Architectural cementitious supercapacitors that combine modular energy storage with structural support

Abstract

Modular construction elements comprised of structural supercapacitors composed of a conductive composite and methods of manufacturing are described herein. The conductive composite has a controllable transport porosity, that enables transport of electrical charge, via electrolyte solution, to a distributed conductive network within the composite. The distributed conductive network has a controllable storage porosity that enables the storage of electrical charge. Modular construction elements can be connected to build desired architectural structures in a variety of different fields of use. Similarly, modular construction elements can be connected to form one or more electrical systems that enable the storage, transport, and discharge of electrical energy using the distributed conductive network. The modular construction elements provide an adaptable building system able to simultaneously address structural and energy storage needs.

Description

Architectural Cementitious Supercapacitors that Combine Modular Energy Storage with Structural SupportRELATED APPLICATION

[0001] This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 63 / 697,049, filed on September 20, 2024. The entire teachings of the above application are incorporated herein by reference.BACKGROUND

[0002] Traditionally cement and cementitious materials primarily serve as load-bearing elements and there is no material that can replace cement in the foreseeable future capable of meeting societies’ needs for housing, shelter, and infrastructure. Nevertheless, cement faces an uncertain future due to a non-negligible ecological footprint that amounts to 5-10% of the worldwide CO2 production. Separately, battery / supercapacitor technologies are employed to meet the growing need for electrical energy storage. The current ability to address this growing need is limited in part because existing supercapacitor technologies often use expensive and globally rare material precursors like cobalt and lithium.

[0003] The drawback of traditional construction methods and materials stems, in part, from the compartmentalization of load -bearing and energy storage functions. Traditional construction materials, such as concrete, cannot store electrical energy, requiring reliance on and the creation of separate battery or supercapacitor elements and systems. This separation leads to increased resource requirements and complexity. However, thanks to breakthroughs in science and engineering, conductive cementitious materials can be created that have a novel potential to contribute to a sustainable development encompassing economic growth and social progress while minimizing the ecological footprint by addressing both structural and energy storage needs. A need exists for adaptable construction elements that integrate energy storage functionality with the elements’ structural capabilities that also use uses low cost and globally abundant material precursors.SUMMARY- 1 -4175166 vl

[0004] Embodiments of the invention integrate energy storage functionality into concrete structures, while preserving their load-bearing capacity. Consequently, the embodiments have the potential to significantly reduce reliance on currently employed energy storage technology which use of globally rare minerals. Embodiments of the invention utilize and include the creation of construction elements or units that can serve independently or jointly as energy storage devices while simultaneously acting as a modular construction system, integrating structural support and energy storage. By stacking or otherwise combining modular construction elements, it is possible to create a wide range of structural forms ranging from walls and columns to more complex arches, vaults, and domes. This mirrors how individual bricks have been and are used to build larger complex structures in existing masonry construction methods. Furthermore, these modular construction elements also function as supercapacitors that serve as energy storage devices, connectable in series or parallel, able to satisfy a wide range of voltage and current needs in many application-specific designs.

[0005] The inventions’ unconventional and novel combination of structural and energy storage elements within a single material challenges and overcomes the traditional boundaries of construction technology. The resulting architectural cementitious supercapacitors address the need for economical, multi-functional, and scalable energy storage solutions creatable from globally abundant raw materials while also serving as a flexible, adaptable and modular construction system that can be easily incorporated into a built environment.

[0006] Embodiments of the invention include a modular supercapacitor comprising plural load-bearing elements. Each load-bearing element comprising at least one current collector and at least two electrodes comprising an electrically conductive composite wherein the least two electrodes are separated by a dielectric porous medium. The plural load-bearing elements are configured to store electrical energy and are further configured to interface with at additional load load-bearing elements and collectively from an architectural geometry.

[0007] The electrically conductive composite can comprise: (i) a cementitious matrix; (ii) an electrolyte solution configured to transmit the electrical energy; and (iii) a network of nanoporous carbon nanoparticles configured to store the electrical energy.

[0008] In such embodiments, the network of nanoporous carbon nanoparticles can be located in a capillary pore network of the cementitious matrix. The network of nanoporous carbon- 2 -4175166 vl98001 nanoparticles can be comprised of at least one of graphite, carbon black, carbon nanotubes, C60, or other conductive carbon derivative. The cementitious matrix can be comprised of at least one of cement, concrete, or composition that includes an aqueous curing step. The electrolyte solution can be hosted in a transport porosity of the cementitious matrix, the transport porosity dependent upon an amount of a fluid in the conductive composite.

[0009] The plural load-bearing elements may be aligned along at least one axis of compression. The axis of compression can enable at least one of transmitting electrical energy between the plural load-bearing elements and stability of the formed architectural geometry.

[0010] The formed architectural geometry can be at least one of a plane, a column, an arch, a vault, a dome, a tile, a block, a wall, or a floor.

[0011] Embodiments of the invention may include a manufacturing a modular supercapacitor. An example method may comprise creating a chemically reactive mixture including a non-conductive binder, porous electrically conductive particles, and fluid, and producing, by means of chemical reactions of the chemically reactive mixture, a composite that includes an electrically conductive percolated network hosting a porosity for charge storage and a non-electrically conductive structural matrix, the non-electrically conductive structural matrix having a controlled transport porosity configured to host an electrolyte solution. The method also includes forming, from the composite, a load bearing element, the load bearing element configured to interface with at least one additional load load-bearing element and collectively from an architectural geometry.

[0012] Producing the composite may include controlling an amount of fluid applied to the chemically reactive mixture to create the controlled transport porosity. In such embodiments, controlling the amount of the fluid in the chemically reactive mixture may include adding an amount that exceeds a level that is required for formation of the non-electrically conductive structural matrix.

[0013] The electrical charge / discharge rate of the composite may be dependent upon the controlled transport porosity. The chemically reactive mixture may further includes a dispersing agent

[0014] The non-conductive binder can be cement, concrete, or composition that includes an aqueous curing step. The non-conductive binder can include supplementary cementitious- 3 -4175166 vl98001 materials (SCM) selected from a group consisting of: fly ash, silica fume, slags, and other soluble siliceous, aluminosiliceous, or calcium aluminosiliceous powders used as partial replacements of clinker in cements or as partial replacements of Portland cement in concrete mixtures; and superplasticizers

[0015] The porous electrically-conductive particles can be selected from a group having an accessible specific surface, the group consisting of: carbon black nanoparticles, activated carbon, carbon nanotubes, mXene, a metal-organic framework, or a mix of electrically-conductive particles.

[0016] The formed load bearing element may be a supercapacitor comprised of a first electrode and a second electrode separated by a non-conductive separator, the load bearing element configured to provide a means of storing and retrieving energy via the first and the second electrode structures.

[0017] The formed architectural geometry can be at least one of a plane, a column, an arch, a vault, a dome, a tile, a block, a wall, or a floor.BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0018] The patent or application file contains at least one drawing executed in color. Copies of this patent or patent application publication with color drawings will be provided by the Office upon request and payment of the necessary fee.

[0019] The foregoing will be apparent from the following more particular description of example embodiments, as illustrated in the accompanying drawings in which like reference characters refer to the same parts throughout the different views. The drawings are not necessarily to scale, emphasis instead being placed upon illustrating embodiments.

[0020] FIG. 1A is a picture of a symmetrical arrangement of two electrodes, comprised of a cement composite utilized by embodiments of the invention.

[0021] FIG. IB is a picture of a sample symmetrical arrangement of two electrodes within a closed cell.

[0022] FIG. 2 is a schematic of a modular construction element and a column structure, comprised of multiple modular construction elements, demonstrating embodiments of the invention.- 4 -4175166 vl98001

[0023] FIG. 3 A is a schematic of an arch structure, comprised of multiple modular construction elements, demonstrating an embodiment of the invention.

[0024] FIG. 3B is schematics of example structures, comprised of multiple modular construction elements, demonstrating embodiments of the invention.

[0025] FIG. 4A is a picture of a column structure comprised of modular construction elements demonstrating an embodiment of the invention.

[0026] FIG. 4B is a graph of cyclic voltammetry (CV) curves recorded at different prescribed scan rates for the sample column structure shown in FIG 4A.

[0027] FIG. 4C is a set of pictures of a column structure comprised of modular construction elements powering electronic devices.

[0028] FIG. 5 is a set of graphs, showing the results of the capacitance testing for two sets of electrodes comprised of the cement composite utilized by embodiments of the invention.

[0029] FIG. 6 is a graph of the capacitance as a function of carbon surface area of three sample cement composites created with different carbon particles utilized by embodiments of the invention.

[0030] FIG. 7 is a set of graphs demonstrating the effect of aggregate content on the performance of electrodes comprised of the cement composite utilized by embodiments of the invention.

[0031] FIG. 8 is a graph demonstrating effect of molarity of an ionic electrolyte solution on capacitance of electrodes comprised of the cement composite utilized by embodiments of the invention.

[0032] FIG. 9 is a graph of graph of cyclic voltammetry (CV) curves of electrodes hosting different ionic electrolyte solutions comprised of the cement composite utilized by embodiments of the invention.DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0033] A description of example embodiments follows.

[0034] Embodiments of the invention are innovative departures from conventional construction and energy storage methods and utilize structural supercapacitors configured to modularly connect to form larger structures and combined electrical systems. Embodiments- 5 -4175166 vl98001 integrate energy storage functionality with load-bearing capabilities by using electronconducting carbon concrete to create individual geometrically variable load-bearing elements that are also supercapacitors configured to store and discharge electrical energy. These individual load-bearing elements can be used as building blocks for larger diverse structures and architectural geometries and are referred to herein as “modular construction elements.” This approach diverges from traditionally compartmentalized construction systems that address structural and energy storage needs separately.

[0035] Embodiments of the invention achieve their dual use capabilities through the development of and use of a novel electrolyte-containing blend of nano carbon black, cement, aggregate, and superplasticizer that can be cast into an application-specific forms. Use of this novel material enables the creation of an electron-conducting carbon concrete composite that can be used as electrodes of structural supercapacitors. The structural supercapacitors can then form or be included in the modular construction units. The modular construction units can be connected to build a wide range architectural geometries also capable of storing energy in electrical systems formed from their component structural supercapacitors. Furthermore, by controlling aggregate addition, water content, electrolyte formulation, and other parameters when creating the electron-conducting carbon composite its properties, and the properties of the structural supercapacitors it comprises, can be adjusted to achieve specific performance metrics in a non-intuitive manner. The unconventional combination of structural and energy storage elements within a single material, the electron-conducting carbon composite, and use of that material to form structural supercapacitors that serve as modular building units, challenges the traditional boundaries of provides an improvement over existing construction and electrical energy storage technology.

[0036] Traditionally, construction methods and energy storage technologies are implemented separately. Load-bearing structures rely on conventional concrete or similar materials, while electrical energy storage is managed by standalone batteries or supercapacitors employing globally rare elements such as cobalt and lithium. This existing dual-system approach results in a compartmentalization of functions, contributing to increased project costs, inefficiencies, and environmental concerns. By using modular construction units built with electron-conducting carbon concrete embodiments of the invention integrate energy storage functionality with the- 6 -4175166 vl98001 load-bearing capabilities and eliminate the compartmentalization of those functions, streamlining construction processes

[0037] Embodiments of the invention expand the application space of electrically conductive carbon concrete to include the creation and use of modular energy-storing structural elements. The elements’ modular design provides flexibility and adaptability to address a wide range of structural as well as energy storage needs. Multiple modular elements can be combined to build a desired physical structure or support system while simultaneously the modular elements can be connected to form one or more energy storage devices. In summary, embodiments of the invention provide a holistic structural and energy solution, enhancing efficiency, costeffectiveness, sustainability, and versatility in the construction industry.

[0038] Electron-Conducting Carbon Concrete

[0039] Embodiments of the invention integrate energy storage functionality with the loadbearing capabilities of electron-conducting carbon concrete composite, also referred to herein as a cement-based material or cement. The electron-conducting carbon concrete provides a dual porosity system composed of (1) the cement’s porosity acting as a reservoir / transport path for an electrolyte (referred to herein as “transport porosity”), and (2) carbon’s porosity, acting as active porosity for energy storage, either in or in close vicinity of the porosity (referred to herein as “storage porosity”) due to the electron conductive nature of carbon. The transport porosity optimizes diffusion of the electrolyte to the storage porosity and can be fine-tuned through engineering a hydration process of the cement-based material. In its turn, the storage porosity is fine-tuned through the choice of the carbon material, preferably having a high specific surface area, and its distribution in the cement. The synergy of these two elements enables synthesizing high-rate capability cement-carbon composite supercapacitors with controllable capacitance and electrical charge / discharge rate which in turn can be utilized as modular energy-storing structural elements.

[0040] Embodiments of the invention include a modular structural supercapacitor and methods of manufacturing thereof comprised of a cement-carbon composite (“composite”) that is able act as both a structural building material, e.g., hydraulic cement, and a conductive material able to store and distribute energy. The composite provides alternative energy storage solutions to existing battery technologies that uses inexpensive and readily available material precursors- 7 -4175166 vlable to be sourced at a global scale. The composite is capable of forming a high-rate capability supercapacitors used to store and distribute energy in contrast to the chemical energy conversion used for energy storage by batteries. The high-rate capability supercapacitors are also capable of interfacing structurally and electrically with each other providing modular building bocks for larger structures and systems.

[0041] High-rate capability supercapacitors rely on three elements: (i) an electron conductive network for charging the electrodes; (ii) a storage porosity of high specific surface area onto which an oppositely charged surface layer adsorbs; and (iii) a reservoir porosity for charge transport by ion-diffusion through a saturating electrolyte to or away from the surface layer.

[0042] The composite is a result of a chemically reactive mixture that creates a non- electrically conductive porous material that acts as structural support matrix and an insulator that contains, within its pores, an electrically conductive network, this provides element (iii) a reservoir porosity for charge transport by ion-diffusion through a saturating electrolyte to or away from the surface layer needed to create a supercapacitor. The porosity of the non- electrically conductive porous material is defined as the composite’s “transport porosity.” The electrically conductive network is distributed throughout the non-electrically conductive porous material and includes particles that have a porosity that enables storage of electrical charge. The porosity of the electrically conductive network is defined as the composite’s “storage porosity;” this provides element (ii) a storage porosity of high specific surface area onto which an oppositely charged surface layer adsorbs needed to create a supercapacitor. Finally, the non- electrically conductive porous material also hosts an electrolyte solution within its pores that connects and enables the deposition and / or withdrawal of electrical charge from the electrically conductive network, which provides element (i) an electron conductive network for charging the electrodes needed to create a supercapacitor.

[0043] As used herein and in the accompanying claims, a “electrically conductive percolated network” means a network formed by continuous connection of conductive particles that have percolated a capillary pore network of a composite to a sufficient degree to make the composite electrically conductive. A “electrically conductive percolated network of conductive particles” can, but need not, substantially or completely fill the porosity of the capillary pore network of the- 8 -4175166 vlcomposite. A capillary pore network within a composite, for example a cement composite, can, for example, include pores between about 5 nanometers and about 1 micron in size.

[0044] As used herein, a “non-electrically conductive structural matrix” means the solid that is formed by the chemical reaction, such as the solid that is formed by the hydration reactions of hydraulic cement with water that acts as a non-conductive insulator and is capable of supporting a structural load. Additionally, the non-electrically conductive structural matrix has a porosity (transport porosity) that enables it to contain the electrically conductive percolated network and an electrolyte solution.

[0045] Embodiments of the invention include modular construction elements that also can function as superconductors and electrical conductors that include at least one electrode, in various arrangements, made of the disclosed composite. In addition, the modular construction elements can be used in a variety of different possible fields of use, including, for example: a structural super-capacitor used as an energy solution for autonomous housing and other buildings; a heated cement for pavement deicing or house basement insulation against capillary rise; a protection of concrete against freeze-thaw (FT) or alkali silica reaction (ASR) or other crystallization degradation processes; as a conductive cable, wire or concrete trace, to build renewable energy sources, such as wind turbines, that can store the energy they generate.

[0046] The transport porosity of the composite may be large enough to allow for sufficient distribution of the electrically conductive network as well as the connection of that network to the stored electrolyte solution, providing both sufficient means of storing charge and accessing that stored charge. However, the transport porosity cannot be so large so that the non-electrically conductive porous material loses strength and can no longer carry any load as a safe structural and non-structural material. The transport porosity of the resulting composite is controllable based upon the ratio of the components of the chemically reactive mixture that produces the composite. Therefore, embodiments of the invention can ensure that the composite and the modular elements that utilize it have the required properties to form a supercapacitor while still being a functional and adaptable building material.

[0047] A supercapacitor can be constructed of a conductive carbon-cement composite formed by the hydration process of a mixture comprising a mineral precursor, such as hydraulic cement, that reacts with water to form solid cement hydrates. The solid cement hydrates act as- 9 -4175166 vlan insulator and carbon particles, that form a network within the insulator, are able to store and discharge electrical energy. The network is formed by a continuous connection of carbon particles that have percolated throughout the capillary pore network of the hydrated cement, or other porous insulator, to a sufficient degree to make the composite electrically conductive. The network of carbon particles can, but need not, substantially or completely fill the porosity of the capillary pore network of the cement composite. A capillary pore network within a cement composite can, for example, include pores between about 5 nanometers and about 1 micron in size. While, the embodiments presented herein disclose use of a cement mineral precursor, it should be clear to one skilled in the art that other mineral precursors that undergo a hydration process thereby leaving behind a sizeable porosity, and act as a non-conductive binder (such as in swelling clay) could be used by alternative embodiments of the invention, provided that an electron-conducting network of conductive particles through the insulating hydrated phase can be established.

[0048] Similarly, the embodiments presented herein disclose a use of water, or water-based solutions, as a hydrating fluid, but it should be clear to one skilled in the art that other fluids may be utilized.

[0049] In some non-limiting embodiments, the resulting carbon-cement composite may comprise between about 2% by weight and about 15% by weight of the carbon particles with respect to the hydraulic cement in the total initial mix comprising the hydraulic cement, the water, and the carbon particles. The composite may utilize a water-to-cement ratio between about 0.5 and about 1.4. The carbon particles can be a carbon material comprising a dominating population of carbon atoms engaged in sp2-hybridization (trigonal hybridization). The carbon particles may be nanoparticles and that can define a pore size of less than about 10 nanometer. In other embodiments, the carbon particles may be nanoparticles and that can define a pore size of less than about 1 nanometer. The carbon particles may comprise at least one of: Vulcan carbon black, Ketjen carbon black, PBX carbon black, and an activated porous carbon, such as AX-21 or a saccharose coke; and can define a pore size of less than about 1 nanometer. The PBX carbon black can, for example, be PBX® 55 carbon black, sold by Cabot Corporation of Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.A.- 10 -4175166 vl98001

[0050] As used herein, “hydraulic cement” is a cement that sets in the presence of water and forms a water-resistant product. Examples include Portland cement, Portland cement blends, and calcium sulfoaluminate cements. However, the resulting insulator cement will have a transport porosity that enables fluidic transport through the solid insulator. In other words, the formed cement hydrate will have voids through which fluid can travel or be stored within.

[0051] As used herein, “Portland cement” is defined in accordance with ASTM Standard Cl 50, the entire teachings of which are incorporated herein by reference. More particularly, “Portland cement” as used herein refers to hydraulic cement (z.e., cement that not only hardens by reacting with water but also forms a water-resistant product) produced by pulverizing “clinkers” which consist essentially of hydraulic calcium silicates, usually containing one or more forms of calcium sulphate.

[0052] The mineral precursor utilized by embodiments of the invention, may be a hydraulic cement and can include Portland cement, and the resulting composite can include between about 50% by weight and about 70% by weight of Portland cement, such as about 60% by weight of Portland cement, with respect to a total initial mix comprising the hydraulic cement, an optional dispersing agent, the water, and the carbon particles. The network of carbon particles can substantially fill a capillary pore network of the cement composite. The capillary pore network can include pores between about 5 nanometers and about 1 micron in size. The electrically conductive cement composite can comprise a greater than 90 percent connected percolating pore network that hosts the carbon particles that form a continuous percolating network of carbon particles able to store, receive and discharge electrical charge. The carbon particles can have a specific surface area less than about 3000 m2 / g, and in some embodiments a specific surface area less than about 300 m2 / g.

[0053] Additionally, an electrically conductive mortar can be made that includes fine aggregate and any of the electrically conductive cement composites taught or contemplated herein. An electrically conductive concrete can also be made that includes sand, gravel aggregates, or other conductive or non-conductive aggregates, and any of the electrically conductive composites taught or contemplated herein. The aggregates, if added, may be of any shape or size. Other embodiment mays also include an addition of supplementary cementitious materials (SCM), such as fly ash, silica fume, slags, agents to control setting of the cement, such- 11 -4175166 vl98001 as superplasticizers, to the mineral precursor, and other soluble siliceous, aluminosiliceous, or calcium aluminosiliceous powders used as partial replacements of clinker in cements or as partial replacements of Portland cement in concrete mixtures; and superplastizers.

[0054] A high-rate capability cement-carbon supercapacitor utilized as or components of modular constructure elements of some embodiments of the present invention has a target transport porosity that is (1) large enough to accommodate an electrolyte solution, and (2) fully connected so that electrolyte can reach the carbon particles distributed in the material to form an electron conductive network (sometimes referred to as “a volumetric wire” or “electrically conductive network”).

[0055] In ordinary Portland cement materials (i.e., without carbon particles), porosity is created by modulating the hydration process, e.g., controlling the water-to-cement mass ratio. More specifically, for a full hydration of the cement clinker, a specific amount of water is required, which is a so-called stoichiometric limit defined by stoichiometry (mass balance) of chemical reactants (clinker and water) and chemical products (hydration products). For ordinary Portland cement-based materials, this stoichiometric limit translates into a water-to-cement mass ratio (“W / C”) = 0.42. Hence, a cement-based material prepared at a W / C ratio greater than 0.42 entails a residual water content at the end of the hydration process, i.e., water not consumed in the hydration process. In embodiments of invention, this stoichiometric limit equally applies to carbon-cement composites. The residual cement porosity created by water in excess of the stoichiometric limit plays the role of the transport porosity in the electrodes of supercapacitors. This transport porosity is further connected by the so-called gel porosity of the hydration products, which is much smaller in size; typically, in the 10s of nanometers, compared to the micrometer-sized porosity that dominates the transport porosity.

[0056] Example embodiments of the invention utilize water-to-cement (mass) ratios “W / C” of 0.42, 0.6 and 0.8. According to classical tools of cement science, these W / C ratios translate into a residual porosity of ~0, 19, and 34 vol% of the cement hydration products, as determined from the Powers-Brownyard hydration model.

[0057] Electrical energy (transported through the electrolyte) is stored on large surface areas of the carbon particles that form the electrically conductive network, most likely in a double layer at an interface between the surface of the conducting carbon particle and the electrolytic- 12 -4175166 vl98001 solution saturating the transport porosity. Therefore, the energy storage capacity depends on the surface area of the carbon particles. While this is well known for typical carbon-based (only) supercapacitors with hierarchical porosity structures, embodiments of the invention utilize this principle in a novel way to create the carbon-cement composites. The cement’s porosity acts as the transport porosity, whereas the carbon’s porosity and its surface in combination acts as storage porosity. Otherwise said, embodiments of the invention use a combination of storage porosity of the particles comprising the electrically conductive network with an engineered and controllable transport porosity of the non-electrically conductive porous material, e.g., cementhydration matrix, to provide the means to generate high-rate capability structural supercapacitors that also serve as modular building elements or units.

[0058] Example embodiments of the invention utilize three types of carbon black particles of different surface area, namely PBX, Vulcan, and Ketjen Black, which exhibit three different surface areas, namely 50 m2 / g; 240 m2 / g and 1,300 m2 / g determined from Brunauer-Emmett- Teller, BET, measurements. Pore size, volume, and surface measurements of the three different carbon black particles, which differ primarily in the specific surface (BET or Non-local density functional theory, NLDFT, methods were used for the determination of the specific surface areas) are displayed below in Table 1. The results have been obtained based on Argon adsorption at 87K (for the BET); and Argon adsorption at 87K and CO2 adsorption at 273K using a dual-fit method.

[0059] Table 1

[0060]

[0061] In order to translate the specific surface of the carbon black powder into the actual specific surface available for energy storage in cement-carbon composites, the theoretical4175166 vl98001 specific surface was determined by multiplying the BET specific surface by the actual weight of the carbon black in the sample. This calculation assumes that the entire surface of the carbon available in our composite material is accessible to energy storage. This assumed accessible surface area is referred to hereinafter as theoretical carbon surface area (expressed in m2).

[0062] To store charge in a sample of the composite, a voltage source is applied to the external surface of the sample. When acting as modular building elements, a voltage differential may be applied across multiple composite samples connected in series or in parallel. The voltage difference between the voltage source and the electrically conductive network will drive charge from the source to the electrically conductive network. An electrolyte solution enables transport of the charge from the voltage source, through the non-electrically conductive porous material and to the distributed electrically conductive network therein. The electrically conductive network is able to store the transported charge using the surface porosity of the carbon particles. Similarly, electrical charge is discharged from a sample by connecting a negative voltage source to the composite and the voltage difference will drive charge stored in the electrically conductive network, through the non-electrically conductive porous material via the electrolyte solution to the negative voltage source. It would be known to those skilled in the art that a variety of methods, means and systems can be used to control the charging, storage, and discharge of electrical charge. Embodiments of the invention can utilize any existing art for the charging, storage, and / or discharging of electrical charge in a conductive material, capacitor, or supercapacitor. In some embodiments, a processor, or other computation device, may be utilized to control the application of voltage sources (positive and negative) to the composite and the resulting charging, storage, and / or discharging of electrical charge. Additionally, any manner of conductive material may be utilized to connect voltage sources to a sample composite to improve / control the flow of electrical charge to and from the composite or modular structural element(s). Similarly, any manner of conductive material may be used to connect sample composites to each other to enable them to function as modular units that form a unified electrical system.

[0063] A supercapacitor can be constructed from at least two electrodes formed of electrically conductive composites taught herein, separated by a dielectric porous medium permeable to electrolyte species. The constructed supercapacitor is able to function as both a- 14 -4175166 vl98001 medium for electrical charge storage and distribution as well as a modular structural or non- structural (e.g., mortar layer) element in a building or other structure. The dielectric porous medium may comprise a separator membrane comprising at least one of paper and Portland cement. Each of the conductive samples may comprise a sheet comprising the electrically conductive composite, the sheet being less than about 100 cm thick, such as less than about 10 cm thick. The structural supercapacitor may be in electrical connection with an energy source, such as at least one of a solar energy source, a wind power source, a biofuel energy source, a biomass energy source, a geothermal power source, a hydropower source, a tidal power source and a wave power source. The structural supercapacitor may be in electrical connection with a battery. Any desired number of structural supercapacitor may be in electrical connection with each other to form a combined electrical system that distributes and jointly stores energy.

[0064] The constructed supercapacitor serves as or forms an element of a modular construction element. The modular construction element may further include components configured to interface, both physically and conductively with additional modular construction elements. When combined, modular construction elements can form an array of desired architectural forms as well as desired configurations of electrical storage devices(s), satisfying both energy storage and structural needs.

[0065] Example Sample Preparation

[0066] Example embodiments for methods for creating a structural supercapacitor include a method for creating an electron-conducting cement-carbon. This method is described in detail in U.S. Application No. 16 / 245,752, now U.S. Patent No. 10,875,809, and U.S. Application No. 18 / 365,677 the entire teachings of which are incorporated herein by reference. Some embodiments do not require the addition of a dispersant in the chemical reactive mixture. The rational of not using a dispersant is two-fold: (i) it provides a baseline of a reference electron conductivity achieved with different nano-carbon black materials; (ii) this reference permits a direct comparison of different mix designs, excluding the positive or negative impact of a dispersant agent in the material. Alternatively, other embodiments of the invention include a dispersant agent, and the invention will work with or without dispersant. In such embodiments, a “dispersing agent” is an agent that disperses a carbon phase including carbon particles, in water. For non-limiting example, carboxymethyl cellulose or a cellulose based polymer can be used.- 15 -4175166 vl98001

[0067] In one non-limiting example, first, cement and carbon powders are mixed using an overhead stirrer to create a dry mix. Water is then added under continuous stirring to obtain the target W / C ratio to create a cement / carbon paste. Alternatively, cement, carbon powders, water, and any other desired additive or aggregate may be added concurrently. The cement / carbon paste is then cast into a polycarbonate mold of 2.2 cm diameter, which define the geometric area (3.8 cm2) of electrodes comprised of the composite produced by a chemical reaction, e.g., hydration, of the created cement / carbon paste. Alternative embodiments of the invention can create or use electrodes of any desired shape or size. The samples are sealed with parafilm at both ends and immersed in a lime / water solution during the hydration process. During the hydration process, a chemical reaction will form a non-electrically conductive structural matrix, the hardened cement, that includes an electrically conductive network able to store charge, the carbon particles distributed throughout the structural matrix. Additionally, the porous nature of the non-electrically conductive structural matrix will create a transport porosity that connects, and provides access to, the distributed electrically conductive network.

[0068] Hardened samples are unmolded after at least 28 days, following the practice of concrete engineering. The electrodes are then cut from the hardened samples with a low-speed rotating saw to a specified thickness and the surface of the electrodes are then polished with a sequence of SiC papers of decreasing abrasiveness. The electrodes are then placed in an electrolyte solution which saturates the transport porosity of the non-electrically conductive structural matrix. In a specific non-limiting example embodiment, the electrolyte solution is a one molar solution of potassium chloride solution (KC1 IM). When the electrolyte solution saturates the transport porosity it connects and allows charge to flow to and from the electrically conductive percolated network. As used herein, “saturation” means filling a majority of the transport porosity, but does not require filling all of the transport porosity. A measurement device can then be used to record the charge storage capacity and dispersion rate of energy stored in the electrodes.

[0069] Other methods of manufacturing can be utilized to create the conductive composite and electrodes and modular structural supercapacitors comprised of thereof. In some embodiments, these methods may be additive manufacturing such as, but not limited to, 3-D printing.- 16 -4175166 vl98001

[0070] Electrode Arrangement and Modular Elements

[0071] FIG. 1A is a sample 100 with a symmetrical arrangement of two electrodes 101a and 101b, comprised of a cement composite utilized by embodiments of the invention. While FIG. 1A shows one possible geometric arrangement of electrodes 101a, and 101b, alternative embodiments of the invention may arrange electrodes in any desired numerical, geometric, and distribution arrangements, for non-limiting example, in series or in parallel, that enable the charging, storage, and discharge of electrical charge. The samples comprise two symmetric porous electrodes 101a and 101b (collectively 101) of thickness d made of the hardened carbon- cement composite disclosed herein separated by a glassy fiber separator 102 and arranged to form an electric double layer capacitor (EDLC) system. The electrodes are saturated with an electrolyte solution (KC1) and the separator 102 was soaked in the same electrolyte solution (KC1 IM). With limited resistance, charge can flow freely within the electrodes 101, using the electrolyte solution within their transport porosity and to and from the electrically conductive network within the electrodes 101. The electrodes 101 were covered by conductive graphitic paper 103a and 103b (collectively 103) that served as current collectors. Other materials may be used as current collectors and be configured to transmit charge between multiple samples 100 and / or voltage sources. For testing, sample 100 was sealed using o-rings 105 in a closed cell 107, as shown in FIG. IB, to avoid loss of electrolyte solution by evaporation. FIG. IB is a picture of a sample 100 symmetrical arrangement of two electrodes enclosed by o-rings 105.

[0072] FIG. 2 is a schematic of a modular construction element 200 and a column structure 210, comprised of multiple modular construction elements demonstrating embodiments of the invention. Modular construction element 200 may be, formed of, or comprise sample 100, shown in FIG. 1A. Modular construction element 200 includes electrodes 201a, 202b separated by a porous separator 202. Electrodes 201a, 202b are comprised of the conductive cement composite disclosed herein. Alternative embodiments of modular construction element 200 may include different numbers or arrangements of electrodes 201a, 202b sufficient to store and discharge electrical energy utilizing the transport and storage porosity of the cement composite. Modular construction element 200 also includes current collectors 203a, 203b located and configured to transmit, receive, charge, and discharge electrical energy to and from electrodes 201a, 202b. Current collectors 203a, 203b may be further configured to electrically interface- 17 -4175166 vl98001 with additional modular construction element 200 and / or external voltage sources to enable them to act as singular device for electrical energy storage or transmission.

[0073] Modular construction elements 200 provide a construction system that integrates structural support and energy storage. Column structure 210 is comprised of multiple modular construction elements 200. Multiple modular construction elements 200 can be configured to interface structurally to form column structure 210 in any desired way as well as be connected with external structural elements such as scaffolding, mortar, or other structures. Column structure 210 includes a localized axis of compression 211 that can provide structural stability and enable its component modular construction elements 200 to form a connected electrical system 212. Connected electrical system 212 can be used to store, transmit, receive, or discharge charge and electrical energy stored within the conductive composite material comprising the modular construction elements 200 of structure 210. Embodiments of the invention may create structures 210 of any shape or design using the modular nature of construction elements 200. Furthermore, as disclosed herein, the structural and physical properties of the composite material comprising the modular construction elements 200 of structure 210 can be controlled during its formation to meet the structural needs or standards. Similarly, embodiments of the invention may create, using modular construction elements 200, any desired number electrical systems 212 with desired configurations and properties. The electrical properties of the of the composite material comprising the modular construction elements 200 that form electrical systems 212 can also be controlled during its formation to meet the electrical and energy storage needs of electrical systems 212. Structure 210 and electrical system 212, both created using the same adaptable, low cost, and efficient modular construction elements 200, providing a joint solution to both structural and energy storage requirements and eliminating the existing compartmentalization and separation between those functions.

[0074] The axis of compression 211 allows for the harnessing and appropriation of physical forces to further enable and improve the energy storage properties of modular construction elements 200 as well as the structures 210 and the electrical systems 212 they form. Forces applied along the axis of compression 211 may provide a cohesive force for both individual modular construction elements 200, between modular construction elements 200, and the structure 210. Cohesive and compression forces applied along the axis of compression 211 can- 18 -4175166 vl98001 create connections between construction elements 200, for example, ensuring current collections 203a, 203b are able to transmit electrical energy and charge between multiple construction elements 200 and within, into, or out of connected electrical system 212. Force may be applied along the axis of compression 211 as a result of the geometry of structure 210, for example, the effects of gravity, friction, or other structural forces.

[0075] FIG. 3 A is a schematic of an arch structure 310, comprised of multiple modular construction elements 100, 200, 300 demonstrating an embodiment of the invention. Modular construction elements 100, 200, 300 may be, formed from, or include sample 100, shown in FIG. 1 A. Some structures 310 created by modular construction elements 200, 300 may include multiple axis of compression 311a, 311b. These axis of compression 31 la, 31 lb can be harnessed in the same manner as single axis of compression 212 and provide added structural stability and use forces applied along them to create, improve, and maintain connected electrical system 312.

[0076] FIG. 3B is schematics of example structures 320a-g, comprised of multiple modular construction elements 100, 200, 300, demonstrating embodiments of the invention. By connecting modular construction elements 100, 200, 300, it is possible to create a wide range of structural forms 320a-g including, but not limited to, platforms 320a, columns 320b, walls 320c, arches 320d, vaults 320e and 320f, and domes 320g. It would be apparent to one skilled in the art that structural forms 320a-g are sample architectural geometries and that other desired geometries can also be formed using modular construction elements 100, 200, 300. It would be further apparent to one skilled in the art that individual modular construction elements 100, 200, 300 may also be of any desired geometry or dimensions.

[0077] In structures 320a-g, modular construction elements 100, 200, 300 can be connected in series or parallel to form one or more electrical systems 212, 312 to meet a wide range of voltage and current needs in an application-specific design strategy. Electrical systems 212, 312 can be configured to receive or discharge electrical energy and charge at any desired location(s) of structural forms 320a-g using any desired individual modular construction element(s) 100, 200, 300.

[0078] Through the formation of a connected electrical system 212, 312, embodiments of the invention are capable of obtaining electrical properties, such as charge storage capacity, difficult- 19 -4175166 vl98001 or incapable being achieved with only individual modular construction element 100, 200, 300. As a non-limiting example, connected electrical system 212, 312 of example column structures are capable of storing energy with a potential difference of up to 12 volts.

[0079] Capacitance Measurements and Demonstrations

[0080] The capacitance of example structures built using modular elements comprised of the cement composite are investigated by building upon conventional electrochemical cyclic voltammetry (CV) and applying galvanostatic charge-discharge (GCD) cycles. The maximum storage capacity can be experimentally assessed by combining CV test results with GDC test results.

[0081] FIG. 4A is a picture of a column structure 412 comprised of modular construction elements 400 demonstrating an embodiment of the invention. Column structure 412 is comprised of a stack of modular construction elements 400, for example sample 100 and element 200. The modular construction elements 400 are comprised of electrodes formed from the conductive composite and have the ability to store, transmit, and discharge electrical energy both individually and as part of a connected electrical system. Column structure 412 has sufficient physical and structural properties to serve as a load-bearing construction material. An axis of compression, simulating the physical forces applied to a load-bearing structure, was applied to column structure 412 using an external frame.

[0082] FIG. 4B is a graph 400 of cyclic voltammetry (CV) curves recorded at different prescribed scan rates for the sample column structure shown in FIG 4A. Graph 400 shows the CV curves 401a-d for the sample column structure 412 shown in FIG 4A. The column structure 412 is comprised of stack of modular construction elements 400 with electrodes, for example electrodes 101a, 101b, 201a, 201b shown in FIGs. 1A and 2, comprised of the electrically conductive concrete composite. The electrically conductive concrete composite can store and discharge electrical charge at a range of scan rates, as shown by CV curves 401a-d. As used herein “scan rate” refers to the rate of charge accumulation / discharge (u=Uo / to) to and from a storage device or system.

[0083] The electrodes of modular construction elements 400 forming sample structure 412 create an electrical system is connected to an outside potential difference, charging one set of electrodes with a positive charge, and the other set of electrodes with a negative charge, while a- 20 -4175166 vl98001 current / is measured. The electrodes may be connected in series or in parallel and utilize any desired combination of modular construction elements 400. While a compressive force is being applied, the electrodes were charged and discharged on a voltage window from 0 to a max voltage (E) 12V with a constant scan rate (u=Uo / to) varying between 20 mV / s to 200 mV / s. Capacitance is the ratio of the change in the electric charge of a system, to the corresponding change in its electric potential. When testing the sample structure 412, capacitance was measured from the discharge curve in the cyclic voltammetry (CV) -curves divided by the scan rate and the sweep potential window of 12V considering the example symmetric arrangement of the electrodes in sample structure 412.

[0084] FIG. 4C is pictures 421a-c of a sample structure 422 comprised of modular construction elements 420 demonstrating an embodiment of the invention and its electrical properties. Charge stored in the electrodes 101a, 101b, 201a, 201b of modular construction elements 420 forming sample structure 422 can be used to power devices such as a fan (as in picture 421b) and a video game console (as in picture 421c). Together, FIGs. 4A-C show that sample structures 412, 422 constructed from modular construction elements 400, 420 and created using embodiments of the invention have the necessary properties to act both as a structural form and an energy storage and distribution system.

[0085] Measurements taken in CV and GCD tests can be used to extract the capacitance as a material property of the cement composite used to construct the supercapacitors that serve as the modular construction elements. A detailed calculation is required to correct for both rate effects in CV-tests or for the influence of current magnitude in GCD-tests. Both phenomena stem from the diffusion control of the change storage in a double-layer capacitor configuration, shown in FIG. 1 A, and its impact on ion conductivity at the electrode scale and the scale of ion diffusion, dissociation, solvation, and charge storage. To address this, an approach is taken that is based on the consideration that if capacitance exists as a standalone electric property characterizing an Electric Double-Layer Capacitor (EDLC or supercapacitor), this capacitance should be independent of the experimental condition by which it is obtained. Once such a test-independent capacitance measure is available, it becomes possible to scale the rate capability of the electrodes comprised from the cement composite as well as the resulting modular structures 200, 300 created by embodiments of the invention.- 21 -4175166 vl98001

[0086] With this in mind, one can consider an equivalent R-C circuit in which a resistor, R, representative of all resistances present in the sample 100, shown in FIG. 1A, is in series with a capacitor, C. The problem is framed in the context of Boltzmann’s integrodifferential equations. Following this approach, the current I can be linked to potential difference by means of the following convolution integral:

[0087] Equation 1

[0088] where the kernel R(t — t'), is the time-dependent resistance function, accessible in a GCD test carried out at constant current I(t)=Io. The versatility of this linear input / output response theory can be used to derive steady-state solutions for the cyclic testing for both the CV-curve and its integral representative area of the CV-hysteresis loop.

[0089]

[10090] J

[0091] where t0= t0 / r is the ratio of charge time, t0, to the characteristic time of the double layer capacitor defined by T = RC, whereas AI7 = —Uo — (1 — ) / 2 stand for the dimensionless voltage difference prescribed during the charge (A = +1) and discharge (A = —1), respectively. Applied to the CV-test results displayed in graph 400 FIG. 4, the output of this dual-fit for each scan right is the dependent capacitance ( '( / / } of the structure 412 comprising the sample electrodes tested.

[0092] A similar calculation can be applied to the results of the GCD-tests to extract capacitance from the recorded voltage history. However, there is one subtle difference, instead of an integer rate equation a fractional derivative is employed to capture the visible impact of high applied currents on the model response. That is, instead of Equation 1, the following fractional integral is applied:

[0093] Equation 4

[0094] where fx= T(x) the complete Gamma function. Herein, U+stands for the voltage after instantaneous charge or discharge, while the second term stands for the non-instantaneous- 22 -4175166 vl98001 part of the potential difference stored in the tested electrodes, defined by the fraction exponent, a 6 [0,1]. For a constant applied current,integration of the fraction derivatives results in the below:

[0095] Equation s

[0096] with U+= U(t = 0+) = RI0for charge ( A = +1) and U+= 1 / ( ) = RIotg / V1+afor discharge (A = —1); while t =is dimensionless time. From fitting the recorded GCD voltage for different applied currents, the fractional exponent is found to converge to a=l for low applied current, as shown in graph 211 of FIG. 1C, for which the capacitance is obtained from C =tdthe discharge time, and U (to ) the measured voltage after instantaneous voltage drop at time t0. This capacitance measurement is stable for at least n= 10,000 charge discharge cycles in terms of both capacitance retention and Coulombic efficiency.

[0097] Effects on and Control Over Electrical Properties

[0098] Properties of the cement composite are dependent upon and can be control by modifying its component and precursor elements. For example, controlling the amount and type of aggregate or carbon source added and the electrolyte formulation can be adjusted to achieve specific permanence metrics in a non-intuitive manner.

[0099] FIG. 5 is a set of graphs, 515a, 515b showing the results of the capacitance testing for two sets of electrodes comprised of the cement composite utilized by embodiments of the invention. Graph 515a shows the results of a sample electrode with a water-to-cement ratio of 0.8 utilizing PBX 22.4 carbon black particles and an electrode 101 thickness of 0.18cm. Graph 515b shows the results of a sample electrode with a water-to-cement ratio of 1.4 utilizing Kejten black 12.8 carbon black particles and an electrode 101 thickness of 0.60cm. The results demonstrate that the model-based approach disclosed herein is able to translate CV-curves into capacitance values, identified by lines 516a and 516b. Similarly, lines 517a and 517b show the capacitance values derived from the GCD tests. Each sample’s capacitance per mass measurements coverage at different values identified by lines 518a and 518b. The quantifiable relationship between capacitance and carbon source mass and type demonstrates the versatility of- 23 -4175166 vl98001 the cement composite utilized by embodiments of the invention and the achievable diversity of the resulting modular construction elements and structures.

[0100] To demonstrate impact of the selection of carbon source and the resulting control over capacitance, three samples are compared, the samples prepared with different types of carbon black, PBX 55, Vulcan, and KetjenBlack, the properties of which are listed above in Table 1. However, embodiments of the invention are able to utilize any type of carbon, or other conductive, particle that can form electrically conductive network and store charge.

[0101] FIG. 6 is a graph 601 of the capacitance as a function of carbon surface area of three sample cement composites utilized by embodiments of the invention created with different carbon particles. The capacitance measurements were obtained from CV-curves at a 20mV / s scan rate. A first sample 602a was created using PBX 55 as the carbon particles. A second sample 602b was created using Vulcan 55 as the carbon particles. A third sample 602c was created using Ketjen Black as the carbon particles. The first and second samples 602a, 602b utilized a water-to-cement ratio of 0.8. The third sample utilized a water-to-cement ratio of 1.4. The carbon surface area herein was determined from the BET specific surface area (listed in Tab. 1) multiplied by the mass of carbon black in the sample electrodes. The positive correlation, shown by trend line 603, between the two quantities provides strong evidence that the active porosity (storage porosity) in the carbon phase in the carbon-cement composite both increases in capacitance with an increase in specific surface but also that that this active porosity is fully accessible to the electrolyte saturating the cement porosity (transport porosity).

[0102] A detailed experimental analysis and quantification of the porosity and spatial correlation of samples prepared using embodiments of the invention using Raman spectroscopy data is set out in the publication N. Chanut, D. Stefaniuk, J.C. Weaver, Y. Zhu, Y. Shao-Hom, A. Masic, and F.-J. Ulm, “Carbon-cement supercapacitors as a scalable bulk energy storage solution”, PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, Vol. 120, No. 32, August 8, 2023, which is incorporated in its entirety herein by reference.

[0103] FIG. 7 is a set of graphs 700a, 700b demonstrating the effect of aggregate content on the performance of electrodes comprised of the cement composite utilized by embodiments of the invention. Graph 700a maps the capacitance of electrodes, for example electrodes 101, 201, against scan rate. By adding aggregate, to create a mortar material, the electrical properties of- 24 -4175166 vl98001 cement composite can be altered and controlled. Line 701 graphs the performance of a composite of “pure” cement paste without the addition of aggregates. Line 702 graphs the performance of a mortar composite with an aggregate to cement past ratio of 1 : 1. Graph 700b maps the capacitance ratio between a “pure” cement paste and a 1 : 1 aggregate to cement paste mortar as identified by line 703. While the addition of mortar may reduce capacitance, as shown in graph 700a, it may be used to alter the structural properties of the resulting composite, increasing strength, harness, or similar parameters. Additional and alternative aggregates may be used to reduce cost and increase construction efficiency.

[0104] FIG. 8 is a graph 800 demonstrating effect of molarity of an ionic electrolyte solution on capacitance of electrodes comprised of the cement composite utilized by embodiments of the invention. As discussed herein, the cement composite hosts an electrolyte solution that transports charge to and from the carbon particles that store that charge. The molarity of that electrolyte solution is another way that the electrical properties of the embodiments of the invention can be controlled, including for example electrodes 101, 201 comprised of the cement composite, individual construction elements 200, 300, the built architectural structures 210, 310, 320a-g, and the combined electrical systems 212, 312. Graph 800 maps the capacitance of electrodes, for example electrodes 101, 201, against the molarity of a KC1 concentration used as the electrolyte solution for a range of scan rates 10-200 mV / s. The results for each scan rate are shown by lines 801a-e. Increased molarity correlates with improved capacitance, especially at lower scan rates.

[0105] The composition of the electrolyte solution is another variable that can be used to control the electrical properties of embodiments of the invention.

[0106] FIG. 9 is a graph 900 of graph of cyclic voltammetry (CV) curves of electrodes hosting different ionic electrolyte solutions comprised of the cement composite utilized by embodiments of the invention. Different electrolyte solutions (including organic-based solutions using propylene carbonate (PC)) allows for an increased potential difference in the supercapacitor cell. Line 901a maps the CV curve for a 2 molar KC1 concentration across a 1- volt differential. Line 901b maps the CV curve for a 2-molar propylene carbonate concentration across a 1-volt differential. Line 901b maps the CV curve for a 2-molar propylene carbonate concentration across a 2-volt differential. From comparing the results for a KC1 concentration- 25 -4175166 vl98001 and propylene carbonate concentration, it is clear that choice of electrolyte solutions has a demonstrative effect on the electrical properties of embodiments of the invention.

[0107] Embodiments of the disclosed invention makes use of the composite nature of cement-carbon materials to synthesize high-rate capability supercapacitors. This is enabled by a combination of (1) the cement porosity (transport porosity) as a result of the hydration process of the mineral pre-cursor; and (2) the high-specific surface of the carbon phase forming an electron conducting network. Embodiments of the disclosed invention further create modular building elements of unites from the synthesize high-rate capability supercapacitors than can be used to efficiently build structures of any desired geometries that also provide electrical storage capacity.

[0108] While example embodiments have been particularly shown and described, it will be understood by those skilled in the art that various changes in form and details may be made therein without departing from the scope of the embodiments encompassed by the appended claims.4175166 vl

Claims

CLAIMSWhat is claimed is:

1. A modular supercapacitor, the modular supercapacitor comprising: plural load-bearing elements, each load-bearing element comprising: at least one current collector; at least two electrodes comprising an electrically conductive composite; and the least two electrodes being separated by a dielectric porous medium; wherein the plural load-bearing elements are configured to store electrical energy and are further configured to interface with at additional load load-bearing elements and collectively from an architectural geometry.

2. The modular supercapacitor of claim 1 wherein electrically conductive composite comprises:(i) a cementitious matrix;(ii) an electrolyte solution configured to transmit the electrical energy; and(iii) a network of nanoporous carbon nanoparticles configured to store the electrical energy.

3. The modular supercapacitor of claim 2 wherein network of nanoporous carbon nanoparticles is located in a capillary pore network of the cementitious matrix.

4. The modular supercapacitor of claim 2 wherein electrically conductive cement composite further comprises at least one of water, aggregate, superplasticizer, and carbon nanoparticle dispersing agent.

5. The modular supercapacitor of claim 2 wherein the network of nanoporous carbon nanoparticles is comprised of at least one of graphite, carbon black, carbon nanotubes, C60, or other conductive carbon derivative.

6. The modular supercapacitor of claim 2 wherein the cementitious matrix is comprised of at least one of cement, concrete, or composition that includes an aqueous curing step.- 27 -4175166 vl7. The modular supercapacitor of claim 2 wherein the electrolyte solution is hosted in a transport porosity of the cementitious matrix, the transport porosity dependent upon an amount of a fluid in the conductive composite.

8. The modular supercapacitor of claim 1 wherein the plural load-bearing elements are aligned along at least one axis of compression.

9. The modular supercapacitor of claim 8 wherein the axis of compression enables at least one of transmitting electrical energy between the plural load-bearing elements and stability of the formed architectural geometry.

10. The modular supercapacitor of claim 1 wherein the formed architectural geometry is at least one of a plane, a column, an arch, a vault, a dome, a tile, a block, a wall, or a floor.

11. A method of manufacturing a modular supercapacitor, the method comprising: creating a chemically reactive mixture including a non-conductive binder, porous electrically conductive particles, and fluid; producing, by means of chemical reactions of the chemically reactive mixture, a composite that includes an electrically conductive percolated network hosting a porosity for charge storage and a non-electrically conductive structural matrix, the non-electrically conductive structural matrix having a controlled transport porosity configured to host an electrolyte solution; and forming, from the composite, a load bearing element, the load bearing element configured to interface with at least one additional load load-bearing element and collectively from an architectural geometry.

12. The method of claim 11 wherein producing the composite includes controlling an amount of fluid applied to the chemically reactive mixture to create the controlled transport porosity.

13. The method of claim 12 wherein controlling the amount of the fluid in the chemically reactive mixture includes adding an amount that exceeds a level that is required for formation of the non-electrically conductive structural matrix.- 28 -4175166 vl9800114. The method of claim 11 wherein an electrical charge / discharge rate of the composite is dependent upon the controlled transport porosity.

15. The method of claim 11 wherein chemically reactive mixture further includes a dispersing agent.

16. The method of claim 11 wherein the non-conductive binder is cement, concrete, or composition that includes an aqueous curing step.

17. The method of claim 11 wherein the non-conductive binder includes supplementary cementitious materials (SCM) selected from a group consisting of: fly ash, silica fume, slags, and other soluble siliceous, aluminosiliceous, or calcium aluminosiliceous powders used as partial replacements of clinker in cements or as partial replacements of Portland cement in concrete mixtures; and superplasticizers.

18. The method of claim 11 wherein the porous electrically-conductive particles are selected from a group having an accessible specific surface, the group consisting of: carbon black nanoparticles, activated carbon, carbon nanotubes, mXene, a metal-organic framework, or a mix of electrically-conductive particles.

19. The method of claim 11 further wherein the load bearing element is a supercapacitor comprised of a first electrode and a second electrode separated by a non-conductive separator, the load bearing element configured to provide a means of storing and retrieving energy via the first and the second electrodes.

20. The modular supercapacitor of claim 11 wherein the formed architectural geometry is at least one of a plane, a column, an arch, a vault, a dome, a tile, a block, a wall, or a floor.- 29 -4175166 vl

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