel; paclitaxel analogues; paclitaxel derivatives; palauamine; palmitoylrhizoxin; pamidronic acid; panaxytriol; panomifene; parabactin; pazelliptine; pegaspargase; peldesine; pentosan polysulfate sodium; pentostatin; pentrozole; perflubron; perfosfamide; perillyl alcohol; phenazinomycin; phenylacetate; phosphatase inhibitors; picibanil; pilocarpine hydrochloride; pirarubicin; piritrexim; placetin A; placetin B; plasminogen activator inhibitor; platinum complex; platinum compounds; platinum-triamine complex; porfimer sodium; porfiromycin; prednisone; propyl bis-acridone; prostaglandin J2; proteasome inhibitors; protein A-based immune modulator; protein kinase C inhibitor; protein kinase C inhibitors, Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO microalgal; protein tyrosine phosphatase inhibitors; purine nucleoside phosphorylase inhibitors; purpurins; pyrazoloacridine; pyridoxylated hemoglobin polyoxyethylene conjugate; raf antagonists; raltitrexed; ramosetron; ras farnesyl protein transferase inhibitors; ras inhibitors; ras- GAP inhibitor; retelliptine demethylated; rhenium Re 186 etidronate; rhizoxin; ribozymes; RII retinamide; rogletimide; rohitukine; romurtide; roquinimex; rubiginone B1; ruboxyl; safingol; saintopin; SarCNU; sarcophytol A; sargramostim; Sdi 1 mimetics; semustine; senescence derived inhibitor 1; sense oligonucleotides; signal transduction inhibitors; signal transduction modulators; single chain antigen binding protein; sizofuran; sobuzoxane; sodium borocaptate; sodium phenylacetate; solverol; somatomedin binding protein; sonermin; sparfosic acid; spicamycin D; spiromustine; splenopentin; spongistatin 1; squalamine; stem cell inhibitor; stem- cell division inhibitors; stipiamide; stromelysin inhibitors; sulfinosine; superactive vasoactive intestinal peptide antagonist; suradista; suramin; swainsonine; synthetic glycosaminoglycans; tallimustine; tamoxifen methiodide; tauromustine; tazarotene; tecogalan sodium; tegafur; tellurapyrylium; telomerase inhibitors; temoporfin; temozolomide; teniposide; tetrachlorodecaoxide; tetrazomine; thaliblastine; thiocoraline; thrombopoietin; thrombopoietin mimetic; thymalfasin; thymopoietin receptor agonist; thymotrinan; thyroid stimulating hormone; tin ethyl etiopurpurin; tirapazamine; titanocene bichloride; topsentin; toremifene; totipotent stem cell factor; translation inhibitors; tretinoin; triacetyluridine; triciribine; trimetrexate; triptorelin; tropisetron; turosteride; tyrosine kinase inhibitors; tyrphostins; UBC inhibitors; ubenimex; urogenital sinus-derived growth inhibitory factor; urokinase receptor antagonists; vapreotide; variolin B; vector system, erythrocyte gene therapy; velaresol; veramine; verdins; verteporfin; vinorelbine; vinxaltine; vitaxin; vorozole; zanoterone; zeniplatin; zilascorb; and zinostatin stimalamer, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the anti-cancer agent may be a prodrug form of an anti-cancer agent. In certain embodiments, an anti-cancer agent may be chemically modified with an alkyl or acyl group or some form of lipid. In various embodiments the second therapeutic optionally comprises at least one Src inhibitor. For example, in some embodiments, the at least one Src inhibitor comprises dasatinib. In some embodiment, the method further optionally comprises a radiation therapy. Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO Embodiments Embodiment 1 is a composition having orthogonally tunable elasticity and viscosity properties, the composition comprising an interpenetrating polymer network; wherein the interpenetrating polymer network comprises a viscous polymer network and an elastic polymer network that are not covalently bonded. Embodiment 2 is the composition of embodiment 1, wherein the viscous polymer network comprises at least one chemically cross-linked polymer, at least one physically cross- linked polymer, or a combination thereof. Embodiment 3 is the composition of embodiment 1 or 2, wherein the elastic polymer network comprises at least one chemically cross-linked polymer, at least one physically cross- linked polymer, or a combination thereof. Embodiment 4 is the composition of any one of embodiments 1-3, wherein the viscous polymer network and the elastic polymer network independently comprise at least one polymer having a molecular weight between about 1 kDa to about 1,500 kDa. Embodiment 5 is the composition of embodiment 4, wherein the at least one polymer is independently selected from the group consisting of hyaluronic acid, polyethylene glycol (PEG), polysaccharide, alginate, gelatin, gelatin-methacrylate, polynorbornene, polystyrene, polyacrylate, polymethacrylate, agarose, and any combination thereof. Embodiment 6 is the composition of embodiments 4 or 5, wherein the at least one polymer comprises an unfunctionalized polymer, functionalized polymer, or a combination thereof, wherein the functionalized polymer comprises a functional group selected from the group consisting of a thiol, disulfide, amino, amido, azido, imino, acrylate, methacrylate, sulfone, vinyl, vinyl sulfone, hydroxyl, hydrazone, hydrazine, hydrazide, adipic acid dihydrazide, aldehyde, carboxyl, norbornene, and any combination thereof. Embodiment 7 is the composition of any one of embodiments 1-6, wherein the elastic polymer network comprises a thiol functionalized polymer, norbornene functionalized polymer, adipic acid dihydrazide functionalized polymer, carboxyl functionalized polymer, or any combination thereof. Embodiment 8 is the composition of embodiment 7, wherein the thiol functionalized polymer comprises a thiol functionalized hyaluronic acid, a thiol functionalized PEG, or a combination thereof; the norbornene functionalized polymer comprises a norbornene Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO functionalized hyaluronic acid, a norbornene functionalized PEG, or a combination thereof; the adipic acid dihydrazide functionalized polymer comprises an adipic acid dihydrazide functionalized hyaluronic acid, an adipic acid dihydrazide functionalized PEG, or a combination thereof; the carboxyl functionalized polymer comprises a carboxyl functionalized hyaluronic acid, a carboxyl functionalized PEG, or a combination thereof; or any combination thereof. Embodiment 9 is the composition of any one of embodiments 1-8, wherein the viscous polymer network comprises a hydrazone functionalized polymer, hydrazine functionalized polymer, hydrazide functionalized polymer, adipic acid dihydrazide functionalized polymer, aldehyde functionalized polymer, carboxyl functionalized polymer, or any combination thereof. Embodiment 10 is the composition of embodiment 9, wherein the hydrazone functionalized polymer comprises a hydrazone functionalized hyaluronic acid, a hydrazone functionalized PEG, or a combination thereof; the hydrazine functionalized polymer comprises a hydrazine functionalized hyaluronic acid, a hydrazine functionalized PEG, or a combination thereof; the hydrazide functionalized polymer comprises a hydrazide functionalized hyaluronic acid, a hydrazide functionalized PEG, or a combination thereof; the adipic acid dihydrazide functionalized polymer comprises an adipic acid dihydrazide functionalized hyaluronic acid, an adipic acid dihydrazide functionalized PEG, or a combination thereof; the aldehyde functionalized polymer comprises an aldehyde functionalized hyaluronic acid, an aldehyde functionalized PEG, or a combination thereof; the carboxyl functionalized polymer comprises a carboxyl functionalized hyaluronic acid, a carboxyl functionalized PEG, or a combination thereof; or any combination thereof. Embodiment 11 is the composition of any one of embodiments 1-10, wherein the interpenetrating polymer network further comprises at least one small molecule. Embodiment 12 is the composition of embodiment 11, wherein the small molecule comprises an initiator, arginylglycylaspartic acid (RGD), surfactant, crosslinker, peptide, bioactive peptide, or any combination thereof. Embodiment 13 is the composition of any one of embodiments 1-12, wherein the interpenetrating polymer network a) has a shear storage modulus (G’) between about 100 Pa to about 2,000 Pa; b) has a shear loss modulus (G”) between about 1 Pa to about 500 Pa; c) has tan ^ between about 0.005 to about 0.08; d) has a Young’s modulus (E) between about 500 Pa to about 15,000 Pa; e) comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 30 wt% of hyaluronic acid; or Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO any combination thereof. Embodiment 14 is the composition of any one of embodiments 1-13, wherein the composition is a viscoelastic hydrogel. Embodiment 15 is the composition of any one of embodiments 1-14, wherein the composition mimics the viscoelasticity of at least one organ, organoid, or tissue of interest. Embodiment 16 is the composition of embodiment 15, wherein the at least one organ of interest comprises a brain, pancreas, spinal cord, solid tumor, soft tissue organ, or any combination thereof. Embodiment 17 is the composition of embodiment 15, wherein the at least one tissue of interest comprises a skin tissue, soft tissue, cornea tissue, brain tissue, pancreatic tissue, spinal cord tissue, solid tumor tissue, soft tissue organ tissue, or a combination thereof. Embodiment 18 is the composition of any one of embodiments 1-17, wherein the composition regulates at least one cellular process of a cell of interest. Embodiment 19 is the composition of embodiment 18, wherein the at least one cellular process comprises a cellular growth, cellular proliferation, cellular cell differentiation, cellular migration, adhesion, differentiation, metabolism, drug response, or any combination thereof. Embodiment 20 is the composition of embodiment 18 or 19, wherein the cell of interest comprises a neuron, brain cell, pancreatic cell, spinal cord cell, stem cell, skin cell, tumor cell, soft tissue cell, endothelial cell, immune cell, or any combination thereof. Embodiment 21 is a device comprising at least one composition of any one of embodiments 1-20. Embodiment 22 is the device of embodiment 21, wherein the device comprises a 3- dimensional cell culture platform, organ model, organoid model, tissue model, brain model, pancreas model, spinal cord model, skin model, tumor model, solid tumor model, soft tissue model, brain implant, spinal cord implant, skin implant, soft tissue implant, or any combination thereof. Embodiment 23 is the device of embodiment 22, wherein the 3-dimensional cell culture platform comprises at least one tumor cell. Embodiment 24 is the device of embodiment 23, wherein the at least one tumor cell comprises a brain tumor cell, pancreatic tumor cell, or a combination thereof. Embodiment 25 is the device of embodiment 24, wherein the brain tumor cell comprises Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO a glioblastoma tumor cell, astrocytoma tumor cell, metastatic brain tumor cell, pediatric brain tumor cell, DIPGs tumor cell, or any combination thereof. Embodiment 26 is a method of preparing a 3-dimensional cell culture platform, organ model, organoid model, tissue model, tumor model, or any combination thereof, wherein the method comprises fabricating the 3-dimensional cell culture platform, organ model, organoid model, tissue, tumor model, or any combination thereof using the composition of any one of embodiments 1-20. Embodiment 27 is the method of embodiment 26, wherein the 3-dimensional cell culture platform further comprises at least one tumor cell; the organ model comprises a brain model, pancreas model, spinal cord model, solid tumor model, soft tissue organ model, or any combination thereof; the tissue model comprises a skin tissue model, soft tissue model, cornea tissue model, brain tissue model, pancreatic tissue model, spinal cord tissue model, solid tumor tissue model, soft tissue organ tissue model, brain implant, spinal cord implant, skin implant, soft tissue implant, or any combination thereof; or any combination thereof Embodiment 28 is the method of embodiment 26 or 27, wherein the method comprises bioprinting the 3-dimensional cell culture platform, organ model, organoid model, tissue model, tumor model, or any combination thereof. Embodiment 29 is a method of bioprinting a 3-dimensional cell culture platform, organ model, organoid model, tissue model, tumor model, or any combination thereof, wherein the method comprises fabricating the 3-dimensional cell culture platform, one organ model, organoid model, tissue model, tumor model, or any combination thereof using the composition of any one of embodiments 1-20. Embodiment 30 is a method of identifying a therapeutic effective in the treatment or prevention of a cancer, wherein the method comprises culturing a cancer cell in a 3-dimensional cell culture platform comprising at least one composition of embodiment 1; applying a candidate therapeutic to the cultured cancer cell in the 3-dimensional cell culture platform; and measuring the effect of the candidate therapeutic on the cultured cancer cell in the 3-dimensional cell culture platform. Embodiment 31 is the method of embodiment 30, wherein the cancer cell comprises a brain tumor cell, pancreatic tumor cell, or a combination thereof. Embodiment 32 is the method of embodiment 31, wherein the brain tumor cell comprises Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO a glioblastoma tumor cell, astrocytoma tumor cell, metastatic brain tumor cell, pediatric brain tumor cell, DIPGs tumor cell, or any combination thereof. Embodiment 33 is a method of treating or preventing cancer in a subject in need thereof, wherein the method comprises administering to the subject at least one therapeutic identified using the method of any one of embodiments 30-32. Embodiment 34 is the method of embodiment 33, wherein the cancer comprises a brain cancer, pancreatic cancer, or a combination thereof. Embodiment 35 is the method of embodiment 34, wherein the brain cancer comprises a glioblastoma, astrocytoma, brain metastases, pediatric brain tumor, DIPGs, or any combination thereof. Embodiment 36 is a method of generating at least one synthetic tumor of interest, wherein the method comprises culturing at least one tumor cell in a 3-dimensional cell culture platform, organ model, organoid model, tissue model, tumor model, or any combination thereof comprising at least one composition of any one of embodiments 1-20. EXPERIMENTAL EXAMPLES The invention is now described with reference to the following Examples. These Examples are provided for the purpose of illustration only and the invention should in no way be construed as being limited to these Examples, but rather should be construed to encompass any and all variations which become evident as a result of the teaching provided herein. Without further description, it is believed that one of ordinary skill in the art can, using the preceding description and the following illustrative examples, make and utilize the compounds of the present invention and practice the claimed methods. The following working examples therefore and are not to be construed as limiting in any way the remainder of the disclosure. Example 1: Interpenetrating Polymer Network (IPN) Composed of Two Hyaluronic Acid (HA)- Based Polymer Networks The interpenetrating polymer network (IPN) is composed of two hyaluronic acid-based polymer networks for the purpose of modeling the cellular mechanical microenvironment. This IPN has independently tunable storage and loss moduli which allow users to tune the mechanical Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO properties of the material to better mimic the viscoelastic nature of human tissue. The majority of cell microenvironment models do not allow for the independent tuning of mechanical properties. The most widely used materials for microenvironment models can only modulate the storage modulus, while the loss modulus is often ignored. Native tissues are not purely elastic, but have viscoelastic properties. Similarly, the herein described IPN allows users to independently tune the storage and loss moduli of the material to utilize two distinct polymer solutions, which do not interact with each other (Figure 1). This results a material that has viscoelastic properties, which can be tuned to represent the material properties of various biological tissues. This material / method is valuable for controlling cell behavior for therapeutic purposes and generating engineered tissues outside of the body. The herein described studies tested various hydrogel compositions, such as the ones depicted in Table 1. Table 1: Representative Hydrogel Compositions. Hydrogel Polymer Components: 0.5 wt% hyaluronic acid (HA), 0.5 mM aldehyde (CHO), 0.25mM arginylglycylaspartic acid (RGD), and varying thiol (SH) and norbornene content to adjust G’. *Assuming 5% thiolation of HA. Final Soft Single ConcentrationNetworkSoft IPNStiff Single NetworkStiff IPNwt% HA 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 mM SH 1.5 2.5 3 4 mM CHO 0 .5 0 .5 mM Norb 1.8 2.4 3.6 4.8 *Total polymer Wt% 1.4% 2.4% 2.6% 3.6% A representative1H NMR spectrum of HA-SH is also shown in Figure 2. The storage modulus (G’) and viscoelasticity (tan (^) (loss modulus (G”) / G’)) of each condition was tested using a frequency sweep from 0.1-1 HZ with 1% strain at 37 °C (Figure 3). The storage modulus of the soft single network gels was 210 Pa and 230 Pa for the soft IPN, while the modulus of the stiff single gel conditions was 900 Pa and 960 for the stiff IPN. The soft and stiff IPNs displayed a fourfold and threefold increase in tan ^, respectively, compared to the Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO single networks alone, while maintaining the same G’ indicating that the addition of the second network enabled independent tuning of viscosity. The hydrogels then underwent stress relaxation tests at 10% strain for 30 minutes and at 20% strain for 1 hr (Figure 4). Each gel’s modulus overtime was normalized to its initial modulus. As shown in Figure 4, IPN hydrogels exhibited faster stress relaxation compared to a single network. After 30 minutes the IPN conditions relaxed to roughly 50% of their initial modulus while the single network gels only relaxed about 25%. Representative results of stress relaxation of soft single network and soft IPN at 1 hr and the standard curve of aldehyde concentrations were also evaluated (Figure 5 and Figure 6). Next, microindentation was conducted to determine the Young’s modulus (E) of each gel condition. Gels underwent 200 um compression at room temperature and the corresponding force for compression was calculated. The soft single network had a Young’s modulus of 2500 Pa, while the soft IPN was 2800 Pa (Figure 7). The stiff single network had a modulus of 5200 Pa while the stiff IPN had a modulus of 6100 Pa. Following gelation, hydrogels were weighed, then swelled in PBS at room temperature overnight and weighed again. As shown in Figure 8, the IPN conditions swelled significantly more than the single network gels. To assess diffusion rates, hydrogels were swollen in 10 uM / mL 70kDa FITC-Dextran or 150 kDa FITC-Dextran in the dark overnight (Figure 9). Hydrogels were then bleached for 3 minutes with 100% laser intensity. Fluorescent recovery was recorded for 20 minutes (step size 2.575s). Fluorescent recovery was calculated using ImageJ. The time that it took for the fluorescent recovery to reach 50% (t1 / 2) was compared for each group. There were no significant differences within stiffness conditions. Due to the reversibility of the non-covalent hydrazone bonds in the IPN, further studies focused on the evaluation of the printability of these materials (Figure 10). Soft IPN precursor solution and soft single network solution (no UV crosslinking) were loaded into the Bio X6 bioprinter from CellInk. The pneumatic 3 mL printhead with a 22 gauge printing nozzle was used (0.410 mm) and precursor solutions were printed with a pressure of 25 kPa and a speed of 8 mm / s onto a glass slide. The viscosity of the single network solution was not viscous enough, and it did not form any lines. Lastly, IPNs ability to support glioblastoma (GBM) cell lines was evaluated (Figure 11). Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO Patient derived primary GBM cell lines, HK177 and GS54 were used for the GBM study. An EdU assay was used to determine the fraction of cells proliferating in each hydrogel condition 3 days after encapsulation. Cells were incubated with EdU for 4 hr then EdU+ cells were measured using flow cytometry. Proliferation rates among conditions were normalized by day. HK177 cells in both IPN stiffness conditions had higher proliferation rates compared to the single network while there were no statistical differences for GS54. In conclusion, existing models that allow for tuning of the storage and loss modulus use materials that cells are unable to naturally interact with. With the use of HA in the herein described studies, both networks of IPN are biologically relevant, which allow cells to interact with the model. Most microenvironmental models are primarily elastic with storage moduli in the 10-1000 kPa range. However, many biological tissues, such as the brain, have a much lower storage modulus and distinct viscous properties, making cell studies in these systems not biologically relevant. With the use of photoreactive crosslinks, the storage moduli can be finely tuned and generate networks with moduli as low as 100 Pa. Other models utilize materials, which begin to crosslink when reagents are mixed (on the order of seconds to minutes), reduces the ability to work with the prepolymer solution before crosslinking occurs. The use of photoreactive crosslinks allows for temporal control over the formation of this IPN. This permits time to thoroughly mix solutions together and disperse material before crosslinking. In addition, this approach places bioactive moieties on both polymer networks, so that cells can interface with either or both networks depending on the user’s needs. The IPNs described herein can be used in a wide range of cell studies and tissue engineering applications. The storage modulus is controlled by an elastic network formed from static photoreactive crosslinks between thiol and norbornene groups. HA is modified to contain thiol groups. The loss modulus is controlled by a viscous network generated through the formation of hydrazone bonds between hydrazines and aldehydes. These bonds are reversible, generating the viscous portion of the network. In this network, HA can also be modified to contain hydrazine groups. To control the storage modulus of the network, intensity of the UV light source can be adjusted which modifies the static crosslinks that can form. The loss modulus is controlled through the ratios of aldehydes to hydrazines added together. The IPN utilized dynamic bonds in the one network, which have self-healing abilities, Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO allowing to easily print material or disperse solution into molds (Figure 10). The other network contains photoreactive static crosslinks, which allows to fully crosslink the material when desired. This IPN utilizes HA in both networks making it biologically relevant. Previous IPNs that use HA have only used it in one network, meaning cells may only interact with only one network. This method can be useful for basic cell culture as it can adjust the mechanical properties to best capture the microenvironment that matches that of the cell type. This IPN can also be used in bioprinting, as the viscous network is shear thinning and the elastic network is crosslinked via UV light exposure. Example 2: Mimicking the Viscoelastic Nature of Brain Tissue Using a Hyaluronic Acid (HA)- Based IPN Brain tissue is soft and viscoelastic. The mechanical properties of the brain are known to influence the phenotype of the cells that reside in the brain. Conventional 3D in vitro hydrogel models do not account for the viscoelastic nature of the brain, instead they often focus only on the elastic modulus. Most models utilize single polymer networks which do not allow for the ability to tune the elasticity (G’) independently of the viscosity (G”). Using a HA-based IPN, the viscoelastic properties of the hydrogel were tuned independently from each other allowing for a model that better matches the mechanical properties of native brain tissue. A static network consisting of chemically crosslinked thiolated HA controlled the elasticity of the material, while a dynamic network of physically crosslinked HA-hydrazone bonds regulated the viscosity. With the addition of the dynamic network, the viscoelasticity (tan ^) of the IPN increased threefold while maintaining the same storage modulus (G’) of the static single network. The IPN hydrogels displayed enhanced stress relaxation, reducing to half their initial modulus after 1 hr compared to less than a third reduction in the static single network. With the addition of a viscous network, this IPN model was a better representation of the mechanics of native brain tissue and is used for the study of the neural extracellular microenvironment and its relationship to cell behavior. Example 3: IPN Containing PEG As shown in Table 2 through Table 8, IPNs containing PEG were also generated. Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO Representative hydrogel compositions comprising PEG are shown in Table 2 and Table 3.3 mM PEG-SH resulted in soft IPN whereas 4 mM PEG-SH yielded stiff IPN (Table 4 and Table 5). The resulting soft and stiff IPNs were then compared to soft and stiff single networks containing 1.5 mM PEG-SH and 3 mM PEG-SH, respectively (Table 6 and Table 7). Lastly, Table 8 demonstrates that PEG-CHO has been functionalized with an RGD peptide (via imine bond). Table 2: Representative Hydrogel Compositions comprising PEG.5% thiol corresponds to 0.00012 mmol SH / mg HA.5 wt% HA corresponds to 0.00062 mmol SH / mL, 0.62189 mmol / L. Soft SingleStiff Single Network Soft IPN Network Stiff IPN wt% HA 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 total SH mM 1.5 2.5 3 4 mM Norb 1.8 3 3.6 4.8 mM PEG-SH (assuming 5% 0.878109453 1.878109453 2.378109453 3.378109453 thiolation) mM CHO 0 0.5 0 0.5 Table 3: Representative Hydrogel Compositions comprising PEG. Soft SingleStiff Single Network Soft IPN Network Stiff IPN mg / mL PEG-SH 4.390547264 9.390547264 11.89054726 16.89054726 mg / mL norb 4.5 7.5 9 12 mg / mL CHO 0 2.5 0 2.5 mg / mL HA 5 5 5 5 total 13.89 24.39 25.89 36.39 total polymer wt% 1.389 2.439 2.589 3.639 Table 4: Soft IPN containing 3 mM PEG-SH. G’ G” tan(delta) 151.338 7.83598 0.0517781 225.535 15.8598 0.0703206 267.244 12.2714 0.0459182 298.282 13.7284 0.0460248 222.78 6.93576 0.0311328 270.472 12.9631 0.0479276 249.953 11.2566 0.0450349 260.402 8.81033 0.0338335 300.424 9.30465 0.0309717 319.491 10.5019 0.0328708 Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO 207.605 5.78414 0.0278613 260.46 12.7423 0.0489221 217.41 7.90119 0.0363424 205.859 5.09672 0.0247584 251.539 9.10367 0.0361919 183.633 6.44242 0.0350832 293.708 10.888 0.037071 265.531 8.9002 0.0335184 275.402 12.417 0.0450868 277.336 19.7111 0.071073 253.908 5.49052 0.021624 Table 5: Stiff IPN containing 4 mM PEG-SH. G’ G” tan(delta) 738.188 29.1446 0.0394813 846.28 23.7638 0.0280804 752.793 24.6573 0.0327543 787.006 20.7492 0.0263648 783.94 20.3388 0.0259443 905.63 38.1371 0.0421112 1009.41 44.1584 0.0437465 621.645 30.9846 0.0498429 976.424 43.1255 0.0441668 928.435 31.7562 0.034204 652.595 21.4906 0.032931 861.663 42.4935 0.0493157 1079.22 27.8859 0.025839 829.068 33.7466 0.0407043 911.42 31.7909 0.0348806 747.886 18.2547 0.0244085 866.221 29.3768 0.0339137 785.435 26.7663 0.0340783 779.778 31.3377 0.0401879 1271.64 47.9275 0.0376895 1228.14 31.9292 0.0259981 Table 6: Soft Single Network containing 1.5 mM PEG-SH. G’ G” tan(delta) 229.624 0.906001 0.00394558 222.157 1.12121 0.0050469 213.424 1.00199 0.00469485 Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO 192.669 1.12457 0.00583682 203.695 2.19848 0.010793 96.8933 -0.20996 -0.0021669 163.876 2.57647 0.0157221 314.942 0.900074 0.00285791 240.726 2.64793 0.0109998 147.716 1.62248 0.0109838 221.37 1.99475 0.00901092 213.745 2.1946 0.0102674 267.964 4.17858 0.0155938 207.472 2.76583 0.0133311 244.86 4.39441 0.0179466 292.321 3.09106 0.0105742 264.162 4.42292 0.0167432 245.164 1.98837 0.00811035 149.117 1.49782 0.0100446 150.917 3.32337 0.0220213 141.395 0.497032 0.00351521 Table 7: Stiff Single Network containing 3 mM PEG-SH. G’ G” tan(delta) 957.819 13.4469 0.014039 978.031 14.7148 0.0150453 916.288 12.976 0.0141615 986.564 12.1838 0.0123497 1036.81 23.3914 0.0225609 1020.21 12.4582 0.0122113 926.311 15.0058 0.0161996 897.106 11.9507 0.0133214 917.715 14.5154 0.0158168 762.408 11.9185 0.0156327 966.913 14.8908 0.0154003 951.425 16.0461 0.0168653 1209.9 17.9167 0.0148084 869.013 10.0554 0.0115711 651.548 8.825 0.0135446 1011.63 16.0568 0.0158722 998.274 14.8656 0.0148913 1132.6 17.3961 0.0153594 1028.63 14.449 0.0140468 1092.89 14.6089 0.0133672 Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO Table 8: UV Vis RGD CHO. Representative data demonstrating that PEG-CHO has been functionalized with an RGD peptide (via imine bond). 280260 320 Raw RawRaw280 260 260 / 280 mg / mL Mean CV (%)RGD- CHO0.074 0.077 0.053 0.02 0.021 1.092 427.489 477.178 9.7370.091 0.094 0.065 0.024 0.026 1.084 522.7370.069 0.072 0.047 0.02 0.022 1.074 443.5540.082 0.085 0.06 0.02 0.022 1.115 438.8430.071 0.073 0.046 0.023 0.024 1.035 495.7930.086 0.086 0.06 0.024 0.023 0.959 534.652280260 320 Raw RawRaw280 260 260 / 280 mg / mL Mean CV (%)PEG- CHO0.045 0.051 0.04 0.004 0.009 2.289 83.196 99.002 42.0810.045 0.051 0.04 0.003 0.008 2.533 66.1590.046 0.051 0.04 0.004 0.008 2.024 89.6210.045 0.051 0.04 0.003 0.008 2.394 72.540.047 0.054 0.04 0.005 0.01 2.149 102.5720.055 0.066 0.045 0.008 0.018 2.232 179.926Example 4: An Improved Culture Microenvironment with Independently Tunable Storage and Loss Moduli Glioblastoma (GBM), a grade IV astrocytoma, is a highly aggressive brain cancer with a median survival time of only 15 months. Current standard of treatment includes resection of the solid tumor followed by treatment with temozolomide (TMZ) and radiation therapy. However, treatment often fails to fully eliminate GBM cells leading to recurrence of treatment-resistant tumors in nearly all GBM patients. Diffusively invading single cells that migrate from the tumor periphery are believed to be responsible for recurrent tumors. It is currently unclear what drives the migratory behavior of these cells. Identifying characteristics and potential targets of this cell population is critical for addressing and combating GBM recurrence. There is a need for improved experimental models that capture the entire mechanical environment of GBM tumors, as mechanics of the tumor contribute to a wide range of oncogenic behaviors, including enhanced migratory capabilities of single cells. GBM cells respond to a variety of migratory cues from the tumor microenvironment, including tissue mechanics. Most studies which have investigated how Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO extracellular matrix (ECM) mechanical properties affect GBM cells have used purely elastic biomaterial-based environments with a single elasticity. It is unclear how the mechanical transition at the tumor periphery and from tumor core to edge contributes to the invasive capabilities of GBM cells. Using a hydrogel platform with photoreactive crosslinks, the elasticity of the mechanical environment can be varied to achieve elasticity similar to native tumor and peritumoral tissue. GBM tumors display heterogeneity, leading many to hypothesize that there is a distinct migratory subpopulation. While some have attempted to characterize these cells, it believed that they represent a small portion of the tumor, leading to their transcriptome being masked in bulk RNA sequencing. By varying hydrogel elasticity, the migratory subpopulation can be isolated and characterized separately from the non-migratory cells. Native tissues display viscoelastic properties which is often not captured in in vitro cell culture models. Developing a viscoelastic hydrogel will identify how the mechanics of the ECM contribute to GBM cell migration in a more physiologically relevant model. GBM cell migration along the mechanical landscape of the tumor is not well understood. It remains unclear the extent to which transcriptomic differences dictate adoption of a migratory phenotype and how the mechanics of the microenvironment influence invasive capabilities. Migration is assessed using a hydrogel model of the tumor-brain interface which has two adjacent regions of distinct elasticities, each matching either the elasticity of native tumor or peritumoral brain tissue. Migration is assessed from tumor core to edge with the use of a gradient photomask to produce a hydrogel with gradually decreasing degrees of crosslinking and, thus, stiffnesses. Migrating cells are isolated, characterized using single cell RNA sequencing (scRNAseq), and their transcriptome is compared to that of the non-migratory population. The two populations are treated with TMZ and radiation to assess how standard treatment affects migratory ability and acquisition of drug resistance. Most in vitro GBM cell models fail to capture the viscoelasticity of brain tumor and tissue, only capturing the elasticity. Viscosity has been shown to regulate many cellular functions, including migration, independently of elasticity. An IPN was constructed to allow for the combination of two distinct, non-reacting, yet non-separable, polymer networks. The IPN is comprised of a viscous network, which controls the loss modulus, and an elastic network, which controls the storage modulus. Two separate gel precursor solutions are generated and mixed to form the IPN. For the viscous gel, HA is functionalized with adipic acid dihydrazide (ADH). Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO HA-ADH is then crosslinked with PEG-aldehyde. The viscosity is tuned using dynamic hydrazone crosslinks, which un-crosslinks with forces exerted by cells. The elasticity is controlled with thiol-norbornene photopolymerization which generates static crosslinks. Cells are encapsulated in the IPN, and their phenotype and migratory abilities is assessed. The results from this study provide insight into how the mechanical environment affects GBM cell migration and overall function. Single-cell transcriptomics is used to reveal molecular differences within a GBM tumor. Combined, these results provide a framework for potential therapeutic targets in a relevant 3D model. GBM is the most common malignant primary brain tumor (Desland et al., 2020, International journal of molecular sciences, 21(19):7358). GBM has a poor prognosis with median survival time of 15 months (Baid et al., 2020, Frontiers in Computational Neuroscience, 14). Resection of the primary tumor is typically the first treatment step. However, due to the tumor location, surgeons must minimize areas that they resect (Fernandes et al., 2017, Codon Publications, 197-241). GBM cells are known to be highly invasive as single cells. Thus, after resection, diffusively invading cells are left behind. These cells are believed to seed recurrent tumors and be treatment resistant, leading to GBM recurrence (Lee CY, 2017, OncoTargets and Therapy, 10:265-70). Using a novel 3D culture platform including patient-derived GBM cells, migratory subpopulations are characterized in response to changes in the mechanical environment and an improved model is generated with the introduction of a viscous component to better reflect in vivo conditions and model GBM cell migration. GBM tumors are known to be highly heterogenous (Patel et al., 2014, Science, 344(6190):1396-401). The transcriptome of the highly migratory population is believed to be different from that of the tumor bulk (Minata et al., 2019, Cell Rep., 26(7):1893-905; Li et al., 2020, Neuro-Oncology Advances, 2(1)). However, bulk RNA sequencing may fail to capture differences between the two subpopulations (Chen et al., 2018, Carcinogenesis, 39(7):931-6). The invasive and resistant nature of the migratory population make them extremely relevant to study as a potential target for treatment. ScRNAseq is used to characterize the transcriptome of migratory and non-migratory subpopulations of patient-derived primary GBM tumor cells to reveal intrinsic differences between these subpopulations. ClonMapper cell barcoding connects individual barcodes with specific cell phenotypes, allowing specific cell lineages under various conditions to be studied (Gutierrez et al., 2021, Nat Cancer, 2(7):758-72). Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO GBM, unlike many other cancers, rarely metastasizes outside the brain, indicating a preference for the mechanics and composition of brain tissue (Lun et al., 2011, Journal of Neuro- Oncology, 105(2):261-73). The mechanics of the ECM can influence a variety of cellular behaviors, including migration and proliferation (Liu et al., 2021, Acta Biomaterialia.131:326- 40). GBM tumors are mechanically stiffer than the surrounding tissue due to increased deposition of fibrous components such as fibronectin and collagen produced by GBM cells (Umesh et al., 2014, PLoS ONE, l9(7):e101771; Lopez et al., 2011, Integrative Biology, 3(9):910-21, Mahesparan et al., 2003, Acta Neuropathologica, 105(1):49-57; Payne et al., 2013, Molecular Cancer Research, 11(10):1129-40). The change in stiffness from tumor to peritumoral brain tissue is hypothesized to drive migration and oncogenic gene expression (Nguyen et al., 2016, Integrative Biology, 8(12):1232-45; Shivashankar GV, 2011, Annual Review of Biophysics, 40(1):361-78). Much of the previous research conducted on mechanics and migration is conflicting. Many studies have reported that in stiff 3D models, GBM cells fail to become migratory with enhanced migration in soft matrices (Grundy et al., 2016, Scientific Reports, 6(1):23353; Wang et al., 2014, Molecular Pharmaceutics, 11(7):2115-25), while others have found the converse to be true (Umesh et al., 2014, PLoS ONE, 9(7):e101771; Pathak et al., 2011, PNAS, 109(26)10334-10339; Palamà et al., 2019, Cancers, 11(5):643). Most studies focus on how ECM mechanical properties affect cells. However, it is unclear how the stiffness transition at the tumor edge and from core to edge affect GBM cells and their migratory behavior. Brain ECM is a viscoelastic material, allowing it to exhibit liquid and solid-like behaviors on different time scales (Staunton et al., 2019, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116(29):14448-55; Calhoun et al., 2019, ACS Biomaterials Science & Engineering, 5(8):3964- 73). The viscoelasticity of the ECM regulates cellular processes such as growth, proliferation, cell differentiation, and migration (Staunton et al., 2019, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116(29):14448-55; Chaudhuri O, 2017, Biomaterials Science, 5(8):1480-90; Slater et al., 2021, Soft Matter, 17(45):10274-85; Lou et al., 2018, Biomaterials, 154:213-22). Most in vitro cell models do not account for the viscous properties of tissues, only capturing the elasticity (Umesh et al., 2014, PLoS ONE, 9(7):e101771; Pathak et al., 2011, PNAS, 109(26)10334- 10339; Marhuenda et al., 2021, Journal of Experimental & Clinical Cancer Research, 40(1):139; Ulrich et al., 2009, Cancer research, 69(10):4167-74; Xiao et al., 2018, Cancer Research, Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO 78(5):1358-70, Mekhdjian et al., 2017 Molecular biology of the cell, 28(11):1467-88). In these models, cell function is often altered, leading to results that may not be physiologically relevant. The lack of conclusive results on migratory behavior may be due to models not capturing the viscosity on which cells rely. Using dynamic crosslinks, which are reversible, viscoelastic hydrogels are generated to promote cells to function in a more physiological relevant manner (Chaudhuri O, 2017, Biomaterials Science, 5(8):1480-90; Chaudhuri et al., 2016, Nat Mater, 15(3):326-34; Tong et al., 2021, Bioactive Materials, 6(5):1375-87). The project is innovative as it focuses on characterizing the migratory subpopulation of patient-derived GBM tumor cells in response to ECM mechanical changes on a single-cell level. This project reveals the transcriptomic differences in the migratory populations, providing insight into potential targets to prevent this population from invading surrounding tissue. Most studies characterizing migratory behavior are largely focused on bulk RNA sequencing, which fails to capture the heterogeneity of GBM tumors (Vollmann-Zwerenz et al., 2020, Int J Mol Sci, 21(6)). Here, ScRNAseq is used to identify transcriptomic differences of a small subpopulation. Tissue-engineered platforms with varying elasticities capture the mechanical landscape of a tumor. Tumor tissue is more elastic than the surrounding tissue, with decreasing elasticity from core to edge to peri-tumoral brain tissue. This change in mechanics is believed be a driver of cell migration (Wang et al., 2014, Molecular Pharmaceutics, 11(7):2115-25; Zhu D, et al., 2021, Journal of Biomedical Materials Research Part A, 109(6):1027-1035; Sunyer et al., 2012, PLoS ONE, 7(10)). Adjusting the elasticity provides insight into the role of mechanosensing in GBM migration as well as allowing for the separation of the migratory population from the tumor bulk. At the tumor interface cells encounter a sharp change in ECM elasticity, while the transition from core to edge is believed to be a shallower gradient (Miroshnikova et al., 2016, Nat Cell Biol, 18(12):1336-45; Fløgstad et al., 2022, European Journal of Radiology, 147:110136). It is currently unclear how the rate of change in elasticity mediates GBM phenotype and migratory abilities. Investigating the effect of standard treatment on the migratory populations reveals insight into resistance and secondary tumor formation. The invasion of single cells left behind after surgical resection is a barrier in the treatment of GBM as there are no direct treatments for the invasive cell population (Seker-Polat et al., 2022, Cancers.2022;14(2); Cha et al., 2016, Scientific Reports, 6(1):24912). Some studies have found that following resection and treatment, Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO many of the migratory cells left behind gain resistance and become more aggressive, however, the underlying mechanisms is largely unknown (Ramirez et al., 2013, Pharmaceuticals, 6(12); Canazza et al., 2011, Cancer Biol Ther, 1;12(7):629-33; Okolie et al., 2016, Neuro Oncol, 18(12):1622-1633; Armento et al., 2017, Codon Publications, 73-93; Shankar et al., 2014, Chin J Cancer, 33(3):148-58). By isolating the two populations from each other, their response to treatment and acquisition to drug resistance is can be evaluated separately, providing insight into how and which GBM tumor cells gain resistance and form recurrent tumors. Elasticity is not the only mechanical driver of cell migration. The lack of appropriate viscoelastic platforms to model the mechanics of brain ECM hinders meaningful studies on GBM behavior. Stress relaxation, a property of viscoelasticity, has been shown to modulate cell behavior, with fast relaxation times associated with increase cell spreading, proliferation, and differentiation (Lou et al., 2018, Biomaterials, 154:213-222; Chaudhuri et al., 2016, Nat Mater, 15(3):326-34). Therefore, a novel hydrogel system with orthogonally tunable elasticity and viscosity is developed to study cell behavior in a more physiologically relevant model. An IPN comprised of two distinct non-separable networks is constructed (Sperlinget al., 2014, Polymer blends handbook: Springer, 677-724). For many previously constructed IPNs, the fabrication process is not compatible with cells (use of strong acids) (Li et al., 2020, Carbohydrate Polymers, 250:116922), not biologically relevant (use of alginate and gelatin) (Vining et al., 2019, Biomaterials, 188:187-97; Chen et al., 2017, AIMS Mater Sci, 4(2)), doesn’t capture mechanical ranges desired (Mattei et al., 2020, Materials, 13(2):438), or fabrication of one or both networks does not allow for thorough mixing due to gelation time (Jansen et al., 2018, Acta Biomaterialia,70:120-8). Hydrazone bonds are reversible, exhibiting stress relaxation behavior on a time scale from a minute to hours, meaning fabrication can be adjusted to achieve desired viscoelastic properties (Sharma et al., 2018, ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 10(37):30936- 45; Xu et al., 2019, Molecules, 24(16); Borelli et al.2022, Advanced Healthcare Materials, 11(14):e2200393; Richardson et al., 2019, Acta Biomaterialia, 83:71-82). Hydrazone bonds between hydrazine and aldehyde form rapidly at physiological pH, making them ideal for cell work (Borelli et al.2022, Advanced Healthcare Materials, 11(14):e2200393; Cai et al., 2022, Adv Mater, 34(5):e2106564). Hydrazine is easily functionalized to hyaluronic acid (HA), making it a biologically relevant material for GBM cells. Since hydrazone crosslinks are reversible, a secondary matrix with irreversible crosslinks is introduced to add to matrix stability. Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO An IPN using reversable hydrazone bonds is generated to tune the viscosity, and irreversible thiol-norbornene crosslinks, activated by UV light, to tune elasticity. The two prepolymer solutions are mixed thoroughly, before the irreversible bonds are crosslinked, uniformly distributing the reversible and irreversible crosslinks. The IPN is stiff like a tumor but have viscous properties allowing cells to move more easily and remodel their matrix. Diffusely invading cells from the tumor periphery cannot be surgically removed. These highly invasive cells are what drive disease progression and cause secondary tumor formation (Vleeschouwer et al., 2017, Codon Publications, 315-40). The study focuses on migratory populations in GBM that are intrinsically different from the non-migratory populations and the biomolecular differences between these populations using a 3D tissue engineered model. This study provides insight into cell migration, identifying whether GBM cell migration is a property of the cell or due to the mechanics of the ECM. Cell migration is most likely dependent on a combination of the two; however, the role of tumor microenvironment, specifically the ECM in GBM cell migration, is not well understood. The studies improve the understanding of the mechanisms of GBM migration, allowing researchers to develop new therapeutic strategies targeting invasive cell populations. Understanding migratory behavior from tumor core to edge is critical for understanding how infiltrative cells gain resistance to treatment and lead to secondary GBM tumor formation. These studies investigate the role ECM mechanics play in the migratory behavior of GBM. These studies identify if cells gain migratory behavior because of their location at the tumor periphery or if these cells have a different genotypic expression that makes them migratory. ECM elasticity has emerged as a contributor to numerous tumorigenic processes including migration and drug resistance (Bhargav et al., 2022, Frontiers in Oncology, 11). These studies provide insight to the transcriptomic differences between the migratory and non-migratory populations in response to ECM mechanics at the interface of the tumor with brain tissue and from tumor core to edge. The migratory and non-migratory population isolated in these experiments are used to explore the effects of standard treatment on GBM migration. These studies investigate whether the non-migratory subpopulations are essential for the single cell migration behavior seen in the migratory subpopulations, and how GBM treatment (TMZ and radiation) affects the two subpopulations, providing insight about differences in resistance acquisition by these cells. These results provide insight into the connection between ECM Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO stiffness, transcriptomic expression, treatment, and how they correlate with migration. Cells at the tumor periphery experience different ECM mechanics to that of the tumor core. ECM elasticity has been shown to influence cell behavior (Liu et al., 2021, Acta Biomaterialia.131:326-40). The change in mechanical properties at the tumor edge is hypothesized to be a driver of migration. These studies use an interface hydrogel platform to mimic the tumor edge, allowing for the isolation of the migratory population and reveal how ECM mechanics influence migration. Using a 3D hydrogel platform, the elasticity of the gel is tuned via photopolymerization to recapitulate tumor edge and peri-tumoral brain tissue. Regional elastic modulus of the hydrogel are evaluated using atomic force microscopy (AFM). At least 2 cell lines of patient- derived primary GBM tumor cells from three GBM subtypes (classical, proneural, and mesenchymal) are used. For each cell line, cells are barcoded using ClonMapper and expanded clonally. This technology enables the isolation and characterization of different cell lineages within the tumor (Gutierrez et al., 2021, Nat Cancer, 2(7):758-72). ScRNAseq is used to connect individual barcodes with different transcriptomic signatures. Barcoded cells are seeded in one side of a hydrogel separated by a mesh and allowed to migrate to the cell-free side over the duration of two weeks. Studies were performed to investigate whether GBM cells preferentially migrate through defined mechanical interfaces. The cells that migrate are isolated, and then characterized via scRNAseq and compared to the transcriptome of the non-migratory population. Using ClonMapper cell barcoding developed in the Brock Lab, cells can be barcoded and clonally expanded to analyze the transcriptome of the migratory and non-migratory populations before and after migration (Gutierrez et al., 2021, Nat Cancer, 2(7):758-72). Briefly, cells are transduced with a single plasmid containing a unique genomic sequence tagged with fluorescent proteins via lentiviral transduction. Fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) are used to sort labeled cells. These cells are then clonally expanded, allowing each barcoded cell to generate its own lineage so that each descendant contains that same barcode. Hydrogels are formed by crosslinking thiolated HA (HA-SH, prepared in-house, 750kDa), 4-arm thiolated PEG (PEG-SH, 20 kDa) and an 8-arm norbornene-terminated polyethylene glycol (PEG-Norb, 20 kDa). HA is incorporated into the gel at 0.5% w / v. Previous experiments have shown that at this concentration of cells in culture begin to acquire drug resistance as seen in vivo (Xiao et al., 2018, Cancer Research, 78:1358-1370; Xiao et al., 2017, Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO Future Sci OA, 3(3)). Thiol-functionalized RGD peptide is used to facilitate cell-hydrogel attachment. Crosslinking of the gel occurs upon exposure to UV light (~365 nm at 4.15 mW / cm^2 for 15 seconds) and with the addition of lithium phenyl-2,4,6- trimethylbenzoylphosphinate (LAP), a cytocompatible photo-initiator (Dorsey et al., 2018, Bioactive Materials, 3(1):64-73). Using Cellink’s Biox63D bioprinter printer (CELLINK), gel solution and cells are printed into a mold. A thin strip (~2mm) of gel solution and GBM cells sit next to a square gel with no cells present (Figure 12). To adjust gel stiffness, UV exposure time is varied, or a photomask is applied to attenuate UV intensity. The aim is for the soft gel (no cells) and stiff gel (side with cells) to have a Young’s modulus of 100 Pa and 1000 Pa, respectively, to model soft brain and stiff tumor (Miroshnikova et al., 2016, Nat Cell Biol, 18(12):1336-45). Micro-indentation experiments are carried out using AFM to measure local Young’s modulus. Sequencing of the tumor mass is believed to have masked the small migratory subpopulation. In addition, bulk sequencing does not allow analysis of individual barcodes. ScRNAseq is used to compare the migratory and non-migratory populations at the tumor interface. As explained above, the isolated cell is barcoded which will help identify the lineage of the migratory population to reveal if there is a specific population within the tumor that is more migratory. These results provide new information about the migratory subpopulation of GBM at the single-cell level and determine if there is a distinct migratory population within GBM tumors or if the location at the tumor periphery enhances cell migration. The interface hydrogel can also be constructed in a concentric format where the GBM containing hydrogel is encapsulated by a larger empty hydrogel. Similarly, the two regions can be physically separate the with a sterile mesh to separate the migratory cells. Research has indicated that paracrine singling from the tumor core can promote motility and drug resistance of tumor edge cells (Li et al., 2020, Neuro-Oncology Advances, 2(1); Bastola et al., 2020, Nature Communications, 11(1); Nakano et al., 2015, Seminars in Cell & Developmental Biology, 40:17-26). These studies aim to understand if presence of the non- migratory populations in GBM tumors is essential for the migration of single cells or if the microenvironment is the driver. The treatment of TMZ and radiation is typically given following tumor resection; however, these treatment options often fail to effectively eliminate the Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO remaining tumor cells. Single cells left behind are hypothesized to become to drug resistant, more migratory and form secondary tumors (Oliver et al., 2020, Cancer Drug Resistance, 3(3): 287–301; Wu et al., 2021, Pharmacological Research, 171; Ventero et al., 2019, PLOS ONE, 14(2):e0212581). These studies investigate how the use of TMZ and radiation effect the migratory behavior of GBM cells. The migratory subpopulation having a distinct transcriptome is isolated using their barcodes. These migratory and non-migratory populations are encapsulated in hydrogels separately and their migration patterns in response to treatment are assessed. The migratory and non-migratory subpopulations are encapsulated separately into the stiff and soft hydrogel to determine if both populations of cells are needed to see migratory behavior. These experiments provide information about the interactions between migrating GBM cells and the non-migratory population and provide insight into how cell-cell interactions may influence migratory behavior. The standard treatment of TMZ and radiation are used to investigate treatment and its effects on GBM cells. These studies compare treatment efficacy to prevent cell migration in the two subpopulations alone and when cultured together. TMZ is administered to the cells at concentration IC50 for each cell line in the cell media. Experiments are also run to determine the utility of radiation on GBM cells. Some research has indicated that use of radiation may promote an invasive phenotype causing cells to rapidly migrate (Armento et al., 2017, Codon Publications, 73-93; Shankar et al., 2014, Chin J Cancer, 33(3):148-58). Therefore, these studies evaluated effects of radiation treatment, administered on day 0 and on day 7, and how treatment may influence the two subpopulations alone compared to when they are together. ScRNAseq is used on the cells to assess changes in transcriptomic expression following treatment, elucidating to mechanisms that may confer drug resistance. The results from these experiments provide insight about the effects of standard treatment on migration. These results reveal a connection between migration, cell-cell interactions, and drug-resistance following standard treatment. These studies can also investigate the extent to which mechanical microenvironment changes may contribute to resistance using an interface gel. Previous data has shown that tumor elasticity from core to edge is a gradient, with the highest modulus near the tumor center (Sohrabi et al., 2020, Neuro-Oncology, 22). Studies have shown that cells preferably migrate along gradients, sensing mechanical cues from the ECM, with enhanced migration in soft hydrogel conditions (Wang et al., 2014, Molecular Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO Pharmaceutics, 11(7):2115-25; Zhu D, et al., 2021, Journal of Biomedical Materials Research Part A, 109(6):1027-1035; Sunyer et al., 2012, PLoS ONE, 7(10); Seker-Polat et al., 2022, Cancers.2022;14(2); Cha et al., 2016, Scientific Reports, 6(1):24912; Xiao et al., 2020, Matrix Biology, 85-86:128-46). Currently it is not clear whether cells closer to the tumor core do not migrate because of their physical location under stiff mechanical conditions, or because their transcriptome is different to that of the migratory population. Pilot data has shown that in 3D gradient hydrogels, single cell migration is enhanced in the direction of the soft gel area (Figure 13), indicating that both mechanosensing and transcriptomic expression enhance migration. These studies observed migratory behavior over the whole tumor mechanical landscape and investigate the hypothesis that cells sense mechanical changes and move towards softer microenvironment. Using a gradient hydrogel, the range of elasticities present in a tumor in a single hydrogel is captured to and used determine if cells’ migratory phenotype is regulated along a gradient. Using a gradient photomask, a gel is generated that captures the elasticity gradient from tumor core to peri-tumoral brain tissue. A gradient is generated due to the reduction in light intensity at the edges, decreasing the number of crosslinks. The slope of the gradient is identified in elasticities that contribute to the highest migration by evaluating cell phenotype and distance traveled. A gradient photomask, printed on transparent paper, is placed above an 8-mm diameter circular silicon mold. HA hydrogels are photocrosslinked in a gradient manner, where more light is blocked as it moves from the center, producing a gel with varying elasticities. Various photomasks with different resolutions are constructed to achieve gradients with varying slopes. Characterization of Young’s modulus are done using AFM. Observation of cell migration over the entire mechanical landscape of a tumor using the gradient platform. The slope is varied to generate different gradients of ECM elasticities and quantify migratory behavior in each condition. Specifically, directionality of cell migration is measured from determining the distribution of protrusions in the direction of reduced gel stiffness. The distance cells travel is also measured to determine the steepness that cells preferentially migrate along. These results provide insight into how mechanical cues from the ECM influence cell migration over the entire tumor mechanical landscape. These studies determine if changing the Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO step size between elastic moduli enhances migration. The angle of the UV light can also be changed to generate a gradient by decreasing light intensity at the edges. The Cellink bioprinter is used to print gel solutions with varying PEG concentrations to alter gel elasticity. These studies also investigate phenotypic changes along the gradient that may indicate behaviors like proliferation. Previously developed hydrogel systems are useful because it can replicate the elasticity of an entire GBM tumor to study a wide range of functions of GBM. One limitation of this hydrogel formulation is the inability to tune the viscosity of the gel independently of its elasticity. Therefore, a viscoelastic HA hydrogel system that has orthogonal tunable loss (viscous portion) and storage (elastic portion) moduli was developed. The viscous portion of the gel utilizes dynamic crosslinks that can be un-crosslinked by forces exerted from GBM cells. These crosslinks then reform in the absence of a cell to hold shape and maintain ECM integrity. The viscoelastic HA hydrogel is formed by two distinct gel formulas that together generate an IPN. The IPN is generated of two distinct networks which are non-interacting and non-separable (Sperlinget al., 2014, Polymer blends handbook: Springer, 677-724). By synthesizing an IPN, a gel that is stiff and aids in cell migration can be generated. A viscoelastic, dynamically crosslinked hydrogel is aids in cell migration, allowing cells to deform their matrix and migrate, even under stiff conditions. Experiments were performed to synthesize and characterize the viscous portion of the IPN. The range of viscosity that can be captured is determined by characterizing the storage (G’) and loss (G”) modulus of the gel. The hydrogel formation is done by the reversible reaction of hydrazones and aldehydes. HA is functionalized with adipic acid dihydrazide (ADH). This reaction is characterized using H-NMR and a 2,4,6-trinitrobenzene 1-sulfonic acid (TNBS) assay. The number of ADH groups conjugated on HA is varied to tune the degree of crosslinking. The viscous gel is formed by crosslinking HA-ADH and 4-arm PEG-aldehyde (PEG-ALD) forming dynamic hydrazone bonds which allow cells deform their matrix more easily (Lou et al., 2018, Biomaterials, 154:213-222). Loss and storage moduli of the viscous gel is determined in an oscillatory strain test and a stress relaxation test using a rheometer (DHR20, TA instrument). First, HA is be modified with adipic acid dihyrazide (ADH) using EDC / NHS chemistry which allows the ADH conjugation on HA carboxylate groups. By adjusting EDC / NHS ratios the number of HA functional groups that are modified with ADH is varied (Xu et al., 2019, Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO Molecules, 24(16)). The overall crosslinking density is then adjusted. The modification of HA is kept at low to moderate levels (5-20%) as cell attachment to matrix is mediated through CD44 binding to the carboxylate group on HA (Kwon et al., 2019, Biomaterials, 222:119451). HA- ADH is purified using dialysis against deionized water. Finally, HA-ADH solution is freeze- dried to yield dry HA-ADH. HA degree of modification by ADH is characterized by H-NMR and a TNBS assay. TNBS assay is a colorimetric assay where free amines react with the TNBS reagent. The absorbance of the solution is measured at 335 nm (Habeeb, 1996, Analytical Biochemistry, 14(3):328-36). H-NMR measurements of the degree of HA modification, observed peaks is compared to that of hydrazide-functionalized HA (Pouyani et al., 1994, Bioconjugate Chemistry, 5:339-347). Hydrogels are formed using the HA-ADH (synthesized in the previous step) and PEG- ALD (5 KDa) (Figure 14). Representative1H NMR spectrum of HA-ADH is shown in Figure 15. HA concentration in the viscous gel is kept at 0.5% (w / v), so that the final IPN contains 0.5% (w / v) of HA regardless of molar ratios of the two gel solutions. HA-ADH and PEG-ALD is mixed at equal molar ratios in circular silicon molds with a diameter of 8 mm and stored at room temperature for 10 minutes (Cai et al., 2022, Adv Mater, 34(5):e2106564). The gels is subjected to an oscillatory strain test where a sinusoidal strain is applied, and the corresponding shear stress is measured. The phase shift between the two curves measures the viscoelasticity of the sample, with 0° being fully elastic and 90° being fully viscous (Franck et al., 1993, TA Instruments). The viscoelasticity for each mixture is quantified by determining the degree of energy dissipation, tan ^ which is the ratio of G” / G’ (Franck et al., 1993, TA Instruments). Gelation time is determined at the time where storage moduli G’= G” (phase shift reaches 45°) (Murata H, 2012, Rheology - Theory and Application to Biomaterials. InTech). Oscillatory frequencies are limited to 1 Hz (Lou et al., 2018, Biomaterials, 154:213-22; Kocen et al., 2017, Biomedical Materials, 12(2):025004; Kokol et al., 2021, Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 616:126356). A stress relaxation test is also conducted to determine viscous recovery over time. Stress relaxation, measured as the time it takes for the normalized stress to reduce to half of its peak value (t1 / 2), has been shown to be an important modulator of cell spreading, migration, proliferation, differentiation, and cell matrix formation (Lou et al., 2018, Biomaterials, 154:213-222; Bauer et al., 2017, Acta Biomaterialia, 62:82-90; Lee et al., 2017, Nat Mater, 16(12):1243-51; Adebowale et al., 2021, Nat Mater, Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO 20(9):1290-9). These experiments generate a viscous gel with dynamic crosslinks. This system independently tunes the viscous properties of the IPN by adjusting %HA modification. A limitation to this system is the extent to which HA can be functionalized with ADH, limiting the available crosslinks. If the crosslinking density is too low, hydrazide-functionalized 4-arm (PEG- HZ, 5 KDa) can be introduced to increase hydrazine functional groups to form crosslinks with PEG-ALD. This further tunes G’ and G”. The generation of an IPN is expected to enable the material properties, G’ and G”, to be tuned independently of each other, allowing for hydrogels to be generated with tunable characteristics. The IPN is comprised of the viscous gel and the elastic gel (Figure 1). The material characterization of the viscous gels determines the desired ratios of viscous to elastic gel. All components are mixed before exposing the gel to UV photopolymerization to crosslink the elastic gel. Ideally, an IPN that is stiff is generated, storage modulus ~1000 Pa, and has a tunable viscous component to allow cell movement. Mechanical properties are then characterized. The components of each gel are added and mixed thoroughly in 8mm silicon molds and stored at room temperature for 90 seconds to allow the viscous component to crosslink. The whole prepolymer solution is exposed to UV light for 15s to allow the elastic component to crosslink. Since both gels contain 0.5% wt HA, various molar ratios of gel solutions are tested without affecting the overall HA concentration. Experiments begin with a 1:1 molar ratio of elastic to viscous gel, then vary the ratios to achieve a tan ^ of 0.2-0.45, which is the reported tan ^ range of brain tissue (Fallenstein et al., 1969, Journal of Biomechanics, 2(3):217-26; Chaudhuri et al., 2020, Nature, 584(7822):535-46). Depending on the dilution of elastic gel crosslinks when mixed, the elastic gel formulation may be adjusted to achieve the same number of crosslinks in the IPN compared to elastic gel alone. The first experiments characterized the mechanics of each component of the IPN by mixing the two gel solutions together but not crosslinking at the same time. Then G’ and G” of the fully crosslinked IPN are characterized which help to determine the extent that each network contributes to the overall IPN mechanics. The results of these studies provide a IPN with independent controls over G’ and G”. By varying both molar ratios of each component and crosslinking density of each gel can tune the mechanical properties of the IPN. It is expected that the main control over G’ from the elastic gel, while the viscous gel contributes mainly to G”. The characterizations from these studies Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO reveals how G’ and G” affect GBM cell migration. Relaxation time can be optimized to ~ t1 / 2 < 250s (Adebowale et al., 2021, Nat Mater, 20(9):1290-1299). GBM tumors tend to be stiffer than the surrounding tissue (Mahesparan et al., 2003, Acta Neuropathologica, 105(1):49-57; Payne et al., 2013, Molecular Cancer Research, 11(10):1129- 40). Most 3D models of GBM are unable to capture the migratory behavior under stiff conditions. It is hypothesized that cells are physically constrained in these stiff models and unable to move, indicating a need for a viscous component that can aid in cell movement. GBM migration is evaluated in the viscoelastic tissue-engineered model while varying the loss and elastic moduli independently of each other to determine properties that result in the highest migratory behavior. Characterization of migration is assessed by evaluating the distance cells travel in the IPN over the course of a week compared to migration distance in the elastic gel alone. The IPN is formed under stiff conditions (G’~1000Pa) to resemble the stiffness of a GBM tumor. The G’ is kept constant while varying G” to achieve a tan ^ of 0.2-0.45. Cells are added to the viscoelastic gel solution before crosslinking, then allowed to migrate over the course of a week. The percent of cells that migrated and the distance traveled in the IPN compared to cells in the classic elastic gel with the same elastic modulus are evaluated to determine the how viscosity affects GBM cell migration. Viscoelastic gels have shown to aid in cell spreading and proliferation, even in the absence of cell adhesion ligands (Lee et al., 2017, Nat Mater, 16(12):1243-51). The IPN is mixed thoroughly so that cells can interact with RGD an adhesion ligand, present in the elastic gel solution. This IPN better mimics the mechanical properties of native tumor and brain ECM, and provides the ability to recapitulate a stiff tumor with viscous properties. These results provide insight into how viscosity may affect cellular behavior independently of stiffness. A RDG the viscous gel solution using a succinimidyl 3-(2-pyridyldithio)propionate (SPDP) linker is also introduced to crosslink RDG to one arm of the PEG-HZ (Myles et al., 2000, Journal of Biomaterials Science, Polymer Edition, 11(1):69-86). Hydrazone links such as alginate or disulfide bonds in the viscous gels, improve cell migration (Chaudhuri O, 2017, Biomaterials Science, 5(8):1480-90; Passam et al., 2019, Biophysical Reviews,11(3):419-30). Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO Example 5: HA-Based IPN Mimicked the Viscoelastic Nature of Brain Tissue to Study Glioblastoma Tumors Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common primary brain tumor with median survival time of 15 months (Baid et al., 2020, Frontiers in Computational Neuroscience, 14). GBM cells respond to a variety of cues from the tumor microenvironment, including tissue mechanics. Viscosity has been shown to regulate many cellular functions, including migration, proliferation, stemness, independently of elasticity in many cell types (Lou et al., 2018, Biomaterials, 154:213- 222). These behaviors and their relation to viscoelasticity have not been well studied GBM tumors. There is a need for improved experimental models that capture the mechanical environment of brain tissue and GBM tumors. Hyaluronic acid (HA) is the primary component of brain extracellular matrix and highly upregulated by GBM tumors (Pibuel et al, 2021, J Biol Chem., 296:100549). The herein described studies designed a HA-based interpenetrating polymer network (IPN) that allowed to investigate how viscoelasticity affects the behavior of GBM cells (Figure 1). The IPN was comprised of a viscous network, which modulated the loss modulus (G”), and an elastic network, which controlled the storage modulus (G’) (Figure 1 and Figure 16). The HA-based IPN better recapitulated in vivo conditions, allowing for physiologically meaningful GBM studies (Figure 13). More specifically, the HA was functionalized with either adipic acid dihydrazide or cystamine using EDC / NHS chemistry (Figure 1). The cell adhesive peptide, RGD (arginylglycylaspartic acid) was added to the elastic network with cysteine-RGD and to the viscous network with lysine-RGD. Furthermore, the hydrogel was synthesized by mixing prepolymer solutions, casting into molds, incubating for 10 minutes at 37 °C then exposing to UV light (365 nm at 4.15 mW / cm2) for 15s. Hydrogels were formed at 0.5 wt% HA, 0.5 mM CHO, 0.25 mM RGD, and varying thiol and norbornene content to adjust G’ (Figure 1 and Figure 16). Cells were subsequently encapsulated as spheroids with roughly 200 spheroids per 30 uL gel and 500 cells per spheroid (Figure 17). As such, the herein described studies showed the capability of the IPN hydrogel to increase the viscoelasticity of our 3D culture model when compared to the single covalent network. Using fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP), it was shown that there is Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO no difference in diffusion rates in all conditions, although the IPNs did swell significantly more (Figure 8 and Figure 16). It was also observed that overall cell viability was high and proliferation rates were similar in all hydrogel conditions (Figure 17). The mechanical properties of the IPN better recapitulated the in vivo mechanical conditions which enabled the investigation of how tissue viscoelasticity effect GBM behavior. Additional studies focus on further investigation of GBM cell phenotype in hydrogel conditions by identifying if migratory behavior differs in IPN conditions, identifying if there are differences in protein and RNA expression when cultured in a higher viscoelastic material, studying GBM treatment response in the viscoelastic material versus the single network. In conclusion, brain is the softest, most viscoelastic tissue in mammals and these mechanical properties are known to influence the phenotypes of brain cells. However, conventional hydrogels for 3D cultures are elastic and not viscoelastic. Furthermore, hydrogels that do exhibit viscoelastic properties, rarely provide the ability to tune the elasticity (G’) independently of the viscosity (G”), making it impossible to decouple the effects of each mechanical component on cell behavior. To address this deficiency, the present studies have developed a hyaluronic acid (HA)-based interpenetrating polymer network (IPN) hydrogel platform, in which G’ and G” can be tuned independently, including to approximate the mechanical properties of native brain tissue. The IPN included a covalent network consisting of photocrosslinked HA (thiol-norbonene) to control the elasticity of the hydrogel and a non- covalent network of dynamically crosslinked HA (hydrazone bonds) to regulate the viscosity. Addition of the dynamic network increased viscoelasticity (tan ^) of the biomaterial threefold over that of the covalent network alone, while maintaining the same storage modulus (G’) of the static, covalent network. These IPN hydrogels displayed enhanced stress relaxation, reducing to half their initial G’ after 1 hr over which time the covalent single network had relaxed by less than a third of the initial G’. With the addition of a viscous network, the new IPN model was a better representation of the mechanics of native brain tissue and can be used to better understand how tissue mechanics affect glioblastoma behavior. Example 6: Mouse Neural Stem Cells (mNSC) in the IPN Mouse neural stem cells (mNSC) derived from spinal cord of embryonic day 15-18 mice Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO were used to validate the use of other cell types in hydrogel platform (Figure 18). Two days after encapsulation, flow cytometry was used to measure the fraction of viable and proliferating cells. An EdU assay was used to measure proliferation in a 1.5 hr period (Figure 19). Proliferation rates among conditions were normalized by day. No statistical difference was observed in proliferation and a higher viability rate was observed in the single network gels (Figure 18 and Figure 19). The disclosures of each and every patent, patent application, and publication cited herein are hereby incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. While this invention has been disclosed with reference to specific embodiments, it is apparent that other embodiments and variations of this invention may be devised by others skilled in the art without departing from the true spirit and scope of the invention. The appended claims are intended to be construed to include all such embodiments and equivalent variations.

Claims

Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO CLAIMS We claim:

1. A composition having orthogonally tunable elasticity and viscosity properties, the composition comprising an interpenetrating polymer network; wherein the interpenetrating polymer network comprises a viscous polymer network and an elastic polymer network that are not covalently bonded.

2. The composition of claim 1, wherein the viscous polymer network comprises at least one chemically cross-linked polymer, at least one physically cross-linked polymer, or a combination thereof.

3. The composition of claim 1, wherein the elastic polymer network comprises at least one chemically cross-linked polymer, at least one physically cross-linked polymer, or a combination thereof.

4. The composition of claim 1, wherein the viscous polymer network and the elastic polymer network independently comprise at least one polymer having a molecular weight between about 1 kDa to about 1,500 kDa.

5. The composition of claim 4, wherein the at least one polymer is independently selected from the group consisting of hyaluronic acid, polyethylene glycol (PEG), polysaccharide, alginate, gelatin, gelatin-methacrylate, polynorbornene, polystyrene, polyacrylate, polymethacrylate, agarose, and any combination thereof.

6. The composition of claim 1, wherein the at least one polymer comprises an unfunctionalized polymer, functionalized polymer, or a combination thereof, wherein the functionalized polymer comprises a functional group selected from the group consisting of a thiol, disulfide, amino, amido, azido, imino, acrylate, methacrylate, sulfone, vinyl, vinyl sulfone, hydroxyl, hydrazone, hydrazine, hydrazide, adipic acid dihydrazide, aldehyde,Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO carboxyl, norbornene, and any combination thereof.

7. The composition of claim 1, wherein the elastic polymer network comprises a thiol functionalized polymer, norbornene functionalized polymer, adipic acid dihydrazide functionalized polymer, carboxyl functionalized polymer, or any combination thereof.

8. The composition of claim 7, wherein the thiol functionalized polymer comprises a thiol functionalized hyaluronic acid, a thiol functionalized PEG, or a combination thereof; the norbornene functionalized polymer comprises a norbornene functionalized hyaluronic acid, a norbornene functionalized PEG, or a combination thereof; the adipic acid dihydrazide functionalized polymer comprises an adipic acid dihydrazide functionalized hyaluronic acid, an adipic acid dihydrazide functionalized PEG, or a combination thereof; the carboxyl functionalized polymer comprises a carboxyl functionalized hyaluronic acid, a carboxyl functionalized PEG, or a combination thereof; or any combination thereof.

9. The composition of claim 1, wherein the viscous polymer network comprises a hydrazone functionalized polymer, hydrazine functionalized polymer, hydrazide functionalized polymer, adipic acid dihydrazide functionalized polymer, aldehyde functionalized polymer, carboxyl functionalized polymer, or any combination thereof.

10. The composition of claim 9, wherein the hydrazone functionalized polymer comprises a hydrazone functionalized hyaluronic acid, a hydrazone functionalized PEG, or a combination thereof; the hydrazine functionalized polymer comprises a hydrazine functionalized hyaluronic acid, a hydrazine functionalized PEG, or a combination thereof; the hydrazide functionalized polymer comprises a hydrazide functionalized hyaluronic acid, a hydrazide functionalized PEG, or a combination thereof; the adipic acid dihydrazide functionalized polymer comprises an adipic acid dihydrazideAttorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO functionalized hyaluronic acid, an adipic acid dihydrazide functionalized PEG, or a combination thereof; the aldehyde functionalized polymer comprises an aldehyde functionalized hyaluronic acid, an aldehyde functionalized PEG, or a combination thereof; the carboxyl functionalized polymer comprises a carboxyl functionalized hyaluronic acid, a carboxyl functionalized PEG, or a combination thereof; or any combination thereof.

11. The composition of claim 1, wherein the interpenetrating polymer network further comprises at least one small molecule.

12. The composition of claim 11, wherein the small molecule comprises an initiator, arginylglycylaspartic acid (RGD), surfactant, crosslinker, peptide, bioactive peptide, or any combination thereof.

13. The composition of claim 1, wherein the interpenetrating polymer network a) has a shear storage modulus (G’) between about 100 Pa to about 2,000 Pa; b) has a shear loss modulus (G”) between about 1 Pa to about 500 Pa; c) has tan ^ between about 0.005 to about 0.08; d) has a Young’s modulus (E) between about 500 Pa to about 15,000 Pa; e) comprises between about 0.1 wt% to about 30 wt% of hyaluronic acid; or any combination thereof.

14. The composition of claim 1, wherein the composition is a viscoelastic hydrogel.

15. The composition of claim 1, wherein the composition mimics the viscoelasticity of at least one organ, organoid, or tissue of interest.

16. The composition of claim 15, wherein the at least one organ of interest comprises a brain, pancreas, spinal cord, solid tumor, soft tissue organ, or any combination thereof.Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO 17. The composition of claim 15, wherein the at least one tissue of interest comprises a skin tissue, soft tissue, cornea tissue, brain tissue, pancreatic tissue, spinal cord tissue, solid tumor tissue, soft tissue organ tissue, or a combination thereof.

18. The composition of claim 1, wherein the composition regulates at least one cellular process of a cell of interest.

19. The composition of claim 18, wherein the at least one cellular process comprises a cellular growth, cellular proliferation, cellular cell differentiation, cellular migration, adhesion, differentiation, metabolism, drug response, or any combination thereof.

20. The composition of claim 18, wherein the cell of interest comprises a neuron, brain cell, pancreatic cell, spinal cord cell, stem cell, skin cell, tumor cell, soft tissue cell, endothelial cell, immune cell, or any combination thereof.

21. A device comprising at least one composition of claim 1.

22. The device of claim 21, wherein the device comprises a 3-dimensional cell culture platform, organ model, organoid model, tissue model, brain model, pancreas model, spinal cord model, skin model, tumor model, solid tumor model, soft tissue model, brain implant, spinal cord implant, skin implant, soft tissue implant, or any combination thereof.

23. The device of claim 22, wherein the 3-dimensional cell culture platform comprises at least one tumor cell.

24. The device of claim 23, wherein the at least one tumor cell comprises a brain tumor cell, pancreatic tumor cell, or a combination thereof.

25. The device of claim 24, wherein the brain tumor cell comprises a glioblastoma tumor cell, astrocytoma tumor cell, metastatic brain tumor cell, pediatric brain tumor cell, DIPGs tumor cell, or any combination thereof.Attorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO 26. A method of preparing a 3-dimensional cell culture platform, organ model, organoid model, tissue model, tumor model, or any combination thereof, wherein the method comprises fabricating the 3-dimensional cell culture platform, organ model, organoid model, tissue, tumor model, or any combination thereof using the composition of claim 1.

27. The method of claim 26, wherein the 3-dimensional cell culture platform further comprises at least one tumor cell; the organ model comprises a brain model, pancreas model, spinal cord model, solid tumor model, soft tissue organ model, or any combination thereof; the tissue model comprises a skin tissue model, soft tissue model, cornea tissue model, brain tissue model, pancreatic tissue model, spinal cord tissue model, solid tumor tissue model, soft tissue organ tissue model, brain implant, spinal cord implant, skin implant, soft tissue implant, or any combination thereof; or any combination thereof 28. The method of claim 26, wherein the method comprises bioprinting the 3- dimensional cell culture platform, organ model, organoid model, tissue model, tumor model, or any combination thereof.

29. A method of bioprinting a 3-dimensional cell culture platform, organ model, organoid model, tissue model, tumor model, or any combination thereof, wherein the method comprises fabricating the 3-dimensional cell culture platform, one organ model, organoid model, tissue model, tumor model, or any combination thereof using the composition of claim 1.

30. A method of identifying a therapeutic effective in the treatment or prevention of a cancer, wherein the method comprises culturing a cancer cell in a 3-dimensional cell culture platform comprising at least one composition of claim 1; applying a candidate therapeutic to the cultured cancer cell in the 3-dimensional cellAttorney Docket No.: 206161-0059-00WO culture platform; and measuring the effect of the candidate therapeutic on the cultured cancer cell in the 3- dimensional cell culture platform.

31. The method of claim 30, wherein the cancer cell comprises a brain tumor cell, pancreatic tumor cell, or a combination thereof.

32. The method of claim 31, wherein the brain tumor cell comprises a glioblastoma tumor cell, astrocytoma tumor cell, metastatic brain tumor cell, pediatric brain tumor cell, DIPGs tumor cell, or any combination thereof.

33. A method of treating or preventing cancer in a subject in need thereof, wherein the method comprises administering to the subject at least one therapeutic identified using the method of claim 30.

34. The method of claim 33, wherein the cancer comprises a brain cancer, pancreatic cancer, or a combination thereof.

35. The method of claim 34, wherein the brain cancer comprises a glioblastoma, astrocytoma, brain metastases, pediatric brain tumor, DIPGs, or any combination thereof.

36. A method of generating at least one synthetic tumor of interest, wherein the method comprises culturing at least one tumor cell in a 3-dimensional cell culture platform, organ model, organoid model, tissue model, tumor model, or any combination thereof comprising at least one composition of claim 1.

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