Perovskite Degradation Pathways: Photochemical vs Thermal — How to Diagnose in the Lab
AUG 20, 20259 MIN READ
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Perovskite Stability Challenges and Research Objectives
Perovskite solar cells have emerged as a promising technology in the field of photovoltaics, offering high efficiency and low-cost manufacturing potential. However, the stability of perovskite materials remains a significant challenge, hindering their widespread commercial adoption. The primary focus of current research is to understand and mitigate the degradation pathways that affect perovskite stability, particularly the distinction between photochemical and thermal degradation mechanisms.
The photochemical degradation of perovskites occurs when the material is exposed to light, leading to the formation of reactive species and subsequent decomposition of the perovskite structure. This process is often accelerated in the presence of oxygen and moisture, resulting in the formation of lead-based compounds and the release of volatile organic components. On the other hand, thermal degradation is primarily driven by temperature-induced changes in the crystal structure, phase transitions, and ion migration within the perovskite material.
To address these stability challenges, researchers are pursuing several objectives. Firstly, there is a need to develop standardized testing protocols that can accurately differentiate between photochemical and thermal degradation pathways. This involves designing experiments that isolate the effects of light and temperature, allowing for a more precise understanding of the underlying mechanisms. Additionally, researchers aim to identify key markers or indicators that can be used to diagnose the predominant degradation pathway in a given perovskite sample.
Another important research objective is the development of advanced characterization techniques that can provide real-time, in-situ monitoring of perovskite degradation processes. This includes the use of spectroscopic methods, such as photoluminescence and X-ray diffraction, combined with environmental control chambers to simulate various operating conditions. By observing the material changes at the molecular and atomic levels, researchers can gain deeper insights into the degradation kinetics and identify potential strategies for mitigation.
Furthermore, there is a growing emphasis on exploring novel material compositions and device architectures that can enhance the intrinsic stability of perovskite solar cells. This includes the investigation of mixed-cation and mixed-halide perovskites, as well as the incorporation of passivation layers and encapsulation techniques to protect the active material from environmental stressors. The ultimate goal is to develop perovskite solar cells that can maintain their high performance over extended periods, meeting the industry standards for long-term stability and reliability.
The photochemical degradation of perovskites occurs when the material is exposed to light, leading to the formation of reactive species and subsequent decomposition of the perovskite structure. This process is often accelerated in the presence of oxygen and moisture, resulting in the formation of lead-based compounds and the release of volatile organic components. On the other hand, thermal degradation is primarily driven by temperature-induced changes in the crystal structure, phase transitions, and ion migration within the perovskite material.
To address these stability challenges, researchers are pursuing several objectives. Firstly, there is a need to develop standardized testing protocols that can accurately differentiate between photochemical and thermal degradation pathways. This involves designing experiments that isolate the effects of light and temperature, allowing for a more precise understanding of the underlying mechanisms. Additionally, researchers aim to identify key markers or indicators that can be used to diagnose the predominant degradation pathway in a given perovskite sample.
Another important research objective is the development of advanced characterization techniques that can provide real-time, in-situ monitoring of perovskite degradation processes. This includes the use of spectroscopic methods, such as photoluminescence and X-ray diffraction, combined with environmental control chambers to simulate various operating conditions. By observing the material changes at the molecular and atomic levels, researchers can gain deeper insights into the degradation kinetics and identify potential strategies for mitigation.
Furthermore, there is a growing emphasis on exploring novel material compositions and device architectures that can enhance the intrinsic stability of perovskite solar cells. This includes the investigation of mixed-cation and mixed-halide perovskites, as well as the incorporation of passivation layers and encapsulation techniques to protect the active material from environmental stressors. The ultimate goal is to develop perovskite solar cells that can maintain their high performance over extended periods, meeting the industry standards for long-term stability and reliability.
Market Demand for Stable Perovskite Solar Cells
The market demand for stable perovskite solar cells has been steadily increasing in recent years, driven by the growing need for efficient and cost-effective renewable energy solutions. Perovskite solar cells have emerged as a promising technology due to their potential for high efficiency, low production costs, and versatility in applications. However, the instability of perovskite materials has been a significant barrier to widespread commercialization.
The global solar energy market is projected to reach $223 billion by 2026, with a compound annual growth rate of 20.5% from 2021 to 2026. Within this market, perovskite solar cells are expected to play an increasingly important role. Industry analysts predict that the perovskite solar cell market could reach $6.6 billion by 2030, assuming stability issues are adequately addressed.
Stable perovskite solar cells are particularly attractive for various applications, including building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV), portable electronics, and space solar panels. The BIPV market alone is forecasted to grow at a CAGR of 15.9% from 2021 to 2028, presenting a significant opportunity for stable perovskite solar cells.
The demand for stable perovskite solar cells is driven by several factors. First, the increasing focus on renewable energy sources to combat climate change has led to supportive government policies and incentives for solar energy adoption. Second, the potential for high-efficiency perovskite solar cells to surpass the performance of traditional silicon-based cells has attracted significant interest from both the scientific community and industry players.
Moreover, the ability to produce perovskite solar cells using low-cost manufacturing processes makes them an attractive option for large-scale deployment in developing countries. This could help address the growing energy demand in these regions while supporting sustainable development goals.
However, the market demand is contingent upon overcoming the stability challenges associated with perovskite materials. Investors and potential customers are closely monitoring research progress in addressing degradation pathways, both photochemical and thermal. The ability to accurately diagnose and mitigate these degradation mechanisms in laboratory settings is crucial for developing commercially viable products.
In conclusion, the market demand for stable perovskite solar cells is substantial and growing. As research continues to address stability issues, the technology is poised to capture a significant share of the solar energy market, potentially revolutionizing the renewable energy landscape.
The global solar energy market is projected to reach $223 billion by 2026, with a compound annual growth rate of 20.5% from 2021 to 2026. Within this market, perovskite solar cells are expected to play an increasingly important role. Industry analysts predict that the perovskite solar cell market could reach $6.6 billion by 2030, assuming stability issues are adequately addressed.
Stable perovskite solar cells are particularly attractive for various applications, including building-integrated photovoltaics (BIPV), portable electronics, and space solar panels. The BIPV market alone is forecasted to grow at a CAGR of 15.9% from 2021 to 2028, presenting a significant opportunity for stable perovskite solar cells.
The demand for stable perovskite solar cells is driven by several factors. First, the increasing focus on renewable energy sources to combat climate change has led to supportive government policies and incentives for solar energy adoption. Second, the potential for high-efficiency perovskite solar cells to surpass the performance of traditional silicon-based cells has attracted significant interest from both the scientific community and industry players.
Moreover, the ability to produce perovskite solar cells using low-cost manufacturing processes makes them an attractive option for large-scale deployment in developing countries. This could help address the growing energy demand in these regions while supporting sustainable development goals.
However, the market demand is contingent upon overcoming the stability challenges associated with perovskite materials. Investors and potential customers are closely monitoring research progress in addressing degradation pathways, both photochemical and thermal. The ability to accurately diagnose and mitigate these degradation mechanisms in laboratory settings is crucial for developing commercially viable products.
In conclusion, the market demand for stable perovskite solar cells is substantial and growing. As research continues to address stability issues, the technology is poised to capture a significant share of the solar energy market, potentially revolutionizing the renewable energy landscape.
Current State of Perovskite Degradation Research
Perovskite solar cells have emerged as a promising technology in the field of photovoltaics, offering high efficiency and low-cost manufacturing potential. However, the stability and degradation of perovskite materials remain significant challenges that hinder their widespread commercialization. Current research on perovskite degradation focuses on understanding the various pathways through which these materials break down, with particular emphasis on photochemical and thermal degradation mechanisms.
Photochemical degradation occurs when perovskite materials are exposed to light, leading to the formation of defects and the breakdown of the crystal structure. This process is often accelerated in the presence of oxygen and moisture. Researchers have identified several key mechanisms involved in photochemical degradation, including ion migration, phase segregation, and the formation of volatile species.
Thermal degradation, on the other hand, is primarily driven by temperature-induced changes in the perovskite structure. This can lead to the decomposition of the material, the formation of secondary phases, and the loss of volatile components. The thermal stability of perovskites is particularly important for their long-term performance in real-world applications, where solar cells may be exposed to high temperatures during operation.
Recent studies have focused on developing diagnostic techniques to differentiate between photochemical and thermal degradation pathways in laboratory settings. These methods include in-situ characterization techniques, such as X-ray diffraction (XRD) and photoluminescence spectroscopy, which allow researchers to monitor changes in the perovskite structure and composition in real-time under controlled environmental conditions.
Advanced imaging techniques, such as transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM), have also been employed to visualize the morphological changes associated with different degradation mechanisms at the nanoscale. These tools provide valuable insights into the spatial distribution of defects and the evolution of grain boundaries during the degradation process.
Spectroscopic methods, including Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and Raman spectroscopy, have proven useful in identifying chemical changes and the formation of degradation products. These techniques can help researchers distinguish between photochemical and thermal degradation by detecting specific molecular signatures associated with each pathway.
Computational modeling and machine learning approaches are increasingly being utilized to predict degradation behavior and identify key factors contributing to material instability. These methods allow for the rapid screening of potential stabilization strategies and the design of more robust perovskite compositions.
Despite significant progress in understanding perovskite degradation mechanisms, challenges remain in developing standardized protocols for assessing long-term stability and reliably differentiating between degradation pathways in complex, real-world environments. Ongoing research efforts are focused on addressing these challenges and developing innovative strategies to mitigate degradation, ultimately paving the way for the commercialization of stable and efficient perovskite solar cells.
Photochemical degradation occurs when perovskite materials are exposed to light, leading to the formation of defects and the breakdown of the crystal structure. This process is often accelerated in the presence of oxygen and moisture. Researchers have identified several key mechanisms involved in photochemical degradation, including ion migration, phase segregation, and the formation of volatile species.
Thermal degradation, on the other hand, is primarily driven by temperature-induced changes in the perovskite structure. This can lead to the decomposition of the material, the formation of secondary phases, and the loss of volatile components. The thermal stability of perovskites is particularly important for their long-term performance in real-world applications, where solar cells may be exposed to high temperatures during operation.
Recent studies have focused on developing diagnostic techniques to differentiate between photochemical and thermal degradation pathways in laboratory settings. These methods include in-situ characterization techniques, such as X-ray diffraction (XRD) and photoluminescence spectroscopy, which allow researchers to monitor changes in the perovskite structure and composition in real-time under controlled environmental conditions.
Advanced imaging techniques, such as transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM), have also been employed to visualize the morphological changes associated with different degradation mechanisms at the nanoscale. These tools provide valuable insights into the spatial distribution of defects and the evolution of grain boundaries during the degradation process.
Spectroscopic methods, including Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and Raman spectroscopy, have proven useful in identifying chemical changes and the formation of degradation products. These techniques can help researchers distinguish between photochemical and thermal degradation by detecting specific molecular signatures associated with each pathway.
Computational modeling and machine learning approaches are increasingly being utilized to predict degradation behavior and identify key factors contributing to material instability. These methods allow for the rapid screening of potential stabilization strategies and the design of more robust perovskite compositions.
Despite significant progress in understanding perovskite degradation mechanisms, challenges remain in developing standardized protocols for assessing long-term stability and reliably differentiating between degradation pathways in complex, real-world environments. Ongoing research efforts are focused on addressing these challenges and developing innovative strategies to mitigate degradation, ultimately paving the way for the commercialization of stable and efficient perovskite solar cells.
Existing Methods for Diagnosing Perovskite Degradation
01 Encapsulation techniques for perovskite stability
Various encapsulation methods are employed to protect perovskite materials from environmental factors that cause degradation. These techniques include using barrier films, sealants, and protective layers to isolate the perovskite from moisture, oxygen, and other degrading agents. Proper encapsulation can significantly extend the lifespan and maintain the performance of perovskite-based devices.- Encapsulation techniques for perovskite stability: Various encapsulation methods are employed to protect perovskite materials from environmental factors that cause degradation. These techniques include using barrier materials, protective layers, and advanced sealing methods to prevent moisture ingress and enhance the longevity of perovskite-based devices.
- Compositional engineering to improve stability: Researchers are focusing on modifying the chemical composition of perovskite materials to enhance their intrinsic stability. This includes incorporating additives, dopants, or altering the ratio of constituent elements to create more robust perovskite structures that are less prone to degradation under various environmental conditions.
- Interface engineering for reduced degradation: Improving the interfaces between perovskite layers and adjacent materials in device structures is crucial for preventing degradation. This involves developing novel interlayers, passivation techniques, and charge transport materials that enhance the overall stability of perovskite-based devices.
- Environmental stress mitigation strategies: Developing methods to mitigate the effects of environmental stressors such as humidity, heat, and light exposure on perovskite materials. This includes creating protective coatings, implementing moisture barriers, and designing device architectures that minimize exposure to degradation-inducing factors.
- In-situ healing and self-repair mechanisms: Exploring innovative approaches to enable perovskite materials to self-heal or recover from degradation. This involves incorporating dynamic bonds, self-assembling components, or stimuli-responsive elements that can repair structural defects or chemical changes caused by degradation processes.
02 Compositional engineering to enhance stability
Researchers are focusing on modifying the chemical composition of perovskites to improve their intrinsic stability. This includes incorporating more stable cations or anions, developing mixed-cation or mixed-halide perovskites, and exploring new perovskite formulations that are less susceptible to degradation while maintaining high performance.Expand Specific Solutions03 Interface engineering for improved durability
Optimizing the interfaces between the perovskite layer and adjacent layers in devices is crucial for preventing degradation. This involves developing novel charge transport materials, buffer layers, and surface treatments that can protect the perovskite while facilitating efficient charge extraction and reducing interfacial defects.Expand Specific Solutions04 Environmental stress mitigation strategies
Developing methods to mitigate the effects of environmental stressors such as heat, light, and humidity on perovskite materials. This includes creating self-healing perovskites, implementing heat management techniques, and designing device architectures that minimize exposure to degradation factors.Expand Specific Solutions05 In-situ characterization and degradation monitoring
Advanced characterization techniques and real-time monitoring methods are being developed to better understand the degradation mechanisms of perovskites. These approaches allow researchers to observe degradation processes in situ, identify key factors contributing to instability, and develop more effective strategies for enhancing the long-term stability of perovskite materials and devices.Expand Specific Solutions
Key Players in Perovskite Solar Cell Research
The perovskite degradation pathways research field is in a rapidly evolving stage, with significant market potential due to the promise of perovskite solar cells as a cost-effective and efficient alternative to traditional photovoltaics. The global market for perovskite solar cells is projected to grow substantially in the coming years. Technologically, while progress has been made, challenges remain in improving stability and scalability. Key players like Huaneng Clean Energy Research Institute, Industrial Technology Research Institute, and Sun Yat-Sen University are advancing fundamental understanding of degradation mechanisms. Companies such as Sekisui Chemical and Sakai Chemical Industry are working on materials development, while research institutions like CEA and national laboratories are contributing to both basic and applied research in this field.
Cambridge Enterprise Ltd.
Technical Solution: Cambridge Enterprise has pioneered a novel approach to diagnosing perovskite degradation pathways using advanced spectroscopic techniques. Their method combines time-resolved photoluminescence spectroscopy with transient absorption spectroscopy to probe the dynamics of charge carriers in perovskite materials under various environmental conditions[4]. This allows for the differentiation between photochemical and thermal degradation mechanisms at the molecular level. The technique involves exposing perovskite samples to controlled light intensities and temperatures while simultaneously measuring their optical response on ultrafast timescales. By analyzing the changes in charge carrier lifetimes and recombination rates, researchers can identify the dominant degradation pathways and their kinetics[5]. Furthermore, Cambridge Enterprise has developed a unique data analysis framework that incorporates machine learning algorithms to extract meaningful patterns from the complex spectroscopic data, enabling more accurate and rapid diagnosis of degradation mechanisms[6].
Strengths: High temporal and spectral resolution, ability to probe degradation mechanisms at the molecular level, and advanced data analysis capabilities. Weaknesses: Requires specialized ultrafast spectroscopy equipment, which may be costly and not readily available in all research settings.
Uchicago Argonne LLC
Technical Solution: Uchicago Argonne LLC has developed a multi-modal approach to diagnose perovskite degradation pathways, focusing on distinguishing between photochemical and thermal mechanisms. Their technique combines synchrotron-based X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) with in-situ environmental control chambers to probe the local atomic structure and chemical states of perovskite materials under various degradation conditions[7]. This allows for real-time monitoring of structural changes at the atomic level during exposure to light and heat. Additionally, they have integrated operando electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) to correlate these structural changes with device performance metrics[8]. The Argonne team has also developed a unique machine learning algorithm that analyzes the combined XAS and EIS data to identify specific degradation signatures, enabling rapid and accurate diagnosis of the dominant degradation pathways[9].
Strengths: High-resolution atomic-level analysis, correlation of structural changes with device performance, and advanced data analysis through machine learning. Weaknesses: Reliance on synchrotron facilities limits accessibility, and the complexity of the technique may require specialized expertise for data interpretation.
Core Innovations in Perovskite Stability Analysis
Conversion of halide perovskite surfaces to insoluble, wide-bandgap lead oxysalts for enhanced solar cell stability
PatentInactiveUS20240047144A1
Innovation
- A protective layer comprising a coating oxysalt is applied to the perovskite material, forming a strong ionic bond that enhances stability against moisture and oxygen, reducing defect density and improving carrier recombination lifetime.
Environmental Impact of Perovskite Solar Cell Production
The environmental impact of perovskite solar cell production is a critical consideration in the development and adoption of this promising photovoltaic technology. As perovskite solar cells gain traction in the renewable energy sector, it is essential to assess their ecological footprint throughout the entire lifecycle, from raw material extraction to end-of-life disposal.
One of the primary environmental concerns associated with perovskite solar cell production is the use of lead-based compounds. While lead is a crucial component in many perovskite formulations, its toxicity poses potential risks to ecosystems and human health. Efforts are underway to develop lead-free alternatives, but these have yet to match the efficiency and stability of lead-based perovskites.
The manufacturing process of perovskite solar cells involves the use of various solvents and chemicals, some of which may have adverse environmental effects if not properly managed. These include dimethylformamide (DMF) and dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), which are commonly used in perovskite precursor solutions. Proper handling, recycling, and disposal of these substances are essential to minimize their environmental impact.
Energy consumption during the production of perovskite solar cells is another factor to consider. However, compared to traditional silicon-based solar cells, perovskite manufacturing generally requires lower processing temperatures and fewer energy-intensive steps. This potentially translates to a reduced carbon footprint in the production phase.
The scalability of perovskite solar cell production also has environmental implications. As the technology moves from laboratory-scale to industrial-scale production, optimizing manufacturing processes to minimize waste and energy consumption becomes increasingly important. Developing efficient, large-scale production methods that maintain high-quality outputs while reducing environmental impact is a key challenge for the industry.
End-of-life considerations for perovskite solar cells are crucial from an environmental perspective. The potential for recycling and recovering materials from decommissioned cells could significantly reduce the overall environmental impact. However, effective recycling processes for perovskite solar cells are still in the early stages of development and require further research and optimization.
In conclusion, while perovskite solar cells offer promising advantages in terms of efficiency and cost, their environmental impact throughout the production cycle must be carefully managed. Ongoing research and development efforts are focused on addressing these challenges to ensure that perovskite technology can contribute to sustainable energy solutions without compromising environmental integrity.
One of the primary environmental concerns associated with perovskite solar cell production is the use of lead-based compounds. While lead is a crucial component in many perovskite formulations, its toxicity poses potential risks to ecosystems and human health. Efforts are underway to develop lead-free alternatives, but these have yet to match the efficiency and stability of lead-based perovskites.
The manufacturing process of perovskite solar cells involves the use of various solvents and chemicals, some of which may have adverse environmental effects if not properly managed. These include dimethylformamide (DMF) and dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), which are commonly used in perovskite precursor solutions. Proper handling, recycling, and disposal of these substances are essential to minimize their environmental impact.
Energy consumption during the production of perovskite solar cells is another factor to consider. However, compared to traditional silicon-based solar cells, perovskite manufacturing generally requires lower processing temperatures and fewer energy-intensive steps. This potentially translates to a reduced carbon footprint in the production phase.
The scalability of perovskite solar cell production also has environmental implications. As the technology moves from laboratory-scale to industrial-scale production, optimizing manufacturing processes to minimize waste and energy consumption becomes increasingly important. Developing efficient, large-scale production methods that maintain high-quality outputs while reducing environmental impact is a key challenge for the industry.
End-of-life considerations for perovskite solar cells are crucial from an environmental perspective. The potential for recycling and recovering materials from decommissioned cells could significantly reduce the overall environmental impact. However, effective recycling processes for perovskite solar cells are still in the early stages of development and require further research and optimization.
In conclusion, while perovskite solar cells offer promising advantages in terms of efficiency and cost, their environmental impact throughout the production cycle must be carefully managed. Ongoing research and development efforts are focused on addressing these challenges to ensure that perovskite technology can contribute to sustainable energy solutions without compromising environmental integrity.
Standardization of Perovskite Stability Testing Protocols
The standardization of perovskite stability testing protocols is crucial for advancing the field of perovskite solar cells and ensuring reliable comparisons between different research efforts. Currently, the lack of unified testing methods hinders the accurate assessment of perovskite stability across various laboratories and institutions.
To address this issue, a comprehensive framework for standardized stability testing must be established. This framework should encompass both photochemical and thermal degradation pathways, as these are the primary mechanisms affecting perovskite performance and longevity.
For photochemical stability testing, protocols should include standardized light sources that accurately simulate solar radiation. The intensity, spectrum, and duration of light exposure must be precisely controlled and reported. Additionally, environmental factors such as temperature, humidity, and atmospheric composition during testing should be carefully regulated and documented.
Thermal stability testing protocols should define specific temperature ranges and cycling procedures. These tests should simulate real-world conditions that perovskite solar cells may encounter during operation. Standardized methods for measuring changes in material properties, such as crystal structure and chemical composition, should be incorporated into the protocols.
To diagnose degradation pathways in the lab, a combination of in-situ and ex-situ characterization techniques should be employed. In-situ measurements, such as real-time X-ray diffraction or spectroscopic analysis, can provide valuable insights into the dynamic processes occurring during degradation. Ex-situ techniques, including electron microscopy and elemental analysis, can offer detailed information about structural and compositional changes.
The standardization effort should also include guidelines for data collection, analysis, and reporting. This would ensure that results from different laboratories can be directly compared and validated. A centralized database of stability data, collected using these standardized protocols, could greatly accelerate the development of more stable perovskite materials and devices.
Implementing these standardized protocols will require collaboration between academic institutions, industry partners, and regulatory bodies. Regular review and updates to the protocols will be necessary to keep pace with advancements in perovskite technology and characterization methods.
By establishing and adhering to these standardized stability testing protocols, the perovskite research community can more effectively address the challenges of degradation and work towards the development of commercially viable, long-lasting perovskite solar cells.
To address this issue, a comprehensive framework for standardized stability testing must be established. This framework should encompass both photochemical and thermal degradation pathways, as these are the primary mechanisms affecting perovskite performance and longevity.
For photochemical stability testing, protocols should include standardized light sources that accurately simulate solar radiation. The intensity, spectrum, and duration of light exposure must be precisely controlled and reported. Additionally, environmental factors such as temperature, humidity, and atmospheric composition during testing should be carefully regulated and documented.
Thermal stability testing protocols should define specific temperature ranges and cycling procedures. These tests should simulate real-world conditions that perovskite solar cells may encounter during operation. Standardized methods for measuring changes in material properties, such as crystal structure and chemical composition, should be incorporated into the protocols.
To diagnose degradation pathways in the lab, a combination of in-situ and ex-situ characterization techniques should be employed. In-situ measurements, such as real-time X-ray diffraction or spectroscopic analysis, can provide valuable insights into the dynamic processes occurring during degradation. Ex-situ techniques, including electron microscopy and elemental analysis, can offer detailed information about structural and compositional changes.
The standardization effort should also include guidelines for data collection, analysis, and reporting. This would ensure that results from different laboratories can be directly compared and validated. A centralized database of stability data, collected using these standardized protocols, could greatly accelerate the development of more stable perovskite materials and devices.
Implementing these standardized protocols will require collaboration between academic institutions, industry partners, and regulatory bodies. Regular review and updates to the protocols will be necessary to keep pace with advancements in perovskite technology and characterization methods.
By establishing and adhering to these standardized stability testing protocols, the perovskite research community can more effectively address the challenges of degradation and work towards the development of commercially viable, long-lasting perovskite solar cells.
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