Organic hydrogen electrolyser cell

Abstract

The invention relates to a first reaction vessel comprising: a first electrode; a first reaction mix comprising: a carbon source in an amount of between 50% to 99.9% (w / w); a conductivity agent in an amount of between 0.1% to 20% (w / w); water; wherein the first reaction mix has a moisture content of between 25% to 90% (w / w); wherein the first reaction mix is activated by an activation mix, wherein the activation mix comprises: a basic solution with a pH of at least 7; wherein the activated first reaction mix has a moisture content of less than about 80% (w / w); wherein the activated first reaction mix produces hydrogen gas at a rate of at least 100 mL per hour per 2 mL of the activated first reaction mix.

Description

ORGANIC HYDROGEN ELECTROLYSER CELLTECHNICAL FIELD

[0001] The present invention relates to a reaction vessel configured and adapted to produce hydrogen gas, electricity, heat, or a combination thereof.BACKGROUND

[0002] Many chemical processes require hydrogen, particularly in heavy industries (such as oil refining, ammonia production, and methanol production). Further, hydrogen may provide an alternate fuel source for energy generation, such as for use in fuel cells in industrial, commercial, and domestic applications. Fuel cells are electrochemical cells that convert the chemical energy of a fuel (such as hydrogen) and an oxidising agent (such as oxygen) into electrochemical and thermal energy through a pair of redox reactions. Fuel cells typically include an anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte that electrically connects the anode and the cathode. The redox reactions occurring at the anode and cathode produce a current and electrical energy. Specifically, at the anode, hydrogen interacts with an electrocatalyst to undergo oxidisation. When hydrogen oxidises at the anode, the resulting electrons flow through an external circuit to the cathode, where oxygen undergoes reduction. The electron flow through an intermediate electrolyte maintains the charge neutrality of the fuel cell. Further, the electrochemical reactions produce thermal energy as a by-product, which may be harnessed to provide additional electricity or other purposes.

[0003] Together, steam methane reforming (SMR) of natural gas and other light hydrocarbons, partial oxidisation of heavier hydrocarbons, and coal gasification methods produce the vast majority of hydrogen (-95%) today. SMR produces hydrogen from natural gas (primarily methane) and water. As a result, SMR hydrogen production is relatively inexpensive and commonly used for industrial hydrogen production.

[0004] Chinese Patent No. CN101102963B describes a steam methane reforming method in which a feed stream is treated in a reactor containing a catalyst that is capable of promoting both hydrogenation and partial oxidation reactions. The reactor is either operated in a catalytic hydrogenation mode to convert olefins into saturated hydrocarbons and / or to chemically reduce sulfur species to hydrogen sulfide or a catalytic oxidative mode utilizing oxygen and steam to perform the feed and thus, increase the hydrogen content of a synthesisgas produced by a steam methane reformer. The method applies to treating feed streams containing at least 15% by volume of hydrocarbons with two or more carbon atoms and / or 3% by volume of olefins, such as a refinery off-gas. In such cases, the catalytic oxidative mode is conducted with a steam-to-carbon ratio of less than 0.5, an oxygen-to-carbon ratio of less than 0.25 and a reaction temperature of between about 500°C and about 860°C to limit the feed to the steam methane reformer to volumetric dry concentrations of less than about 0.5% for the olefins and less than about 10% for alkanes with two or more carbon atoms.

[0005] US Patent No. US9156690B2 describes partial oxidation / steam reformers. The partial oxidation / steam reformers use heat-integrated steam cycles and steam-to-carbon ratios of at least about 4: 1 to enable efficient operation at high pressures suitable for hydrogen purification unit operation, such as membrane separation and pressure swing adsorption.

[0006] Chinese Patent No. CN213623272U describes a hydrogen production device for reforming organic compounds through low-temperature plasmas. The hydrogen production device comprises a feeding system, a vaporization system, a plasma reactor, a high-voltage power supply, and a hydrogen collection system. An organic compound, water, and a carrier gas are input into the plasma reactor. Power is supplied through a high-voltage power supply, and a plasma field is generated in the plasma reactor. Organic compounds are subjected to a reforming reaction to generate hydrogen-rich gas, and the hydrogen-rich gas is collected and separated by a hydrogen collecting system.

[0007] Chinese Patent Application No. CN112574786A describes a combined fluidized bed coal catalytic gasification hydrogen production device and method. A fluidized bed gasification furnace and a regeneration furnace are combined, a material inlet is located in an upper layer space of the fluidized bed gasification furnace, and a return outlet of a lower layer space of the fluidized bed gasification furnace is connected with a return inlet of the regeneration furnace through a return device. The upper outlet of the regeneration furnace is connected with the return inlet of the upper-layer space of the fluidized bed gasification furnace through a return device.

[0008] Chinese Patent Application No. CN113862696A describes a hydrogen production method based on solid oxide electrolyzed water and relates to the field of hydrogen production based on electrolyzed water. The hydrogen production method based on solidoxide electrolyzed water comprises the following steps: (1) constructing a flat plate type solid oxide electrolytic tank; (2) preparing distilled water, heating the distilled water to vaporize the distilled water to form high-temperature water vapor flowing in one direction, and inputting the high-temperature water vapor into the solid oxide electrolytic tank; (3) applying a direct-current voltage to the electrodes on the two sides in the solid oxide electrolytic tank; (4) enabling the electrolytic tank to be subjected to heat preservation, and keeping the temperature of the electrolytic tank at 700-900°C; (5) collecting the hydrogen separated out of the solid oxide electrolytic tank, carrying out cooling and carrying out compressing.

[0009] Australian Patent Application No. AU2021246542A1 (’542) describes the use of recombinant microorganisms for producing biological hydrogen and further describes nucleic acid constructs and processes for modifying microorganisms for enabling the production of hydrogen therefrom.

[0010] The aforementioned prior art devices and methods for producing hydrogen have several disadvantages. For example, such devices and methods for producing hydrogen often require significant amounts of hydrocarbons (fossil fuels), water, high-voltages, or very high operating temperatures, typically between 650-850°C. Maintaining significant amounts of hydrocarbons, water, high voltages and / or very high temperatures can be costly, unsustainable, energy-intensive; and further result in thermal stress and material degradation over time, affecting the durability and life span of the components or devices used in such hydrogen production methods.

[0011] Further, using biological processes for hydrogen production as described in ’542 requires culturing and sustaining microorganism life. Keeping microorganisms alive requires careful feedstock maintenance, temperature, humidity, and other environmental controls. In addition, the encapsulation and transportation of microorganisms can be challenging and pose biohazardous risks.

[0012] Further, the aforementioned prior art devices for producing hydrogen include complex designs with many components, including high-temperature materials, separators, and external heat exchangers. This complexity can lead to increased costs, maintenance requirements, and potential points of failure.

[0013] Any discussion of the prior art throughout the specification should in no way be considered as an admission that such prior art is widely known or forms part of common general knowledge in the field.SUMMARY

[0014] PROBLEMS TO BE SOLVED

[0015] It is an aim and objective of the present invention to provide an improved reaction vessel and processes for generating hydrogen thereof, more particularly an improved first reaction vessel that is configured and adapted to produce hydrogen, electricity, heat, or a combination thereof.

[0016] It is an object of the present invention to overcome or ameliorate at least one of the disadvantages of the prior art, or to provide a useful alternative.

[0017] MEANS FOR SOLVING THE PROBLEM

[0018] In a first aspect of the present invention, there is provided a first reaction vessel comprising: a first electrode; a first reaction mix comprising: a carbon source in an amount of between 50% to 99.9% (w / w); a conductivity agent in an amount of between 0.1% to 20% (w / w); and water; wherein the first reaction mix has a moisture content of between 25% to 90% (w / w);wherein the first reaction mix is activated by an activation mix, wherein the activation mix comprises: a basic solution with a pH of at least 7 ; wherein the activated first reaction mix has a moisture content of less than about 80% (w / w); wherein the activated first reaction mix produces hydrogen gas at a rate of at least 100 mL per hour per 2 mL of the activated first reaction mix.

[0019] Preferably, the basic solution comprises at least one of sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, ammonia, magnesium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, sodium chloride, sodium bicarbonate, sodium bentonite, and sodium carbonate.

[0020] Preferably, the carbon source comprises a protein, a carbohydrate, a microalgae, coal, vegetation fibres, peat or any combination thereof. Alternately, the carbon source is provided by organic waste material.

[0021] Preferably, the conductivity agent comprises salt ions, humates, humic acids, fulvic acids, or a combination thereof.

[0022] Preferably, the first reaction mix further comprises a plasticiser. Preferably, the plasticiser comprises clay, cream of tartar, zeolites, molecular sieves, activated charcoal, perlite, or a combination thereof.

[0023] Preferably, the first reaction mix further comprises a plurality of metal particles. Preferably, the plurality of metal particles comprises lithium particles, graphite particles, silicon particles, zinc particles, lead particles, copper particles, aluminium particles, nickel particles, titanium particles, iron particles, tin particles, or any combination thereof.

[0024] Preferably, the first reaction mix comprises: the carbon source in an amount of at least 80% (w / w); the plasticiser in an amount of between 0.1% to 7% (w / w); the conductivity agent in an amount of between 0.1% to 10% (w / w).

[0025] Alternately, the first reaction mix comprises: the carbon source in an amount of between 60% to 95% (w / w); the plasticiser in an amount of between 5% to 20% (w / w); the conductivity agent in an amount of between 0.1% to 15% (w / w).

[0026] Alternately, the first reaction mix comprises: the carbon source in an amount of between 65% to 80% (w / w); the conductivity agent in an amount of between 0.1% to 3% (w / w); the plasticiser in an amount of between 4% to 6.5% (w / w); the plurality of metal particles in an amount of between 1% to 3% (w / w). Preferably, the carbon source comprises a carbohydrate and a microalgae; the conductivity agent comprises humates; and, the plasticiser comprises zeolites.

[0027] Alternately, the first reaction mix comprises: the carbon source in an amount of between 85% to 95% (w / w); the conductivity agent in an amount of between 5% to 8% (w / w); the plurality of metal particles in an amount of between 2.5% to 8% (w / w). Preferably, the carbon source comprises sugarcane; the conductivity agent comprises humates; and, the plasticiser comprises zeolites.

[0028] Alternately, the first reaction mix comprises: the carbon source in an amount of between 60% to 75% (w / w); the conductivity agent in an amount of between 0.1% to 3% (w / w); the plasticiser in an amount of between 3% to 5% (w / w); the plurality of metal particles in an amount of between 1% to 3% (w / w). Preferably, the carbon source comprises coal; the conductivity agent comprises humates; and, the plasticiser comprises zeolites.

[0029] Preferably, the first reaction mix has been heated to between 20°C to 90°C, for 1 minute to 30 minutes. Alternately, the first reaction mix has an exothermic reaction of between 33 °C to 72°C.

[0030] Preferably, the first electrode is a negative electrode, wherein the negative electrode comprises nickel. Preferably, the negative electrode is configured as a nickel-plated rod.Preferably, the nickel-plated rod protrudes inwardly from a bottom side of the first reaction vessel, such that the nickel-plated rod protrudes into the first reaction vessel.

[0031] Preferably, the first reaction vessel comprises an aluminium coating.

[0032] Preferably, a top end of the first reaction vessel comprises a gas permeable layer.

[0033] Preferably, the first reaction vessel is an organic hydrogen electrolyser cell.

[0034] Preferably, the first reaction vessel is housed within a second reaction vessel, wherein the second reaction vessel comprises liquid in an amount such that the first reaction vessel is substantially submerged in the liquid in the second reaction vessel.

[0035] Preferably, the first reaction vessel is adapted to produce hydrogen gas.

[0036] Alternately, the first reaction vessel is adapted to produce electricity. Preferably, the first reaction vessel further comprises a second electrode, wherein the second electrode is a positive electrode, wherein the positive electrode is configured as a copper coil, wherein the copper coil is configured to be coiled around the first electrode.

[0037] Preferably, the temperature of the first reaction vessel is between 20°C to 75°C; and the pressure of the reaction vessel is at or less than about 101 kPa.

[0038] The invention is to be interpreted with reference to at least one of the technical problems described or affiliated with the background art. The present disclosure aims to solve or ameliorate at least one of the technical problems and this may result in one or more advantageous effects as defined by this specification and described in detail with reference to the preferred embodiments of the present invention.BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

[0039] Figure 1 depicts a first preferred embodiment of a first reaction vessel comprising an activated first reaction mix.

[0040] Figure 2 depicts the first reaction vessel of Figure 1, wherein the first reaction vessel is housed within a second reaction vessel.

[0041] Figure 3 depicts the first reaction vessel of Figure 1, wherein the first reaction vessel is connected to a voltage measuring device.

[0042] Figure 4 depicts a second preferred embodiment of a first reaction vessel comprising an activated first reaction mix.

[0043] Figure 5 depicts an exemplary industrial-scale application of a first reaction vessel described herein.

[0044] It is to be appreciated that the activated first reaction mix as depicted in Figures 1 to 3 is not drawn to scale and is reduced in size for clarity purposes.DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

[0045] Preferred embodiments of the invention will now be described with reference to the accompanying drawings and non-limiting examples.

[0046] The term “about” as used herein, means the defined numerical term plus or minus 10%. For example, the term “about 1%” includes the range of between 0.9% to 1.1%.

[0047] The terms “comprise”, “comprising”, “includes”, “including”, and the like as used herein, are to be construed in their inclusive, as opposed to their exclusive, sense, that is in the sense of “including, but not limited to”.

[0048] The term “humates” as used herein, refers to the acid radicals found in humic matter that are separated from humic matter by alkaline extraction.

[0049] The term “rod” as used herein, encompasses any elongated member.

[0050] In a first preferred embodiment of the present invention, and with reference to Figure 1, there is provided a first reaction vessel 1. The first reaction vessel 1 comprises a first reaction mix. The first reaction mix comprises a carbon source, a conductivity agent, and water. Preferably, the carbon source is abundant in carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The first reaction mix optionally further comprises a plasticiser. Preferably, the first reaction mix has a moisture content of between about 25% to about 90% (w / w). The first reaction mix iscombined with an activation mix to produce an activated first reaction mix 2. The activation mix comprises a basic solution having a pH of at least about 7.0. Preferably, the activated first reaction mix 2 has a moisture content of less than about 80% (w / w). The first reaction vessel 1 further comprises a first electrode 3.

[0051] The activated first reaction mix 2 as described herein has several advantageous properties. For example, the activated first reaction mix 2 as described herein is highly malleable, mouldable and has a dough-like consistency. As a result, the activated first reaction mix 2 is highly formable and can be easily manipulated, moulded and shaped without affecting the internal properties of the activated first reaction mix 2. This formability allows for the activated first reaction mix 2 to be easily handled and subjected to harsh conditions (such as temperatures, pressures, and mechanical stress) without disrupting the internal and overall uniformity of the activated first reaction mix 2.

[0052] When the activated first reaction mix 2 is added to the first reaction vessel 1, the basic solution of the activation mix reacts with the carbon source of the first reaction mix and undergoes a redox reaction. Particularly, the basic solution of the activation mix acts as an oxidising agent and oxidises the carbon source of the first reaction mix, thereby causing the displacement of hydrogen ions and oxygen ions from the carbon source. In a preferred embodiment, the displaced oxygen ions may be absorbed by the plasticiser, whereas the hydrogen ions are able to freely move throughout the first reaction vessel 1 and are capable of interacting with other constituent ions and components within the first reaction vessel 1. For example, the first electrode 3 of the first reaction vessel 1 may attract the resulting free- flowing hydrogen ions to thereby generate electrode potential.

[0053] First Reaction Mix

[0054] Preferably, the first reaction mix comprises the carbon source in an amount of between about 50% to about 99.9% (w / w), more preferably between about 55% to about 99.9% (w / w), more preferably between about 60% to about 99.9% (w / w), more preferably between about 65% to about 99% (w / w), more preferably between about 70% to about 99% (w / w), more preferably between about 75% to about 98% (w / w), more preferably between about 75% to about 95% (w / w). Alternately, the first reaction mix comprises the carbon source in an amount of between about 60% to about 75% (w / w), more preferably betweenabout 65% to about 70% (w / w). It is to be appreciated that the relative amount of the carbon source within the first reaction mix is variable and dependent on the selected carbon source and remaining components within the first reaction mix. Persons skilled in the art can readily determine the optimal or suitable amount of the carbon source from the present disclosure and their common general knowledge of the relevant art. Preferably, the first reaction mix comprises the plasticiser in an amount of between about 0.01% to about 35% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.05% to about 30% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.1% to about 35% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.2% to about 25% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.25% to about 23% (w / w), more preferably between about 1% to about 20% (w / w), more preferably between about 3% to about 10% (w / w), more preferably between about 3% to about 5% (w / w). Alternately, the first reaction mix may comprise the plasticiser in an amount of between about 4% to about 6.5% (w / w). It is to be appreciated that the relative amount of the plasticiser within the first reaction mix is variable and dependent on the selected plasticiser and remaining components within the first reaction mix. Persons skilled in the art can readily determine the optimal or suitable amount of the plasticiser from the present disclosure and their common general knowledge of the relevant art. Preferably, the first reaction mix comprises the conductivity agent in an amount of between about 0.1% to about 20% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.1% to about 15% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.75% to about 15% (w / w), more preferably between about 1% to about 15% (w / w), more preferably between about 1% to about 12% (w / w), more preferably between about 1% to about 10% (w / w), more preferably between about 1% to about 5% (w / w), more preferably between about 1% to about 3% (w / w). Alternately, the first reaction mix may comprise the conductivity agent in an amount of between about 5% to about 8% (w / w). Alternately, the first reaction mix may comprise the conductivity agent in an amount of between about 0.1% to about 5% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.1% to about 3% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.5% to about 3% (w / w), more preferably between about 1% to about 3% (w / w). It is to be appreciated that the relative amount of the conductivity agent within the first reaction mix is variable and dependent on the selected conductivity agent and remaining components within the first reaction mix. Persons skilled in the art can readily determine the optimal or suitable amount of the conductivity agent from the present disclosure and their common general knowledge of the relevant art.

[0055] The carbon source of the first reaction mix acts as a primary fuel source in the context of the present disclosure. For example, the carbon source of the first reaction mix interactswith the basic solution of the activation mix which, in effect, promotes multiple balanced chemical reactions within the first reaction vessel 1. Preferably, the first reaction mix comprises the carbon source in an amount of between about 60% to about 99.9% (w / w), more preferably between about 65% to about 99.5% (w / w), more preferably between about 70% to about 99% (w / w), more preferably between about 75% to about 98% (w / w), more preferably between about 80% to about 98%, more preferably between about 85% to about 95% (w / w), more preferably between about 87% to about 93% (w / w), more preferably between about 89% to about 91% (w / w), more preferably about 90% (w / w). Alternately, the first reaction mix comprises the carbon source in an amount of between about 60% to about 95% (w / w), preferably between about 65% to about 95% (w / w), more preferably between about 70% to about 90% (w / w), more preferably between about 75% to about 85% (w / w), more preferably between about 77% to about 83% (w / w), more preferably between about 78% to about 82% (w / w), more preferably about 80% (w / w). Alternately, the first reaction mix comprises the carbon source in an amount of between about 65% to about 80% (w / w), more preferably between about 70% to about 80% (w / w). Alternately, the first reaction mix comprises the carbon source in an amount of between about 60% to about 75% (w / w), more preferably between about 65% to about 70% (w / w).

[0056] Preferably, the carbon source comprises at least one protein. Preferably, the at least one protein includes at least one of gluten, secalin, hordein, and avenins. Alternately, the carbon source includes at least one carbohydrate. Preferably, the at least one carbohydrate includes at least one of monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Preferably, the monosaccharides comprise at least one of glucose, fructose, and galactose. Preferably, the disaccharides comprise at least one of sucrose, lactose, and maltose. Preferably, the oligosaccharides comprise at least one of raffinose and stachyose. Preferably, the polysaccharides comprise at least one of starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin. Alternately, the carbon source comprises at least one protein and at least one carbohydrate. Preferably, the carbon source is provided by at least one of wheat (such as common wheat, durum, spelt, Khorasan, emmer and einkorn), barley, rye, and oat grains. It is to be appreciated that the aforementioned grains may be further processed into a powder or flour form. Preferably, the carbon source comprises at least one protein, at least one carbohydrate, or a combination thereof, wherein the first reaction mix comprises the carbon source in an amount of between about 60% to about 99.9% (w / w), preferably between about 65% to about 99.5% (w / w), more preferably between about 70% to about 99% (w / w), morepreferably between about 75% to about 98% (w / w), more preferably between about 80% to about 98%, more preferably between about 85% to about 95% (w / w), more preferably between about 87% to about 93% (w / w), more preferably between about 89% to about 91% (w / w), more preferably about 90% (w / w).

[0057] Carbohydrates and proteins are abundant in carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and therefore are a favourable carbon source in the context of the present disclosure. Further, the use of conventional carbohydrate and protein sources (such as household grains and flours) may be favourable because such sources are easy to obtain and handle, and are non-toxic.

[0058] Alternately, the carbon source includes at least one of macroalgae, microalgae, and cyanobacteria. Preferably, the microalgae include at least one of Chlorella, Spirulina, Diatoms, Haematococcus pluvialis, Nannochloropsis, Dunaliella salina, Isochrysis, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, Scenedesmus, Anabaena, or any combination thereof. Preferably, the microalgae include Spirulina. It is to be appreciated that the macroalgae, microalgae, and cyanob acterial may be further processed into a powder or nutrient extract form. Preferably, the first reaction mix comprises the carbon source in an amount of between about 60% to about 95% (w / w), preferably between about 65% to about 95% (w / w), more preferably between about 70% to about 90% (w / w), more preferably between about 75% to about 85% (w / w), more preferably between about 77% to about 83% (w / w), more preferably between about 78% to about 82% (w / w), more preferably about 80% (w / w).

[0059] Macroalgae, microalgae, and cyanobacteria are rich in proteins, carbohydrates, and essential fatty acids, and further include vitamins, minerals, and pigmented compounds. The high carbohydrate and protein content of the macroalgae, microalgae, and cyanobacteria provide an abundant fuel source in the context of the present disclosure. In effect, this abundance of the fuel source may enhance the rate of reaction between the carbon source of the first reaction mix and the basic solution of the activation mix, within the first reaction vessel 1. Further, the high fatty acid content of the macroalgae, microalgae, and cyanobacteria helps to preserve and prevent drying out of the activated first reaction mix 2 over an extended period of time.

[0060] Alternately, the carbon source comprises at least one carbohydrate, at least one protein, and at least one of macroalgae, microalgae, and cyanobacteria, or any combinationthereof. Preferably, the carbon source comprises at least one carbohydrate, at least one protein, at least one of macroalgae, microalgae, and cyanobacteria, or any combination thereof. Preferably, the carbon source is provided by a combination of: (a) at least one of wheat (such as common wheat, durum, spelt, Khorasan, emmer and einkorn), barley, rye, and oat grains, and (b) at least one of macroalgae, microalgae, and cyanobacteria, more preferably microalgae, more preferably, spirulina. Preferably, the carbon source is provided by a combination of: (a) at least one of wheat (such as common wheat, durum, spelt, Khorasan, emmer and einkorn), barley, rye, and oat grains in an amount of between about 75% to 90% (w / w total carbon source), more preferably between about 80% to about 85% (w / w total carbon source), and (b) at least one of macroalgae, microalgae, and cyanobacteria, more preferably microalgae, more preferably, spirulina in an amount of between about 10% to about 25% (w / w total carbon source), more preferably between about 10% to about 20% (w / w total carbon source).

[0061] Alternately, the carbon source may be provided by organic waste materials. Preferably, the organic waste materials include at least one of food scraps (such as, and without limitation, fruits, vegetables, peels, eggshells, coffee grounds, spoiled foods, or any combination thereof), yard waste (such as, and without limitation, grass clippings, leaves, branches, sugarcane bagasse, tree trimmings, bush trimmings, or any combination thereof), paper or paper products (such as, and without limitation, newspaper, cardboard, paper packaging, shredded paper, or any combination thereof), wood waste (such as, and without limitation, sawdust, wood chips, wood scraps, or any combination thereof), animal waste (such as, and without limitation, animal processing waste, livestock manure, pet manure, or a combination thereof), textiles (such as, and without limitation, biodegradable natural fabrics including cotton, wool, linen, or any combination thereof), biodegradable plastics, wastewater, vegetation fibres, peat, or any combination thereof. It is to be appreciated that the carbon source may be provided by any suitable organic waste materials and that the examples shown and described herein are by way of non-limiting examples only.

[0062] Preferably, the organic waste material may be pre-treated using any suitable pretreatment technique or method. Persons skilled in the art would readily understand that the organic waste material may be pre-treated using a variety of suitable pretreatment techniques or methods and that the selected pretreatment technique or method may depend on the composition of the organic waste material. For example, suitable well-known wastewaterpretreatment methods may include (without limitation) screening methods, grit removal methods, sedimentation methods, equalisation methods, pH adjustment methods, filtration methods, or any combination thereof. Alternately, suitable pretreatment techniques may include mechanical or chemical breakdown techniques. Non-limiting examples of suitable mechanical or chemical breakdown techniques may include shredding or grinding, chipping, crushing, milling or pulverizing, mechanical pulping, chemical pulping or a combination thereof.

[0063] Shredding or grinding involves cutting or crushing the organic waste material into smaller components. Shredding or grinding may be a suitable mechanical breakdown technique for organic waste material comprising food scraps, yard waste, paper or paper products, wood waste, or any combination thereof.

[0064] Chipping involves cutting or chipping the organic waste material into smaller components. Chipping is a suitable mechanical breakdown technique for larger organic waste materials, such as organic waste material comprising wood waste.

[0065] Crushing involves applying pressure to the organic waste material to break down the organic waste material into smaller components. Crushing may be a suitable mechanical breakdown technique for organic waste material comprising egg shells, food scraps, or a combination thereof.

[0066] Milling or pulverizing involves grinding the organic waste material into small or fine particles. Milling or pulverizing may be a suitable mechanical breakdown technique for organic waste material comprising grains, leaves, food scraps, or any combination thereof.

[0067] Mechanical pulping involves high-pressure grinding of the organic waste material to separate the organic waste materials into its constituents by mechanically tearing the organic waste material apart. Mechanical pulping may be a suitable mechanical breakdown technique for organic waste material comprising wood waste.

[0068] Chemical pulping (such as kraft pulping and sulfite pulping) involves the use of chemical solutions to break down wood waste into pulp. Chemical pulping is a suitable chemical pretreatment technique for organic waste material comprising wood waste.

[0069] It is to be appreciated that the aforementioned pretreatment techniques and methods are well-known and industry-accepted practices and are readily understood by persons skilled in the art.

[0070] The first reaction mix optionally further comprises a plasticiser. It is to be appreciated that the first reaction mix may comprise any suitable plasticiser. Preferably, the plasticiser comprises clay, cream of tartar, zeolites, activated charcoal, perlite, molecular sieves, or a combination thereof. It is to be appreciated that the plasticiser may be further processed into a powder (such as a fine powder) form. Persons skilled in the art, having regard to their common general knowledge, would readily understand and be able to identify suitable plasticisers that may improve the plasticity, flexibility, processability and / or stretchability of the first reaction mix. Further, the plasticiser may optionally provide stabilising, absorbing and buffering properties within the first reaction vessel, depending on the constituents and components within the activated first reaction mix and reaction conditions of the first reaction vessel.

[0071] Preferably, the plasticiser comprises clay, cream of tartar, or a combination thereof. Preferably, the first reaction mix comprises the plasticiser in an amount of between about 0.01% to about 15% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.01% to about 10% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.01% to about 7% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.02% to about 7% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.05% to about 7% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.1% to about 6% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.2% to about 5% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.25% to about 5% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.25% to about 3% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.25% to about 2% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.3% to about 1.5% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.35% to about 1% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.35% to about 0.75% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.4% to about 0.6% (w / w), more preferably about 0.5% (w / w). Alternately, the first reaction mix comprises the plasticiser in an amount of between about 1% to 10% (w / w), more preferably between about 1% to about 8% (w / w), more preferably between about 2% to about 7% (w / w), more preferably between about 3% to about 5% (w / w). Alternately, the first reaction mix comprises the plasticiser in an amount of between about 4% to about 6.5% (w / w).

[0072] Alternately, the plasticiser comprises zeolites, activated charcoal, perlite, molecular sieves, or a combination thereof. It is to be appreciated that the term “zeolites” as used herein may include a singular type or form of zeolite, or may include a plurality of different types or forms of zeolites. The zeolites may include any suitable naturally occurring or synthetic zeolites, or a combination thereof. Non-limiting examples of suitable zeolites may include open pore zeolites, intermediate pore zeolites, small pore zeolites, or a combination thereof. Non-limiting examples of suitable naturally occurring zeolites may include ferrierite, mordenite, or a combination thereof. Non-limiting examples of suitable synthetic zeolites may include Linde Type A (LTA), Linde Types X and Y (Al-rich and Si-rich FAU), Silicalite-1 and ZSM-5 (MFI), and Linde Type B (zeolite P) (GIS), Beta (BEA), Linde Type F (EDI), Linde Type L (LTL), Linde Type W (MER), SSZ-32 (MTT), or any combination thereof. It is to be appreciated that the plasticiser may include any suitable zeolites and that the examples shown and described herein are by way of non-limiting examples only.Preferably, the first reaction mix comprises the plasticiser in an amount of between about 5% to about 20% (w / w), more preferably between about 5% to about 17% (w / w), more preferably between about 5% to about 15% (w / w), more preferably between about 7% to about 13% (w / w), more preferably between about 8% to about 12% (w / w), more preferably between about 9% to about 11% (w / w), more preferably about 10% (w / w). Alternately, the first reaction mix comprises the plasticiser in an amount of between about 1% to 10% (w / w), more preferably between about 1% to about 8% (w / w), more preferably between about 2% to about 7% (w / w), more preferably between about 3% to about 5% (w / w). Alternately, the first reaction mix comprises the plasticiser in an amount of between about 4% to about 6.5% (w / w).

[0073] Zeolites, activated charcoal, perlite, and molecular sieves have a range of unique properties which surprisingly provide several advantages in the context of the present disclosure. Zeolites, activated charcoal, perlite, and molecular sieves have a porous structure. The highly ordered, three-dimensional structure of interconnected channels, cavities and cages provides zeolites, activated charcoal, perlite, and molecular sieves with exceptional adsorption and ion exchange properties. For example, this structure increases zeolites, activated charcoal, perlite, and molecular sieves surface area and enables zeolites and molecular sieves, respectively, to selectively absorb and release ions, such as (and without limitation) sodium, potassium, calcium and / or ammonium ions that may be present within the first reaction vessel 1. Thus, in the present disclosure, zeolites, activated charcoal, perlite, andmolecule sieves may further promote ion exchange of charged components of the activated first reaction mix 2, and thereby further enhance and promote ion conductivity within the first reaction vessel 1.

[0074] The first reaction mix may comprise any suitable conductivity agent. It is to be appreciated that the first reaction mix may comprise any suitable conductivity agent and that the examples shown and described herein are by way of non-limiting examples only. Preferably, the first reaction mix comprises the conductivity agent in an amount of between about 0.1% to about 10% (w / w), more preferably between about 1% to about 10% (w / w), more preferably between about 1% to about 7% (w / w), more preferably between about 1% to about 6% (w / w), more preferably between about 1% to about 5% (w / w), more preferably between about 1% to about 4% (w / w), more preferably between about 2% to about 4% (w / w), more preferably about 3% (w / w). Preferably, the conductivity agent comprises salt ions. Preferably, the salt ions are provided by at least one of sodium chloride, potassium nitrate, calcium carbonate, magnesium sulfate, aluminium oxide, lithium fluoride, copper sulfate, silver chloride, iron oxide, and barium nitrate. Preferably, the salt ions are provided by at least sodium chloride.

[0075] The salt ions may freely dissociate into their constituent ions when the salt ions contact water or other solvents within the activated first reaction mix 2. The constituent ions may freely move within the first reaction vessel 1. For example, the constituent ions may interact with the carbon source of the first reaction mix causing the displacement of the hydrogen ions and oxygen ions from the carbon source of the first reaction mix.

[0076] Alternately, the first reaction mix comprises the conductivity agent in an amount of between about 0.1% to about 15% (w / w), preferably between about 0.1% to about 12% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.1% to about 10% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.5% to about 10% (w / w), more preferably between about 1% to about 10% (w / w), more preferably between about 2% to about 8% (w / w), more preferably between about 3% to about 7% (w / w), more preferably between about 4% to about 6% (w / w), more preferably about 5% (w / w). Alternately, the first reaction mix comprises the conductivity agent in an amount of between about 0.1% to about 5% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.1% to about 3% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.5% to about 3% (w / w), more preferably between about 1% to about 3% (w / w). Alternately, the first reaction mix may comprise theconductivity agent in an amount of between about 5% to about 8% (w / w). Preferably, the conductivity agent comprises humates, humic acids, fulvic acids, or a combination thereof.

[0077] Humates are an organic substance formed through the decay and decomposition of organic matter. Humates include two soluble fractions of organic plant acids that may be extracted from humus found in soil, sediment, or aquatic environments. The organic plant acids include humic acid (primary organic plant acid) and fulvic acid (secondary organic plant acid). Each organic plant acid may be extracted by way of alkaline extraction from humate. The extracted organic plant acids have high cation exchange and chelating properties. For example, the humic acids may chelate or complex with the free radicals produced as a by-product of the chemical reactions occurring within the first reaction vessel 1.

[0078] Humates commonly include microelements such as magnesium, phosphorus, iron, zinc, manganese, potassium, chromium, cobalt, copper, silicon, sodium, strontium, sulphur, titanium, or any combination thereof. In the present disclosure, humates advantageously provide microelements (including metal ions) to the activated first reaction mix 2. The microelements may further enhance the ion conductivity of the activated first reaction mix 2 within the first reaction vessel 1. Further, humates may advantageously function as a pH buffer, making the pH within the first reaction vessel 1 more stable and less prone to fluctuation. The pH buffering capabilities of humates may be further enhanced when combined with the plasticiser (such as zeolites or molecular sieves).

[0079] Preferably, the first reaction mix has a moisture content of between about 25% to about 95% (w / w), more preferably between about 25% to about 90% (w / w), more preferably between about 30% to about 90% (w / w), more preferably between about 35% to about 85% (w / w), more preferably between about 40% to about 85% (w / w), more preferably between about 45% to about 80% (w / w). Preferably, the first reaction mix comprises a solvent in an amount such that the first reaction mix achieves a moisture content of between about 25% to about 95% (w / w), more preferably between about 25% to about 90% (w / w), more preferably between about 30% to about 90% (w / w), more preferably between about 35% to about 85% (w / w), more preferably between about 40% to about 85% (w / w), more preferably between about 45% to about 80% (w / w). Preferably, the solvent comprises water. It is to be appreciated that the first reaction mix may comprise any suitable solvent in an amountsufficient to achieve the desired moisture content, and that the examples shown and described herein are by way of non-limiting examples only.

[0080] The first reaction mix may optionally further comprise at least one oil solvent. Preferably, the first reaction mix comprises at least one oil solvent in an amount sufficient to prevent or decrease the degradation of the first reaction mix over an extended period of time. Preferably, the first reaction mix comprises at least one oil solvent in an amount of between about 0.01% to about 10% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.05% to about 8% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.1% to about 7% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.3% to about 5% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.5% to about 4% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.7% to about 3% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.75% to about 2.5% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.75% to about 2% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.8% to about 1.5% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.8% to about 1.2% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.9% to about 1.1% (w / w), more preferably about 1% (w / w). It is to be appreciated that the first reaction mix may comprise any suitable oil solvent. Non-limiting examples of suitable oil solvents may include mineral oil, vegetable oil (such as olive oil, coconut oil, canola oil, palm oil, and avocado oil), nut or seed oil (such as peanut oil, sesame oil, flaxseed oil, and sunflower seed oil), or any combination thereof. It is to be appreciated that the oil solvent may comprise any suitable oil, and that the examples shown and described herein are by way of non-limiting example only. The oil solvent may advantageously decrease or prevent the degradation of the activated first reaction mix 2 over an extended period of time. Additionally, the oil solvent may advantageously help to retain and regulate the internal humidity of the activated first reaction mix 2.

[0081] The first reaction mix may optionally further comprise at least one bicarbonate compound. Preferably, the at least one bicarbonate compound comprises sodium bicarbonate, potassium bicarbonate, caesium bicarbonate, magnesium bicarbonate, ammonium bicarbonate, and carbonic acid, or any combination thereof. Preferably, the at least one bicarbonate compound comprises sodium bicarbonate. Preferably, the first reaction mix comprises at least one bicarbonate compound in an amount of between about 0.1 % to about 10% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.1% to about 5% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.25% to about 3% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.5% to about 3% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.5% to about 2% (w / w), more preferably betweenabout 0.5% to about 1.5% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.75% to about 1.25% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.9% to about 1.1% (w / w), more preferably about 1% (w / w). The bicarbonate compound(s) may advantageously increase the excitation and mobility of the ions (and therefore ion conductivity) of the activated first reaction mix 2 within the first reaction vessel 1.

[0082] The first reaction mix may optionally further comprise a plurality of metal particles. Preferably, the plurality of metal particles includes at least one of lithium particles, graphite particles, silicon particles, zinc particles, lead particles, copper particles, aluminium particles, nickel particles, or any combination thereof. More preferably, the plurality of metal particles includes at least one of zinc particles, nickel particles, or aluminium particles. More preferably, the plurality of metal particles includes aluminium particles. It is to be appreciated that the plurality of metal particles may be provided in a variety of suitable ways, such as by way of shape, size and form. For example, and without limitation, the plurality of metal particles may be provided as powdered particles, flake particles, nanoparticles, or any combination thereof. Preferably, the first reaction mix comprises the plurality of metal particles in an amount of between about 5% to about 50% (w / w), more preferably between about 5% to about 45% (w / w), more preferably between about 10% to about 40% (w / w), more preferably between about 10% to about 35% (w / w), more preferably between about 10% to about 30% (w / w), more preferably between about 15% to about 25% (w / w), more preferably between about 17% to about 23% (w / w), more preferably about 20% (w / w). Alternately, the first reaction mix may comprise the plurality of metal particles in an amount of between about 0.05% to about 0.05% to about 45% (w / w), preferably between about 0.1% to about 40% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.1% to about 35% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.1% to about 30% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.5% to about 25% (w / w), more preferably between about 1% to about 20% (w / w), more preferably between about 1% to about 10% (w / w), more preferably between about 1% to about 5% (w / w), more preferably between about 1% to about 3% (w / w). Alternately, the first reaction mix may comprise the plurality of metal particles in an amount of between about 2% to about 10% (w / w), more preferably between about 2.5% to about 8% (w / w). Alternately, the plurality of metal particles may be substituted or provided in combination with any one or more of the following: Fava Bean (Viciafaba L), Moringa Oleifera seeds, bauxite, polyaluminium chloride (PAC), aluminium sulphate, aluminosilicates, or aluminium oxide.

[0083] The first reaction mix combines the carbon source, and the conductivity agent, and optionally the plasticiser, to produce a substantially homogeneous mixture. It is to be appreciated that various mechanical stress techniques may be used to combine components of the first reaction mix so as to achieve a substantially homogeneous first reaction mix. Nonlimiting examples of suitable mechanical stress techniques may include mechanical stirring techniques, ball milling techniques, high energy mixing techniques, batch mixing techniques, kneading techniques, rolling and compaction techniques, shear mixing techniques, magnetic stirring, hand-mixing techniques, or any combination thereof.

[0084] The first reaction mix is optionally heat treated. Preferably, the first reaction mix is heated to a temperature ranging from between about 10°C to about 100°C, more preferably between about 10°C to about 90°C, more preferably between about 15 °C to about 90°C, more preferably between about 15°C to about 85°C, more preferably between about 15°C to about 80°C, more preferably between about 15°C to about 75°C, more preferably between about 20°C to about 70°C, more preferably between about 25°C to about 65°C, more preferably between about 25°C to about 60°C, more preferably between about 25°C to about 55°C, more preferably between about 30°C to about 50°C, more preferably between about 30°C to about 45°C, more preferably between about 35°C to about 40°C. Preferably, the first reaction mix may be heat treated for between about 1 minute to about 30 minutes, more preferably between about 1 minute to about 20 minutes, more preferably between about 1 minute to about 15 minutes, more preferably between about 1 minute to about 10 minutes, more preferably between about 2 minutes to about 8 minutes, more preferably between about 3 minutes to about 7 minutes, more preferably between about 4 minutes to about 6 minutes, more preferably about 5 minutes.

[0085] Alternately, the first reaction mix is heated to a temperature ranging from between about 10°C to about 100°C, preferably between about 20°C to about 95°C, more preferably between about 20°C to about 90°C, more preferably between about 25°C to about 90°C, more preferably between about 30°C to about 90°C, more preferably between about 35°C to about 85°C, more preferably between about 40°C to about 85°C, more preferably between about 45°C to about 85°C, more preferably between about 50°C to about 80°C, more preferably between about 55°C to about 75°C, more preferably about 60°C to about 70°C. Preferably, the first reaction mix is heat treated for between about 1 minute to about 30 minutes, more preferably between about 1 minute to about 20 minutes, more preferablybetween about 1 minute to about 15 minutes, more preferably between about 1 minute to about 10 minutes, more preferably between about 2 minutes to about 10 minutes, more preferably between about 2 minutes to about 8 minutes, more preferably between about 2 minutes to about 6 minutes, more preferably between about 2 minutes to about 5 minutes.

[0086] Heat treating the first reaction mix as described herein may advantageously maintain the malleability, moisture content and texture of the first reaction mix over an extended period of time (for example, at least ten months) when kept in a substantially sealed environment.

[0087] Alternately, in some circumstances, an exothermic reaction within the first reaction vessel may drive catalysis and the chemical reactions. For example, persons skilled in the art will readily understand that heat generated by an exothermic reaction of the first reaction mix may promote catalysis and drive chemical reactions within the first reaction vessel, without requiring (external) heat treatment of the first reaction mix. Preferably, the first reaction mix has an exothermic reaction of between about 25 degrees Celsius to about 80 degrees Celsius, more preferably between about 30 degrees Celsius to about 75 degrees Celsius, more preferably between about 33 degrees Celsius to about 72 degrees Celsius. Persons skilled in the art will readily understand that the exothermic reaction of the first reaction mix will vary and depend on the carbon source within the first reaction mix.

[0088] Activation Mix

[0089] Preferably, the activation mix comprises the basic solution in an amount such that the pH of the activated first reaction is at least about 7.0, preferably at least about 7.5, more preferably at least about 12. Preferably, the activation mix comprises water. Preferably, the activation mix comprises the basic solution in an amount of between about 1% to about 100% (w / w), more preferably between about 1% to about 75% (w / w), more preferably between about 1% to about 50% (w / w), more preferably between about 5% to about 40% (w / w), more preferably between about 5% to about 35% (w / w). Preferably, the activation mix comprises the basic solution in an amount of between about 5% to about 30% (w / w), preferably between about 5% to about 25% (w / w), more preferably between about 5% to about 20% (w / w), more preferably between about 5% to about 15% (w / w), more preferably between about 7% to about 12% (w / w), more preferably about 10% (w / w). Alternately, the activation mixcomprises the basic solution in an amount of between about 10% to about 35% (w / w), preferably between about 10% to about 30% (w / w), more preferably between about 15% to about 25% (w / w), more preferably between about 17% to about 23% (w / w), more preferably about 20% (w / w). Alternately, the activation mix comprises the basic solution in an amount of between about 5% to about 30% (w / w), more preferably between about 10% to about 25% (w / w), more preferably between about 10% to about 20% (w / w), more preferably between about 15% to about 20% (w / w), more preferably about 18% (w / w). Alternately, the activation mix comprises the basic solution in an amount of between about 5% to about 20% (w / w), more preferably between about 7% to about 15% (w / w), more preferably between about 10% to about 15% (w / w), more preferably about 12.5% (w / w). Alternately, the activation mix comprises the basic solution in an amount of between about 1% to about 10% (w / w), more preferably between about 2% to about 8% (w / w), more preferably between about 4% to about 7% (w / w), more preferably between about 5% to about 7% (w / w), more preferably about 6% (w / w).

[0090] Preferably, the basic solution comprises at least one of sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, ammonia, magnesium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, sodium carbonate, sodium chloride, sodium bicarbonate, sodium bentonite, or any combination thereof. Preferably, the basic solution comprises sodium hydroxide. It is to be appreciated that the first reaction mix may comprise any suitable basic solution and that the examples shown and described herein are by way of non-limiting examples only.

[0091] The activation mix may optionally further comprise a second plasticiser. Preferably, the second plasticiser comprises zeolites. The zeolites may include any suitable naturally occurring, synthetic zeolites, or a combination thereof. Non-limiting examples of suitable zeolites may include open pore zeolites, intermediate pore zeolites, small pore zeolites, or a combination thereof. Non-limiting examples of suitable naturally occurring zeolites may include ferrierite or mordenite, or a combination thereof. Non-limiting examples of suitable synthetic zeolites may include Linde Type A (LTA), Linde Types X and Y (Al-rich and Si- rich FAU), Silicalite-1 and ZSM-5 (MFI), and Linde Type B (zeolite P) (GIS), Beta (BEA), Linde Type F (EDI), Linde Type L (LTL), Linde Type W (MER), or SSZ-32 (MTT), or any combination thereof. It is to be appreciated that the second plasticiser may include any suitable zeolites and that the examples shown and described herein are by way of nonlimiting examples only. Preferably, the activation mix comprises the second plasticiser in anamount of between about 10% to 90% (w / w), more preferably between about 20% to 80% (w / w), more preferably between about 30% to about 80% (w / w), more preferably between about 40% to about 80% (w / w), more preferably between about 50% to about 80% (w / w), more preferably between about 60% to about 80% (w / w), preferably between about 65% to about 80% (w / w), more preferably between about 70% to about 80% (w / w), more preferably about 75% (w / w). Alternately, the activation mix comprises the second plasticiser in an amount of between about 50% to about 75% (w / w), preferably between about 55% to about 70% (w / w), more preferably between about 55% to about 65% (w / w), more preferably about 60% (w / w).

[0092] The activation mix may optionally further comprise a second conductivity agent. Preferably, the second conductivity agent comprises humates, salt ions, humic acids, fulvic acids or a combination thereof. Preferably, the salt ions are provided by at least one of sodium chloride, potassium nitrate, calcium carbonate, magnesium sulfate, aluminium oxide, lithium fluoride, copper sulfate, silver chloride, iron oxide, barium nitrate, or any combination thereof. Alternately, the second conductivity agent comprises humates. Preferably, the activation mix comprises the second conductivity agent in an amount of between about 15% to about 50% (w / w), more preferably between about 5% to about 40% (w / w), more preferably between about 5% to about 35% (w / w). Alternately, the activation mix comprises the second conductivity agent in an amount of between about 5% to about 30% (w / w), preferably between about 5% to about 25% (w / w), more preferably between about 5% to about 20% (w / w), more preferably between about 5% to about 15% (w / w), more preferably between about 7% to about 12% (w / w), more preferably about 10% (w / w).

[0093] Preferably the activation mix comprises a solvent in an amount such that the activated first reaction mix 2 achieves a moisture content of between about 25% to about 95% (w / w), more preferably between about 25% to about 90% (w / w), more preferably between about 30% to about 90% (w / w), more preferably between about 35% to about 85% (w / w), more preferably between about 40% to about 85% (w / w), more preferably between about 45% to about 80% (w / w), more preferably between about 45% to about 75% (w / w), more preferably between about 45% to about 70% (w / w). Preferably, the solvent comprises water. It is to be appreciated that the activation mix may comprise any suitable solvent in an amount sufficient to achieve the desired moisture content, and that the examples shown and described herein are by way of non-limiting examples only.

[0094] The activation mix may optionally further comprise a plurality of metal particles. Preferably, the plurality of metal particles includes at least one of lithium particles, graphite particles, silicon particles, zinc particles, lead particles, copper particles, aluminium particles, nickel particles, titanium particles, iron particles, tin particles, or any combination thereof. Preferably, the plurality of metal particles includes at least one of zinc particles, nickel particles, or aluminium particles. More preferably, the plurality of metal particles includes aluminium particles. It is to be appreciated that the plurality of metal particles may be provided in a variety of suitable ways, such as by way of shape, size and form. For example, and without limitation, the plurality of metal particles may be provided as powdered particles, flake particles, nanoparticles, or any combination thereof. Preferably, the activation mix comprises the plurality of metal particles in an amount of between about 5% to about 50% (w / w), preferably between about 5% to about 45% (w / w), more preferably between about 10% to about 40% (w / w), more preferably between about 10% to about 35% (w / w), more preferably between about 10% to about 30% (w / w), more preferably between about 15% to about 25% (w / w), more preferably between about 17% to about 23% (w / w), more preferably about 20% (w / w). Alternately, the activation mix may comprise the plurality of metal particles in an amount of between about 0.05% to about 0.05% to about 45% (w / w), preferably between about 0.1% to about 40% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.1% to about 35% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.1% to about 30% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.5% to about 25% (w / w), more preferably between about 1% to about 20% (w / w). Alternately, the plurality of metal particles may be substituted or provided in combination with any one or more of the following: Fava Bean ( Viciafaba L), Moringa Oleifera seeds, bauxite, poly aluminium chloride (PAC), aluminium sulphate, aluminosilicates, or aluminium oxide.

[0095] The first reaction mix and the activation mix may be combined to produce the activated first reaction mix 2 using any suitable mixing techniques, such as mechanical stress mixing techniques. Non-limiting examples of suitable mechanical stress mixing techniques may include mechanical stirring techniques, ball milling techniques, batch mixing techniques, high energy mixing techniques, kneading techniques, rolling and compaction techniques, shear mixing techniques, magnetic stirring, hand-mixing techniques, or any combination thereof. Preferably, the first reaction mix and the activation mix are combined prior to being added to the first reaction vessel 1.

[0096] In a further embodiment, there is provided a first reaction mix. The first reaction mix comprises a carbon source, a plasticiser, a conductivity agent, and water. Preferably, the first reaction mix comprises the carbon source in an amount of between about 60% to about 99.9% (w / w), more preferably between about 65% to about 99.5% (w / w), more preferably between about 70% to about 99% (w / w), more preferably between about 75% to about 98% (w / w), more preferably between about 80% to about 98%, more preferably between about 85% to about 95% (w / w), more preferably between about 87% to about 93% (w / w), more preferably between about 89% to about 91% (w / w), more preferably about 90% (w / w). Preferably, the first reaction mix comprises the plasticiser in an amount of between about 0.01% to about 15% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.01% to about 10% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.01% to about 7% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.02% to about 7% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.05% to about 7% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.1% to about 6% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.2% to about 5% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.25% to about 5% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.25% to about 3% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.25% to about 2% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.3% to about 1.5% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.35% to about 1% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.35% to about 0.75% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.4% to about 0.6% (w / w), more preferably about 0.5% (w / w). Preferably, the first reaction mix comprises the conductivity agent in an amount of between about 0.1% to about 10% (w / w), more preferably between about 1% to about 10% (w / w), more preferably between about 1% to about 7% (w / w), more preferably between about 1% to about 6% (w / w), more preferably between about 1% to about 5% (w / w), more preferably between about 1% to about 4% (w / w), more preferably between about 2% to about 4% (w / w), more preferably about 3% (w / w).

[0097] Preferably, the carbon source comprises at least one protein. Preferably, the at least one protein includes at least one of gluten, secalin, hordein, avenins, or a combination thereof. Alternately, the carbon source comprises at least one carbohydrate. Preferably, the at least one carbohydrate includes at least one of monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, polysaccharides, or a combination thereof. Preferably, the monosaccharide includes at least one of glucose, fructose, galactose, or a combination thereof. Preferably, the disaccharide includes at least one of sucrose, lactose, maltose, or a combination thereof. Preferably, the oligosaccharide includes at least one of raffinose, stachyose, or a combination thereof. Preferably, the polysaccharide includes at least one of starch, glycogen, cellulose,chitin, or a combination thereof. Alternately, the carbon source comprises at least one protein and at least one carbohydrate. Preferably, the carbon source is provided by at least one of wheat (such as common wheat, durum, spelt, Khorasan, emmer and einkorn), barley, rye, oat grains, or a combination thereof. It is to be appreciated that the aforementioned grains may be further processed into a powder or flour. Preferably, the plasticiser comprises at least one of clay, cream of tartar, or a combination thereof. Preferably, the conductivity agent comprises salt ions. More preferably, the salt ions are provided by at least one of sodium chloride, potassium nitrate, calcium carbonate, magnesium sulfate, aluminium oxide, lithium fluoride, copper sulfate, silver chloride, iron oxide, barium nitrate, or a combination thereof. More preferably, the salt ions are provided by at least sodium chloride.

[0098] Preferably, the first reaction mix and an activation mix are combined to produce an activated first reaction mix. Preferably, the activation mix comprises a basic solution in an amount of between about 5% to about 30% (w / w), more preferably between about 5% to about 25% (w / w), more preferably between about 5% to about 20% (w / w), more preferably between about 5% to about 15% (w / w), more preferably between about 7% to about 12% (w / w), more preferably about 10% (w / w). Preferably, the activation mix further comprises a second plasticiser. Preferably, activation mix comprises the second plasticiser in an amount of between about 10% to 90% (w / w), preferably between about 20% to 80% (w / w), more preferably between about 30% to about 80% (w / w), more preferably between about 40% to about 80% (w / w), more preferably between about 50% to about 80% (w / w), more preferably between about 60% to about 80% (w / w), preferably between about 65% to about 80% (w / w), more preferably between about 70% to about 80% (w / w), more preferably about 75% (w / w). Preferably, the activation mix further comprises a second conductivity agent. Preferably, the activation mix comprises the second conductivity agent in an amount of between about 15% to about 50% (w / w), preferably between about 5% to about 40% (w / w), more preferably between about 5% to about 35% (w / w).

[0099] Preferably, the basic solution comprises at least one of sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, ammonia, magnesium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, sodium carbonate, sodium chloride, sodium bicarbonate, sodium bentonite, or a combination thereof. Preferably, the basic solution comprises sodium hydroxide. Preferably, the activation mix further comprises a second plasticiser. Preferably, the second plasticiser comprise zeolites as described herein. Preferably, the activation mix further comprises a second conductivity agent. Preferably, thesecond conductivity agent comprises humates, humic acids, fulvic acids, or a combination thereof.

[0100] In yet a further embodiment, there is provided a first reaction mix. The first reaction mix comprises a carbon source, a plasticiser, a conductivity agent, and water.Preferably, the first reaction mix comprises the carbon source in an amount of between about 60% to about 95% (w / w), more preferably between about 65% to about 95% (w / w), more preferably between about 70% to about 90% (w / w), more preferably between about 75% to about 85% (w / w), between about 77% to about 83% (w / w), more preferably between about 78% to about 82% (w / w), more preferably about 80% (w / w). Preferably, the first reaction mix comprises the plasticiser in an amount of between about 5% to about 20% (w / w), more preferably between about 5% to about 17% (w / w), more preferably between about 5% to about 15% (w / w), more preferably between about 7% to about 13% (w / w), more preferably between about 8% to about 12% (w / w), more preferably between about 9% to about 11% (w / w), more preferably about 10% (w / w). Preferably, the first reaction mix comprises the conductivity agent in an amount of between about 0.1% to about 15%, more preferably between about 0.1% to about 12% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.1% to about 10% (w / w), more preferably between about 1% to about 10% (w / w), more preferably between about 2% to about 8% (w / w), more preferably between about 3% to about 7% (w / w), more preferably between about 4% to about 6% (w / w), more preferably about 5% (w / w).

[0101] Preferably, the carbon source comprises at least one of macroalgae, microalgae, and cyanobacteria. Preferably, the microalgae include at least one of Chlorella, Spirulina, Diatoms, Haematococcus pluvialis, Nannochloropsis, Dunaliella salina, Isochrysis, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, Scenedesmus, Anabaena, or a combination thereof. Preferably, the microalgae includes Spirulina. Preferably, the first reaction mix comprises the carbon source in an amount of between about 60% to about 95% (w / w), more preferably between about 65% to about 95% (w / w), more preferably between about 70% to about 90% (w / w), more preferably between about 75% to about 85% (w / w), more preferably between about 77% to about 83% (w / w), more preferably between about 78% to about 82% (w / w), more preferably about 80% (w / w). Preferably, the plasticiser comprises zeolites as described herein. Preferably, the conductivity agent comprises humates, humic acids, fulvic acids, or a combination thereof.

[0102] Preferably, the first reaction mix and an activation mix are combined to produce an activated first reaction mix. Preferably, the activation mix comprises a basic solution in an amount of between about 10% to about 35% (w / w), preferably between about 10% to about 30% (w / w), more preferably between about 15% to about 25% (w / w), more preferably between about 17% to about 23% (w / w), more preferably about 20% (w / w).

[0103] Preferably, the basic solution comprises at least one of sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, ammonia, magnesium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, sodium carbonate, sodium chloride, sodium bicarbonate, sodium bentonite, or any combination thereof. Preferably, the basic solution comprises sodium hydroxide.

[0104] In yet a further embodiment, there is provided a first reaction mix. The first reaction mix comprises a carbon source, a plasticiser, a conductivity agent, a plurality of metal particles, and water. In this embodiment, the first reaction mix comprises the carbon source in an amount of between about 65% to about 80% (w / w), more preferably between about 70% to about 80% (w / w), more preferably between about 70% to about 76% (w / w); the plasticiser in an amount of between about 1% to about 10% (w / w), more preferably between about 2% to about 7% (w / w), more preferably between about 4% to about 6.5% (w / w), more preferably between about 4.5% to about 6% (w / w); the conductivity agent in an amount of between about 0.1% to about 5% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.1% to about 3% (w / w), more preferably between about 1% to about 3% (w / w), more preferably between about 1.5% to about 2% (w / w); and the plurality of metal particles in an amount of between about 1% to about 5% (w / w), more preferably between about 1% to about 3% (w / w), more preferably between about 1.5% to about 2% (w / w). Preferably, the carbon source comprises at least one protein, at least one carbohydrate, and at least one of macroalgae, microalgae, and cyanobacteria, or any combination thereof. More preferably, the carbon source is provided by a combination of (a) at least one of wheat (such as common wheat, durum, spelt, Khorasan, emmer and einkom), barley, rye, and oat grains, and (b) at least one of macroalgae, microalgae, and cyanobacteria, more preferably microalgae, more preferably, spirulina.Preferably, the plasticiser comprises clay, cream of tartar, zeolites, activated charcoal, perlite, molecular sieves, or a combination thereof, more preferably zeolites. Preferably, the conductivity agent comprises humates, humic acids, fulvic acids, salt ions, or a combination thereof, more preferably humates. In this embodiment, the first reaction mix and an activation mix are combined to produce an activated first reaction mix. Preferably, the activation mixcomprises a basic solution in an amount between about 1% to 100% (w / w). Preferably, the activation mix comprises water. Preferably, the activation mix comprises the basic solution in an amount of between about 5% to about 30% (w / w), more preferably between about 10% to about 25% (w / w), more preferably between about 10% to about 20% (w / w), more preferably between about 15% to about 20% (w / w), more preferably about 18% (w / w). Alternately, the activation mix comprises the basic solution in an amount of between about 1% to about 20% (w / w), more preferably between about 5% to about 20% (w / w), more preferably between about 7% to about 15% (w / w), more preferably between about 10% to about 15% (w / w), more preferably about 12.5% (w / w). Alternately, the activation mix comprises the basic solution in an amount of between about 20% to about 50% (w / w), more preferably between about 30% to about 40% (w / w), more preferably about 35% (w / w). Preferably, the basic solution comprises at least one of sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, ammonia, magnesium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, sodium chloride, sodium bicarbonate, sodium bentonite, and sodium carbonate.

[0105] In yet a further embodiment, there is provided a first reaction mix. The first reaction mix comprises a carbon source, a plasticiser, a conductivity agent, a plurality of metal particles, and water. In this embodiment, the first reaction mix comprises the carbon source in an amount of between about 60% to about 75% (w / w), more preferably between about 65% to about 70% (w / w); the plasticiser in an amount of between about 1% to about 10% (w / w), more preferably between about 2% to about 7% (w / w), more preferably between about 3% to about 5% (w / w), more preferably about 4% (w / w); the conductivity agent in an amount of between about 0.1% to about 5% (w / w), more preferably between about 0.1% to about 3% (w / w), more preferably between about 1% to about 3% (w / w), more preferably between about 1.5% to about 2% (w / w); and the plurality of metal particles in an amount of between about 1% to about 5% (w / w), more preferably between about 1% to about 3% (w / w), more preferably between about 1.5% to about 2% (w / w). In this embodiment, the carbon source comprises coal; the plasticiser comprises clay, cream of tartar, zeolites, activated charcoal, perlite, molecular sieves, or a combination thereof, preferably zeolites; the conductivity agent comprises humates, humic acids, fulvic acids, salt ions, or a combination thereof, preferably humates. In this embodiment, the first reaction mix and an activation mix are combined to produce an activated first reaction mix. Preferably, the activation mix comprises a basic solution in an amount between about 1% to 100% (w / w). Preferably, the activation mix comprises water. Preferably, the activation mix comprises the basic solution inan amount of between about 1% to about 20% (w / w), more preferably between about 5% to about 20% (w / w), more preferably between about 7% to about 15% (w / w), more preferably between about 10% to about 15% (w / w), more preferably about 12.5% (w / w). Preferably, the basic solution comprises at least one of sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, ammonia, magnesium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, sodium chloride, sodium bicarbonate, sodium bentonite, and sodium carbonate.

[0106] In yet a further embodiment, there is provided a first reaction mix. The first reaction mix comprises a carbon source, a conductivity agent, a plurality of metal particles, and water. In this embodiment, the first reaction mix comprises the carbon source in an amount of between about 80% to about 99% (w / w), more preferably between about 85% to about 95% (w / w), more preferably about 90% (w / w); the conductivity agent in an amount of between about 0.1% to about 10% (w / w), more preferably between about 1% to about 10% (w / w), more preferably between about 2% to about 9% (w / w), more preferably between about 3% to about 8% (w / w), more preferably between about 5% to about 8% (w / w); the plurality of metal particles in an amount of between about 1% to about 10% (w / w), more preferably between about 2% to about 9% (w / w), more preferably between about 2% to about 8% (w / w), more preferably between about 2.5% to about 8% (w / w), more preferably between about 2.5% to about 5% (w / w). In this embodiment, the carbon source comprises sugarcane; the conductivity agent comprises clay, cream of tartar, zeolites, activated charcoal, perlite, molecular sieves, or a combination thereof, preferably zeolites. In this embodiment, the first reaction mix and an activation mix are combined to produce an activated first reaction mix. Preferably, the activation mix comprises a basic solution in an amount between about 1% to 100% (w / w). Preferably, the activation mix comprises water. Preferably, the activation mix comprises the basic solution in an amount of between about 1% to about 10% (w / w), more preferably between about 2% to about 8% (w / w), more preferably between about 4% to about 7% (w / w), more preferably between about 5% to about 7% (w / w), more preferably about 6% (w / w). Preferably, the basic solution comprises at least one of sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, ammonia, magnesium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, sodium chloride, sodium bicarbonate, sodium bentonite, and sodium carbonate.

[0107] First Reaction Vessel

[0108] Still referring to Figure 1, there may be provided the first reaction vessel 1. Preferably, the first reaction vessel 1 is configured to be an organic hydrogen electrolyser cell. An activated first reaction mix 2 is added to the first reaction vessel 1. The first reaction vessel 1 may be configured and adapted in a variety of suitable ways (such as by way of shape, size, and material). Preferably, the first reaction vessel 1 may be configured to be substantially cylindric, conical, spherical, prismatic, rectangular, cubic, geometrical, amorphic, irregular, or substantially pear shape. It is to be appreciated that the first reaction vessel may be configured in shape and size such that the first reaction vessel can house any suitable amount of the first reaction mix. Preferably, the first reaction vessel is configured in size such that the first reaction vessel can include at least 2 mL of the activated first reaction mix. Preferably, the first reaction vessel is configured to have a volume of between about 1 mL to about 100 mL. Preferably, the first reaction vessel is configured to have a thickness of between about 0.5mm to about 100mm, more preferably between about 0.5mm to about 50mm, more preferably between about 0.5mm to about 30mm, more preferably between about 0.5mm to about 20mm, more preferably between about 0.5mm to about 15mm, more preferably between about 0.75mm to about 12.5mm, more preferably about 10mm.Preferably, the first reaction vessel is configured to have a length of between about 44mm to about 10m, more preferably between about 50mm to about 5m, more preferably between about 80mm to about 3m, more preferably between about 90mm to about 2m, more preferably between about 100mm to about Im. It is to be appreciated that the first reaction vessel 1 may be configured in shape and size to suit a variety of different applications. For example, the first reaction vessel 1 may be configured in shape and size so as to house an amount of the first reaction mix that is sufficient to produce hydrogen at a rate suitable for domestic, commercial, or industrial-scale applications.

[0109] The first reaction vessel 1 may be constructed of any suitable material. Preferably, the first reaction vessel 1 is constructed of at least one material that has sufficient strength, heat resistance, and contamination resistance. Non-limiting examples of suitable materials may include carbon steel, stainless steel, nickel alloy, copper, copper alloy, aluminium, aluminium alloy, titanium, titanium alloy and other suitable metal materials, silica, alumina, silicon nitride, silicon carbide and other suitable ceramic materials, glass materials such as borosilicate glass. Preferably, the first reaction vessel 1 is constructed ofaluminium. Alternately, the first reaction vessel 1 comprises an aluminium lining. It is to be appreciated that the first reaction vessel may be constructed of any suitable material and that the examples shown and described herein are by way of non-limiting examples only.

[0110] Preferably, the temperature of the first reaction vessel 1 comprising the activated first reaction mix 2 is between about 10°C to about 60°C, more preferably between about 15°C to about 55°C, more preferably between about 15°C to about 50°C, more preferably between about 20°C to about 50°C, more preferably between about 20°C to about 45°C, more preferably between about 20°C to about 40°C, more preferably between about 20°C to about 35°C. Preferably, the temperature of the first reaction vessel 1 comprising the activated first reaction mix 2 is maintained at an ambient temperature. It is to be appreciated that the first reaction vessel may be temperature-controlled using a variety of different techniques, as would be readily understood by the person skilled in the art. Non-limiting examples of suitable temperature-controlling techniques may include external heating or cooling of the first reaction vessel and / or internal heating of the activated first reaction mix housed within the first reaction vessel. Suitable temperature control means for increasing the temperature may include a warm water bath and / or a heating chamber. Alternately suitable temperature control means may include the use of a heat jacket configured for use with the first reaction vessel. Suitable temperature controlling techniques for decreasing the temperature may include a cooling system such as a refrigeration system or a cooling bath. It is to be appreciated that the temperature controlling techniques as described herein are by way of non-limiting examples only. The person skilled in the art could readily ascertain additional methods and techniques for adjusting the temperature of the first reaction vessel according to the present disclosure.

[0111] The pressure of the first reaction vessel 1 may be selected and adjusted as desired. It is to be appreciated that the first reaction vessel may be pressure-controlled using a variety of suitable techniques, as would be readily understood by the person skilled in the art. Non-limiting examples of suitable pressure-controlling techniques may include applying negative pressure to the surrounds of the first reaction vessel. Suitable pressure control means for decreasing the pressure may include a negative pressure chamber and / or a suction system. Preferably, the pressure of the first reaction vessel 1 may be maintained at ambient pressure or about 101 kPa. Alternately, the pressure of the first reaction vessel may be maintained at or adjusted to be less than ambient pressure, for example, less than about 101 kPa, less thanabout 10.1 Kpa, or less than about 1.01 Kpa. Preferably, the pressure of the first reaction vessel is maintained at a pressure of between about 1.01 kPa to about 101 kPa.

[0112] Still referring to Figure 1, the first reaction vessel 1 further comprises a first electrode 3. It is to be appreciated that the first reaction vessel may include any suitable number of first electrodes and that the term “a first electrode” as described herein may include any number of first electrodes, such as, and without limitation, one or more, two or more, three or more, four or more, five or more, or six or more first electrodes. Preferably, the first electrode 3 is a negative electrode. Preferably, the negative electrode includes lithium, graphite, silicon, zinc, lead, aluminium, nickel, or any combination thereof. More preferably, the negative electrode includes zinc, nickel, or a combination thereof. Preferably, the first electrode 3 is configured as a rod. Preferably, the rod is configured as a nickel-plated rod. The rod may be configured and adapted in a variety of suitable ways (such as by way of shape and size). The rod may be configured to have a length that substantially extends the length of the first reaction vessel 1. Alternately, the rod may be configured to have a length that extends substantially less than the length of the first reaction vessel 1. It is to be appreciated that the rod may be configured and adapted to be a variety of different suitable sizes, and that the examples shown and described herein are by way of non-limiting example only. For example, and without limitation, the rod may be configured to have a diameter of between about 1mm to 50mm, more preferably 1.5mm to 40mm, more preferably 2mm to 30mm, more preferably 2.5mm to 20mm, more preferably 3mm to 10mm. The rod may be configured to have a length of between about 30mm to about 10m, more preferably between about 40mm to about 5m, more preferably between about 60mm to about 3m, more preferably between about 80mm to about 2m, more preferably between about 100mm to about Im. Preferably, the rod is configured as a nail. Alternately, the first electrode may include perforated, hollow, textured and / or structured material(s) to allow the free-flowing gases to move freely about the first reaction vessel.

[0113] Preferably, the first electrode 3 is configured as a rod, wherein the rod protrudes inwardly from a bottom end of the first reaction vessel 1. Preferably, the rod protrudes into the first reaction vessel 1 such that the rod penetrates the activated first reaction mix 2 housed within the first reaction vessel 1. The configuration wherein the rod penetrates the activation first reaction mix advantageously increases the amount of surface area contact between the rod and the first reaction mix.

[0114] Preferably, the bottom end of the reaction vessel further comprises a gasket 4. Preferably, the gasket 4 is configured in shape and size to substantially complement the shape and size of the bottom end of the first reaction vessel 1. The gasket 4 is positioned at the bottom end of the first reaction vessel 1 so as to substantially seal the bottom end of the first reaction vessel 1. The gasket 4 may be constructed or fabricated of any suitable material. Non-limiting examples of suitable materials may include rubber (such as nitrile rubber, neoprene, ethylene propylene diene monomer, silicone, elastomeric, rubberised fabrics, thermoplastic polyurethane, Gore-Tex, Hypalon, fluoropolymers, epoxy resins), fibre (such as non-asbestos fibre, cellulose fibre), plastic (such as polyethylene, synthetic resin, polymers, polyethylene terephthalate, polylactic acid, polyhydroxyalkanoates, polybutylene succinate, polyethylene terephthalate, polyamides, polyurethanes, starch blends, polyvinyl alcohol, and polyesters), waterproof membranes (such as Bituminous membrane, Polymer- Modified Bitumen, liquid waterproof membrane, cementitious waterproofing, polyurethane and polyurea coatings, ethylene propylene diene monomer, polyvinyl chloride membrane, high-density polyethylene membrane, geotextiles, waterproof sealants, clay), hermetic sealing (such as welding, glass -to-metal-seals, elastomeric seals, braze seals, compression fitting, isolation sealing), metals (such as aluminium, steel, silica, titanium, copper, nickel, tin, iron), or any combination thereof. Preferably, the gasket 4 is a rubber gasket.

[0115] Preferably, the first reaction vessel 1 further comprises a gas permeable layer 5. The gas permeable layer 5 is positioned at a top end of the first reaction vessel 1. It is to be appreciated that the gas permeable layer 5 may be positioned in a variety of suitable positions at the top end of the first reaction vessel 1 such that the activated first reaction mix 2 is housed below the gas permeable layer 5 and within the first reaction vessel 1. For example, the person skilled in the art would readily understand that the gas permeable layer 5 may be positioned near or close to the top end of the first reaction vessel 1, or at any suitable position along the length of the first reaction vessel 1 such that the activated first reaction mix 2 is housed below the gas permeable layer 5 and within the first reaction vessel 1. The gas permeable layer 5 allows for selective transfer of gases from inside the first reaction vessel 1, whilst restricting the transfer of the activated first reaction mix 2 from within the first reaction vessel 1. The gas permeable layer 5 may be constructed of any suitable material. Non-limiting examples of suitable materials may include at least one of silicone rubber (such as polysolizane elastomers, polydimethylsiloxane, polyerethylene), fibre (such as cellulose acetate, fibreglass, cellulose, synthetic fibre, and Nafoin), filters (such as activated carbon,zeolites, molecular sieves, electrostatic filters, membrane filters of PM 10, PM2.5, Filter Paper Grade 597 to grade 1. It is to be appreciated that the gas permeable layer 5 may be constructed of any suitable material so as to allow for selective transfer of hydrogen gas produced by the chemical reactions occurring within the first reaction vessel 1, and that the examples shown and described herein are by way of non-limiting example only.

[0116] Referring to Figure 2, the first reaction vessel 1 is optionally housed within a second reaction vessel 6. The second reaction vessel 6 may be configured in a variety of suitable ways (such as by way of shape and size) so as to house the first reaction vessel 1. It is to be appreciated that the second reaction vessel 6 may be configured in shape and size to house any number of first reaction vessels 1. For example, and without limitation, the second reaction vessel 6 may be configured to house at least one first reaction vessels, at least two first reaction vessels, at least three first reaction vessels, at least four first reaction vessels, at least five first reaction vessel, at least seven first reaction vessels, at least ten first reaction vessels, or any suitable number of first reaction vessels. Preferably, the second reaction vessel 6 is configured in shape to substantially complement the shape of the first reaction vessel 1. Preferably, the second reaction vessel 6 is configured in shape and size to be substantially proportional to the shape and size of the first reaction vessel 1. Preferably, the second reaction vessel 6 may be configured to be substantially cylindric shape, substantially conical shape, substantially spherical shape, substantially prismatic shape, rectangular, cubic, geometrical, amorphic, irregular, or substantially pear shape. It is to be appreciated that the second reaction vessel may be configured and adapted by way of shape and size, in a variety of suitable ways such that the second reaction vessel 6 can house the first reaction vessel, and that the examples shown and described herein are by way of non-limiting example only. It is to be appreciated that the second reaction vessel 6 may be configured in shape and size to suit a variety of different applications. For example, the second reaction vessel 6 may be configured in shape and size such that the rate of hydrogen produced from within the first reaction vessel is suitable for domestic, commercial, or industrial scale applications. The second reaction vessel may be constructed of any suitable material, as would be readily understood by the person skilled in the art.

[0117] Preferably, the second reaction vessel 6 comprises a liquid 7. Preferably, the second reaction vessel 6 comprises the liquid 7 in an amount such that the first reaction vessel 1 is substantially submerged in the liquid 7 in the second reaction vessel 6. It is to beappreciated that the volume of liquid 7 to be added to the second reaction vessel 6 will depend on the relative number of first reaction vessels, the relative size of each first reaction vessel 1 and the relative size of the second reaction vessel 6, such that each first reaction vessel 1 is substantially submerged in liquid 7 in the second reaction vessel 6. Preferably, the liquid 7 comprises water (such as distilled water, grey water with emulsifier traces, untreated freshwater from natural streams, untreated groundwater or groundwater, second-treatment wastewater effluent, ocean or sea water, saline water, irrigation water, tap water, rainwater, bottled water, mineral water, soda water, alkaline water, recycled water from steam operations, and other types of water reclamation process, untreated water or wastewater). Substantially submerging the first reaction vessel 1 in the liquid 7 in the second reaction vessel 6 may advantageously increase the lifespan of the first reaction vessel. Preferably, the liquid 7 further comprises an emulsifier. Preferably, the liquid 7 comprises the emulsifier in a proportion of between about 0.1% to about 1.5% of the second reaction vessel 6 volume, more preferably between about 0.1% to about 1.4 %, more preferably between about 0.1% to about 1.3 %, more preferably between about 0.1% to about 1.2 %, more preferably between about 0.1% to about 1.1 %, more preferably between about 0.1% to about 1 %, more preferably between about 0.1% to about 0.9 %. It is to be appreciated that the liquid 7 may comprise any suitable emulsifying agent or combination of emulsifying agents, and that the example described herein are by way of non-limiting example only. Non-limiting examples of suitable emulsifying agents may include soap, detergent, clay, glycerol (such as of fat or oil origin), or any combination thereof. The emulsifier advantageously acts as a barrier thereby preventing oxygen from entering the second reaction vessel 6 from the external environment.

[0118] It is to be appreciated that the storage conditions of the first reaction vessel and / or the second reaction vessel as described herein may depend on a variety of factors, including the relative composition of the activated first reaction mix, the relative shape and size of the first reaction vessel and the second reaction vessel, and the intended application of the first reaction vessel. It is to be appreciated that the person skilled in the art would readily be able to select and adjust the storage conditions as desired.

[0119] It is to be appreciated that the hydrogen gas production within the first reaction vessel may be measured using a variety of suitable techniques, as would be readily understood by the person skilled in the art.

[0120] Preferably, a capturing device 8 may be used to capture and indirectly measure the hydrogen production from within the first reaction vessel 1. Preferably, an opening end of a capturing device 8 may be positioned to overlay a top end of the second reaction vessel 6. In use, this positioning allows the capturing device to capture the hydrogen gas produced from the chemical reactions within the first reaction vessel 1.

[0121] Preferably, the capturing device 8 is a balloon. When the balloon is in a deflated state, an opening at the neck of the balloon is positioned to overlay the top end of the second reaction vessel 6 so as to securely attach the balloon to the second reaction vessel. The balloon is thereby able to capture the hydrogen gas produced from within the first reaction vessel. As hydrogen gas is produced within the first reaction vessel, the hydrogen gas travels from the first reaction vessel through the gas permeable layer and into the second reaction vessel, and upwardly into the balloon thereby causing the balloon to inflate. At desired intervals, the opening of the inflated balloon can be carefully removed from the top end of the second reaction vessel 6. The opening of the inflated balloon can then be sealed by tying a knot at the neck of the inflated balloon, and the volume of the inflated balloon can be measured. The volume of the inflated balloon may be measured using a variety of suitable techniques as would be readily understood by the person skilled in the art. For example, the volume of the inflated balloon may be calculated based on the measured circumference of the inflated balloon and the approximate shape of the balloon. The relative increase in the balloon’s volume (from its deflated state to its inflated state) represents the volume of hydrogen gas produced from the balanced reactions within the first reaction vessel 1. Alternately, the hydrogen gas production may be measured using a gas sweep system (not shown). The gas sweep system includes a receptacle, the second reaction vessel as described herein, and a capturing system. The receptacle houses a displacing gas. Non-limiting examples of suitable displacing gases may include nitrogen, carbon dioxide, or an inert gas.A first end of a first conduit is in fluid connection with the receptacle, and a second end of the first conduit is in fluid connection with the bottom end of the second reaction vessel. The top end of the second reaction vessel is in fluid connection with the capturing system.

[0122] Preferably, the first end of the first conduit includes a control valve. The control valve is rotatable between an open and closed configuration so as to control and regulate the flow of the displacing gas through the gas sweep system. It is to be appreciated that the control valve may be positioned at any suitable position along the length of the firstconduit so as to control and regulate the flow of the displacing gas through the gas sweep system. When the control valve is in an open configuration, the displacing gas flows from the receptacle, through the second reaction vessel and into the capturing system. As the displacing gas enters the second reaction vessel, the displacing gas interacts with the hydrogen gas to create a sweeping effect, whereby the displacing gas pushes or displaces the hydrogen gas from the second reaction vessel and into the capturing system.

[0123] It is to be appreciated that the hydrogen gas production from within the first reaction vessel 1 may be measured using a variety of different techniques as would be readily understood by the person skilled in the art. Additional suitable non-limiting techniques may include any one or more of a gas syringe technique, a water displacement technique, a gas pressure sensor technique, a manometer, a gravimetric technique, a fixed hydrogen sensor, or a portable hydrogen sensor.

[0124] The first reaction vessel of the present disclosure surprisingly produces hydrogen gas at a rate of at least about 100 mL per hour per 2 mL of the activated first reaction mix comprised within the first reaction vessel.

[0125] The first reaction vessel of the present disclosure may advantageously be used for various suitable applications, including hydrogen production for domestic, commercial, and industrial use. The first reaction vessel, as described herein, may advantageously be configured and adapted to provide a portable- or fixed- means of hydrogen production for domestic, commercial, or industrial use.

[0126] Referring to Figure 3, the first reaction vessel 1 is adapted to produce electricity. The first reaction vessel 1 comprises the activated first reaction mix 2 and the first electrode 3. Preferably, the first electrode 3 is a negative electrode and is configured as a nickel-plated rod. The nickel-plated rod protrudes inwardly from a bottom end of the first reaction vessel 1 such that the nickel-plated rod penetrates the activated first reaction mix 2 housed within the first reaction vessel 1.

[0127] The first reaction vessel 1 further comprises a second electrode 9. Preferably, the second electrode 9 is a positive electrode. Preferably, the positive electrode is a metallic positive electrode. The metallic positive electrode may include any suitable metal such as,and without limitation, aluminium, copper, silver, or any combination thereof. Preferably, the metallic positive electrode includes copper. The second electrode 9 may be configured as a coil. Preferably, the coil is configured to be coiled around the first electrode 3. Preferably, the coil is configured to be coiled around the first electrode 3 such that the coil is not in surface contact with the first electrode 3. Preferably, the second electrode 9 is configured as a copper coil.

[0128] A first end 10a of a first lead 10 connects to a top end of the first electrode 3 and a second end 10b of the first lead 10 connects to a first side of a voltage measuring device 11. A first end 12a of a second lead 12 connects to an opposing bottom end of the second electrode 9 and a second end 12b of the second lead 12 connects to an opposing second side of the voltage measuring device 11.

[0129] The first electrode 3 acts as an anode, where oxidation occurs, and the second electrode 9 acts as a cathode, where reduction occurs. Preferably, the first electrode 3 is configured as a nickel-plated rod and the second electrode 9 is configured as a copper coil. The nickel-plated rod is oxidised such that the nickel atoms on the surface of the nickel- plated rod lose electrons and become positively charged ions. The resulting electrons then move freely through an external circuit, thereby creating an electric current. For example, the resulting electrons flow from the anode to the cathode through the external circuit, thereby creating an electric current. The electric current and voltage output can be measured using the voltage measuring device. Preferably, the conductivity agent of the first reaction mix comprises copper ions. At the copper coil, copper ions in the activated first reaction mix 2 gain electrons, thereby reducing the copper ions to metallic copper atoms. The reduction of the copper ions may advantageously consume electrons flowing through the electron circuit.

[0130] In the present disclosure, the activated first reaction mix 2 provides a further source of electrons. For example, the chemical reactions occurring within the first reaction vessel 1 facilitate the breakdown of the carbon source of the activated first reaction mix 2, thereby enhancing ion conductivity and the release and free flow of electrons throughout the first reaction vessel 1. The activated first reaction mix 2 may thereby provide an electrolyte medium to help facilitate ion flow between the anode and the cathode of the first reaction vessel.

[0131] In addition, the resulting free-flowing electrons from the breakdown of the activated first reaction mix 2 within the first reaction vessel 1 travel towards the cathode. At the cathode, the oxygen released from the breakdown of the carbon source of the activated first reaction mix 2 interacts and bonds with the electrons and hydrogen ions to form water as a by-product.

[0132] EXAMPLES

[0133] Example 1A - Preparation of First Reaction Mix A

[0134] Example 1A provides an exemplary first reaction mix A and a method for preparing the same. Table 1 defines the exemplary first reaction mix A, the volume and relative proportions of each component thereof.

[0135] Table 1. Components of first reaction mix A, the volume and relative proportion of each component.

[0136] The components of first reaction mix A as defined in Table 1 are combined to prepare approximately five mL of the first reaction mix A. First, the wheat flour, the sodium bicarbonate, the oil, the cream of tartar, and the salt are combined. Water is then added in small amounts to provide a resultant first reaction mix A with a dough-like consistency. The resultant first reaction mix A is then hand mixed and heated to about 60°C to 100°C for about five minutes.

[0137] Example IB - Activation of First Reaction Mix A

[0138] Example IB provides an exemplary activated first reaction mix A and a method of preparing the same. Table 2 defines an exemplary activation mix A and the relative volumes of each component.

[0139] Table 2. Components of activation mix A and the relative volume of each component.

[0140] Activation mix A includes water in an amount sufficient to maintain the moisture content of the activated first reaction mix at between about 45% to about 70% (w / w).

[0141] Approximately five mL of the first reaction mix A prepared in Example 1A and the activation mix A as described in Table 2 are combined to produce an activated first reaction mix A. This activation step causes the first reaction mix A to enter a terminal activation state and heat to a temperature of at least between about 30°C to about 60°C.

[0142] Example 2A - Preparation of First Reaction Mix B

[0143] Example 2A provides an exemplary first reaction mix B and a method for preparing the same. Table 3 provides an exemplary first reaction mix B, the volume and relative proportion of each component.

[0144] Table 3. Components of first reaction mix B, the volume and relative proportions of each component.

[0145] The components of first reaction mix B as defined in Table 3 are combined to prepare approximately five mL of the first reaction mix B. First, the spirulina, the chelators, and the zeolites are combined. Water is then added in small amounts to provide a dough-like consistency. The resultant first reaction mix B is then hand mixed for about five minutes, until the components are combined.

[0146] Example 2B - Activation of First Reaction Mix B

[0147] Example 2B provides an exemplary activated first reaction mix B and a method of preparing the same. Table 4 defines an exemplary activation mix B and the relative volumes of each component.

[0148] Table 4. Components of Activation Mix B and the relative volume of each component.

[0149] Activation mix B includes water in an amount sufficient to achieve a moisture content of the activated first reaction mix B at about 70%.

[0150] Approximately five mL of the first reaction mix B prepared in Example 2 A and the activation mix B as described in Table 4 are combined to produce an activated first reaction mix B.

[0151] Example 3 - Hydrogen Production

[0152] Activated first reaction mix A (as prepared in Example IB) is added to a first reaction vessel A. Activated first reaction mix (as prepared in Example 2B) is added to a first reaction vessel B. Next, a nickel rod is inserted into each respective first reaction vessel A, B at a respective first end.

[0153] A rubber gasket is then added to each respective first end of each first reaction vessel A, B so as to substantially seal each first end of each first reaction vessel A, B. A gas permeable layer is added to a second end of each respective first reaction vessel A, B. The gas permeable layer advantageously allows the transfer of hydrogen gas across the gas permeable layer and prevents the transfer or release of activated first reaction mix A or activated first reaction mix B from the inside of each respective first reaction vessel A, B.

[0154] Each respective first reaction vessel A, B is added to a second respective reaction vessel A, B. Approximately 5 to 10 mL of water is added to each second reaction vessel A, B such that each first reaction vessel A, B is submerged in water in each second reaction vessel A, B. A capturing device (such as a balloon) is then added to a top end of each second reaction vessel A, B. In particular, an opening end of each capturing device is positioned so as to overlay the top end of each second reaction vessel A, B In use, this positioning allows the capturing device to capture the hydrogen gas produced from the chemical reactions within the first reaction vessel.

[0155] Each first reaction vessel A, B comprising each respective activated first reaction mix A, B surprisingly produces hydrogen gas at a rate of at least approximately 100 mL per hour per 2 mL of each respective activated first reaction mix A, B .

[0156] Increasing the ambient temperature of each first reaction vessel A, B may increase the hydrogen production rate by at least about 10%. Further, the pressure and volumetric capacity of the capturing device may affect the hydrogen production rate.

[0157] Example 4 - Electricity Production

[0158] Activated first reaction mix A (as prepared in Example IB) is added to a first reaction vessel A. Activated first reaction mix (as prepared in Example 2B) is added to a first reaction vessel B. Next, a nickel rod is inserted into each respective first reaction vessel A, B at a respective first end.

[0159] A rubber gasket is then added to each respective first end of each first reaction vessel A, B to substantially seal each first end of each first reaction vessel A, B. A copper coil is then inserted into each first reaction vessel at a respective second end. Each copper coil is configured to coil around the nickel rod of each respective first reaction vessel, and is positioned such that each respective copper coil is not in surface contact with the respective nickel rod. A gas permeable layer is then added to a second end of each respective first reaction vessel A, B. The gas permeable layer advantageously allows the transfer of hydrogen gas across the gas permeable layer and prevents the transfer or release of activated first reaction mix A, B from inside of each respective first reaction vessel A, B.

[0160] Each first reaction vessel A, B is connected to a separate voltage measuring device. A first end of a first lead is connected to a top end of the respective nickel rod of the first reaction vessel, and a second end of the first lead is connected to a first side of a voltage measuring device. A first end of a second lead is connected to an opposing bottom end of the respective copper coil of the first reaction vessel A, B, and a second end of the second lead is connected to an opposing second side of the voltage measuring device. The chemical reactions occurring within each first reaction vessel A, B causes the flow of electrons through an external circuit, thereby creating an electric current.

[0161] Each first reaction vessel surprisingly produces a voltage output of approximately 1.0V to 1.5V.

[0162] Example 5 - Hydrogen Yield

[0163] Example 5 explores an exemplary first reaction mix comprising wheat flour and spirulina as the carbon source, and the effects on hydrogen gas production within an exemplary first reaction vessel.

[0164] The table below defines activated first reaction mix C including the components and relative amounts of each component thereof. For calculation purposes, the water component in the activated first reaction mixes defined in Examples 5 to 10 is assumed to be distilled water. However, persons skilled in the art can readily substitute the distilled water with other types of water (such as, and without limitation, tap water or rainwater) and adjust the relative proportions of each component in the first reaction mix, activation mix, or activated first reaction mix (to achieve the desired amounts or concentrations) accordingly.

[0165] Preparation of First Reaction Mix C

[0166] The first reaction mix C was prepared in a container. Initially, the wheat flour and spirulina were thoroughly mixed by hand to ensure an even distribution of spirulina within the wheat flour. This preliminary mixing step promotes uniform dispersion and bonding of spirulina within the wheat flour, enabling the subsequently added components and reactants to fully integrate with both the wheat flour and spirulina, rather than just the spirulina alone. The remaining components of the first reaction mix C were added sequentially in the following order: a) humates, b) aluminium, c) zeolite. The first reaction mix was activated by sequentially adding components of the activation mix C in the following order: d) water, e) NaOH.

[0167] Assembly of the First Reaction Vessel C

[0168] Figure 4 shows an exemplary first reaction vessel C 201. The first reaction vessel C 201 includes the following (physical) components: (i) an aluminium vessel 202 witha length of about 12cm and a diameter of about 2.5cm, (ii) a zinc nail 203 with a length of about 10cm, (iii) a first elongate zeolite-filled filter 204 A and a second elongate zeolite-filled filter 204B, (iv) a rubber gasket 205, (v) a parafilm layer 206. The weight of each physical component of the first reaction vessel C 201 was measured before assembly.

[0169] An activated first reaction mix C 207 (as prepared above) was transferred into the aluminium vessel 202, filing it to 75% volume capacity. The zinc nail 203 was inserted at a first end of the aluminium vessel 202 such that the zinc nail 203 protrudes into the aluminium vessel 202 and penetrates the activated first reaction mix C. The first elongate zeolite-filled filter 204A was inserted at the first end of the aluminium vessel 202 at a position adjacent to a first side of the zinc nail 203, such that the first elongate zinc-filled filter protrudes into the aluminium vessel 202 and penetrates the activated first reaction mix C 207 at a position adjacent to the first side of the zinc nail 203. The second elongate zeolite- filled filter 204B was inserted at the first end of the aluminium vessel 202 at a position adjacent to a second opposing side of the zinc nail 203, such that the second elongate zinc- filled filter protrudes into the aluminium vessel 202 and penetrates the activated first reaction mix C 207 at a position adjacent to the second opposing side of the zinc nail 203. The rubber gasket 205 was positioned to overlay the first end of the aluminium vessel 202 to substantially seal the first end and fix the zinc nail 203 in a predetermined position. The parafilm layer 206 was positioned to overlay a second end of the aluminium vessel 202 to substantially seal the second end.

[0170] The assembled first reaction vessel C 201 comprising the activated first reaction mix C 207 was initially weighed to determine a pre-reaction weight. Two hours after assembly, the first reaction vessel C 201 was re weighed to determine a post-reaction weight. The difference in weight was calculated and used to determine the rate of hydrogen gas production of the first reaction vessel C 201.

[0171] The table below outlines the pre-reaction weight, the post-reaction weight, and the relative difference in weight for the first reaction vessel C.

[0172] Hydrogen gas production was measured by connecting a Restek ProFLOW 6000 Electronic Flowmeter to a gas outlet 208 positioned at an upper end of the first reaction vessel. The first reaction vessel was maintained at room temperature (about 30 to 33 degrees Celsius) for two hours. At room temperature, the first reaction vessel C produced hydrogen gas at a rate of about 12 ml / min over two hours.

[0173] Example 6 - Temperature

[0174] Example 6 explores the effects of temperature on hydrogen gas production of exemplary first reaction vessels, and the optimal temperature ranges thereof. The table below defines activated reaction mixes D, E, F, and G including the components and relative amounts of each component thereof.

[0175] First reaction mixes D, E, F, and G were each prepared and assembled into respective first reaction vessels D, E, F, and G according to the method outlined in Example 5.

[0176] The assembled first reaction vessels D, E, F, and G comprising the respective activated first reaction mixes D, E, F, and G were weighed to determine an initial pre -reactionweight. Two hours after assembly, the first reaction vessels D, E, F, and G were reweighed to obtain a post-reaction weight. The difference in weight was calculated and used to determine the rate of hydrogen gas production of each first reaction vessel D, E, F, and G under various temperature conditions.

[0177] The table below outlines the pre-reaction weight, post-reaction weight, and relative difference in weight for each first reaction vessel D, E, F, and G.

[0178] Each first reaction vessel (D, E, F, G) was placed in a water bath of varying temperatures for two hours. The rate of hydrogen gas production of each first reaction vessel (D, E, F, G) was measured over a period of two-hours. The table below outlines the temperature and relative rate of hydrogen gas production of each first reaction vessel (D, E, F, G). Hydrogen gas production was measured by connecting a Restek Pro FLOW 6000 Electronic Flowmeter to a gas outlet positioned at an upper end of the first reaction vessel.

[0179] The results of Example 6 demonstrate a positive correlation between an increase in temperature of the first reaction vessel and an increase hydrogen gas production yield.

[0180] Example 7 - Moisture Content

[0181] Example 7 explores the effects of moisture content on hydrogen gas production of exemplary first reaction vessels. The table below defines activated reaction mixes H, I, J, K, L, M including the relative components and amounts of each component thereof.

[0182] Each first reaction mix (H, I, J, K, L, M) was prepared and each first reaction vessel (H, I, J, K, L, M) was assembled according to the method defined in Example 5.

[0183] The results show that the first reaction vessel H comprising activated first reaction mix H with a moisture level of 60.85% achieved optimal hydrogen gas production. The first reaction vessel H comprising activated first reaction mix H also exhibited a strong hydrogen flow and stable production, achieving a hydrogen gas production output comparable to that of the first reaction vessel H.

[0184] Example 8 - Coal Bituminous

[0185] Example 8 explores an exemplary first reaction mix comprising coal bituminous as the carbon source, and the effects on hydrogen gas production within an exemplary first reaction vessel. The table below defines an activated first reaction mix N including the components and relative amounts of each component thereof.

[0186] The activated first reaction mix N was prepared and the first reaction vessel N was assembled according to the method defined in Example 5. The assembled first reaction vessel N comprising the activated first reaction mix N was weighed to determine an initial pre-reaction weight. Two hours after assembly, the first reaction vessel N was reweighed to obtain a post-reaction weight. The difference in weight was calculated and used to determine the rate of hydrogen gas production of each first reaction vessel N. The table below outlines the pre-reaction weight, the post-reaction weight, and the relative difference in weight of the first reaction vessel N.

[0187] The rate of hydrogen gas production of the first reaction vessel N was measured over a two-hour period, according to the method outlined in Example 5. The first reaction vessel N produced hydrogen at a rate of about 40 ml / min.

[0188] Once the reaction was complete or exhausted (about two hours after activation and assembly), the activated first reaction mix N was removed from the first reaction vessel and subjected to elemental analysis. The table below provides the elemental analysis of the raw bituminous coal component (reactant) and the activated bituminous coal (product).

[0189] The results show that the first reaction vessel comprising the activated first reaction mix N (bituminous coal), is capable of reducing essential elements like carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and sulphur during the reaction process. This reduction results in a morestable product, which may be utilised as a fertiliser or topsoil, or for use in extracting coal tar, graphite, and carbon anodes for steel manufacturing. By stabilising these essential elements, the resultant product is made safer and more effective for large-scale agricultural applications, potentially improving soil health and enhancing crop yields without the environmental risks associated with unstable compounds.

[0190] Example 9 - Coal Tailings

[0191] Example 9 explores an exemplary first reaction mix Q comprising coal tailings as the carbon source, and the effects on hydrogen gas production within an exemplary first reaction vessel. The table below defines an activated first reaction mix O including the components and relative amounts of each component thereof.

[0192] The activated first reaction mix O was prepared and the first reaction vessel O was assembled according to the method defined in Example 5. The assembled first reaction vessel O comprising the activated first reaction mix O was weighed to determine an initial pre-reaction weight. Two hours after assembly, the first reaction vessel O was reweighed to obtain a post-reaction weight. The difference in weight was calculated and used to determine the rate of hydrogen gas production of each first reaction vessel O. The table below outlines the pre-reaction weight, the post-reaction weight, and the relative difference in weight of the first reaction vessel O.

[0193] The rate of hydrogen gas production of the first reaction vessel O was measured over a two-hour period, according to the method outlined in Example 5. The first reaction vessel O produced hydrogen at a rate of about 36 ml / min.

[0194] Once the reaction was complete or exhausted (about two hours after activation and assembly), the activated first reaction mix O was removed from the first reaction vessel O and subjected to elemental analysis. The table below provides the elemental analysis of the raw coal tailings component (reactant) and the activated coal tailings (product).

[0195] The results show that the first reaction vessel comprising the activated first reaction mix O (coal tailings), is capable of reducing essential elements like carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and sulphur during the reaction process. This reduction results in a more stable product, which may be utilised as a fertiliser or topsoil, or for use in extracting coal tar, graphite, and carbon anodes for steel manufacturing. By stabilising these essential elements, the resultant product is made safer and more effective for large-scale agricultural applications, potentially improving soil health and enhancing crop yields without the environmental risks associated with unstable compounds.

[0196] Example 10 - Sugarcane Bagasse

[0197] Example 10 explores exemplary first reaction mixes P, Q comprising sugarcane bagasse as the carbon source, and the effects on hydrogen gas production withinexemplary first reaction vessels P, Q. The table below defines an activated first reaction mixes P, Q including the components and relative amounts of each component thereof.

[0198] The first reaction mixes P, Q were each prepared by sequentially adding the components to separate containers in the following order: a) sugarcane bagasse, b) humates, c) aluminium particles. The first reaction mixes P, Q were activated by sequentially adding components of the activation mixes P, Q in the following order: d) water, e) NaOH.

[0199] Each activated first reaction mix P, Q was transferred into separate 2L bottles, filling each to 25% of its volume. A lid was placed on each bottle with an open gas tube attached to capture the hydrogen gas generated during the reaction. To measure the rate of hydrogen production generated at various times and temperatures during each reaction, a flow meter was connected to each gas tube. During the reaction within the first reaction vessels P, Q, each activated first reaction mix P, Q was continuously stirred within the 2L bottle for two hours.

[0200] The table below outlines the rate of hydrogen production from the first reaction vessels P, Q at varying temperatures and times during the reaction.

[0201] Example 11 - Industrial Applications

[0202] The first reaction vessel described herein has various industrial applications, particularly in hydrogen gas production. Additionally, the activated first reaction can be further processed and utilised for various purposes. For example, referring to Figure 5, a carbon source 301 (such as feedstock) is added to an industrial preprocessing unit 302A (such as a hopper), which preprocesses and prepares the carbon source 301 for subsequent reactions.

[0203] Following preprocessing, the carbon source 301 is transferred to an industrial mixer 302B. A conductivity agent, a plasticiser and a plurality of metal particles are added to the industrial mixer 302B and mixed with the carbon source 301 to produce a first reaction mix 304.

[0204] The first reaction mix 304 is transferred to a first-stage reaction vessel 303. An activation mix 305 (as described herein) is added to the first-stage reaction vessel 303 and mixed with the first reaction mix 304 to produce an activated first reaction mix 306. The activated first reaction mix 306 is mechanically mixed using any suitable industrial mixing technique well-known within the art for one hour. The mechanical mixing of the activated first reaction mix 306 causes the activated first reaction mix 306 to produce hydrogen gas as a primary product.

[0205] After one hour of mixing in the first-stage reaction vessel 303, the activated first reaction mix 306 is transferred to a second-stage reaction vessel 307. In the second-stagereaction vessel 307, the activated first reaction mix 306 undergoes further continued mixing and is maintained under controlled conditions for one hour. The second-stage reaction vessel307 promotes further hydrogen gas production by the activated first reaction mix 306.

[0206] After one hour of mixing in the second-stage reaction vessel 307, the activated first reaction mix 306 is transferred to a third-stage reaction vessel 308. In the third-stage reaction vessel 308, the activated first reaction mix 306 undergoes further continued mixing and is maintained under controlled conditions for one hour. The third-stage reaction vessel308 promotes further hydrogen gas production by the activated first reaction mix 306. After one hour, the activated first reaction mix 306 is exhausted, and the rate of hydrogen gas production decreases.

[0207] An exhausted activated first reaction mix 309 is transferred to a compressor 310. The compressor 310 compresses and separates the exhausted activated first reaction mix309 into the activation mix 305 and the remaining residue 311. The activation mix 305 can be recycled and reintroduced into the first-stage reaction vessel 303. The remaining residue 311 is further processed in a processor 312, using any suitable technique or processor well-known within the art to produce various by-products 313. The by-products can be used as a fertiliser or topsoil, or for use in extracting coal tar, graphite, and carbon anodes for steel manufacturing.

[0208] Although the invention and corresponding embodiments have been described with reference to specific examples, it will be appreciated by those skilled in the art that the invention may be embodied in many other forms, in keeping with the broad principles and the spirit of the invention described herein.

[0209] The present invention and the described preferred embodiments specifically include at least one feature that is industrial applicable.

Claims

THE CLAIMS DEFINING THE INVENTION ARE AS FOLLOWS:

1. A first reaction vessel comprising: a first electrode; a first reaction mix comprising: a carbon source in an amount of between 50% to 99.9% (w / w); a conductivity agent in an amount of between 0.1% to 20% (w / w); water; wherein the first reaction mix has a moisture content of between 25% to 90% (w / w); wherein the first reaction mix is activated by an activation mix, wherein the activation mix comprises: a basic solution with a pH of at least 7 ; wherein the activated first reaction mix has a moisture content of less than about 80% (w / w); wherein the activated first reaction mix produces hydrogen gas at a rate of at least 100 mb per hour per 2 mb of the activated first reaction mix.

2. The first reaction vessel of claim 1, wherein the basic solution comprises at least one of sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, ammonia, magnesium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, sodium chloride, sodium bicarbonate, sodium bentonite, and sodium carbonate.

3. The first reaction vessel of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the carbon source comprises a protein, a carbohydrate, a microalgae, coal, vegetation fibres, peat, or any combination thereof.

4. The first reaction vessel of any one of claims 1 to 2, wherein the carbon source is provided by organic waste material.

5. The first reaction vessel of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the conductivity agent comprises salt ions, humates, humic acids, fulvic acids, or a combinationthereof.

6. The first reaction vessel of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the first reaction mix further comprises a plasticiser.

7. The first reaction vessel of claim 6, wherein the plasticiser comprises clay, cream of tartar, zeolites, molecular sieves, activated charcoal, perlite, or a combination thereof.

8. The first reaction vessel of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the first reaction mix further comprises a plurality of metal particles.

9. The first reaction vessel of claim 8, wherein the plurality of metal particles comprise lithium particles, graphite particles, silicon particles, zinc particles, lead particles, copper particles, aluminium particles, nickel particles, titanium particles, iron particles, tin particles, or any combination thereof.

10. The first reaction vessel of any one of claims 6 to 9, wherein the first reaction mix comprises: the carbon source in an amount of at least 80% (w / w); the plasticiser in an amount of between 0.1% to 7% (w / w); and the conductivity agent in an amount of between 0.1% to 10% (w / w).

11. The first reaction vessel of claim any one of claims 6 to 9, wherein the first reaction mix comprises: the carbon source in an amount of between 60% to 95% (w / w); the plasticiser in an amount of between 5% to 20% (w / w); and the conductivity agent in an amount of between 0.1% to 15% (w / w).

12. The first reaction vessel of any one of claims 8 to 9, wherein the first reaction mix comprises: the carbon source in an amount of between 65% to 80% (w / w);the conductivity agent in an amount of between 0.1% to 3% (w / w); the plasticiser in an amount of between 4% to 6.5% (w / w); and the plurality of metal particles in an amount of between 1% to 3% (w / w).

13. The first reaction vessel of claim 12, wherein the carbon source comprises a carbohydrate and a microalgae, wherein the conductivity agent comprises humates, and wherein the plasticiser comprises zeolites.

14. The first reaction vessel of any one of claims 8 to 9, wherein the first reaction mix comprises: the carbon source in an amount of between 85% to 95% (w / w); the conductivity agent in an amount of between 5% to 8% (w / w); and the plurality of metal particles in an amount of between 2.5% to 8% (w / w).

15. The first reaction vessel of claim 14, wherein the carbon source comprises sugarcane, wherein the conductivity agent comprises humates, and wherein the plasticiser comprises zeolites.

16. The first reaction vessel of claim 8 to 9, wherein the first reaction mix comprises: the carbon source in an amount of between 60% to 75% (w / w); the conductivity agent in an amount of between 1% to 3% (w / w); the plasticiser in an amount of between 3% to 5% (w / w); and the plurality of metal particles in an amount of between 0.1% to 3% (w / w).

17. The first reaction vessel of claim 16, wherein the carbon source comprises coal, wherein the conductivity agent comprises humates, and wherein the plasticiser comprises zeolites.

18. The first reaction vessel of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the first reaction mix has been heated to between 20°C to 90°C, for 1 minute to 30 minutes.

19. The first reaction vessel of any one of claims 1 to 17, wherein the first reaction mix has an exothermic reaction of between 33°C to 72°C.

20. The first reaction vessel of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the first electrode is a negative electrode and wherein the negative electrode comprises nickel.

21. The first reaction vessel of claim 20, wherein the negative electrode is configured as a nickel-plated rod.

22. The first reaction vessel of claim 21, wherein the nickel-plated rod protrudes inwardly from a bottom side of the first reaction vessel and such that the nickel-plated rod protrudes into the first reaction vessel.

23. The first reaction vessel of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the first reaction vessel comprises an aluminium coating.

24. The first reaction vessel of any one of the preceding claims, wherein a top end of the first reaction vessel comprises a gas permeable layer.

25. The first reaction vessel of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the first reaction vessel is an organic hydrogen electrolyser cell.

26. The first reaction vessel of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the first reaction vessel is housed within a second reaction vessel, wherein the second reaction vessel comprises liquid in an amount such that the first reaction vessel is substantially submerged in the liquid in the second reaction vessel.

27. The first reaction vessel of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the first reaction vessel is adapted to produce hydrogen gas.

28. The first reaction vessel of any one of claims 1 to 26, wherein the first reaction vessel is adapted to produce electricity.

29. The first reaction vessel of any one of claims 1 to 26 or 28, wherein the first reaction vessel further comprises a second electrode, wherein the second electrode is a positive electrode, wherein the positive electrode is configured as a copper coil, wherein the copper coil is configured to be coiled around the first electrode.

30. The first reaction vessel of any one of the preceding claims, wherein the temperature of the first reaction vessel is between 20°C to 75°C, and wherein the pressure of the reaction vessel is at or less than about 101 kPa.

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