Systems and methods for regulating reaction flows

Abstract

The present disclosure provides systems and methods for regulating a reaction flow. The systems described herein may include a plasma generation section, a carbon particle generation section, and an obstacle disposed between the plasma generation section and the carbon particle generation section. The obstacle may be configured to contact a fluid flowing from the plasma generation section to the carbon generation section, thereby reducing the angular momentum of the fluid. The obstacle may alter the flow of the fluid such that the ratio of angular momentum to linear momentum of the gas is less than about 1.5. The obstacle may reduce fouling formation in the system compared to a system without the obstacle. The methods described herein may regulate a reaction flow using the systems described herein.

Description

[Technical Field]

[0001] cross reference This application claims the benefit of priority under 35 U.S.C. §119(e) to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 418,357, filed October 21, 2022, and U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63 / 468,989, filed May 25, 2023, the entire disclosures of which are expressly incorporated herein by reference. [Background technology]

[0002] Various chemical processes involve various reactant flows, including high-temperature gases, e.g., plasma gas, hydrogen, argon, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and / or krypton, to name just a few. The energy supply, production performance, and environmental performance associated with such chemical processes have evolved over time. However, such chemical processes can experience turbulent flow conditions where the reactant flows are poorly regulated, resulting in undesirable, inefficient, and costly solids deposition, reactor fouling, and the like. Summary of the Invention

[0003] The present invention provides systems and methods for extending the time of flight of reactants within a reactor, which may reduce contact of reactants and reaction products with reactor walls, thereby reducing reactor fouling.

[0004] In one aspect, the present invention provides an apparatus for producing carbon particles, which may include a plasma generation section, a carbon particle generation section, and an obstacle disposed between the plasma generation section and the carbon particle generation section, the obstacle configured to contact a fluid flowing from the plasma generation section to the carbon particle generation section during use, thereby reducing the angular momentum of the fluid.

[0005] In some embodiments, the plasma generating section comprises one or more plasma generating electrodes. In some embodiments, the plasma generating electrodes are configured to heat a heat transfer gas in the plasma generating section. In some embodiments, the carbon particle generating section comprises one or more hydrocarbon injectors. In some embodiments, the injectors are configured to inject a hydrocarbon feedstock into the carbon particle generating section.

[0006] In some embodiments, the obstacle is configured to be stationary when in contact with the fluid. In some embodiments, the apparatus comprises a throat section that is narrower than the plasma generating section or the carbon particle generating section. In some embodiments, the throat section is located between the plasma generating section and the carbon particle generating section. In some embodiments, the obstacle is located within the throat section. In some embodiments, the obstacle is located at or near the inlet or outlet of the throat section. In some embodiments, the obstacle comprises a flat surface. In some embodiments, the obstacle comprises a curved surface. In some embodiments, the obstacle comprises a plate. In some embodiments, the surface of the obstacle is positioned perpendicular to the fluid flow path.

[0007] In some embodiments, the obstacle comprises a plurality of members. In some embodiments, a first member contacts a second member. In some embodiments, the first member and the second member contact at a central axis of the device. In some embodiments, two or more members are interconnected. In some embodiments, the members are interconnected in a lattice pattern. In some embodiments, the members are randomly oriented relative to each other. In some embodiments, the members are radially arranged relative to each other. In some embodiments, the obstacle comprises a porous structure. In some embodiments, the porous structure comprises a molecular sieve or a sponge diffuser. In some embodiments, the pores of the porous structure are visible to the human eye. In some embodiments, the obstacle is configured to reduce bulk flow momentum of the fluid flowing from the plasma generation section to the carbon particle generation section.

[0008] In another aspect, the present invention provides a method for producing carbon particles, which may include providing an apparatus including (i) a plasma generation section, (ii) a carbon particle generation section, and (iii) an obstacle located between the plasma generation section and the carbon particle generation section, flowing a heat transfer gas from the plasma generation section to the carbon particle generation section such that the heat transfer gas contacts the obstacle, where contacting the heat transfer gas with the obstacle reduces angular momentum of the heat transfer gas, and generating carbon particles in the carbon particle generation section using the heat transfer gas.

[0009] In some embodiments, the obstacle comprises a flat surface. In some embodiments, the obstacle comprises a curved surface. In some embodiments, the obstacle comprises a plate. In some embodiments, the surface of the obstacle is disposed perpendicular to the flow path of the heat transfer gas. In some embodiments, the obstacle comprises a plurality of members. In some embodiments, a first member contacts a second member. In some embodiments, the first member and second member contact at a central axis of the device. In some embodiments, two or more members are interconnected. In some embodiments, the members are interconnected in a lattice pattern. In some embodiments, the members are randomly oriented relative to each other. In some embodiments, the members are radially oriented relative to each other. In some embodiments, the obstacle comprises a porous structure. In some embodiments, the porous structure comprises molecular sieves. In some embodiments, the pores of the porous structure are visible to the human eye.

[0010] In some embodiments, the obstacles reduce the angular momentum of the heat transfer gas by at least about 50%. In some embodiments, the obstacles reduce the angular momentum of the heat transfer gas by at least about 90%. In some embodiments, the ratio of the angular momentum of the heat transfer gas to the linear momentum of the heat transfer gas is less than about 1.5 before the heat transfer gas enters the carbon particle production section. In some embodiments, the ratio of the angular momentum of the heat transfer gas to the linear momentum of the heat transfer gas is less than about 1 before the heat transfer gas enters the carbon particle production section. In some embodiments, the heat transfer gas contacts the hydrocarbon feedstock in the carbon particle production section. In embodiments, less than about 25%, 15%, 10%, or 5% of the hydrocarbon feedstock deposits in the carbon particle production section.

[0011] In another aspect, the present invention provides a method for producing carbon particles, which may include providing an apparatus comprising: (i) a plasma generation section; and (ii) a carbon particle generation section; flowing a heat transfer gas from the plasma generation section to the carbon particle generation section such that the angular momentum of the heat transfer gas is reduced by at least about 50% before entering the carbon particle generation section; and generating carbon particles in the carbon particle generation section using the heat transfer gas.

[0012] In some embodiments, the angular momentum of the heat transfer gas is reduced by at least about 75%. In some embodiments, the angular momentum of the heat transfer gas is reduced by at least about 90%. In some embodiments, the heat transfer gas contacts the hydrocarbon feedstock in the carbon particle production section. In embodiments, less than about 25%, 15%, 10%, or 5% of the hydrocarbon feedstock is deposited in the carbon particle production section. In some embodiments, the ratio of the angular momentum of the heat transfer gas to the linear momentum of the heat transfer gas before the heat transfer gas enters the carbon particle production section is less than about 1.5. In some embodiments, the method further includes flowing the heat transfer gas from the plasma generation section to the carbon particle production section such that the heat transfer gas contacts an obstacle before using the heat transfer gas to produce carbon particles.

[0013] In another aspect, the present invention provides a method for producing carbon particles, which may include providing an apparatus comprising: (i) a plasma generation section; and (ii) a carbon particle generation section; flowing a heat transfer gas from the plasma generation section to the carbon particle generation section, wherein a ratio of angular momentum of the heat transfer gas to linear momentum of the heat transfer gas before the heat transfer gas enters the carbon particle generation section is less than about 1.5; and generating carbon particles in the carbon particle generation section using the heat transfer gas.

[0014] In some embodiments, the ratio of the angular momentum of the heat transfer gas to the linear momentum of the heat transfer gas is less than about 1.25 before the heat transfer gas enters the carbon particle production section. In some embodiments, the ratio of the angular momentum of the heat transfer gas to the linear momentum of the heat transfer gas is less than about 1 before the heat transfer gas enters the carbon particle production section. In some embodiments, the heat transfer gas contacts the hydrocarbon feedstock in the carbon particle production section to produce carbon particles. In some embodiments, less than about 25%, 15%, 10%, or 5% of the hydrocarbon feedstock deposits in the carbon particle production section.

[0015] In another aspect, the present invention provides a method for producing carbon particles. The method may include providing an apparatus including (i) a plasma generation section and (ii) a carbon particle generation section, flowing a heat transfer gas from the plasma generation section to the carbon particle generation section, and contacting the heat transfer gas with a hydrocarbon feedstock in the carbon particle generation section to produce carbon particles, wherein less than about 25% of the hydrocarbon feedstock adheres to the carbon particle generation section. In some embodiments, less than about 20%, 15%, 10%, or 5% of the hydrocarbon feedstock adheres to the carbon particle generation section.

[0016] In another aspect, the present invention provides a method for producing carbon particles, the method including providing an apparatus including (i) a plasma generation section and (ii) a carbon particle generation section, flowing a heat transfer gas having a first angular momentum from the plasma generation section to the carbon particle generation section, the first angular momentum having a first magnitude and a first direction, contacting the heat transfer gas with a fluid having a second angular momentum, the second angular momentum having a second magnitude and a second direction, where contacting the heat transfer gas with the fluid reduces the first magnitude in the first direction of the first angular momentum, and generating carbon particles in the carbon particle generation section using the heat transfer gas.

[0017] In some embodiments, the second direction of the second angular momentum is opposite to the first direction of the first angular momentum. In some embodiments, the first magnitude is greater than the second magnitude. In some embodiments, the ratio of the first magnitude to the second magnitude is greater than about 1. In some embodiments, the ratio of the first magnitude to the second magnitude is in a range from about 1 to about 5. In some embodiments, the ratio of the first magnitude to the second magnitude is in a range from about 1 to about 3. In some embodiments, the ratio of the first magnitude to the second magnitude is in a range from about 1 to about 2. In some embodiments, the fluid is a hydrocarbon feedstock. In some embodiments, carbon particles are produced by contacting a heat transfer gas with the hydrocarbon feedstock. In some embodiments, the heat transfer gas contacts the fluid in a carbon particle production section. In some embodiments, the heat transfer gas contacts the fluid prior to producing the carbon particles. In some embodiments, the heat transfer gas contacts the fluid simultaneously with producing the carbon particles.

[0018] Further aspects and advantages of the present disclosure will become readily apparent to those skilled in the art from the following detailed description set forth herein. The detailed description sets forth only exemplary embodiments of the present disclosure. As will be understood, the present disclosure is capable of other and different embodiments, and its several details are capable of modifications in various obvious respects, all without departing from the present disclosure. Accordingly, the drawings and description are illustrative in nature and not restrictive.

[0019] Incorporation by Reference All publications, patents, and patent applications mentioned in this specification are herein incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each individual publication, patent, or patent application was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference. In the event that the publications and patents or patent applications incorporated by reference conflict with the disclosure contained herein, the present specification shall supersede and / or take precedence over such conflicting material.

[0020] The novel features of the invention are set forth with particularity in the appended claims. A better understanding of the features and advantages of the present disclosure will be obtained by reference to the following detailed description that sets forth illustrative embodiments, in which the principles of the disclosure are utilized, and the accompanying drawings (also referred to herein as "drawings" and "figures"). [Brief explanation of the drawings]

[0021] [Figure 1] 1 shows a schematic diagram of an exemplary system in which one or more embodiments of the present disclosure may be deployed or used. [Figure 2] 1 shows an exemplary graph of swirl number as a function of average reactor cleaning (deposit production) as a mass percent of total injected feedstock for various injector configurations without benefit of the systems and methods of the present disclosure. [Figure 3] 1 shows a schematic diagram of flow before and after an obstacle in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. [Figure 4] 1 illustrates a side view of an example configuration of an obstacle with cross plates in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. [Figure 5] 1 illustrates a side view of an example configuration of an obstacle comprising a grid of connecting plates in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. [Figure 6] 1 illustrates a side view of an example configuration of an obstacle including a series of plates in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. [Figure 7] 1A-1D each illustrate a top view of an example obstacle configuration according to one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. A illustrates an example obstacle configuration with two link plates. B illustrates an example obstacle configuration with four link plates. C illustrates an example obstacle configuration with six link plates. D illustrates an example obstacle configuration with eight link plates. [Figure 8]1A-1D show top views of example obstacle configurations according to one or more embodiments of the present disclosure, where A shows an example obstacle configuration with three radially intersecting plates, B shows an example obstacle configuration with three non-intersecting plates, C shows an example obstacle configuration with a grid of three connected plates, and D shows an example obstacle configuration with a grid of six connected plates. [Figure 9] 1 illustrates an example of a grating structure in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. [Figure 10] 1A and 1B show top views of example injector configurations according to one or more embodiments of the present disclosure, where A shows an example injector configuration with injectors located on the periphery of the reactor and B shows an example injector configuration with injectors located within the reactor chamber. [Figure 11] 1 illustrates an example of a computer system programmed or configured to implement any of the methods provided herein. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

[0022] While various embodiments of the present disclosure have been shown and described herein, those skilled in the art will understand that such embodiments are provided by way of example only. Numerous variations, changes, and substitutions may be devised by those skilled in the art without departing from the present disclosure. It should be understood that various alternatives may be employed to the embodiments described herein.

[0023] When the term "at least," "greater than," or "greater than or equal to" precedes the first number in a series of two or more numbers, the term "at least," "greater than," or "greater than or equal to" applies to each number in the series. For example, 1, 2, or 3 or more is equivalent to 1 or more, 2 or more, or 3 or more.

[0024] When the term "not greater than," "less than," or "less than or equal to" precedes the first number in a series of two or more numbers, the term "not greater than," "less than," or "less than or equal to" applies to each number in the series. For example, 3, 2, or 1 or less is equivalent to 3 or less, 2 or less, or 1 or less.

[0025] Certain embodiments herein contemplate numerical ranges. When a range is present, the range includes its endpoints. Furthermore, all subranges and values ​​within the ranges are as if expressly written out. The term "about" or "approximately" can mean within an acceptable error range for a particular value, which may vary in part depending on how the value is measured or determined, such as the limitations of the measurement system. For example, "about" can mean within one standard deviation or more than one standard deviation, as is customary in the art. Alternatively, "about" can mean within a range of up to 20%, up to 10%, up to 5%, or up to 1% of a particular value. When a particular value is described herein, unless otherwise specified, the term "about" can be assumed to mean within an acceptable error range for the particular value.

[0026] As used herein, the term "carbon particles" refers to particles containing carbon. Examples of carbon particles include, but are not limited to, carbon black, coke, needle coke, graphite, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, activated carbon, etc., or any combination thereof. Carbon particles may be classified by grade. The carbon particles of the present disclosure may be of any grade.

[0027] In one aspect, the present disclosure provides a system for generating carbon particles. The system may include an apparatus including a plasma generating section, a carbon particle generating section, and an obstacle positioned between the plasma generating section and the carbon particle generating section.

[0028] In another aspect, the present invention provides an apparatus for producing carbon particles. The apparatus may include a plasma generation section, a carbon particle generation section, and an obstacle disposed between the plasma generation section and the carbon particle generation section. During use, the obstacle may contact a fluid flowing from the plasma generation section to the carbon particle generation section. The obstacle contacting the fluid may reduce the angular momentum of the fluid. Reducing the angular momentum of the fluid may increase the flight time of the fluid and reduce reactor fouling compared to an apparatus without the obstacle.

[0029] In another aspect, the present invention provides a method for producing carbon particles. The method may include providing an apparatus including a plasma generation section, a carbon particle generation section, and an obstacle disposed between the plasma generation section and the carbon particle generation section. The method may further include flowing a heat transfer gas from the plasma generation section to the carbon particle generation section such that the heat transfer gas contacts the obstacle. Contacting the heat transfer gas with the obstacle may reduce the angular momentum of the heat transfer gas. The method may further include generating carbon particles using the heat transfer gas in the carbon particle generation section. Reducing the angular momentum of the heat transfer gas may increase the flight time of the heat transfer gas and reduce reactor fouling compared to an apparatus without the obstacle.

[0030] In another aspect, the present invention provides a method for producing carbon particles. The method may include providing an apparatus including a plasma generation section and a carbon particle generation section. The method may further include flowing a heat transfer gas from the plasma generation section to the carbon particle generation section such that the angular momentum of the heat transfer gas is reduced by at least about 50 percent before the heat transfer gas enters the carbon particle generation section. The method may further include generating carbon particles in the carbon particle generation section using the heat transfer gas.

[0031] In another aspect, the present invention provides a method for producing carbon particles. The method may include providing an apparatus including a plasma generation section and a carbon particle generation section. The method may further include flowing a heat transfer gas from the plasma generation section to the carbon particle generation section. The heat transfer gas may have an angular momentum to linear momentum ratio of about 1.5 or less before entering the carbon particle generation section. The method may further include generating carbon particles in the carbon particle generation section using the heat transfer gas.

[0032] In another aspect, the present invention provides a method for producing carbon particles. The method may include providing an apparatus including a plasma generation section and a carbon particle generation section. The method may further include flowing a heat transfer gas from the plasma generation section to the carbon particle generation section, and contacting the heat transfer gas with a hydrocarbon feedstock in the carbon particle generation section to produce carbon particles. During carbon particle generation, approximately 25% or less of the hydrocarbon feedstock may adhere to the carbon particle generation section.

[0033] In another aspect, the present invention provides a method for producing carbon particles. The method may include providing an apparatus including a plasma generation section and a carbon particle generation section. The method may further include flowing a heat transfer gas having a first angular momentum from the plasma generation section to the carbon particle generation section. The first angular momentum may have a first magnitude and a first direction. The method may further include contacting the heat transfer gas with a fluid having a second angular momentum. The second angular momentum may have a second magnitude and a second direction. Contacting the heat transfer gas with the fluid may reduce the first magnitude of the first angular momentum in the first direction. The method may further include generating carbon particles using the heat transfer gas in the carbon particle generation section.

[0034] Example of a system for use FIG. 1 shows a schematic diagram of an exemplary system 100 in which one or more embodiments of the present disclosure may be deployed or used. The system may include a heat generator (e.g., a plasma generator) 110. The heat generator 110 may heat at least a portion of one or more gases (e.g., feedstock) at suitable reaction conditions in a reactor (or furnace) 120 to remove chemicals (e.g., hydrogen) from the feedstock. The reactor 120 may contain the heat generator (e.g., a plasma generator) 110. The heating (e.g., electrical heating, e.g., plasma heating) and reaction may be carried out in one chamber (e.g., a "single chamber," "single reactor," or "single-stage process" herein) or multiple chambers (e.g., a "dual chamber," "two-stage reactor," "dual-stage process," "multiple chambers," "multistage reactor," "multiple-stage process," "multichamber," "multistage reactor," "multiple-stage process," etc.). The reactor 120 may include one or more constant diameter regions / sections, one or more converging regions / sections, one or more diverging regions / sections, one or more additional components, or any combination thereof. Such regions / sections or additional components may be combined in various ways to implement heating and reaction in accordance with the present disclosure. For example, the reactor may have a substantially constant diameter (e.g., at least about 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, or 99% of the reactor length may be constant diameter). Alternatively, or additionally, the reactor may have multiple sections, such as a first section and a second section, separated by a constriction or throat region (also referred to herein as a throat section or throat). The first section may be a plasma generation section, and the second section may be a carbon particle generation section. At least a portion of one or more gases (e.g., feedstock) may be added to the heat generator 110.

[0035] The reaction products may be cooled after production. A quench (e.g., containing process gas) may be used to cool the reaction products. For example, a quench containing a majority of hydrogen gas may be used. The quench may be added (e.g., injected) into the reactor 120. A heat exchanger 130 (e.g., connected to the reactor 120) may cool an exhaust stream containing the reaction products. In the heat exchanger, the gaseous reaction products are exposed to a large surface area, thereby cooling while simultaneously transporting solid carbonaceous material through the process. The solid carbonaceous material may pass through a filter (e.g., a main filter) 140 (e.g., connected to the heat exchanger 130). The filter may, for example, allow more than 50% of the gaseous reaction products to pass through, capturing substantially all of the solid carbonaceous material on the filter. For example, at least about 98% by mass of the solid carbonaceous material may be captured on the filter.

[0036] The gaseous reaction products may be provided or coupled to one or more uses, may be recycled to the reactor (e.g., as process gases), or any combination thereof. The solid carbonaceous material, including residual gaseous reaction products, may be passed through a degassing unit or facility (e.g., a degassing chamber or degasser) 150 (e.g., connected to filter 140), where the amount of combustible gases is reduced (e.g., to less than about 10% by volume).

[0037] The solid carbonaceous material may then pass through back-end equipment 160. Back-end equipment 160 may include, for example, one or more of the following, as non-limiting example(s) of component or unit operations: a pelletizer (e.g., connected to degasser 150), a binder mix tank (e.g., connected to a pelletizer), a dryer (e.g., connected to a pelletizer), or a bagger. For example, the solid carbonaceous material (e.g., carbon black) may be pelletized in a pelletizer and dried in a dryer (e.g., mixing water and a binder and forming into pellets, followed by removing most of the water in the dryer). The solid carbonaceous material may also pass through classifier(s), hammer mill(s), or other size reduction equipment (e.g., to reduce the proportion of gravel in the product). Non-limiting examples of other components or unit operations may be added to or substituted for system 100, including one or more of a transport process or transport unit, a purge filter unit (e.g., which may filter solid carbonaceous material from vapors exhausted from a dryer), a dust filter unit (e.g., which may collect dust from other equipment), other process filters, other hydrogen / exhaust gas removal units, cyclones, other bulk separation (e.g., solid / gas separation) units, off-quality product blending units, and the like (e.g., other components or unit operations described elsewhere herein).

[0038] Components or unit operations may be added or removed as needed. For example, system 100 may include at least one or more heat exchangers 130, one or more filters 140, and back-end equipment 160 comprising solids handling equipment. The solids handling equipment may include, for example, a cooled solids carbon collection screw conveyor, an airlock and purge system, a pneumatic transport system, a mechanical transport system (e.g., a conveyor belt auger or elevator), a classifying mill, and / or a product storage bin. The carbon particles may be collected at a single location (e.g., all of the carbon particles may be collected at one location) or at multiple locations.

[0039] The feedstock (e.g., a hydrocarbon feedstock containing one or more hydrocarbons, hydrocarbon derivatives, or a combination thereof) may begin to decompose before being fully converted to solid carbonaceous materials. Additionally, heat may be provided by latent heat radiation from the walls of the reactor 120. This may occur by heating the walls (or portions thereof) with externally provided energy or by heating the walls (or portions thereof) with heated gas(es) within the reactor. For example, hydrogen and carbonaceous materials (e.g., carbon particles) may be produced in a process that includes adding a hydrocarbon feedstock (e.g., natural gas or renewable natural gas) to the plasma generator 110 at or above atmospheric pressure. The hydrocarbon feedstock may be added by direct injection (e.g., direct feedstock injection) into the plasma generated by the plasma generator. Energy from the plasma generator may remove hydrogen from the hydrocarbons. This process may further include the use of one or more heat exchangers 130, filters 140, degassing chambers 150, and / or solids processing and other back-end equipment 160, as described above.

[0040] Reactor fouling Reactions that produce carbonaceous materials or hydrogen can be prone to fouling. Fouling can be an undesirable accumulation of solids on containment walls (e.g., walls of the reactor 120). Fouling can lead to runaway diffusion and premature equipment shutdown. The systems and methods of the present disclosure can be used to reduce the accumulation of solids on containment walls (e.g., reactor fouling) by controlling the flight time of reaction streams in chemical and power production equipment. Flight time is the time from when fluid reactants are initially introduced into a chamber or vessel until the reactants and reaction products contact the containment walls. Increasing flight time can reduce contact between the reactants and reaction products and the containment walls, reducing solids accumulation and reactor fouling.

[0041] In a continuous reaction process, the shape of the reaction chamber can include or be a straight cylinder. Alternatively, or additionally, the shape of the reaction chamber can include or be a cylinder with a narrowed portion or throat section. In a reactor 120 with a throat section, the reactants can be mixed in the throat section before entering the main, larger-diameter reaction chamber. The flow field characteristics of the reactants entering the reaction chamber can control, modify, or maximize the flight time of the reactants. Thus, the reactor can include a plasma generation section and a carbon particle generation section. The throat section can be located between the plasma generation section and the carbon particle generation section. The throat section can be upstream of the carbon particle generation section. The throat section can include a narrow diameter that rapidly widens into the carbon particle generation section. A narrowing diameter followed by a rapid expansion (e.g., a reactor flow channel with a small diameter in the upstream throat section and a large diameter in the downstream carbon particle production section) can result in the generation of recirculation bubbles of reactants and reaction products that buffer the main flow from the solid containment wall (e.g., the recirculation bubbles can reduce contact of the reactants or reaction products with the containment wall).

[0042] In some cases, "swirling" of bulk flow can shorten flight time, adversely affecting stable reactor operation. By shortening flight time, swirling can increase contact between reactants and reaction products and the walls of the containment vessel (e.g., reactor). Swirling can involve fluid flow in a turbulent mode, where fluid particles have a tangential component of velocity around an axis that combines with an axial component of velocity to produce a helical or spiral flow pattern. Bulk flow swirling is defined by the bulk flow swirl number, defined as the ratio of angular momentum to linear momentum. Angular momentum can act in a plane perpendicular to the linear motion of the fluid. High swirl number flow can have the effect of rapidly mixing reactants along a plane perpendicular to the main flow axis, shortening flight time. In reaction chambers with a rapid expansion zone, high swirl number flow can shorten axial recirculation bubbles due to the greater angular acceleration of the fluid compared to reaction chambers without a rapid expansion zone. Shortening the axial recirculation bubble can help overcome lateral pressure imbalances due to conservation of axial momentum. An exemplary analysis of a swirling flow that can be regulated using one or more embodiments of the disclosed systems and methods can be found, for example, in Chuang, S.-H., Lin, H.-C., Tai, F.-M., and Sung, H.-M., "Hot flow analysis of swirling sudden-expansion dump combustor," International Journal for Numerical Methods in Fluids, vol. 14, pp. 217-239, 1992. doi:10.1002 / fld.1650140208.

[0043] FIG. 2 is an exemplary graph of swirl number as a function of average reactor cleaning (reactor fouling) as a mass percent of total injected feedstock for various injector configurations without benefit of the disclosed systems and methods. As shown generally in FIG. 2, a swirl number of less than about 1 can reduce the accumulation of large carbon particles collected from the reaction chamber (e.g., fouling in the carbon particle generation section described with reference to FIG. 3 below). The axial injector / cylindrical data set 210 reflects the results of a reactor run in a cylindrical reactor without a throat section, with gas injected between electrodes at the top of the reactor and flowing axially downstream. The side injector / throat data set 220 reflects the results of a reactor run in a reactor with a throat section, with lateral gas injection in or near the throat. Throat sections are described below with reference to FIG. 3 and in various commonly owned patent publications, including at least U.S. Pat. No. 10,138,378 (Plasma Gas Throat Assembly and Method, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety). As suggested by FIG. 2, a system and method is needed to achieve results similar to or better than the axial injector / cylindrical data set 210, i.e., results approaching zero swirl number and zero reactor deposit formation, while using a reactor with a throat section such as the side injector / throat data set 220.

[0044] Flow correction In chemical and power generation devices, where minimal flight time can avoid unwanted deposit formation, the swirl number of the bulk reaction flow can be controlled to reduce deposit formation. In reactor systems prone to deposit formation, systems and methods can be used to increase flight time to reduce deposit formation. For example, in plasma reactors, angular momentum can be imparted to the bulk fluid by rotating an electric arc. The swirl number (Ssw) imparted to the bulk fluid by a rotating electric arc can be calculated as shown in Equation 1:

number

[0045] FIG. 3 shows a schematic diagram of flow before and after an obstacle according to one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. The reactor 300 may include an upstream section 305 containing electrodes (not shown) between which gas flows, where an electric arc excites the gas into a plasma state. The electric arc may be controlled by the use of a magnetic field that moves rapidly in a circle around the tip of the electrode. The reactor may include a converging region 310 and a diverging region 315 that define a throat 320. A hydrocarbon feedstock is then injected into the plasma gas through an injector (not shown). The hydrocarbon injector(s) may be located at or near the throat 320 within the diverging region 315 of the reactor 300, past the converging region 310, or anywhere on the plane downstream of the throat 320.

[0046] As shown schematically in FIG. 3 , swirling flow 330 may occur in the upstream section 305. The swirling flow 330 of the bulk fluid may have angular momentum (e.g., imparted by a rotating electric arc, feedstock injection, turbulent flow conditions, etc.). A static mechanical device comprising an obstacle 340 may be positioned between the upstream section 305 and the downstream section 335 to modify, control, or influence the swirling flow 330 of the bulk fluid in the upstream section 305 before the bulk fluid reaches the downstream section 335 of the reactor 300. The obstacle 340 may be configured to condition the swirling flow 330 before the obstacle 340 into a conditioned flow 350 after the obstacle 340. As shown, conditioning of the bulk flow through the obstacle 340 may occur as the bulk fluid flows past the obstacle 340 from the upstream section 305 toward the downstream section 335 in a flow path direction 345. Conditioning the bulk fluid through the obstacle 340 may increase the time of flight, reduce the angular momentum, increase the linear momentum, and / or reduce the swirl number of the conditioned flow 350 relative to the swirling flow 330.

[0047] The swirl number can be controlled or modified by equipment upstream of the reaction chamber. Swirl flow can enhance reactant mixing and flame retention within the combustion device. Swirl flow can be provided by upstream piping configurations such as elbows and narrowed areas, which can induce secondary flow field effects through the conservation of fluid momentum. Mechanical devices can also be used to provide or transfer angular momentum to a fluid. Mechanical devices can include rotating machines such as stator-less fan blades that redirect momentum. Alternatively, or additionally, swirl can be provided or imparted to a fluid flow by the rapid rotation of an electric arc on a heating element. Because the fluid properties of the electric arc plasma core are significantly different from those of the bulk fluid, the arc can be considered a "blunt body." Rapidly rotating arcs can induce swirl due to drag between the arc core and the bulk fluid, similar to rotating mechanical devices. The arc may rotate at a speed of about 200 Hertz (Hz), 300 Hz, 400 Hz, 500 Hz, 600 Hz, 800 Hz, 1000 Hz, 1200 Hz, 1400 Hz, 1600 Hz, 1800 Hz, 2000 Hz, 2200 Hz, 2400 Hz, 2600 Hz, 2800 Hz, 3000 Hz, 3200 Hz, 3400 Hz, or greater. The arc may rotate at a speed of about 3400Hz, 3200Hz, 3000Hz, 2800Hz, 2600Hz, 2400Hz, 2200Hz, 2000Hz, 1800Hz, 1600Hz, 1400Hz, 1200Hz, 1000Hz, 800Hz, 600Hz, 500Hz, 400Hz, 300Hz, 200Hz or less. The arc is approximately 200Hz to 300Hz, 200Hz to 400Hz, 200Hz to 500Hz, 200Hz to 600Hz, 200Hz to 800Hz, 200Hz to 1000Hz, 200Hz to 1200Hz, 200Hz to 1400Hz, 200Hz to 1600Hz, 200Hz to 1800Hz, 200Hz to 2000Hz, 200H z~2200Hz, 200Hz~2400Hz, 200Hz~2600Hz, 200Hz~2800Hz, 200Hz~3000Hz, 200Hz~3200Hz, 200Hz~3400Hz, 300Hz~400Hz, 300Hz~500Hz, 300Hz~600Hz, 300Hz~800Hz, 300Hz~1000Hz,300Hz~1200Hz、300Hz~1400Hz、300Hz~1600Hz、300Hz~1800Hz、300Hz~2000Hz、300Hz~2200Hz、300Hz~2400Hz、300Hz~2600Hz、300Hz~2800Hz、300Hz~3000Hz、300Hz~3200Hz、300Hz~3400Hz、400Hz~500Hz、400Hz~600Hz、400Hz~800Hz、400Hz~1000Hz、400Hz~1200Hz、400Hz~1400Hz、400Hz~1600Hz、400Hz~1800Hz、400Hz~2000Hz、400Hz~2200Hz、400Hz~2400Hz、400Hz~2600Hz、400Hz~2800Hz、400Hz~3000Hz、400Hz~3200Hz、400Hz~3400Hz、500Hz~600Hz、500Hz~800Hz、500Hz~1000Hz、500Hz~1200Hz、500Hz~1400Hz、500Hz~1600Hz、500Hz~1800Hz、500Hz~2000Hz、500Hz~2200Hz、500Hz~2400Hz、500Hz~2600Hz、500Hz~2800Hz、500Hz~3000Hz、500Hz~3200Hz、500Hz~3400Hz、600Hz~800Hz、600Hz~1000Hz、600Hz~1200Hz、600Hz~1400Hz、600Hz~1600Hz、600Hz~1800Hz、600Hz~2000Hz、600Hz~2200Hz、600Hz~2400Hz、600Hz~2600Hz、600Hz~2800Hz、600Hz~3000Hz、600Hz~3200Hz、600Hz~3400Hz、800Hz~1000Hz、800Hz~1200Hz、800Hz~1400Hz、800Hz~1600Hz、800Hz~1800Hz、800Hz~2000Hz、800Hz~2200Hz、800Hz~2400Hz、800Hz~2600Hz、800Hz~2800Hz、800Hz~3000Hz、800Hz~3200Hz、800Hz~3400Hz、1000Hz~1200Hz、1000Hz~1400Hz、1000Hz~1600Hz、1000Hz~1800Hz、1000Hz~2000Hz、1000Hz~2200Hz、1000Hz~2400Hz、1000Hz~2600Hz、1000Hz~2800Hz、1000Hz~3000Hz、1000Hz~3200Hz、1000Hz~3400Hz、1200Hz~1400Hz、1200Hz~1600Hz、1200Hz~1800Hz、1200Hz~2000Hz、1200Hz~2200Hz、1200Hz~2400Hz、1200Hz~2600Hz、1200Hz~2800Hz、1200Hz~3000Hz、1200Hz~3200Hz、1200Hz~3400Hz、1400Hz~1600Hz、1400Hz~1800Hz、1400Hz~2000Hz、1400Hz~2200Hz、1400Hz~2400Hz、1400Hz~2600Hz、1400Hz~2800Hz、1400Hz~3000Hz、1400Hz~3200Hz、1400Hz~3400Hz、1600Hz~1800Hz、1600Hz~2000Hz、1600Hz~2200Hz、1600Hz~2400Hz、1600Hz~2600Hz、1600Hz~2800Hz、1600Hz~3000Hz、1600Hz~3200Hz、1600Hz~3400Hz、1800Hz~2000Hz、1800Hz~2200Hz、1800Hz~2400Hz、1800Hz~2600Hz、1800Hz~2800Hz、1800Hz~3000Hz、1800Hz~3200Hz、1800Hz~3400Hz、2000Hz~2200Hz、2000Hz~2400Hz、2000Hz~2600Hz、2000Hz~2800Hz、2000Hz~3000Hz、2000Hz~3200Hz、2000Hz~3400Hz、2200Hz~2400Hz、2200Hz~2600Hz、2200Hz~2800Hz、2200Hz~3000Hz、2200Hz~3200Hz、2200Hz~3400Hz、2400Hz~2600Hz、2400Hz~2800Hz、2400Hz~3000Hz、2400Hz~3200Hz、2400Hz~3400Hz、2600Hz~2800Hz、2600Hz~3000Hz、2600Hz~3200Hz、2600Hz~3400Hz、2800Hz~3000Hz、2800Hz~3200Hz、2800Hz~3400Hz、3000Hz~3200Hz、3000Hz~3400Hz、Or it can rotate at a speed in the range of 3200Hz to 3400Hz.

[0048] The swirling flow can be redirected using a static mechanical device (e.g., a stator or diffuser). The static mechanical device can impart shear forces to the bulk fluid flow (e.g., bulk fluid flowing from the plasma generation section to the carbon particle generation section) to dissipate excess momentum and cause the flow field to be pressure gradient driven. The bulk fluid can include a heat transfer gas, a feedstock, or any combination thereof, or any fluid in a swirling and / or turbulent flow suitable for reducing angular momentum. The static mechanical device can redirect the flow by reducing and / or dissipating angular momentum in the bulk fluid flow.

[0049] The static mechanical device may include an obstacle(s) disposed within the fluid flow path. The obstacle(s) may include one or more flat plates, curved plates, grid plates, perforated plates, or other complex shapes. The static mechanical device may break up or divide the fluid flow from the plasma generation section to the carbon particle generation section into multiple smaller co-rotating vortices that impart or provide shear to each other as they exit the device. The co-rotating vortices may shear to each other, thereby dissipating or reducing the angular momentum of the vortices. A reactor equipped with a static mechanical device that reduces or dissipates the angular momentum of the bulk fluid may increase flight time and reduce reactor fouling compared to a reactor without the static mechanical device. Contacting the bulk fluid with the static mechanical device may reduce the angular momentum of the bulk fluid by at least about 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, or more compared to a bulk fluid not in contact with the static mechanical device. In one example, contacting the bulk fluid with a static mechanical device can reduce the angular momentum of the bulk fluid by at least about 50% compared to the bulk fluid not in contact with the static mechanical device. In another example, contacting the bulk fluid with a static mechanical device can reduce the angular momentum of the bulk fluid by at least about 90% compared to the bulk fluid not in contact with the static mechanical device. Contacting the bulk fluid with a static mechanical device can reduce the ratio of the bulk fluid diagonal momentum to linear momentum. Contacting the bulk fluid with a static mechanical device can provide a fluid having an angular momentum to linear momentum ratio of about 2, 1.5, 1.25, 1, or less. In one example, contacting the bulk fluid with a static mechanical device can provide a fluid having an angular momentum to linear momentum ratio of 1.5 or less. In another example, contacting the bulk fluid with a static mechanical device can provide a fluid having an angular momentum to linear momentum ratio of 1.25 or less. In another example, contacting a bulk fluid with a static mechanical device can provide a fluid with an angular momentum to linear momentum ratio of 1 or less.

[0050] In one example, the reactor system may include a plasma generation section coupled to the carbon particle generation section through a narrowing or throat. The carbon particle generation system may be downstream of the plasma generation section. The system may further include an injector configured to inject or inject a feedstock into the plasma generated in the plasma generation section. The feedstock may be injected into the plasma generation section, the throat, or the carbon particle generation section. In one example, the feedstock is injected into the carbon particle generation section. The system may further include a static mechanical device comprising one or more obstacles. The static mechanical device may be positioned within the throat, upstream of the throat (e.g., between the plasma generation section and the throat), or downstream of the throat (e.g., between the throat and the carbon particle generation section). In one example, the static mechanical device is positioned at the inlet or outlet of the throat section. The feedstock may be injected upstream of, within, or downstream of the static mechanical device. In one example, the static mechanical device is positioned upstream of the throat, and the feedstock is injected upstream of the static mechanical device. In another example, the static mechanical device is positioned upstream of the throat, and the feedstock is injected into the static mechanical device. In another example, the static mechanical device is positioned upstream of the throat and the feedstock is injected downstream of the static mechanical device. In another example, the static mechanical device is positioned at the throat and the feedstock is injected upstream of the static mechanical device. In another example, the static mechanical device is positioned at the throat and the feedstock is injected into the static mechanical device. In another example, the static mechanical device is positioned at the throat and the feedstock is injected downstream of the static mechanical device. In another example, the static mechanical device is positioned downstream of the throat and the feedstock is injected upstream of the static mechanical device. In another example, the static mechanical device is positioned downstream of the throat and the feedstock is injected into the static mechanical device. In another example, the static mechanical device is positioned downstream of the throat and the feedstock is injected downstream of the static mechanical device. Alternatively, static mechanical devices may be positioned in multiple sections of the reactor.For example, the static mechanical device may be at least partially located in the plasma generating section and the throat, or at least partially located in the throat and the carbon particle generating section.

[0051] The static mechanical device may include one or more obstacles. Various configuration examples of the obstacles are shown in Figures 4, 5, and 6. The obstacles may be plates (e.g., flat plates or curved plates). The plates of the static mechanical device may be bonded or fixed to, or may be in direct or indirect contact with, a wall of the reactor (e.g., a wall of the plasma generation section, throat, or carbon particle generation section).

[0052] FIG. 4 illustrates a side view of an example configuration 400 of an obstacle with intersecting plates in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. As shown in FIG. 4 , the static mechanical device may include an obstacle 410 including one or more flat plates 420, 430. The obstacle 410 may be located within or upstream of the throat section of the reactor. The obstacle 410 may have a midpoint 415 that intersects with a central axis 440 of the reactor (e.g., the plasma generation section, the throat, or the carbon particle generation section). As shown in the example of FIG. 4 , the static mechanical device obstacle 410 may include two flat plates 440 and 450 that are arranged perpendicular or substantially perpendicular to each other to form a cross-shaped configuration. The two plates 440 and 450 intersect and meet at the midpoint 415, which may correspond to the axis 440 or the center point of the reactor (e.g., the particle generation section, the throat, or the carbon particle generation section). Each plate may have a first dimension 450 , a second dimension 460 , and a third dimension 470 .

[0053] The static mechanical device may include multiple flat plates. The static mechanical device may include approximately 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, or more flat plates. The multiple plates may intersect at a midpoint. The angle between the plates may be approximately 90 degrees (°), 80°, 70°, 60°, 50°, 40°, 30°, 20°, or less. In one example, as shown in FIG. 4, the static mechanical device may include two plates, and the angle between the two plates may be approximately 90 degrees or less. In another example, the static mechanical device may include four plates, and the angle between the plates may be approximately 45° or less. The multiple plates may have the same angle between all plates, or different angles between different plates.

[0054] The first dimension 450 of the flat plate can span the fluid flow path of the reactor (e.g., perpendicular to the average fluid flow path or direction of fluid flow of the reactor). For example, the obstacles can be positioned within or near the throat, and the first dimension 450 of the plate can span the diameter of the throat. Alternatively, the obstacles can be positioned within or near the throat, and the first dimension 450 of the plate can span half the diameter or radius of the throat. The first dimension 450 of the plate can be equal to or substantially equal to the diameter of the throat, or equal to or substantially equal to the radius of the throat. Alternatively, the first dimension 450 of the plate can be equal to or substantially equal to the distance between the interior walls of the reactor (e.g., the plasma generation section, the throat, the carbon particle generation section, etc.). The second dimension 460 of the flat plate can be a dimension parallel to the fluid flow path. The plate can be positioned such that the fluid flow path flows along both sides of the plate parallel to the second dimension 460 of the plate. The second dimension 460 of the plate can be greater than or equal to about 200 millimeters (mm), 400 mm, 600 mm, 800 mm, 1000 mm, 1200 mm, 1400 mm, 1600 mm, 1800 mm, 2000 mm, 2200 mm, 2400 mm, or more. The second dimension 460 of the plate can be less than or equal to about 2400 mm, 2200 mm, 2000 mm, 1800 mm, 1600 mm, 1400 mm, 1200 mm, 1000 mm, 800 mm, 600 mm, 400 mm, 200 mm, or less.The second dimension 460 of the plate may be between about 200 mm and 400 mm, 200 mm and 600 mm, 200 mm and 800 mm, 200 mm and 1000 mm, 200 mm and 1200 mm, 200 mm and 1400 mm, 200 mm and 1600 mm, 200 mm and 1800 mm, 200 mm and 2000 mm, 200 mm and 2200 mm, 200 mm and 2400 mm, 400 mm and 600 mm, 400 mm and 800 mm, 400 mm and 1000 mm, 400 mm and 1200 mm, 400 mm and 1400 mm, 400 mm and 1600 mm, 200 mm and 1800 mm, 200 mm and 2000 mm, 200 mm and 2400 mm, 400 mm and 600 mm, 400 mm and 800 mm, 400 mm and 1000 mm, 400 mm and 1200 mm, 400 mm and 1400 mm, 400 mm and 1600 mm, 400 mm and 1800 mm, 200 mm and 2000 mm, 200 mm and 2400 mm, 400 mm and 1800 mm, 400 mm and 1800 mm, 400 mm and 19 ... 600mm, 400mm~1800mm, 400mm~2000mm, 400mm~2200mm, 400mm~2400mm, 600mm~800mm, 600mm~1000mm, 600mm~1200mm, 600mm~1400mm, 600m m~1600mm, 600mm~1800mm, 600mm~2000mm, 600mm~2200mm, 600mm~2400mm, 800mm~1000mm, 800mm~1200mm, 800mm~1400mm, 800mm~1600mm, 8 00mm~1800mm, 800mm~2000mm, 800mm~2200mm, 800mm~2400mm, 1000mm~1200mm, 1000mm~1400mm, 1000mm~1600mm, 1000mm~1800mm, 1000mm ~2000mm, 1000mm~2200mm, 1000mm~2400mm, 1200mm~1400mm, 1200mm~1600mm, 1200mm~1800mm, 1200mm~2000mm, 1200mm~2200mm, 1200mm~2 The plate may have a third dimension 470 (e.g., a thickness of the plate) perpendicular to the flow path.The plate may have a third dimension 470 that is about 1 mm, 5 mm, 10 mm, 20 mm, 40 mm, 60 mm, 80 mm, 100 mm or more. The plate may have a third dimension 470 that is about 100 mm, 80 mm, 60 mm, 40 mm, 20 mm, 10 mm, 5 mm, 1 mm or less. The plate may have a third dimension 470 in the range of about 1 mm to 5 mm, 1 mm to 10 mm, 1 mm to 20 mm, 1 mm to 40 mm, 1 mm to 60 mm, 1 mm to 80 mm, 1 mm to 100 mm, 5 mm to 10 mm, 5 mm to 20 mm, 5 mm to 40 mm, 5 mm to 60 mm, 5 mm to 80 mm, 5 mm to 100 mm, 10 mm to 20 mm, 10 mm to 40 mm, 10 mm to 60 mm, 10 mm to 80 mm, 10 mm to 100 mm, 20 mm to 40 mm, 20 mm to 60 mm, 20 mm to 80 mm, 20 mm to 100 mm, 40 mm to 60 mm, 40 mm to 80 mm, 40 mm to 100 mm, 60 mm to 80 mm, 60 mm to 100 mm, or 80 mm to 100 mm.

[0055] The static mechanical device may include an obstacle comprising a grid or array of connected plates. The grid or array of plates may include a subset of plates arranged in a first direction and another subset of plates arranged in a second direction. The first direction may be perpendicular or substantially perpendicular to the second direction. The grid or array of plates may be arranged perpendicular to the average direction of fluid flow.

[0056] 5 shows a side view of an example obstacle configuration 500 comprising a grid 510 of connecting plates 520, 530, 540 in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. As shown in FIG. 5, the grid 510 may be oriented perpendicular to the axis 550 of the reactor (e.g., the plasma generation section, throat, or carbon particle generation section) or the average direction of fluid flow. The grid or array of plates 510 may comprise about 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 12 or more plates.

[0057] The static mechanical device may comprise a plurality of obstacles coupled to or fixed to a wall of the reactor (e.g., plasma generating section, throat, carbon particle generating section) or in direct or indirect contact with the wall of the reactor and extending radially toward the center of the reactor. One of the plurality of obstacles may be a plate. The obstacles may or may not be in contact with each other. The obstacles may be randomly oriented relative to each other or radially arranged relative to each other.

[0058] 6 shows a side view of an example obstacle configuration 600 including a series of plates, e.g., plate 610, in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. As shown, one side of plate 610 may be coupled to a reactor wall 620, and the other side of plate 610 may extend radially into a fluid flow path, e.g., an average bulk fluid flow path, aligned or substantially aligned in a direction parallel to a central axis 630. The plate may have a first dimension 640 perpendicular to the average direction of fluid flow 630, a second dimension 650 parallel to the average direction of fluid flow 630, and a third dimension 660 (e.g., the thickness of the plate) perpendicular to the average direction of fluid flow 550.

[0059] The plate secured to the wall can have a first dimension 640 that is about 200 mm, 400 mm, 600 mm, 800 mm, 1000 mm, 1200 mm, 1400 mm, 1600 mm, 1800 mm, 2000 mm, 2200 mm, 2400 mm or more. The first dimension 640 can be about 2400 mm, 2200 mm, 2000 mm, 1800 mm, 1600 mm, 1400 mm, 1200 mm, 1000 mm, 800 mm, 600 mm, 400 mm, 200 mm or less.The first dimension 640 may be between about 200 mm and 400 mm, 200 mm and 600 mm, 200 mm and 800 mm, 200 mm and 1000 mm, 200 mm and 1200 mm, 200 mm and 1400 mm, 200 mm and 1600 mm, 200 mm and 1800 mm, 200 mm and 2000 mm, 200 mm and 2200 mm, 200 mm and 2400 mm, 400 mm and 600 mm, 400 mm and 800 mm, 400 mm and 1000 mm, 400 mm and 1200 mm, 400 mm and 1400 mm, 400 mm and 1600 mm. m, 400mm~1800mm, 400mm~2000mm, 400mm~2200mm, 400mm~2400mm, 600mm~800mm, 600mm~1000mm, 600mm~1200mm, 600mm~1400mm, 600mm~16 00mm, 600mm~1800mm, 600mm~2000mm, 600mm~2200mm, 600mm~2400mm, 800mm~1000mm, 800mm~1200mm, 800mm~1400mm, 800mm~1600mm, 800m m~1800mm, 800mm~2000mm, 800mm~2200mm, 800mm~2400mm, 1000mm~1200mm, 1000mm~1400mm, 1000mm~1600mm, 1000mm~1800mm, 1000mm~2 000mm, 1000mm~2200mm, 1000mm~2400mm, 1200mm~1400mm, 1200mm~1600mm, 1200mm~1800mm, 1200mm~2000mm, 1200mm~2200mm, 1200mm~24 00mm, 1400mm to 1600mm, 1400mm to 1800mm, 1400mm to 2000mm, 1400mm to 2200mm, 1400mm to 2400mm, 1600mm to 1800mm, 1600mm to 2000mm, 1600mm to 2200mm, 1600mm to 2400mm, 1800mm to 2000mm, 1800mm to 2200mm, 1800mm to 2400mm, 2000mm to 2200mm, 2000mm to 2400mm, or 2200mm to 2400mm.

[0060] The plate secured to the wall may have a second dimension 650 that is about 200 mm, 300 mm, 400 mm, 600 mm, 800 mm, 1200 mm, 1600 mm, 2000 mm, 2400 mm, 2800 mm, 3200 mm, 3600 mm or more. The plate may have a second dimension 650 that is about 3600 mm, 3200 mm, 2800 mm, 2400 mm, 2000 mm, 1600 mm, 1200 mm, 800 mm, 600 mm, 400 mm, 300 mm, 200 mm or less.Plates are available in sizes of approximately 200mm-300mm, 200mm-400mm, 200mm-600mm, 200mm-800mm, 200mm-1200mm, 200mm-1600mm, 200mm-2000mm, 200mm-2400mm, 200mm-2800mm, 200mm-3200mm, 200mm-3600mm, 300mm-400mm, 300mm-600mm, 300mm-800mm, 300mm-1200mm, 300mm-1600mm, 300mm-2000mm, 300 mm~2400mm, 300mm~2800mm, 300mm~3200mm, 300mm~3600mm, 400mm~600mm, 400mm~800mm, 400mm~1200mm, 400mm~1600mm, 400mm~2000mm, 400mm~2400mm, 400mm~2800mm, 400mm~3200mm, 400mm~3600mm, 600mm~800mm, 600mm~1200mm, 600mm~1600mm, 600mm~2000mm, 600mm~2400 mm, 600mm~2800mm, 600mm~3200mm, 600mm~3600mm, 800mm~1200mm, 800mm~1600mm, 800mm~2000mm, 800mm~2400mm, 800mm~2800mm, 800mm ~3200mm, 800mm~3600mm, 1200mm~1600mm, 1200mm~2000mm, 1200mm~2400mm, 1200mm~2800mm, 1200mm~3200mm, 1200mm~3600mm, 1600mm~ The second dimension 650 may be in the range of 2000 mm, 1600 mm to 2400 mm, 1600 mm to 2800 mm, 1600 mm to 3200 mm, 1600 mm to 3600 mm, 2000 mm to 2400 mm, 2000 mm to 2800 mm, 2000 mm to 3200 mm, 2000 mm to 3600 mm, 2400 mm to 2800 mm, 2400 mm to 3200 mm, 2400 mm to 3600 mm, 2800 mm to 3200 mm, 2800 mm to 3600 mm, or 3200 mm to 3600 mm.

[0061] The plate secured to the wall can have a third dimension 660 that is about 1 mm, 5 mm, 10 mm, 20 mm, 40 mm, 60 mm, 80 mm, 100 mm or more. The plate can have a third dimension 660 that is about 100 mm, 80 mm, 60 mm, 40 mm, 20 mm, 10 mm, 5 mm, 1 mm or less. The plate may have a third dimension 660 in the range of about 1 mm to 5 mm, 1 mm to 10 mm, 1 mm to 20 mm, 1 mm to 40 mm, 1 mm to 60 mm, 1 mm to 80 mm, 1 mm to 100 mm, 5 mm to 10 mm, 5 mm to 20 mm, 5 mm to 40 mm, 5 mm to 60 mm, 5 mm to 80 mm, 5 mm to 100 mm, 10 mm to 20 mm, 10 mm to 40 mm, 10 mm to 60 mm, 10 mm to 80 mm, 10 mm to 100 mm, 20 mm to 40 mm, 20 mm to 60 mm, 20 mm to 80 mm, 20 mm to 100 mm, 40 mm to 60 mm, 40 mm to 80 mm, 40 mm to 100 mm, 60 mm to 80 mm, 60 mm to 100 mm, or 80 mm to 100 mm.

[0062] An obstacle of the plurality of obstacles can include a first surface area defined and bounded by a first dimension 640 and a second dimension 650. The first surface area can be oriented to be orthogonal, perpendicular, or substantially perpendicular to the average direction of fluid flow (e.g., the direction of the vector addition of the linear / axial and angular velocities of the fluid flow). The orientation of the obstacle(s) of the static mechanical device can impart a shear force to the bulk fluid flow such that angular momentum is reduced or dissipated as the bulk fluid flows through the static mechanical device.

[0063] 7A-7D show top views of example obstacle configurations according to one or more embodiments of the present disclosure, as described elsewhere herein. FIG. 7A shows an example obstacle configuration with two link plates 710. FIG. 7B shows an example obstacle configuration with four link plates 720. FIG. 7C shows an example obstacle configuration with six link plates 730. FIG. 7D shows an example obstacle configuration with eight link plates 740.

[0064] 8A-8D show top views of example obstacle configurations according to one or more embodiments of the present disclosure, as described elsewhere herein. FIG. 8A shows an example obstacle configuration comprising three radially intersecting plates 810. FIG. 8B shows an example obstacle configuration comprising three non-intersecting plates 820. FIG. 8C shows an example obstacle configuration comprising a grid of three connecting plates 830. FIG. 8D shows an example obstacle configuration comprising a grid of six connecting plates 840.

[0065] The static mechanical device may further include one or more obstacles comprising a dense lattice structure of a solid material. FIG. 9 illustrates an example of a lattice structure according to one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. The lattice structure may include a three-dimensional structure having a patterned series of pores. The patterned series of pores may be a random series of pores or an ordered pattern of pores. The solid material lattice structure may provide resistance to flow and reduce the momentum and velocity of the bulk fluid flow relative to the momentum and velocity driven by an axial pressure gradient. In one example, the solid material lattice structure may include a structure resembling an atomic metal "lattice." The solid material lattice structure may include a plurality of pores through which a fluid can pass. In one example, the lattice structure includes a molecular sieve. In one example, the lattice structure includes a sponge diffuser. The pores of the plurality of pores may have an average diameter of approximately 0.5 mm, 1 mm, 2 mm, 3 mm, 4 mm, 5 mm, 10 mm, 20 mm, 30 mm, 40 mm, 50 mm, 60 mm, or more. The pores of the plurality of pores may have an average diameter of about 60 mm, 50 mm, 40 mm, 30 mm, 20 mm, 10 mm, 5 mm, 4 mm, 3 mm, 2 mm, 1 mm, 0.5 mm or less.The pores of the plurality of pores are about 0.5 mm to 1 mm, 0.5 mm to 2 mm, 0.5 mm to 3 mm, 0.5 mm to 4 mm, 0.5 mm to 5 mm, 0.5 mm to 10 mm, 0.5 mm to 20 mm, 0.5 mm to 30 mm, 0.5 mm to 40 mm, 0.5 mm to 50 mm, 0.5 mm to 60 mm, 1 mm to 2 mm, 1 mm to 3 mm, 1 mm to 4 mm, 1 mm to 5 mm , 1mm~10mm, 1mm~20mm, 1mm~30mm, 1mm~40mm, 1mm~50mm, 1mm~60mm, 2mm~3mm, 2mm~4mm, 2mm~5mm, 2m m~10mm, 2mm~20mm, 2mm~30mm, 2mm~40mm, 2mm~50mm, 2mm~60mm, 3mm~4mm, 3mm~5mm, 3mm~10mm, 3mm~ 20mm, 3mm~30mm, 3mm~40mm, 3mm~50mm, 3mm~60mm, 4mm~5mm, 4mm~10mm, 4mm~20mm, 4mm~30mm, 4mm~ 40mm, 4mm~50mm, 4mm~60mm, 5mm~10mm, 5mm~20mm, 5mm~30mm, 5mm~40mm, 5mm~50mm, 5mm~60mm, 10mm The pores may have an average diameter in the range of 20 mm, 10 mm to 30 mm, 10 mm to 40 mm, 10 mm to 50 mm, 10 mm to 60 mm, 20 mm to 30 mm, 20 mm to 40 mm, 20 mm to 50 mm, 20 mm to 60 mm, 30 mm to 40 mm, 30 mm to 50 mm, 30 mm to 60 mm, 40 mm to 50 mm, 40 mm to 60 mm, or 50 mm to 60 mm. In one example, the pore size (e.g., pore diameter) may be about 5 mm or greater. In one example, the porous structure may be visible to the human eye. The pores in the lattice structure of the solid material may be uniform or may vary in size throughout the lattice of the solid material. The pore size may vary by about 60%, 50%, 40%, 30%, 20%, 10%, or less. The lattice structure may be a randomly oriented lattice (e.g., similar to a natural sponge) or a regular lattice. The lattice structure may be formed of solid carbon, carbon composite, ceramic, refractory metal, carbide of a refractory metal, or any combination thereof.

[0066] Alternatively, or additionally, the swirl number of a bulk fluid flow may be reduced by introducing a secondary fluid into the bulk fluid flow, which may create or impart shear forces to the bulk flow, thereby reducing or dissipating the total angular momentum of the combined fluids and reducing swirl.

[0067] The secondary fluid can have an angular momentum in a direction opposite to the direction of the angular momentum of the bulk fluid. The angle between the angular momentum of the secondary fluid and the angular momentum of the bulk fluid can be about 20 degrees (°), 30°, 40°, 50°, 60°, 70°, 80°, 90°, or more. The angle between the angular momentum of the secondary fluid and the angular momentum of the bulk fluid can be about 90°, 80°, 70°, 60°, 50°, 40°, 30°, 20°, or less. The angle between the angular momentum of the secondary fluid and the angular momentum of the bulk fluid is approximately 20°-30°, 20°-40°, 20°-50°, 20°-60°, 20°-70°, 20°-80°, 20°-90°, 30°-40°, 30°-50°, 30°-60°, 30°-70°, 30°-80°, 30°-90° , 40° to 50°, 40° to 60°, 40° to 70°, 40° to 80°, 40° to 90°, 50° to 60°, 50° to 70°, 50° to 80°, 50° to 90°, 60° to 70°, 60° to 80°, 60° to 90°, 70° to 80°, 70° to 90°, or 80° to 90°.

[0068] The angular momentum of the secondary fluid can be similar in magnitude to or different from the angular momentum of the bulk fluid. The magnitude of the angular momentum of the bulk fluid can be greater than, less than, or equal to the magnitude of the angular momentum of the secondary fluid. In one example, the magnitude of the angular momentum of the bulk fluid is greater than the magnitude of the angular momentum of the secondary fluid. The ratio of the magnitude of the angular momentum of the bulk fluid to the magnitude of the angular momentum of the secondary fluid can be about 1, 1.25, 1.5, 2, 3, 4, 5, or more. In one example, the ratio of the magnitude of the angular momentum of the bulk fluid to the magnitude of the angular momentum of the secondary fluid can be about 1 or greater. In one example, the ratio of the magnitude of the angular momentum of the bulk fluid to the magnitude of the angular momentum of the secondary fluid can be in the range of about 1-2, 1-3, 1-4, 1-5, 2-3, 2-4, 2-5, 3-4, 3-5, or 4-5. In one example, the ratio of the magnitude of the angular momentum of the bulk fluid to the magnitude of the angular momentum of the secondary fluid can be in a range of about 1 to 5. In another example, the ratio of the magnitude of the angular momentum of the bulk fluid to the magnitude of the angular momentum of the secondary fluid can be in a range of about 1 to 3. In another example, the ratio of the magnitude of the angular momentum of the bulk fluid to the magnitude of the angular momentum of the secondary fluid can be in a range of about 1 to 2.

[0069] The secondary fluid can be the same fluid as the bulk fluid or can be a different fluid. The secondary fluid can include hydrogen, a hydrocarbon (e.g., methane, ethane, propane, etc.), a hydrocarbon derivative, or any combination thereof. Alternatively, or additionally, the secondary fluid can be an inert gas such as (for example) argon, nitrogen, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, or any combination thereof. In one example, the secondary fluid includes a reactant or feedstock. Contacting the bulk fluid with the secondary fluid can reduce the angular momentum of the bulk fluid by at least about 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, or more compared to the bulk fluid not in contact with the secondary fluid. The angular momentum of the bulk fluid can be reduced before the bulk fluid enters the carbon particle production section of the reactor. In one example, contacting the bulk fluid with the secondary fluid can reduce the angular momentum of the bulk fluid by at least about 50%. In another example, contacting the bulk fluid with the secondary fluid can reduce the angular momentum of the bulk fluid by at least about 75%. In another example, contacting the bulk fluid with the secondary fluid can reduce the angular momentum of the bulk fluid by at least about 90%. Contacting the bulk fluid with the secondary fluid can provide a fluid having an angular momentum to linear momentum ratio of about 2, 1.5, 1.25, 1, or less. In one example, contacting the bulk fluid with the secondary fluid can provide a fluid having an angular momentum to linear momentum ratio of about 1.5 or less. In another example, contacting the bulk fluid with the secondary fluid can provide a fluid having an angular momentum to linear momentum ratio of about 1.25 or less. In another example, contacting the bulk fluid with the secondary fluid can provide a fluid having an angular momentum to linear momentum ratio of about 1 or less.

[0070] The secondary fluid is provided to the reactor or injected using an injector (e.g., a nozzle or set of nozzles). The set of injectors (e.g., nozzles) can be located in an upstream section of the reactor (e.g., in the plasma-generating section, near the plasma-generating electrode, etc.). The set of injectors can be located outside the bulk fluid flow or can protrude into the bulk fluid flow. FIGS. 10A and 10B show top views of example injector configurations in accordance with one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. FIG. 10A shows an example injector configuration comprising an injector (e.g., nozzle) 1000 located at the periphery 1010 (e.g., wall) of the reactor, configured to inject the secondary fluid along the periphery 1010 of the reactor through the inner or internal wall 1020 of the reactor (e.g., mounted flush with the reactor wall). FIG. 10B shows an example injector configuration comprising an injector 1030 located within the reactor chamber (e.g., extending through the reactor wall into the reactor chamber). The injector (eg, nozzle) may be positioned perpendicular to the outer periphery (eg, wall) 1010 of the reactor and may extend radially into the reactor through the inner wall 1020.

[0071] 10A and 10B, during use, the reactor may contain a bulk fluid 1040 that rotates as it travels along the length of the reactor (not shown). The bulk fluid may rotate clockwise or counterclockwise (1040). The reactor may include an interior wall 1020 with one or more secondary fluid injectors 1000 (FIG. 10A) or 1030 (FIG. 10B) disposed through the wall 1020. The injectors 1000 may be mounted flush (e.g., as shown in FIG. 10A), or the injectors 1030 may protrude into the bulk fluid flow (e.g., as shown in FIG. 10B). The secondary fluid injectors 1000 or 1030 may generate secondary fluid jets 1050 that point in a direction opposite to the rotation 1040 of the bulk fluid. The injector (e.g., nozzle) 1000 or 1030 may inject the secondary fluid 1050 into the rotating bulk fluid 1040 at an angle of about 20 degrees (°), 30°, 40°, 50°, 60°, 70°, 80°, 90° or more from the reactor interior wall 1020. The injector 1000 or 1030 may inject the secondary fluid 1050 into the rotating bulk fluid 1040 at an angle of about 90°, 80°, 70°, 60°, 50°, 40°, 30°, 20° or less from the reactor wall 702. The injector 1000 or 1030 is angled from the reactor wall 1020 at about 20°-30°, 20°-40°, 20°-50°, 20°-60°, 20°-70°, 20°-80°, 20°-90°, 30°-40°, 30°-50°, 30°-60°, 30°-70°, 30°-80°, 30°-90°, 40°-50°, 40°- The secondary fluid 1050 may be injected into the rotating bulk fluid 1040 at an angle ranging from 60°, 40°-70°, 40°-80°, 40°-90°, 50°-60°, 50°-70°, 50°-80°, 50°-90°, 60°-70°, 60°-80°, 60°-90°, 70°-80°, 70°-90°, or 80°-90°. The secondary fluid 1040 may include a reactant or raw material, and a set of injectors (e.g., nozzles) 1000 or 1030 may inject the secondary fluid into the rotating main bulk flow 1050. The set of injectors 1000 or 1030 may include at least 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, or more injectors (e.g., nozzles).In one example, the set of injectors includes at least three nozzles evenly spaced along the circumference of the reactor 1010. The set of injectors 1000 or 1030 can be positioned so that the angular momentum of the secondary fluid 1040 opposes the angular momentum of the rotating bulk fluid 1050, thereby achieving balanced flow control while minimizing heat loss. In another example, the set of injectors 1000 or 1030 includes at least six nozzles. In another example, the set of injectors includes at least six nozzles, and the secondary fluid is an additional feedstock. The nozzles can be round jets, flat fans, conical, etc., or alternatives or combinations thereof. The secondary fluid can contact the bulk fluid in the plasma generation section, throat, or carbon generation section of the reactor. In one example, the secondary fluid can contact the bulk fluid in the plasma generation section. In one example, the secondary fluid can contact the bulk fluid in the throat section. In one example, the secondary fluid can contact the bulk fluid in the carbon particle generation section. The bulk fluid may be contacted with the secondary fluid prior to the formation of the carbon particles, or alternatively, the bulk fluid may be contacted with the secondary fluid simultaneously with the formation of the carbon particles.

[0072] Methods for reducing the angular momentum of the bulk fluid flow, including providing a rotating electric arc, a static mechanical device, or secondary fluid injection, can reduce fouling formation. The reduction in the angular momentum of the bulk fluid can occur before the bulk fluid enters the carbon particle production section and before carbon particles are formed. Compared to another reactor that does not use a rotating electric arc, a static mechanical device, or secondary fluid injection, fouling formation in the reactor (e.g., the undesirable deposition of fouling material from the product stream on the reactor's internal surfaces as a result of processing) can be reduced by 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, or more. The systems and methods described herein can reduce the amount of hydrocarbon feedstock that fouls the reactor (e.g., the carbon particle production section of the reactor). By reducing the angular momentum of the bulk fluid flow, the amount of hydrocarbon feedstock converted to fouling material can be reduced by approximately 40%, 30%, 25%, 15%, 10%, 5%, or less of the hydrocarbon feedstock injected into the reactor (e.g., the carbon particle production section). In one example, reducing the angular momentum of the bulk fluid flow reduces the amount of hydrocarbon feedstock converted to deposits to about 25% or less of the hydrocarbon feedstock injected into the reactor (e.g., the carbon particle production section). In one example, reducing the angular momentum of the bulk fluid flow reduces the amount of hydrocarbon feedstock converted to deposits to about 15% or less of the hydrocarbon feedstock injected into the reactor (e.g., the carbon particle production section). In one example, reducing the angular momentum of the bulk fluid flow reduces the amount of hydrocarbon feedstock converted to deposits to about 10% or less of the hydrocarbon feedstock injected into the reactor (e.g., the carbon particle production section). In one example, reducing the angular momentum of the bulk fluid flow reduces the amount of hydrocarbon feedstock converted to deposits to about 5% or less of the hydrocarbon feedstock injected into the reactor (e.g., the carbon particle production section).

[0073] Systems and methods The present disclosure provides systems and methods for effecting chemical transformations. Such chemical transformations may include, for example, using the systems and methods described herein to produce or generate carbonaceous materials, hydrogen, or a combination thereof. The carbonaceous materials may be solid. The carbonaceous materials may include, for example, carbon particles, carbon-containing compounds, or a combination thereof. The carbonaceous materials may include, for example, carbon black. The systems (e.g., apparatus) and methods of the present disclosure, and processes implemented with the support of the systems and methods herein, may enable, for example, the continuous production of carbonaceous materials, hydrogen, or a combination thereof. The process may include converting a feedstock (e.g., one or more hydrocarbons, hydrocarbon derivatives, or a combination thereof). The systems and methods described herein may include rapidly heating one or more hydrocarbons to form, for example, carbonaceous materials, hydrogen, or a combination thereof. For example, one or more hydrocarbons may be rapidly heated to form carbon particles, hydrogen, or a combination thereof. Hydrogen may sometimes refer to a gas primarily composed of hydrogen (H2). For example, some of this hydrogen may also include methane (e.g., virgin methane) or various other hydrocarbons (e.g., ethane, propane, ethylene, acetylene, benzene, toluene, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), such as naphthalene, etc.).

[0074] This disclosure provides examples of such systems and methods, including the use of plasma technology in the pyrolysis (e.g., pyrolytic dehydrogenation) of natural gas or renewable natural gas into carbonaceous materials (e.g., solid carbonaceous materials such as carbon particles), hydrogen, or a combination thereof. Pyrolysis (e.g., pyrolytic dehydrogenation) refers to the thermal decomposition of a substance at high temperatures (e.g., temperatures above about 800°C) in an inert or oxygen-free environment or atmosphere. The reactor temperature can be increased to increase the conversion rate of the feedstock to carbon particles, hydrogen, or a combination thereof. Increasing the reactor temperature can selectively produce hydrogen, carbon particles, or a combination thereof. Adjusting the reactor temperature can increase or decrease the surface area of ​​the carbon particles. Increasing the reactor temperature can not only increase the decomposition rate of the feedstock, but also increase the intermediate operations that can produce carbon particles and hydrogen. Increasing the reactor temperature can also increase the aging rate of the carbon particles and reduce the formation of deposits on the reactor walls. This may be due to a shorter time it takes for the carbon particles to become chemically inert.

[0075] Processes according to the present disclosure may include heating one or more gases with electrical energy (e.g., from a direct current (DC) or alternating current (AC) power source). The electrical energy may be provided by one or more plasma-generating electrodes disposed in the plasma-generating section of the reactor. The one or more plasma-generating electrodes may be configured to heat or may heat a heat transfer gas within the plasma-generating section. Any reference herein to heating one gas or one or more gases may, at least in some configurations, equally apply to heating a gas mixture (e.g., at least 50% by volume of gas) having a corresponding composition. The gas mixture may include, for example, a mixture of individual gases, liquids, or individual gas-liquid mixtures. Any reference herein to a gas may, at least in some configurations, equally apply to a liquid or gas-liquid mixture having a corresponding composition. One or more gases may be heated by an electric arc. The arc may be controlled by the use of a magnetic field, which may cause the arc to move rapidly in a circle around the tip of the electrode. The electrodes may or may not be oriented parallel to the axis of the reactor or each other. The electrodes may include complex shapes. The feedstock (e.g., hydrocarbon feedstock) can be injected through various injector configurations, for example, the feedstock (e.g., hydrocarbon feedstock) can be injected from an injector through the center or annulus of concentric electrodes, or from another location within the reactor.

[0076] The systems described herein may include a plasma generator. The plasma generator may utilize a gas (e.g., a heat transfer gas) or a gas mixture (e.g., at least 50% by volume gas). The plasma generator may utilize a gas or a gas mixture (e.g., at least 50% by volume gas) that is reactive and corrosive in the plasma state. The plasma generator may be a plasma torch.

[0077] The systems described herein may include a plasma generator energized by a DC or AC power source. A gas or gas mixture may be supplied directly to a zone sustaining a discharge generated by the DC or AC power source. The plasma may have a composition (e.g., with respect to the composition of one or more gases) as described elsewhere herein. The plasma may be generated using electric arc heating. The plasma may be generated using induction heating. The plasma may be generated using DC electrodes. The plasma may be generated using AC electrodes. For example, multiple (e.g., three or more) AC electrodes may be used (e.g., with the advantages of more efficient energy consumption and reduced heat load on the electrode surface). Plasma can be generated by heating a neutral gas (e.g., argon, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, etc.) to a high temperature or by subjecting it to a strong electromagnetic field (approximately 800 amperes, approximately 800-1000 volts, or similar magnitudes and values). Plasma can only be generated in large quantities at or near an electric arc (e.g., at the tip of a plasma torch). The material generated by the electric arc may be approximately 5%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90% or more plasma. The material generated by the electric arc may be approximately 90%, 80%, 70%, 60%, 50%, 40%, 30%, 20%, 10%, 5%, or less plasma. The material generated by the electric arc may be plasma within a range defined by any two of the aforementioned percentage values. For example, the material generated by the electric arc may be plasma in the range of approximately 5% to approximately 30%. Alternatively, one or more gases may be heated by Joule heating (e.g., resistance heating, induction heating, or a combination thereof). One or more gases may be heated by Joule heating and an electric arc (e.g., downstream of Joule heating). One or more gases may be heated by heat exchange, Joule heating, an electric arc, or a combination thereof. The one or more gases may be heated by heat exchange, Joule heating, combustion, or a combination thereof. At least one of the one or more gases may include a hydrocarbon. The one or more gases may include a feedstock.The one or more gases may include the feedstock alone or in combination with other gases (which may be referred to herein as "process gases," either alone or in combination with other unheated gases). The one or more gases may include the feedstock and at least one process gas. Individual gases among the one or more gases may be provided (e.g., to a reactor) separately or in various combinations. At least a subset of the one or more gases may be preheated. For example, the feedstock (e.g., a hydrocarbon or hydrocarbon feedstock) may be preheated (e.g., from a temperature of about 25°C) to a temperature of about 100°C to about 800°C before being provided to the thermal generator. The process may include heating at least a subset of the one or more gases (e.g., feedstock) under suitable reaction conditions (e.g., in a reactor).

[0078] The carbonaceous material or hydrogen can be produced in a substantially inert or substantially oxygen-free environment or atmosphere. At least a portion of one or more gases (e.g., feedstock) can be heated in a substantially oxygen-free environment or atmosphere. A substantially oxygen-free environment or atmosphere can contain, for example, about 10%, 9%, 8%, 7%, 6%, 5%, 4%, 3%, 2%, or 1% or less molecular oxygen by volume or molar. A substantially oxygen-free environment or atmosphere can contain, for example, about 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, or 10% or more atomic oxygen by volume or molar.

[0079] Heating can remove hydrogen from the feedstock. Heating can crack the feedstock (e.g., one or more hydrocarbons) so that at least about 80 mole percent of the hydrogen originally chemically bonded to the hydrocarbons by covalent bonds becomes homoatomic as diatomic hydrogen. Homoatomic bonds refer to bonds between the same two atoms (e.g., diatomic hydrogen (H2)). CH can be a heteroatomic bond. Hydrocarbons can transition from heteroatomic CH to homoatomic HH (e.g., in the case of diatomic hydrogen (H2)) and CC (e.g., in the case of solid carbonaceous materials). Reaction products can include, for example, effluents such as gases and solids discharged from the reactor. The effluent stream containing the reaction products can be cooled. The reaction products can be at least partially separated (e.g., after cooling). For example, solid carbonaceous materials can be at least partially separated from other (e.g., gaseous) reaction products.

[0080] A feedstock may be provided to the reactor. At least one process gas (e.g., any non-feedstock gas provided to the reactor according to the present disclosure) may (e.g., also) be provided to the reactor. Hot gas (e.g., in the reactor or plasma generating section) may be generated by use of a heat generator (e.g., in the upper part of the reactor or plasma generating section). For example, hot gas may be generated in the upper part of the reactor by use of one or more AC electrodes (e.g., three or more AC electrodes), DC electrodes (e.g., concentric DC electrodes), or resistive or inductive heaters. Hot gas may be generated by heating at least a subset of one or more gases (e.g., the feedstock alone or in combination with at least one process gas) using AC electrodes, DC electrodes, or resistive or inductive heaters. Heating may include directly heating the feedstock (e.g., the hydrocarbon feedstock). For example, the feedstock (e.g., the hydrocarbon feedstock) may be added to the heat generator (e.g., at a pressure described elsewhere herein). For example, the feedstock (e.g., hydrocarbon feedstock) may be added by direct injection into the plasma. The reactor (or at least a portion thereof, e.g., at least a portion of the inner wall of the reactor) may include a liner (e.g., a refractory liner). The feedstock (e.g., hydrocarbon feedstock) may be provided to the reactor. For example, the feedstock (e.g., hydrocarbon feedstock) may be injected into the reactor via one or more injectors. Alternatively, or additionally, the feedstock (e.g., hydrocarbon feedstock) may be provided through one or more inlet ports (e.g., in the wall of the reactor).

[0081] Any discussion herein regarding the number or location of injectors may equally apply to the inlet ports, and vice versa, in at least some configurations. One or more process gases may be provided through one or more inlet ports (e.g., the same or different from the hydrocarbon or feedstock) or through at least a subset of the one or more injectors. A given process gas may be provided together with the feedstock, separately from the feedstock, or a combination thereof (e.g., a given process gas may be provided together with the feedstock, and either the given process gas or a different process gas may be provided separately from the feedstock (e.g., as a purge)). A given process gas may or may not be heated by a heat generator.

[0082] A process gas provided together with or in parallel with the feedstock may be heated. The process gas may modify the environment or atmosphere in or around at least a portion of the reactor, heat generator, inlet port(s), or injector(s), or may purge at least a portion of the reactor, heat generator, inlet port(s), or injector(s), or any combination thereof. For example, an inlet port, an array of inlet ports, or a plenum (e.g., the top of the reactor) may be used to purge at least a portion of the reactor (e.g., one or more walls), one or more other inlet ports, or one or more injectors (e.g., as described in more detail elsewhere herein). Any description of an inlet port herein may equally apply to an array of inlet ports or a plenum, at least in some configurations, and vice versa. The one or more gases (e.g., the feedstock alone or in combination with at least one process gas) heated with electrical energy may contain substantially only hydrocarbons (e.g., the feedstock). For example, the one or more gases heated with electrical energy may include the feedstock, may not include process gas, may include purge level(s) of process gas(es), or may have some process gas(es) added to the feedstock (e.g., the one or more gases heated with electrical energy may include the feedstock and purge level(s) of process gas(es). Such a configuration may be referred to herein as a "once-through process" because the heated hydrocarbons (e.g., feedstock) include substantially only newly supplied hydrocarbons. Alternatively, the one or more gases heated with electrical energy may include higher levels of process gas(es). The level of a given process gas, or the sum of a subset or all process gases (e.g., per mole of feedstock) and the percentage of the process gas(es) heated with electrical energy are as described elsewhere herein. In some cases, when DC electrodes are used, two electrodes may be used. In some cases, when DC electrodes are used, multiples of two (eg, 2, 4, 6, etc.) electrodes can be used.AC electrodes may be used in single-phase or three-phase configurations. When a single-phase AC configuration is used, multiples of two (e.g., 2, 4, 6, 8, etc.) electrodes may be used. When a three-phase AC configuration is used, multiples of three (e.g., 3, 6, 9, etc.) electrodes may be used. Each electrode may have an associated injector. For example, a three-phase, three-electrode configuration may include three injectors positioned above the plane of the electrodes.

[0083] The electrodes may be cylindrical. The electrodes may be movable via a screw system operating in conjunction with a sliding seal associated with the electrode. The screw system may be water-cooled. The use of movable electrodes allows for continuous operation of the reactor. For example, additional electrode material may be bonded to the end of the electrode outside the reactor, and as the electrode degrades within the reactor, new electrode material may be fed into the reactor. In this example, the ability to add new electrode material outside the reactor while the reactor is operating allows for continuous or substantially continuous operation of the reactor. In some cases, the electrodes include graphite (e.g., synthetic graphite, natural graphite, semi-graphite, etc.), a carbonaceous material and a resin or other binder, a carbon composite material, a carbon fiber material, etc., or any combination thereof. The electrode diameter can be at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 35, 40, or more inches. The electrode diameter can be up to about 40, 35, 30, 29, 28, 27, 26, 25, 24, 23, 22, 21, 20, 19, 18, 17, 16, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, or less inches. The electrodes can be at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, or more feet in length. The electrodes can be up to about 24, 23, 22, 21, 20, 19, 18, 17, 16, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, or less feet in length. The distance between the center point of the electrode arc and the wall of the reactor can be at least about 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, 2, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 2.8, 2.9, 3, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, 3.8, 3.9, 4, or more meters.The distance between the center point of the electrode arc and the reactor wall can be up to about 4, 3.9, 3.8, 3.7, 3.6, 3.5, 3.4, 3.3, 3.2, 3.1, 3, 2.9, 2.8, 2.7, 2.6, 2.5, 2.4, 2.3, 2.2, 2.1, 2, 1.9, 1.8, 1.7, 1.6, 1.5, 1.4, 1.3, 1.2, 1.1, 1, 0.9, 0.8, 0.7, 0.6, 0.5, 0.4, 0.3, 0.2, 0.1, or less meters. Too long a distance can cause gas to recirculate back into the plasma region, while too short a distance can cause deterioration of the reactor wall. In some cases, the electrode can have a mass of at least about 20, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, 1,000, 10,000, 20,000, 30,000, 40,000, or more kilograms. In some cases, the electrode can have a mass of up to about 40,000, 30,000, 20,000, 10,000, 1,000, 900, 800, 700, 600, 500, 400, 300, 200, 100, 20, or less kilograms.

[0084] Electrodes (e.g., AC or DC electrodes of a plasma generator) (or portions thereof) according to the present disclosure can be positioned at a predetermined distance (also referred to herein as a "gap" or "gap size") from one another. The gap between the electrodes (or portions thereof) can be, for example, about 40 millimeters (mm), 39 mm, 38 mm, 37 mm, 36 mm, 35 mm, 34 mm, 33 mm, 32 mm, 31 mm, 30 mm, 29 mm, 28 mm, 27 mm, 26 mm, 25 mm, 24 mm, 23 mm, 22 mm, 21 mm, 20 mm, 19 mm, 18 mm, 17 mm, 16 mm, 15 mm, 14 mm, 13 mm, 12 mm, 11 mm, 10 mm, 9 mm, 8 mm, 7 mm, 6 mm, 5 mm, 4 mm, 3 mm, 2 mm, or 1 mm or less. Alternatively, or in addition, the gap between the electrodes (or portions thereof) can be, for example, about 0.5 mm, 1 mm, 2 mm, 3 mm, 4 mm, 5 mm, 6 mm, 7 mm, 8 mm, 9 mm, 10 mm, 11 mm, 12 mm, 13 mm, 14 mm, 15 mm, 16 mm, 17 mm, 18 mm, 19 mm, 20 mm, 21 mm, 22 mm, 23 mm, 24 mm, 25 mm, 26 mm, 27 mm, 28 mm, 29 mm, 30 mm, 31 mm, 32 mm, 33 mm, 34 mm, or 35 mm or more.

[0085] The hydrocarbon (e.g., feedstock) can be injected adjacent to one or more electrodes. The hydrocarbon can be injected in close proximity to one or more electrodes. In some cases, the hydrocarbon can be injected at a distance ranging from about 1 mm to about 1,000 mm from the electrode. In some cases, the hydrocarbon can be injected at a distance ranging from about 1 mm to about 5 mm, about 1 mm to about 10 mm, about 1 mm to about 100 mm, about 1 mm to about 1,000 mm, about 5 mm to about 10 mm, about 5 mm to about 100 mm, about 5 mm to about 1,000 mm, about 10 mm to about 100 mm, about 10 mm to about 1,000 mm, or about 100 mm to about 1,000 mm from the electrode. In some cases, the hydrocarbon is injected at a distance of about 1 mm, about 5 mm, about 10 mm, about 100 mm, or about 1,000 mm from the electrode. In some cases, the hydrocarbon is injected at a distance of at least about 1 mm, about 5 mm, about 10 mm, or about 100 mm from the electrode. In some cases, the hydrocarbon is injected at a distance of up to about 5 mm, about 10 mm, about 100 mm, or about 1,000 mm from the electrode.

[0086] Alternatively, or additionally, hydrocarbons (e.g., feedstock) can be injected into a carbon particle production section of the reactor. The carbon particle production section can include one or more hydrocarbon injectors for injecting the hydrocarbons. The carbon particle production section can include 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 or more injectors.

[0087] The pressure at any injector tip may be the same as the ambient reactor pressure. In some cases, the pressure at any injector tip may be greater than the ambient reactor pressure. In some cases, the pressure at any injector tip is within about 20% of the ambient reactor pressure. In some cases, the pressure at any injector tip is within about 10% of the ambient reactor pressure. In some cases, the pressure at any injector tip is within about 5% of the ambient reactor pressure. In some cases, the pressure at any injector tip is within about 1% of the ambient reactor pressure.

[0088] The electrode, the injector, or both may have a tilt angle (e.g., the angle between the long axis of the electrode or injector and the long axis of the reactor) of at least about 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90 degrees or more. The electrode or injector may have a tilt angle of up to about 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 10, 5, 0 degrees, or less. The electrode or injector may have a tilt angle within a range defined by any two of the aforementioned values. For example, the electrode and injector may have a tilt angle of about 15 degrees to about 30 degrees. Larger tilt angles may provide improved torch stability. The injector may comprise a heat-resistant material (e.g., metal, tungsten, graphite, metal carbide, ceramic material, alumina, silica, aluminosilicate, glass, etc.). For example, the injector may be formed of a metal (e.g., copper, stainless steel, Inconel, etc.). The injector may be water-cooled. The injector may be configured to provide additional additives to the reactor in addition to the feedstock.

[0089] The reactor may include one or more optional sheath gas injectors. The sheath gas injectors may be configured to supply an inert gas configured to provide a barrier against deposit formation within the reactor chamber. The inert gas may be as described elsewhere herein. The sheath gas may be disposed on the inner surface of the reactor. The sheath gas may be located upstream from the electrode tip. The sheath gas may be introduced into the reactor, for example, through a slit around the reactor configured to allow gas to flow from the slit adjacent to the inner surface of the reactor.

[0090] An injector (or portion thereof) according to the present disclosure may include or be made of one or more suitable materials, such as, for example, copper, stainless steel, graphite, alloys (e.g., high-temperature corrosion-resistant metals), other similar materials (e.g., having high melting points and good corrosion resistance), or combinations thereof. The injector(s) may be cooled by a coolant. The injector(s) may be cooled by, for example, water or a non-oxidizing liquid (e.g., mineral oil, ethylene glycol, propylene glycol, synthetic organic fluids such as, for example, DOWTHERM™ materials, etc.).

[0091] The heat generator (e.g., plasma generator) or reactor (or a portion thereof) of the present disclosure may include or be made of, for example, copper, tungsten, graphite (e.g., extruded or formed), molybdenum, rhenium, nickel, chromium, iron, silver, other refractory or high-temperature metals, or alloys thereof (e.g., copper-tungsten alloy, rhenium-tungsten alloy, molybdenum-tungsten alloy, or copper-rhenium alloy, carbide alloys such as tungsten carbide, molybdenum carbide, or chromium carbide, etc.), boron nitride, silicon carbide, alumina, alumina-silica mixtures, or other high-temperature ceramics, other oxygen-resistant refractory materials, or any combination thereof. At least a portion of the electrode(s) of the heat generator (e.g., plasma generator) may include one or more of the aforementioned materials. Electrodes according to the present disclosure may have any suitable shape (e.g., rods with cylindrical, elliptical, or polygonal cross-sections, sharp or rounded ends, etc.). The shape of the electrodes can be customized. Alternatively, the heat generator may be configured to integrate existing electrode shapes (e.g., those used in steelmaking). The electrode material (e.g., chemical composition, grain structure, etc.) or shape may be configured to enhance survivability (e.g., strength, thermal flexibility, etc.). At least a portion of a reactor (e.g., at least a portion of a wall or liner) according to the present disclosure may comprise one or more of the aforementioned materials (e.g., the reactor may be lined with a refractory). A reactor (e.g., a reactor wall or liner) may include one or more sections comprising different materials. For example, a refractory liner may include one or more sections comprising different refractory materials, e.g., a section that may become too hot for a given refractory material and another section comprising a given (e.g., standard) refractory material.

[0092] A heat generator (e.g., a plasma generator) according to the present disclosure can be configured, for example, so that about 750 kilograms (kg), 500 kg, 400 kg, 300 kg, 200 kg, 100 kg, 90 kg, 80 kg, 70 kg, 60 kg, 50 kg, 40 kg, 30 kg, 20 kg, 15 kg, 10 kg, 5 kg, 2 kg, 1.75 kg, 1.5 kg, 1.25 kg, 1 kg, 0.9 kg, 0.8 kg, 0.7 kg, 0.6 kg, 500 grams (g), 400 g, 300 g, 200 g, 100 g, 50 g, 20 g, 10 g, 5 g, 2 g, or 1 g or less of electrode material is consumed per ton (e.g., metric ton) of carbonaceous material (e.g., solid carbonaceous material) produced. Alternatively, or in addition, the heat generators (e.g., plasma generators) of the present disclosure can be configured such that, for example, about 0 g, 1 g, 1.25 kg, 1.5 kg, 1.75 kg, 2 g, 5 g, 10 g, 20 g, 50 g, 100 g, 200 g, 300 g, 400 g, 500 g, 0.6 kg, 0.7 kg, 0.8 kg, 0.9 kg, 1 kg, 2 kg, 5 kg, 10 kg, 15 kg, 20 kg, 30 kg, 40 kg, 50 kg, 60 kg, 70 kg, 80 kg, 90 kg, 100 kg, 200 kg, 300 kg, 400 kg, or 500 kg or more of electrode material is consumed per ton (e.g., metric ton) of carbonaceous material (e.g., solid carbonaceous material) produced.

[0093] The hydrocarbon feedstock has the chemical formula C n H x or C n H x O ywhere n is an integer, x is (i) 1 to 2n+2, or (ii) less than 1 for fuels such as coal, coal tar, and pyrolysis fuel oil, and y is 0 to n. Hydrocarbon feedstocks can include, for example, simple hydrocarbons (e.g., methane, ethane, propane, butane, etc.), aromatic feedstocks (e.g., benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylene, methylnaphthalene, pyrolysis fuel oil, coal tar, coal, heavy oil, petroleum, bio-oil, biodiesel, other biologically derived hydrocarbons, etc.), unsaturated hydrocarbons (e.g., ethylene, acetylene, butadiene, styrene, etc.), oxygenated hydrocarbons (e.g., ethanol, methanol, propanol, phenol, ketones, ethers, esters, etc.), or any combination thereof. These examples are provided as non-limiting examples of acceptable hydrocarbon feedstocks that can be further combined or mixed with other components for production. A hydrocarbon feedstock may refer to a feedstock in which a majority (e.g., about 50% or more by mass) of the feedstock is substantially hydrocarbon (e.g., hydrocarbons and / or hydrocarbon derivatives). A reactive hydrocarbon feedstock may comprise at least about 70% by mass of methane, ethane, propane, or a mixture thereof. The hydrocarbon feedstock may comprise natural gas or renewable natural gas, or may be natural gas or renewable natural gas. The hydrocarbon feedstock may comprise or be methane, ethane, propane, or a mixture thereof. The hydrocarbon feedstock may comprise methane, ethane, propane, butane, acetylene, ethylene, carbon black oil, coal tar, crude coal tar, diesel oil, benzene, or methylnaphthalene. The hydrocarbon feedstock may include (e.g., additional) polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. The hydrocarbon feedstock may include one or more simple hydrocarbons, one or more aromatic feedstocks, one or more unsaturated hydrocarbons, one or more oxygenated hydrocarbons, one or more hydrocarbon derivatives, or any combination thereof.The hydrocarbon feedstock may include, for example, methane, ethane, propane, butane, pentane, natural gas, benzene, toluene, xylene, ethylbenzene, naphthalene, methylnaphthalene, dimethylnaphthalene, anthracene, methylanthracene, other monocyclic or polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, carbon black oil, diesel oil, pyrolysis fuel oil, coal tar, crude coal tar, coal, heavy oil, oil, bio-oil, biodiesel, other biologically derived hydrocarbons, ethylene, acetylene, propylene, butadiene, styrene, ethanol, methanol, propanol, phenol, one or more ketones, one or more ethers, one or more esters, one or more aldehydes, or any combination thereof. The hydrocarbon feedstock may include one or more derivatives of the feedstock compounds described herein, such as, for example, benzene or its derivative(s), naphthalene or its derivative(s), anthracene or its derivative(s). The hydrocarbon feedstock (also referred to herein as "feedstock") may contain approximately 1 ppm, 5 ppm, 10 ppm, 25 ppm, 50 ppm, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 1.1%, 1.2%, 1.3%, 1.4%, 1.5%, 1.6%, 1.7%, 1.8%, 1.9%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 3.5%, 4%, 4.5%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 11%, 12%, 13%, 14%, 15%, 16%, 17%, 18%, 19%, 20%, 21%, 22%, 23%, 24%, 25%, 26%, 27%, 28%, 29%, 30%, 31%, 32%, 33%, 34%, 35%, 36%, 37%, 38%, 39%, 40%, 41%, 42%, 43%, 44%, 45%, 46%, 47%, 48%, 49%, 50%, 51%, 52%, 53%, 54%, 55%, 56%, 57%, 58%, 59%, 60%, 61%, 62%, 63%, 64%, 65%, 66%, 67%, 68%, 69%, 70%, 71%, 72%, 73%, 74%, 75%, 76%, 77%, 78%, 79%, 80%, 81%, 82%, 83%, 84%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, %, 16%, 17%, 18%, 19%, 20%, 21%, 22%, 23%, 24%, 25%, 26%, 27%, 28%, 29%, 30%, 31%, 32%, 33%, 34%, 35%, 36%, 37%, 38%, 39%, 40%, 41%, 42%, 43%, 44%, 45%, 46%, 47%, 48%, 49%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, or 99% or more concentration (e.g., in a mixture of ingredients).Alternatively, or in addition, the feedstock may be about 100%, 99%, 95%, 90%, 85%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 65%, 60%, 55%, 50%, 49%, 48%, 47%, 46%, 45%, 44%, 43%, 42%, 41%, 40%, 39%, 38%, 37%, 36%, 35%, 34%, 33%, 32%, 31%, 30%, 29%, 28%, 27%, 26%, 25%, 24%, 23%, 22%, 21%, 20%, 19%, 18%, 17%, 16%, 15%, 14%, 16% or 18% by mass, volume, or mole. The specified ingredient may be present at a concentration (e.g., a mixture of ingredients) of 13%, 12%, 11%, 10%, 9%, 8%, 7%, 6%, 5%, 4.5%, 4%, 3.5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 50 ppm, 25 ppm, 10 ppm, 5 ppm, or 1 ppm or less. The ingredient may contain additional ingredients (e.g., a mixture of ingredients) at similar or different concentrations. Such additional ingredients may be selected, for example, from among the ingredients not selected as the specified ingredient. The given feedstock itself may include mixtures (e.g., natural gas or renewable natural gas, etc.).

[0094] The process gas may include, for example, oxygen, nitrogen, argon, helium, air, hydrogen, carbon monoxide, water, hydrocarbons (e.g., methane, ethane, unsaturated hydrocarbons, or any hydrocarbons described herein in connection with the feedstock), etc. (used alone or as a mixture of two or more). In some examples, the process gas may be inert. The process gas may include or be a freshly supplied gas (e.g., delivered or supplied from a reservoir such as a cylinder or vessel), a recycled gaseous reaction product (e.g., as described in more detail elsewhere herein), or any combination thereof. The process gas may be, for example, oxygen, nitrogen (e.g., up to about 30% by volume), argon (Ar) (e.g., up to about 30% by volume), helium, air, hydrogen (e.g., about 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, and 90% by volume or more, up to about 100% by volume), carbon monoxide (e.g., at least about 1 ppm by volume, up to about 30%), water, hydrocarbons (e.g., methane, ethane, unsaturated, benzene, and toluene or similar monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, such as anthracene and its derivatives, naphthalene and its derivatives, methylnaphthalene, methylanthracene, coronene, pyrene, chrysene, fluorocarbons ... The process gas may contain at least about 60% hydrogen up to about 100% hydrogen (volume %), or any hydrocarbon described herein in connection with the feedstock, such as at least about 1 ppm by volume and up to about 30% by volume methane (CH), at least about 1 ppm by volume and up to about 30% by volume acetylene (CH), at least about 1 ppm by volume ethylene (CH), at least about 1 ppm by volume benzene, or at least about 1 ppm by volume polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, hydrogen cyanide (HCN) (e.g., at least about 1 ppm by volume and up to about 10% by volume), ammonia (NH) (e.g., at least about 1 ppm by volume and up to about 10% by volume), etc. (used alone or in mixtures of two or more). The process gas may contain at least about 60% hydrogen up to about 100% hydrogen (volume %) and may further contain up to about 30% nitrogen, up to about 30% carbon monoxide (CO), up to about 30% CH, up to about 10% HCN, up to about 30% CH, and up to about 30% Ar. For example, the process gas may contain greater than about 60% hydrogen.Additionally, the process gas may also contain polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons such as anthracene, naphthalene, coronene, pyrene, chrysene, and fluorene. Additionally, the process gas may contain monoaromatic hydrocarbon components such as benzene and toluene. For example, the process gas may contain approximately 90% or more hydrogen, approximately 0.2% nitrogen, approximately 1.0% CO, approximately 1.1% CH4, approximately 0.1% HCN, and approximately 0.1% C2H2. The process gas may contain approximately 80% or more hydrogen, with the remainder comprising a mixture of the aforementioned gases, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, monoaromatic hydrocarbons, and other components. The process gas may contain approximately 50% or more hydrogen by volume. The process gas may contain greater than approximately 70% H2 by volume and at least one or more of HCN, CH4, C2H4, C2H2, CO, benzene, or polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (e.g., naphthalene or anthracene) gases at a level of at least approximately 1 ppm. The polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon may include, for example, naphthalene, anthracene, or a derivative thereof. The polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon may include, for example, methylnaphthalene or methylanthracene. Process gases are typically at approximately 1 ppm, 5 ppm, 10 ppm, 25 ppm, 50 ppm, 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 1.1%, 1.2%, 1.3%, 1.4%, 1.5%, 1.6%, 1.7%, 1.8%, 1.9%, 2%, 2.5%, 3%, 3.5%, 4%, 4.5%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 11%, 12%, 13%, 14%, 15%, 16%, 17%, 18%, or 19% by mass, volume, or mole. The process gas mixture may include a given process gas (e.g., one of the aforementioned process gases) at a concentration of 19%, 20%, 21%, 22%, 23%, 24%, 25%, 26%, 27%, 28%, 29%, 30%, 31%, 32%, 33%, 34%, 35%, 36%, 37%, 38%, 39%, 40%, 41%, 42%, 43%, 44%, 45%, 46%, 47%, 48%, 49%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, or 99% or more (e.g., in the process gas mixture).Alternatively, or in addition, the process gas may be about 100%, 99%, 95%, 90%, 85%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 65%, 60%, 55%, 50%, 49%, 48%, 47%, 46%, 45%, 44%, 43%, 42%, 41%, 40%, 39%, 38%, 37%, 36%, 35%, 34%, 33%, 32%, 31%, 30%, 29%, 28%, 27%, 26%, 25%, 24%, 23%, 22%, 21%, 20%, 19%, 18%, 17%, 16%, 15%, 14%, A given process gas may be included at a concentration (e.g., a mixture of process gases) of 13%, 12%, 11%, 10%, 9%, 8%, 7%, 6%, 5%, 4.5%, 4%, 3.5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2%, 0.1%, 0.05%, 0.01%, 50 ppm, 25 ppm, 10 ppm, 5 ppm, or 1 ppm or less. A process gas may include additional process gases (e.g., a mixture of process gases) at similar or different concentrations. Such additional process gases may be selected, for example, from among the aforementioned process gases not selected as the predetermined process gas. The predetermined process gas itself may comprise a mixture. The process gas may be used as a purge gas. The purge gas may be an inert gas used to purge the reactor or carbon particles (e.g., to remove non-inert gases). The purge gas may be provided at a pressure higher than the operating pressure of the reactor (e.g., the purge gas may be provided at a higher pressure and adjusted to a lower pressure within the reactor).

[0095] The feedstock (e.g., hydrocarbon feedstock) may be, for example, at a rate of about 50 grams per hour (g / hr), 100 g / hr, 250 g / hr, 500 g / hr, 750 g / hr, 1 kilogram per hour (kg / hr), 2 kg / hr, 5 kg / hr, 10 kg / hr, 15 kg / hr, 20 kg / hr, 25 kg / hr, 30 kg / hr, 35 kg / hr, 40 kg / hr, 45 kg / hr, 50 kg / hr, Hours, 55kg / hour, 60kg / hour, 65kg / hour, 70kg / hour, 75kg / hour, 80kg / hour, 85kg / hour, 90kg / hour, 95kg / hour, 100kg / hour, 150kg / hour, 200kg / hour, 250kg / hour, 300kg / hour, 350kg / hour, 400kg / hour, 450kg / hour, 500kg / hour, 600kg / hour, 700 kg / hour, 800kg / hour, 900kg / hour, 1,000kg / hour, 1,100kg / hour, 1,200kg / hour, 1,300kg / hour, 1,400kg / hour, 1,500kg / hour, 1,600kg / hour, 1,700kg / hour, 1,800kg / hour, 1,900kg / hour, 2,000kg / hour, 2,100kg / hour, 2,200kg / hour, 2 ,300kg / hr, 2,400kg / hr, 2,500kg / hr, 3,000kg / hr, 3,500kg / hr, 4,000kg / hr, 4,500kg / hr, 5,000kg / hr, 6,000kg / hr, 7,000kg / hr, 8,000kg / hr, 9,000kg / hr, 10,000kg / hr or more may be provided to the system.Alternatively, or in addition, the feedstock (e.g., hydrocarbon) may be, for example, at a rate of about 10,000 kg / hr, 9,000 kg / hr, 8,000 kg / hr, 7,000 kg / hr, 6,000 kg / hr, 5,000 kg / hr, 4,500 kg / hr, 4,000 kg / hr, 3,500 kg / hr, 3,000 kg / hr, 2,500 kg / hr, 2,400 kg / hr, 2 ,300kg / hour, 2,200kg / hour, 2,100kg / hour, 2,000kg / hour, 1,900kg / hour, 1,800kg / hour, 1,700kg / hour, 1,600kg / hour, 1,500kg / hour, 1,400kg / hour, 1,300kg / hour, 1,200kg / hour, 1,100kg / hour, 1,000kg / hour, 900kg / hour, 800kg / hour, 700kg / hour, 600kg / hour, 500kg / hour, 450kg / hour, 400kg / hour, 350kg / hour, 300kg / hour, 250kg / hour, 200kg / hour, 150kg / hour, 100kg / hour, 95kg / hour, 90kg / hour, 85kg / hour, 80kg / hour, 75kg / hour, 70kg / hour, 65kg / hour, 60kg / hour, It may be provided to the system (e.g., reactor) at a rate of 55 kg / hr, 50 kg / hr, 45 kg / hr, 40 kg / hr, 35 kg / hr, 30 kg / hr, 25 kg / hr, 20 kg / hr, 15 kg / hr, 10 kg / hr, 5 kg / hr, 2 kg / hr, 1 kg / hr, 750 g / hr, 500 g / hr, 250 g / hr, 100 g / hr or less.

[0096] Dilution can be the ratio of the total number of moles of process gas (e.g., dilution gas) to the total number of moles of carbon atoms (e.g., feed carbon atoms) injected into the reactor (e.g., during a process described elsewhere herein). A dilution ratio of less than about 2 can provide advantages in the operation of a plasma-based pyrolysis reactor. Achieving a dilution ratio of less than about 2 can include using a hydrocarbon as the plasma gas. For example, a hydrocarbon can be used as both the plasma gas and the feed gas. In a reactor with a dilution ratio of less than about 2, recycle gas and purge gas can be in close proximity to the electrodes in amounts that provide a dilution ratio of less than about 2. The purge gas can be present to pressurize the reactor or to pressurize sliding seals on the reactor electrodes. The devices and methods of the present disclosure may achieve a dilution factor of at least about 0, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.9, 2, 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 2.8, 2.9, 3, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, 3.8, 3.9, 4, or more. The devices and methods of the present disclosure may achieve dilution factors of up to about 4, 3.9, 3.8, 3.7, 3.6, 3.5, 3.4, 3.3, 3.2, 3.1, 3, 2.9, 2.8, 2.7, 2.6, 2.5, 2.4, 2.3, 2.2, 2.1, 2, 1.9, 1.8, 1.7, 1.6, 1.5, 1.4, 1.3, 1.2, 1.1, 1, 0.9, 0.8, 0.7, 0.6, 0.5, 0.4, 0.3, 0.2, 0.1, or less.

[0097] A recycled gas can be supplied to the systems and methods of the present disclosure. The recycled gas can be at least one component of the plasma gas. For example, the recycled gas can be provided to the reactor to be heated as part of the plasma gas. The recycled gas can be a process gas described elsewhere herein. The recycled gas can be at least a portion of the gas produced by the reactor. For example, the recycled gas can be gas output from the reactor during the production of carbon particles or hydrogen. The recycled gas can include hydrogen (e.g., at least about 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 99 percent or more hydrogen), nitrogen, argon, carbon monoxide, water, hydrocarbons, etc., or any combination thereof. The recycled gas can be gas discharged from a purification process, as described elsewhere herein. For example, impurities removed from hydrogen produced in a high-pressure degasser can be used as the recycled gas. The recycled gas can be at an elevated temperature (e.g., above ambient temperature). For example, the recycled gas can be provided at an elevated temperature to reduce the amount of energy lost from the plasma when heating the recycled gas. The use of recycle gas extends the life of electrodes in the reactor and also improves efficiency by recycling reactants (e.g., hydrocarbons) into the reactor. For example, hydrocarbons can be recycled back into the reactor, thereby improving hydrocarbon conversion. The recycle gas can be introduced into the reactor via a sheath or blanket flow of recycle gas or other inert gas, as described elsewhere herein. Such a flow can prevent deposition of gaseous or solid carbon on the electrodes or other surfaces of the reactor (e.g., reactor walls). In some cases, the recycle gas can be pressurized (e.g., repressurized) before being introduced into the reactor. For example, the recycle gas can be passed through a compressor before being injected into the reactor. The recycle gas can be pressurized to a pressure as described elsewhere herein.

[0098] A given process gas or a subset or all of the process gases may have a total flow rate of, for example, about 0 standard cubic meters per hour (Nm3 / time), 0.1Nm 3 / Time, 0.2Nm 3 / Time, 0.5Nm 3 / Time, 1Nm 3 / Time, 1.5Nm 3 / Time, 2Nm 3 / Time, 5Nm 3 / Time, 10Nm 3 / Time, 25Nm 3 / Time, 50Nm 3 / Time, 75Nm 3 / Time, 100Nm 3 / Time, 150Nm 3 / Time, 200Nm 3 / Time, 250Nm 3 / Time, 300Nm 3 / Time, 350Nm 3 / Time, 400Nm 3 / Time, 450Nm 3 / Time, 500Nm 3 / Time, 550Nm 3 / Time, 600Nm 3 / Time, 650Nm 3 / Time, 700Nm 3 / Time, 750Nm 3 / Time, 800Nm 3 / Time, 850Nm 3 / Time, 900Nm 3 / Time, 950Nm 3 / Time, 1,000Nm 3 / Time, 2,000Nm 3 / Time, 3,000Nm 3 / Time, 4,000Nm 3 / Time, 5,000Nm 3 / Time, 6,000 Nm 3 / Time, 7,000 Nm 3 / Time, 8,000 Nm 3 / Time, 9,000Nm 3 / Time, 10,000Nm 3 / Time, 12,000Nm 3 / Time, 14,000Nm 3 / Time, 16,000Nm 3 / Time, 18,000 Nm 3 / Time, 20,000Nm3 / hour, 30,000Nm 3 / hour, 40,000Nm 3 / hour, 50,000Nm 3 / hour, 60,000Nm 3 / hour, 70,000Nm 3 / hour, 80,000Nm 3 / hour, 90,000Nm 3 / hour or 15,000Nm 3 Alternatively, or additionally, the total of a given process gas or a subset or all of the process gases may be greater than, for example, about 100,000 Nm3 / hr. 3 / hour, 90,000Nm 3 / hour, 80,000Nm 3 / hour, 70,000Nm 3 / hour, 60,000Nm 3 / hour, 50,000Nm 3 / hour, 40,000Nm 3 / hour, 30,000Nm 3 / hour, 20,000Nm 3 / hour, 18,000Nm 3 / hour, 16,000Nm 3 / hour, 14,000Nm 3 / hour, 12,000Nm 3 / hour, 10,000Nm 3 / hour, 9,000Nm 3 / hour, 8,000Nm 3 / hour, 7,000Nm 3 / hour, 6,000Nm 3 / hour, 5,000Nm 3 / hour, 4,000Nm 3 / hour, 3,000Nm 3 / hour, 2,000Nm 3 / hour, 1,000Nm 3 / hour, 950Nm 3 / hour, 900Nm 3 / hour, 850Nm 3 / hour, 800Nm 3 / hour, 750Nm 3 / hour, 700Nm 3 / hour, 650Nm3 / hour, 600Nm 3 / hour, 550Nm 3 / hour, 500Nm 3 / hour, 450Nm 3 / hour, 400Nm 3 / hour, 350Nm 3 / hour, 300Nm 3 / hour, 250Nm 3 / hour, 200Nm 3 / hour, 150Nm 3 / hour, 100Nm 3 / hour, 75Nm 3 / hour, 50Nm 3 / hour, 25Nm 3 / hour, 10Nm 3 / hour, 5Nm 3 / hour, 2Nm 3 / hour, 1.5Nm 3 / hour, 1Nm 3 / hour, 0.5Nm 3 / hour, or 0.2Nm 3 / hr or less. A given process gas, or a subset of the process gases, or the sum of all the process gases, can be provided to a system (e.g., a reactor) at a rate of 1 / hr or less in combination with one or more feedstock flow rates described herein. A given process gas, or a subset of the process gases, or the sum of all the process gases, can be provided to a system (e.g., a reactor) at such a flow rate. A given process gas, or a subset of the process gases, or the sum of all the process gases, can be provided to a system at a ratio of, for example, about 0, 0.0005, 0.001, 0.002, 0.005, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 75, or 90 or more moles of process gas(es) per mole of feedstock. Alternatively, or additionally, a given process gas, or a subset of the process gases, or the sum of all process gases, may be provided to the system at a ratio of, for example, about 100, 90, 75, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0.5, 0.2, 0.1, 0.005, 0.002, 0.001, or 0.0005 moles of process gas(es) or less per mole of feedstock. About 100%, 75%, 50%, 40%, 30%, 20%, 10%, 5%, or 1% or less of the process gas(es) provided to the system may be heated with electrical energy. Alternatively, or additionally, about 0%, 1%, 5%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, or 75% or more of the process gas(es) provided to the system may be heated with electrical energy.

[0099] One or more gases (e.g., feedstocks alone or in combination with at least one process gas) can be heated at a predetermined pressure. The feedstocks (e.g., alone or in combination with at least one process gas) can be reacted at a predetermined pressure. The heating and reaction can be carried out in a reactor at a predetermined pressure (also referred to herein as "reactor pressure"). The pressure can be, for example, about 0 bar, 0.5 bar, 1 bar, 1.1 bar, 1.2 bar, 1.3 bar, 1.4 bar, 1.5 bar, 1.6 bar, 1.7 bar, 1.8 bar, 1.9 bar, 2 bar, 2.1 bar, 2.2 bar, 2.3 bar, 2.4 bar, 2.5 bar, 2.6 bar, 2.7 bar, 2.8 bar, 2.9 bar, 3 bar, 3.1 bar, 3.2 bar, 3.3 bar, 3.4 bar, 3.5 bar, 3.6 bar, 3.7 bar, 3.8 bar, 3.9 bar, 4 bar, 5 bar, 6 bar, 7 bar, 8 bar, 9 bar, 10 bar, 11 bar, 12 bar, 13 bar, 14 bar, 15 bar, 16 bar, 17 bar, 18 bar, 19 bar, 20 bar, 21 bar, 22 bar, 23 bar, 24 bar, 25 bar, 26 bar, 27 bar, 28 bar, 29 bar, 30 bar, 31 bar, 32 bar, 33 bar, 34 bar, 35 bar, 36 bar, 37 bar, 38 bar, 39 bar, 40 bar, 41 bar, 42 bar, 43 bar, 44 bar, 45 bar, 46 bar, 47 bar, 48 bar, 49 bar, 50 r, 4.5 bar, 5 bar, 6 bar, 7 bar, 8 bar, 9 bar, 10 bar, 11 bar, 12 bar, 13 bar, 14 bar, 15 bar, 16 bar, 17 bar, 18 bar, 19 bar, 20 bar, 21 bar, 22 bar, 23 bar, 24 bar, 25 bar, 26 bar, 27 bar, 28 bar, 29 bar, 30 bar, 35 bar, 40 bar, 45 bar, 50 bar, 55 bar, 60 bar, 65 bar, 70 bar, 75 bar or more.Alternatively, or in addition, the pressure may be, for example, about 100 bar, 90 bar, 80 bar, 75 bar, 70 bar, 65 bar, 60 bar, 55 bar, 50 bar, 45 bar, 40 bar, 35 bar, 30 bar, 29 bar, 28 bar, 27 bar, 26 bar, 25 bar, 24 bar, 23 bar, 22 bar, 21 bar, 20 bar, 19 bar, 18 bar, 17 bar, 16 bar, 15 bar, 14 bar, 13 bar, 12 bar, 11 bar, 10 bar, 9 bar, 8 bar, 7 bar, 8 bar, 9 bar, 10 bar, 11 bar, 12 bar, 13 bar, 14 bar, 14 bar, 15 bar, 15 bar, 16 bar, 16 bar, 17 bar, 17 bar, 18 bar, 18 bar, 19 bar, 18 bar, 19 bar, 19 bar, 20 bar, 21 ... The pressure may be less than or equal to 1.5 bar, 6 bar, 5 bar, 4 bar, 3.9 bar, 3.8 bar, 3.7 bar, 3.6 bar, 3.5 bar, 3.4 bar, 3.3 bar, 3.2 bar, 3.1 bar, 3 bar, 2.9 bar, 2.8 bar, 2.7 bar, 2.6 bar, 2.5 bar, 2.4 bar, 2.3 bar, 2.2 bar, 2.1 bar, 2 bar, 1.9 bar, 1.8 bar, 1.7 bar, 1.6 bar, 1.5 bar, 1.4 bar, 1.3 bar, 1.2 bar, 1.1 bar, or less. The pressure may be greater than (above) atmospheric pressure. The pressure may range from about 1.5 bar to about 25 bar. The pressure may range from about 1 bar to about 70 bar. The pressure may range from about 5 bar to about 25 bar. The pressure may range from about 10 bar to about 20 bar. The pressure may range from about 5 bar to about 15 bar. The pressure may be about 2 bar or more. The pressure may be about 5 bar or more. The pressure may be about 10 bar or more. The feed or process gas(es) may be provided to the reactor at an appropriate pressure (e.g., at least about 0.01%, 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.5%, 1%, 2%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, or 50% higher than the reactor pressure, which may depend on the injection mode, e.g., higher pressure through the injector than through the inlet port). The feed or process gas may be provided to the reactor, for example, at its respective delivery pressure or storage pressure (e.g., a cylinder or vessel). The feed or process gas may or may not be compressed (e.g., additionally) before being provided to the reactor. The incoming feed may be provided at a pressure within a range defined by any two of the aforementioned pressure values.For example, the feedstock may be provided at a pressure ranging from about 30 to about 35 bar and metered down to a pressure ranging from about 5 to about 15 bar. A pressure drop may occur across the reactor. For example, the reactor inlet pressure and the reactor outlet pressure may be different. The reactor outlet pressure may be a value selected from the list above that is lower than the inlet pressure selected from the list above. For example, a reactor having an inlet pressure of about 15 bar may have an outlet pressure of about 14 bar. In another example, the inlet pressure may be about 4 bar and the outlet pressure may be about 2 bar. In another example, the inlet pressure may be about 35 bar and the outlet pressure may be about 30 bar. The pressure drop across the reactor may aid in the movement of gas or carbon particles through the reactor.

[0100] The one or more gases (e.g., feedstocks alone or in combination with at least one process gas) may be heated to, for example, about 1,000 degrees Celsius (°C), 1,100°C, 1,200°C, 1,300°C, 1,400°C, 1,500°C, 1,600°C, 1,700°C, 1,800°C, 1,900°C, 2,000°C, 2,050°C, 2,100°C, 2,150°C, 2,200°C, 2,250°C, 2,300°C, 2,400°C, 2,500°C, 3,600°C, 3,700°C, 3,800°C, 4,900°C, 5,100°C, 5,100°C, 5,110°C, 5,1200°C, 5,1300°C, 5,1400°C, 5,1500°C, 5,1600°C, 5,1700°C, 5,1800°C, 5,1900°C, 6,200°C, 6,250°C, 6,2600°C, 6,2700°C, 6,2800°C, 6,2900°C, 7,3000°C, 7,3100°C, 7,3200°C, 7,3300°C, 7,3400°C, 7,3500°C, 7,3600°C, 7,3700°C, 7,4000°C, 7,4100°C 0°C, 2,350°C, 2,400°C, 2,450°C, 2,500°C, 2,550°C, 2,600°C, 2,650°C, 2,700°C, 2,750°C, 2,800°C, 2,850°C, 2,900°C, 2,950°C, 3,000°C, 3,050°C, 3,100°C, 3,150°C, 3,200°C, 3,250°C, 3,300°C, 3,350°C, 3,400°C, or 3,450°C or higher The feedstock may be heated to a temperature, for example, about 1,000 degrees Celsius (°C), 1,100°C, 1,200°C, 1,300°C, 1,400°C, 1,500°C, 1,600°C, 1,700°C, 1,800°C, 1,900°C, 2,000°C, 2,050°C, 2,100°C, 2,150°C, 2,200°C, 2,250°C, 2,300°C, 2,350°C, 2,400°C, 2,450°C, 2,500°C, 2,600°C, 2,700°C, 2,800°C, 2,900°C, 3,000°C, 3,100°C, 3,150°C, 3,100°C, 3,200°C, 3,250°C, 3,300°C, 3,350°C, 3,400°C, 3,450°C, 3,500°C, 3,600°C, 3,700°C, 3,800°C, 3,900°C, 4,100°C, 4,100°C, 4,100°C, 4,100°C, 4,200°C, 4,250°C, 4,300°C, 4,450°C, 4,500°C, 4,600°C, 4,700°C, 4,800°C, 4,900°C, 5,100°C, 5,100 It may be (e.g., may be) exposed to temperatures of 500°C, 2,550°C, 2,600°C, 2,650°C, 2,700°C, 2,750°C, 2,800°C, 2,850°C, 2,900°C, 2,950°C, 3,000°C, 3,050°C, 3,100°C, 3,150°C, 3,200°C, 3,250°C, 3,300°C, 3,350°C, 3,400°C, or 3,450°C or greater.Alternatively, or additionally, one or more gases (e.g., feedstocks alone or in combination with at least one process gas) may be heated to, for example, about 3,500°C, 3,450°C, 3,400°C, 3,350°C, 3,300°C, 3,250°C, 3,200°C, 3,150°C, 3,100°C, 3,050°C, 3,000°C, 2,950°C, 2,900°C, 2,850°C, 2,800°C, 2,950°C, 3,900°C, 3,850°C, 3,800°C, 3,950°C, 3,900°C, 4,1 ... 750°C, 2700°C, 2650°C, 2600°C, 2550°C, 2500°C, 2450°C, 2400°C, 2350°C, 2300°C, 2250°C, 2200°C, 2150°C, 2100°C, 2050°C, 2000°C, 1900°C, 1800°C, 1700°C, 1600°C, 1500°C, 1400°C, 1300°C, 1200°C, or The feedstock may be heated to a temperature of 1,100°C or less, or the feedstock may be heated to a temperature of, for example, about 3,500°C, 3,450°C, 3,400°C, 3,350°C, 3,300°C, 3,250°C, 3,200°C, 3,150°C, 3,100°C, 3,050°C, 3,000°C, 2,950°C, 2,900°C, 2,850°C, 2,800°C, 2,750°C, 2,700°C, 2,650°C, 2,600°C, 2,550°C, 2,650°C, 2,750°C, 2,800°C, 2,950°C, 2,900°C, 2,850°C, 2,800°C, 2,750°C, 2,700°C, 2,650°C, 2,600°C, 2,550°C, 2,6 ... The gases may be exposed to (e.g., may be exposed to) temperatures of 0°C, 2,500°C, 2,450°C, 2,400°C, 2,350°C, 2,300°C, 2,250°C, 2,200°C, 2,150°C, 2,100°C, 2,050°C, 2,000°C, 1,900°C, 1,800°C, 1,700°C, 1,600°C, 1,500°C, 1,400°C, 1,300°C, 1,200°C, or 1,100°C or less. One or more gases (e.g., feedstock alone or in combination with at least one process gas) may be heated to such temperatures by a heat generator (e.g., a plasma generator). One or more gases (e.g., feedstock alone or in combination with at least one process gas) may be electrically heated to such temperatures by a heat generator (e.g., the heat generator may be powered by electrical energy).

[0101] The heat generator may operate at an appropriate power, such as, for example, about 0.5 kilowatts (kW), 1 kW, 1.5 kW, 2 kW, 5 kW, 10 kW, 25 kW, 50 kW, 75 kW, 100 kW, 150 kW, 200 kW, 250 kW, 300 kW, 350 kW, 400 kW, 450 kW, 500 kW, 550 kW, 600 kW, 650 kW, 700 kW, 750 kW, 800 kW, 850 kW, 900 kW, 950 kW, 1 megawatt (MW), 1.05 MW, 1.1 MW, 1.15 MW, 1.2 MW, 1.25 MW, 1.3 MW, 1.35 MW, 1.4 MW, 1.45 MW, 1.5 MW, 1.6 MW, 1.7 MW, 1.8 MW, 1. It can be 9 MW, 2 MW, 2.5 MW, 3 MW, 3.5 MW, 4 MW, 4.5 MW, 5 MW, 5.5 MW, 6 MW, 6.5 MW, 7 MW, 7.5 MW, 8 MW, 8.5 MW, 9 MW, 9.5 MW, 10 MW, 10.5 MW, 11 MW, 11.5 MW, 12 MW, 12.5 MW, 13 MW, 13.5 MW, 14 MW, 14.5 MW, 15 MW, 16 MW, 17 MW, 18 MW, 19 MW, 20 MW, 25 MW, 30 MW, 35 MW, 40 MW, 45 MW, 50 MW, 55 MW, 60 MW, 65 MW, 70 MW, 75 MW, 80 MW, 85 MW, 90 MW, 95 MW, or 100 MW or more.Alternatively, or in addition, the power may be, for example, about 100 MW, 95 MW, 90 MW, 85 MW, 80 MW, 75 MW, 70 MW, 65 MW, 60 MW, 55 MW, 50 MW, 45 MW, 40 MW, 35 MW, 30 MW, 25 MW, 20 MW, 19 MW, 18 MW, 17 MW, 16 MW, 15 MW, 14.5 MW, 14 MW, 13.5 MW, 13 MW, 12.5 MW, 12 MW, 11.5 MW, 11 MW, 10.5 MW, 10 MW, 9.5 MW, 9 MW, 8.5 MW, 8 MW, 7.5 MW, 7 MW, 6.5 MW, 6 MW, 5.5 MW, 5 MW, 4.5 MW, 4 MW, 3.5 MW, 3 MW, kW, 2.5 MW, 2 MW, 1.9 MW, 1.8 MW, 1.7 MW, 1.6 MW, 1.5 MW, 1.45 MW, 1.4 MW, 1.35 MW, 1.3 MW, 1.25 MW, 1.2 MW, 1.15 MW, 1.1 MW, 1.05 MW, 1 MW, 950 kW, 900 kW, 850 kW, 800 kW, 750 kW, 700 kW, 650 kW, 600 kW, 550 kW, 500 kW, 450 kW, 400 kW, 350 kW, 300 kW, 250 kW, 200 kW, 150 kW, 100 kW, 75 kW, 50 kW, 25 kW, 10 kW, 5 kW, 2 kW, 1.5 kW, or 1 kW or less.

[0102] In some cases, the one or more electrodes may comprise one or more alternating current (AC) electrodes. An AC electrode is an electrode configured to operate under AC conditions. For example, an AC electrode is electronically coupled to an AC power source and generates a plasma when AC current flows through the AC electrode. In some cases, the one or more electrodes may comprise one or more direct current (DC) electrodes. A DC electrode may be configured to operate under DC conditions (e.g., when operatively coupled to a DC power source). The reactor is at least about 0bar, 0.5bar, 1bar, 1.1bar, 1.2bar, 1.3bar, 1.4bar, 1.5bar, 1.6bar, 1.7bar, 1.8bar, 1.9bar, 2bar, 2.1bar, 2.2bar, 2.3bar, 2 .4bar, 2.5bar, 2.6bar, 2.7bar, 2.8bar, 2.9bar, 3bar, 3.1bar, 3.2bar, 3.3bar, 3.4bar, 3.5bar, 3.6bar, 3.7bar, 3.8bar, 3.9bar, 4bar, 4.5ba r, 5 bar, 6 bar, 7 bar, 8 bar, 9 bar, 10 bar, 11 bar, 12 bar, 13 bar, 14 bar, 15 bar, 16 bar, 17 bar, 18 bar, 19 bar, 20 bar, 21 bar, 22 bar, 23 bar, 24 bar, 25 bar, 26 bar, 27 bar, 28 bar, 29 bar, 30 bar, 35 bar, 40 bar, 45 bar, 50 bar, 55 bar, 60 bar, 65 bar, 70 bar, 75 bar or more, or even higher pressures (e.g., reactor pressures).Alternatively, or additionally, the reactor may be operated at a pressure of up to about 100 bar, 90 bar, 80 bar, 75 bar, 70 bar, 65 bar, 60 bar, 55 bar, 50 bar, 45 bar, 40 bar, 35 bar, 30 bar, 29 bar, 28 bar, 27 bar, 26 bar, 25 bar, 24 bar, 23 bar, 22 bar, 21 bar, 20 bar, 19 bar, 18 bar, 17 bar, 16 bar, 15 bar, 14 bar, 13 bar, 12 bar, 11 bar, 10 bar, 9 bar, 8 bar, 7 bar The reactor may be operated at a pressure of 1.5 bar, 6 bar, 5 bar, 4 bar, 3.9 bar, 3.8 bar, 3.7 bar, 3.6 bar, 3.5 bar, 3.4 bar, 3.3 bar, 3.2 bar, 3.1 bar, 3 bar, 2.9 bar, 2.8 bar, 2.7 bar, 2.6 bar, 2.5 bar, 2.4 bar, 2.3 bar, 2.2 bar, 2.1 bar, 2 bar, 1.9 bar, 1.8 bar, 1.7 bar, 1.6 bar, 1.5 bar, 1.4 bar, 1.3 bar, 1.2 bar, 1.1 bar, or less. The reactor may be operated at a pressure range defined by any two of the foregoing values. For example, the reactor may be operated at a pressure ranging from about 1.1 bar to about 4 bar.

[0103] In some cases, hydrogen may be produced by the process. For example, in the production of carbon particles, hydrogen gas may also be produced. The hydrogen may be discarded (e.g., disposed of as waste from the process) or collected (e.g., as an additional product of the process). Hydrogen and carbon particles may be produced in a single-stage process. For example, hydrogen and carbon particles may be produced simultaneously (e.g., hydrogen may be produced in the same process operation that produces carbon particles). In this example, hydrogen and carbon particles may be produced in a single reactor operation (e.g., the same hydrocarbon cracking operation). A single-stage process may improve reaction efficiency (e.g., the efficiency of heat transfer from the plasma to the feedstock). Furthermore, a single-stage process may achieve higher plasma temperatures. For example, the plasma temperature in a single-stage process may range from about 3500°C to about 4000°C. A single-stage process may have a thermal gradient between the center of the reactor and the reactor wall. The thermal gradient between the center of the reactor and the reactor wall may be smaller in a single-stage process than in a multiple-stage process. For example, the thermal gradient in a single-stage process may be from a center temperature of 3500°C to a wall temperature of about 1800°C, while a two-stage process may have a center temperature of about 3500°C and a wall temperature of about 2200°C to about 2400°C. Single-stage processes may reduce costs due to the type of construction and maintenance required. For example, lower temperatures near the reactor walls may allow for the use of less expensive materials in reactor construction and reduce thermal wear on the reactor walls. A single-stage reactor may have a high-density (e.g., optically high-density) carbon particle field at or near the electric arc (e.g., as described elsewhere herein). Such a high-density field may increase heat transfer to the carbon particles and decrease heat transfer to the reactor walls.

[0104] In some cases, hydrogen and carbon particles can be produced in a multiple-stage or "multi-stage" (e.g., two-stage, three-stage, etc.) process. For example, a two-stage process can include a first injection of hydrocarbons and a second injection of hydrocarbons. The use of a multi-stage process can reduce deposit formation in the reactor or on the electrodes by reducing the amount of hydrocarbons in a given area of ​​the reactor. Multiple stages also allow additional process operations to be performed between stages. For example, water injection can be performed to remove deposits from the reactor without shutting down the reactor or disabling the plasma. Multiple stages also increase the velocity and momentum of the plasma gas, thereby increasing the mixing of the feedstock into the plasma gas.

[0105] The plasma reactor of the present disclosure may operate at temperatures of at least about 1000, 1100, 1200, 1300, 1400, 1500, 1600, 1700, 1800, 1900, 2000, 2100, 2200, 2300, 2400, 2500, 2600, 2700, 2800, 2900, 3000, 3100, 3200, 3300, 3400, 3500, 3600, 3700, 3800, 3900, 4000, 4100, 4200, 4300, 4400, 4500, or more degrees Celsius (°C). The plasma reactor of the present disclosure may operate at temperatures up to about 4500, 4400, 4300, 4200, 4100, 4000, 3900, 3800, 3700, 3600, 3500, 3400, 3300, 3200, 3100, 3000, 2900, 2800, 2700, 2600, 2500, 2400, 2300, 2200, 2100, 2000, 1900, 1800, 1700, 1600, 1500, 1400, 1300, 1200, 1100, 1000, or less degrees Celsius (°C). The plasma reactor of the present disclosure may operate at a temperature range defined by any two of the foregoing values. For example, plasma reactors can operate at temperatures from about 3500° C. to about 4000° C. The temperature gradient between the center of a reactor of the present disclosure and the walls of the reactor can be at least about 50, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, 1000, 1100, 1200, 1300, 1400, 1500, 1600, 1700, 1800, 1900, 2000, or more degrees Celsius (° C.) difference. For example, the temperature difference between the center of the reactor and the walls of the reactor can be at least about 1700° C. The temperature gradient between the center of the reactor and the reactor wall can be a difference in degrees Celsius (°C) of up to about 2000, 1900, 1800, 1700, 1600, 1500, 1400, 1300, 1200, 1100, 1000, 900, 800, 700, 600, 500, 400, 300, 200, 100, 50, or less. The temperature gradient between the center of the reactor and the reactor wall can be defined by a range between any two of the aforementioned values. The magnitude of the gradient can be related to the type of reactor system used. For example, a single-stage reactor can provide a larger temperature gradient than a multi-stage reactor.

[0106] In some cases, the systems and methods described herein may produce about 1 ton of hydrogen per hour. The produced hydrogen may be purified to a predetermined purity, for example, about 90%, 95%, 99%, 99.5%, or 99.9%. In some cases, hydrogen is produced at a rate ranging from about 0.1 ton per hour to about 10 ton per hour. In some cases, hydrogen is produced at a rate ranging from about 0.1 tonnes per hour to about 0.5 tonnes per hour, from about 0.1 tonnes per hour to about 1 tonne per hour, from about 0.1 tonnes per hour to about 5 tonnes per hour, from about 0.1 tonnes per hour to about 10 tonnes per hour, from about 0.5 tonnes per hour to about 1 tonne per hour, from about 0.5 tonnes per hour to about 5 tonnes per hour, from about 0.5 tonnes per hour to about 10 tonnes per hour, from about 1 tonne per hour to about 5 tonnes per hour, from about 1 tonne per hour to about 10 tonnes per hour, or from about 5 tonnes per hour to about 10 tonnes per hour. In some cases, hydrogen is produced at a rate of about 0.1 tonnes per hour, about 0.5 tonnes per hour, about 1 tonne per hour, about 5 tonnes per hour, or about 10 tonnes per hour. In some cases, hydrogen is produced at a rate of at least about 0.1 tonnes per hour, about 0.5 tonnes per hour, about 1 tonne per hour, or about 5 tonnes per hour. In some cases, hydrogen is produced at a rate of at most about 0.5 tonnes per hour, about 1 tonne per hour, about 5 tonnes per hour, or about 10 tonnes per hour.

[0107] The solid carbonaceous material can be separated from the gas components. The separation unit or hydrogen / exhaust gas removal unit can include, but is not limited to, a pressure swing adsorption device, a cryogenic separation device, a molecular sieve, or the like, or a combination thereof. A pressure swing adsorption (PSA) device can be configured to separate or purify components from a gas stream (e.g., components from a gas stream produced by a reactor, as described elsewhere herein). A PSA device can include adsorption and using the properties (e.g., molecular size, dipole moment, etc.) of various components of a gas mixture to selectively pass components of the mixture. For example, a PSA device can be used to separate hydrogen from a reactor gas mixture. In this example, the PSA device can use the smaller size of hydrogen gas molecules to separate hydrogen from larger gas species by passing the gas mixture over a porous bed (e.g., a porous zeolite bed) that can function as a molecular sieve. In this example, hydrogen can pass through the sieve, while larger substances in the gas mixture are trapped by the sieve and filtered out. In this example, the sieve(s) can be saturated with large gases, at which point they can be regenerated by removing the bed and removing the large gas species. Multiple PSA devices can be used in parallel or in series. For example, multiple PSA devices can be configured in parallel to continuously process gas while a subset of the PSA devices is regenerated. PSA devices can operate at pressures of at least about 1, 5, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, or more bar gauge (barg). PSA devices can operate at pressures up to about 30, 29, 28, 27, 26, 25, 24, 23, 22, 21, 20, 19, 18, 17, 16, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 5, or less bar gauge (barg). The PSA device can operate at a pressure within the range defined by any two of the aforementioned values, for example, the PSA device can operate at a pressure of from about 13 to about 24 barg.PSA devices can operate at gas inlet temperatures of at least about -50, -45, -40, -35, -30, -25, -20, -15, -10, -5, 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, or more degrees Celsius. PSA devices can operate at gas inlet temperatures of up to about 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 10, 5, 0, -5, -10, -15, -20, -25, -30, -45, -50, or less degrees Celsius. For example, PSAs can operate at temperatures above the temperature at which components of the gas mixture condense.

[0108] Cryogenic separation devices can be configured to separate components (e.g., different gases of a gas mixture) using cryogenic temperatures (e.g., subambient temperatures). For example, a cryogenic separation device can be configured to cool a mixture until all of the components of the mixture condense, and then use an increase in temperature or pressure to remove (e.g., boil) and separate the components. Cryogenic separation can provide high purity of the components (e.g., hydrogen) of the gas mixture.

[0109] Once separated from the gas mixture, the hydrogen from the reactor can be further purified. In some cases, the hydrogen is sufficiently pure once removed from the gas mixture (e.g., no further purification is feasible). In some cases, the hydrogen is purified by a PSA device, a cryogenic separation device, molecular sieves, or the like, or a combination thereof. In some cases, the hydrogen can be pressurized as it is removed from the gas mixture. For example, the hydrogen can be pressurized before being fed to the purification device. After purification, the purity of the hydrogen can be at least about 50, 60, 70, 80, 85, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 99.9, 99.99, 99.99, 99.999, 99.9999, 99.9999, or more percent (e.g., mole percent, mass percent, or volume percent). After purification, the purity of the hydrogen can be up to about 99.99999, 99.9999, 99.999, 99.99, 99.9, 99, 98, 97, 96, 95, 94, 93, 92, 91, 90, 85, 80, 70, 60, 50, or less percent (e.g., mole percent, weight percent, or volume percent). Gases removed from the hydrogen during purification can include hydrocarbons (e.g., methane, ethane, ethylene, acetylene, propene, benzene, toluene, naphthalene, anthracene, etc.), hydrogen, nitrogen, hydrogen cyanide, carbon monoxide, noble gases (e.g., argon, neon, krypton, etc.), or any combination thereof. The gas removed from the hydrogen may comprise at least about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, or more mole percent of the gas mixture. The gas removed from the hydrogen may comprise up to about 25, 24, 23, 22, 21, 20, 19, 18, 17, 16, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, or less mole percent of the gas mixture.

[0110] The system or process may further include a high-pressure degasser (referred to herein as a "degasser" or "degasser facility"). Carbon particles (e.g., carbon black, etc.) produced by a process such as those described elsewhere herein may be directed to the top of the degasser facility (item 150 in FIG. 1). The carbon particles may first contact a filter (item 140 in FIG. 1) before the degasser facility and then fall from the filter to the top of the degasser facility. The carbon particles may contact a rotary valve. The rotary valve may be configured to meter the carbon particles by dropping them into the degasser facility through an open airlock valve. The presence of the rotary valve may prevent a large amount of carbon particles from entering the degasser facility at one time. The rotary valve also serves to prevent, to some extent, backflow of gas from the degasser facility. The carbon particles may collect in the degasser facility until a predetermined amount of carbon particles is reached. The rotary valve and airlock valve may then be closed, and the vent valve may be opened. Opening the vent valve can release the gas pressure (e.g., above atmospheric pressure) within the degassing equipment (e.g., when carbon particles are introduced into the vessel under pressure) and place the degassing equipment at atmospheric pressure. The vent valve can then be closed and the inert purge valve can be opened to allow the flow of an inert gas (e.g., an inert gas described elsewhere herein). The inert gas can be configured to displace or dilute the gas associated with (e.g., adsorbed onto) the carbon particles. For example, flammable or explosive gases (e.g., hydrogen, hydrocarbons, etc.) can be adsorbed onto the surface of the carbon particles, and the inert gas can displace the flammable or explosive gas. After the inert gas is introduced, the purge valve can be closed and the vent valve can be opened to vent the mixture of inert gas and gas associated with the carbon particles. Purging with the inert gas can be repeated until the carbon particles are deemed inert (e.g., until the gas within the carbon particles is present at a safe level). The carbon particles can then be removed from the degassing equipment via the airlock valve. For example, the airlock valve can be opened and the carbon particles can fall out of the degassing equipment by gravity. The airlock valve can then be closed and the process repeated for another batch of carbon particles.

[0111] The use of a high-pressure degasser (degasser) can enable the collection of gases (such as hydrogen) associated with carbon particles at high pressures (e.g., pressures above atmospheric pressure). For example, hydrogen adsorbed in the pores of carbon particles can be collected at high pressures equal to the operating pressure of the reactor system. Collecting gases at high pressures can enable the gas to be used in high-pressure systems (e.g., high-pressure chemical synthesis, combustion, fuel cells, etc.) without the use of a secondary pressurization device. Thus, because the gas pressure is increased, the gas can be more easily used in downstream processes. This reduces engineering requirements and improves system functionality compared to collecting gases at lower pressures.

[0112] composition The systems and methods described herein may produce carbon products having a higher carbon-14 to carbon-12 ratio than the same systems or methods using fossil fuel hydrocarbon feedstocks. For example, carbon products produced using fossil fuel feedstocks may have a carbon-14 to carbon-12 ratio of about 3*10. -13 The carbon products described herein can have a carbon-14 to carbon-12 ratio of about 3*10 -13 The carbon products produced by the systems and methods described herein can contain 10% or more more carbon-14 than carbon products produced from fossil fuel hydrocarbon feedstocks. The carbon products produced by the systems and methods described herein can contain 5% or more more carbon-14 than carbon products produced from fossil fuel hydrocarbon feedstocks.

[0113] The carbonaceous material produced may include carbon particles. The carbon particles may include carbon black. Examples of carbon particles include, but are not limited to, carbon black, coke, needle coke, graphite, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, activated carbon, etc., or any combination thereof. The carbon particles may be produced by the process at a yield higher than the yield of carbon particles formed by the reactor when operated at a pressure lower than the process pressure (e.g., less than about 1 bar, about 1.5 bar, etc.). The carbon particles may be produced at a percent yield of at least about 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 99.9, or more. Carbon particles can be produced at yields of up to about 99.9, 99, 98, 97, 96, 95, 94, 93, 92, 91, 90, 89, 88, 87, 86, 85, 84, 83, 82, 81, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, 35, 30, 25, 20, 15, 10, 5, or more percent. The carbon particle yield can be within a range defined by any two of the aforementioned values. For example, the carbon particle yield can be from about 90 to about 99 percent. The carbon particle yield in this process can be higher than the yield of carbon particles formed in another reactor of the same size as the process reactor if the other reactor is operating at a lower pressure than the process reactor.

[0114] Carbonaceous materials (e.g., carbon particles) may be produced in, for example, about 1%, 5%, 10%, 25%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, or 99.9% or greater yields (e.g., yield based on feedstock conversion, yield based on total hydrocarbons provided, yield measured on a carbon mass percent basis, or ratio of moles of product carbon to moles of reactant carbon). Alternatively, or additionally, carbonaceous materials (e.g., carbon particles) may be produced in a yield (e.g., yield based on feedstock conversion, yield based on total hydrocarbons provided, yield measured on a carbon mass percent basis, or ratio of moles of product carbon to moles of reactant carbon) of, for example, about 100%, 99.9%, 99.5%, 99%, 98%, 97%, 96%, 95%, 94%, 93%, 92%, 91%, 90%, 85%, 80%, 75%, 70%, 65%, 60%, 55%, 50%, 25%, or 5% or less.

[0115] The carbon particles can include larger carbon particles, such as particles having a volume-equivalent spherical diameter of greater than about 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.75, 0.8, 0.9, 1, 1.1, 1.2, 1.25, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.7, 1.75, 1.8, 1.9, 2, 2.1, 2.2, 2.25, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5, 2.6, 2.7, 2.75, 2.8, 2.9, 3, 4, 5, or more micrometers (μm) and a nitrogen surface area (N2SA) of, for example, less than about 50, 40, 30, 20, 15, 10, 5, or less meters squared per gram (m 2 / g). For example, the larger carbon particles may have a volume-equivalent spherical diameter of at least about 2 micrometers and an N2SA of less than about 15 square meters per gram. The large carbon particles may be trapped in a catchpot. The carbon particles may include carbon particles having a volume-equivalent spherical diameter of less than about 5, 4, 3, 2.9, 2.8, 2.75, 2.7, 2.6, 2.5, 2.4, 2.3, 2.25, 2.2, 2.1, 2, 1.9, 1.8, 1.75, 1.7, 1.6, 1.5, 1.4, 1.3, 1.25, 1.2, 1.1, 1, 0.9, 0.8, 0.75, 0.7, 0.6, 0.5, 0.4, 0.3, 0.25, 0.2, 0.1, or less micrometers (μm). For example, the carbon particles can have a volume-equivalent spherical diameter of less than about 2 micrometers. The carbon particles can have a ratio of large carbon particles (e.g., particles having a volume-equivalent spherical diameter greater than about 2 micrometers) to small carbon particles (e.g., having a volume-equivalent spherical diameter of about 2 micrometers or less) of about 0 / 100, 5 / 95, 10 / 90, 15 / 85, 20 / 80, 25 / 75, 30 / 70, 35 / 65, 40 / 60, 45 / 55, 50 / 50, 55 / 45, 60 / 40, 65 / 35, 70 / 30, 75 / 25, 80 / 20, 85 / 15, 90 / 10, or 100 / 0. The systems and methods described herein can be configured to produce a predetermined ratio of larger carbon particles to carbon particles having a volume-equivalent spherical diameter of less than about 2 micrometers. The volume-equivalent spherical diameter can be measured by centrifugal particle sedimentation. Additional information can be found in "Principles of Colloid and Surface Chemistry," Hiemenz, Rajagopalan, Third Edition, pp. 70-78, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference.

[0116] The surface area of ​​carbon particles can be adjusted by changing the operating pressure of the carbon particle production reactor. For example, a lower pressure reactor process may produce carbon particles with a lower surface area. For example, carbon particles produced by a reactor operating at a pressure of 1.5 bar may have a smaller surface area than carbon particles produced in the same reactor operating at a pressure of 2.5 bar. In another example, carbon particles produced by a reactor operating at a pressure of 3 bar may have a smaller surface area than carbon particles produced in the same reactor operating at a pressure of 5 bar.

[0117] The surface area of ​​the carbon particles can be increased using one or more additives. One or more additives can be added to the hydrocarbon before, during, or after the hydrocarbon is injected into the reactor. One or more additives can be injected into the reactor before the plasma. Examples of additives include, but are not limited to, hydrocarbons (e.g., hydrocarbons described elsewhere herein, hydrocarbon gases), silicon-containing compounds (e.g., siloxanes, silanes, etc.), aromatic additives (e.g., benzene, xylene, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, etc.), etc., or any combination thereof. The reactor can be an oxygen-free environment. The oxygen-free environment can be a non-bound oxygen-free environment. For example, the reactor can be substantially free of non-bound oxygen (e.g., elemental oxygen), but can contain bound oxygen (e.g., as part of ethanol, carbon dioxide, etc.). The reactor may contain up to about less than 20, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0.5, 0.1, 0.05, 0.01, 0.005, 0.001, 0.0005, 0.0001, or even less percent molecular oxygen by volume or moles.

[0118] In some cases, the carbon particles may include at least one silicon core with carbon attached thereto. For example, when a carbonaceous material is contacted with a silicon-containing additive, the silicon-containing additive may react faster than the carbonaceous material, resulting in the formation of a silicon core. In this example, the carbonaceous material may then react to form a carbon deposit around the silicon core. The silicon core may include at least silicon, silicon carbide, silicon oxycarbide, silicon dioxide, or the like, or any combination thereof. The process may include contacting the carbonaceous material with the silicon-containing additive to produce a plurality of carbon particles. For example, a continuous flow process may be used in which the carbonaceous material and the silicon-containing additive are added to a flow reactor to produce a plurality of carbon particles. The plurality of carbon particles may also be produced in a batch process. For example, a predetermined amount of the carbonaceous material and the silicon-containing additive may be added to a batch reactor and reacted, and the resulting carbon particles may be recovered from the batch reactor.

[0119] The silicon core may comprise at least about 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, or more percent silicon. The silicon core may comprise up to about 99, 98, 97, 96, 95, 90, 85, 80, 75, 70, 65, 60, 55, 50, 45, 40, or less percent silicon. The silicon core may comprise an amount of silicon within a range defined by any two of the foregoing values. The diameter of the silicon core may be at least about 1, 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, or more nanometers (nm). The diameter of the silicon core can be up to about 500, 400, 300, 200, 100, 90, 80, 70, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, 10, 5, 1, or less nanometers (nm). The multiple silicon cores can have diameters within a range defined by any two of the aforementioned values. The silicon core can include pure silicon, silicon carbide, silicon oxycarbide, silicon oxide, silicon nitride, etc., or any combination thereof. The silicon core can provide a lower energy surface for growth of the carbonaceous material. The method can include generating multiple nuclei, each including a silicon core. For example, the reactor can be configured to generate multiple nuclei to expand the generation of carbon particles. The core can be located within the carbon particle, on the surface of the carbon particle, etc. The core can be located separately from the carbon particle.

[0120] The systems and methods described herein may be configured to or may include producing hydrogen. In some cases, the systems and methods described herein produce 1 ton of hydrogen per hour. The produced hydrogen may be purified to a predetermined purity, for example, 90%, 95%, 99%, 99.5%, or 99.9%. In some cases, hydrogen is produced at a rate ranging from about 0.1 ton per hour to about 10 ton per hour. In some cases, hydrogen is produced at a rate ranging from about 0.1 tonnes per hour to about 0.5 tonnes per hour, from about 0.1 tonnes per hour to about 1 tonne per hour, from about 0.1 tonnes per hour to about 5 tonnes per hour, from about 0.1 tonnes per hour to about 10 tonnes per hour, from about 0.5 tonnes per hour to about 1 tonne per hour, from about 0.5 tonnes per hour to about 5 tonnes per hour, from about 0.5 tonnes per hour to about 10 tonnes per hour, from about 1 tonne per hour to about 5 tonnes per hour, from about 1 tonne per hour to about 10 tonnes per hour, or from about 5 tonnes per hour to about 10 tonnes per hour. In some cases, hydrogen is produced at a rate of about 0.1 tonnes per hour, about 0.5 tonnes per hour, about 1 tonne per hour, about 5 tonnes per hour, or about 10 tonnes per hour. In some cases, hydrogen is produced at a rate of at least about 0.1 tonnes per hour, about 0.5 tonnes per hour, about 1 tonne per hour, or about 5 tonnes per hour. In some cases, hydrogen is produced at a rate of at most about 0.5 tonnes per hour, about 1 tonne per hour, about 5 tonnes per hour, or about 10 tonnes per hour.

[0121] The systems and methods of the present disclosure are described in, for example, U.S. Patent Publication No. US2015 / 0210856 and International Patent Publication No. WO2015 / 116807 ("High-Temperature Chemical Processing Systems"), U.S. Patent Publication No. US2015 / 0211378 ("Integration of Combined Cycle Power Plants, Simple Cycle Power Plants, and Steam Reformers with Plasma and Hydrogen Processes"), International Patent Publication No. WO2015 / 116797 ("Integration of Combined Cycle Power Plants, Simple Cycle Power Plants, and Steam Reformers with Plasma and Hydrogen Processes"), International Patent Publication No. US2015 / 0210857 ("Integration of Combined Cycle Power Plants, Simple Cycle Power Plants, and Steam Reformers with Plasma and Hydrogen Processes"), and International Patent Publication No. US2015 / 0210857 ("Integration of Combined Cycle Power Plants, Simple Cycle Power Plants, and Steam Reformers with Plasma and Hydrogen Processes"). and International Patent Publication No. WO2015 / 116798 ("Use of Feedstock in Carbon Black Plasma Processes"), U.S. Patent Publication No. US2015 / 0210858 and International Patent Publication No. WO2015 / 116800 ("Plasma Gas Throat Assemblies and Methods"), U.S. Patent Publication No. US2015 / 0218383 and International Patent Publication No. WO2015 / 116811 ("Plasma Reactors"), U.S. Patent Publication No. US2015 / 0223314 and International Patent Publication No. WO2015 / 116943 ("Plasma Torch Designs"), International Patent Publication No. WO2016 / 126598 ("Carbon Black Combustible Gas Separation"), International Patent Publication No. WO2016 / 126599 ("Carbon Black Production System"), International Patent Publication No. WO2016 / 126600 ("Regenerative Cooling Method and Apparatus"), U.S. Patent Publication No. US2017 / 0034898 and International Patent Publication No. WO2017 / 019683 ("DC Plasma Torch Power Design Method and Apparatus"), U.S. Patent Publication No. US2017 / 0037253 and International Patent Publication No. W2017 / 027385 ("Method for Producing Carbon Black") , U.S. Patent Publication No. US2017 / 0058128 and International Patent Publication No. WO2017 / 034980 ("Method for producing carbon black by high temperature heating integration"), U.S. Patent Publication No. US2017 / 0066923 and International Patent Publication No. WO2017 / 044594 ("Circular few-layer graphene"), U.S. Patent Publication No. US2017 / 0073522 and International Patent Publication No. WO2017 / 048621 ("Natural gas derived carbon black"), International Patent Publication No. W2017 / 190045 ("Secondary heat addition to particle production process and apparatus"),International Patent Publication No. WO2017 / 190015 ("Torch Stinger Method and Apparatus"), International Patent Publication No. WO2018 / 165483 ("System and Method for Producing Carbon Particles Using a Heat Transfer Gas"), International Patent Publication No. WO2018 / 195460 ("Particle Systems and Methods"), International Patent Publication No. WO2019 / 046322 ("Particle Systems and Methods"), International Patent Publication No. WO2019 / 046320 ("Systems and Methods for Particle Generation"), International Patent Publication No. WO2019 / 046324 ("Particle Systems and Methods"), International Patent Publication No. WO2019 / 084200 ("Particle Systems and Methods"), International Patent Publication No. WO2019 / 195461 ("Systems and Methods for Processing" No. WO2022 / 076306 ("Systems and Methods for Processing"), International Patent Publication No. WO2023 / 059520 ("Systems and Methods for Electrical Processing"), International Patent Publication No. WO2023 / 137120 ("Methods and Systems for Producing Carbon Particles Using Silicon-Containing Additives"), and International Patent Application No. PCT / US2023 / 0241148 ("Recycled Feedstocks for Carbon and Hydrogen Production"), each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

[0122] Computer Systems The present disclosure provides a computer system programmed to implement the methods of the present disclosure. Figure 11 shows a computer system 1101 programmed or otherwise configured to implement the methods of the present disclosure or to control the systems of the present disclosure. The computer system 1101 can control various aspects of the present disclosure, such as, for example, a reactor configured to react a feedstock (e.g., a hydrocarbon feedstock) while reducing reactor fouling formation. The computer system 1101 can be a user's electronic device or can be a computer system located remotely relative to the electronic device. The electronic device can be a portable electronic device.

[0123] The computer system 1101 includes a central processing unit (CPU, also referred to herein as a "processor" and a "computer processor") 1105, which can be a single-core processor or a multi-core processor, or multiple processors for parallel processing. The computer system 1101 may also include memory or memory locations 1110 (e.g., random access memory, read-only memory, flash memory), an electronic storage unit 1115 (e.g., a hard disk), a communication interface 1120 (e.g., a network adapter) for communicating with one or more other systems, and peripherals 1125, such as cache, other memory, data storage, or an electronic display adapter. The memory 1110, the storage unit 1115, the interface 1120, and the peripherals 1125 communicate with the CPU 1105 via a communication bus (solid lines), such as a motherboard. The storage unit 1115 can be a data storage unit (or data repository) for storing data. Computer system 1101 can be operatively coupled to a computer network (“network”) 1130 with the aid of communication interface 1120. Network 1130 can be the Internet, an internet or extranet, or an intranet or extranet in communication with the Internet. Network 1130, in some cases, is a communications network or a data network. Network 1130 can include one or more computer servers that can enable distributed computing, such as cloud computing. Network 1130, in some cases, can implement a peer-to-peer network with the aid of computer system 1101, thereby enabling devices coupled to computer system 1101 to operate as clients or servers.

[0124] The CPU 1105 may execute sequences of machine-readable instructions, which may be embodied in a program or software. The instructions may be stored in a memory location, such as the memory 1110. The instructions are sent to the CPU 1105, which may then program or otherwise configure the CPU 1105 to perform the methods of the present disclosure. Examples of operations performed by the CPU 1105 may include fetch, decode, execute, and writeback.

[0125] The CPU 1105 can be part of a circuit, such as an integrated circuit. One or more other components of the system 1101 can be included in the circuit. In some cases, the circuit is an application specific integrated circuit (ASIC).

[0126] The storage unit 1115 may store files such as drivers, libraries, saved programs, etc. The storage unit 1115 may store user data such as user settings and user programs. The computer system 1101 may include one or more additional data storage units that are external to the computer system 1101, such as located on a remote server that communicates with the computer system 1101 via an intranet or the Internet.

[0127] Computer system 1101 can communicate with one or more remote computer systems via network 1130. For example, computer system 1101 can communicate with a user's remote computer system. Examples of remote computer systems include a personal computer (e.g., a portable PC), a slate or tablet PC (e.g., an Apple® iPad®, a Samsung® Galaxy Tab), a telephone, a smartphone (e.g., an Apple® iPhone®, an Android®-enabled device, a Blackberry®), or a personal digital assistant. A user can access computer system 1101 via network 1130.

[0128] The methods described herein may be implemented by machine (e.g., computer processor) executable code stored in an electronic storage location of computer system 1101, such as memory 1110 or electronic storage unit 1115. The machine-executable or machine-readable code may be provided in the form of software. During use, the code may be executed by processor 1105. In some cases, the code may be retrieved from storage unit 1115 and stored in memory 1110 for ready access by processor 1105. In some circumstances, electronic storage unit 1115 may be eliminated and machine-executable instructions may be stored in memory 1110.

[0129] The code may be pre-compiled and configured for use on a machine having a processor adapted to execute the code, or it may be compiled at run time. The code may be supplied in a programming language that may be selected to allow the code to be executed in pre-compiled or compiled form.

[0130] Aspects of the systems and methods provided herein, such as computer system 1101, can be embodied in programming. Various aspects of the technology may be considered "products" or "articles of manufacture," typically in the form of machine (or processor) executable code or associated data transmitted on or embodied in some type of machine-readable medium. The machine-executable code can be stored in an electronic storage unit, such as memory (e.g., read-only memory, random-access memory, flash memory) or a hard disk. "Storage"-type media can include some or all of the tangible memory of a computer, processor, etc., or associated modules, such as various semiconductor memories, tape drives, disk drives, etc., and may provide non-transitory storage for software programming at any time. All or portions of the software may be communicated over the Internet or various other communications networks. Such communication may enable software to be loaded from one computer or processor to another, such as, for example, loading software from a management server or host computer into an application server's computer platform. Accordingly, other types of media that may carry software elements include optical, electrical, and electromagnetic waves used in physical interfaces between local devices, wired and optical fixed-line networks, various wireless or air links, etc. The physical elements that carry such waves, such as wired or wireless links, optical links, etc., may also be considered media that bear software. As used herein, unless limited to non-transitory, tangible "storage" media, terms such as computer or machine "readable medium" refer to any medium that participates in providing instructions to a processor for execution.

[0131] Thus, a machine-readable medium such as a computer-executable code may be in various forms, including, but not limited to, a tangible storage medium, a carrier wave medium, or a physical transmission medium. Non-volatile storage media may include, for example, optical or magnetic disks, any storage device (which may be used to implement a database, etc.) such as any computer(s). Volatile storage media may include dynamic memory such as the main memory of such a computer platform. Tangible transmission media may include coaxial cables, copper wire, and optical fiber, including the wires that comprise a bus within a computer system. Carrier wave transmission media may be in the form of electric or electromagnetic signals, or acoustic or light waves such as those generated during radio frequency (RF) or infrared (IR) data communications. Common forms of computer readable media thus include, for example, floppy disks, flexible disks, hard disks, magnetic tape, any other magnetic media, CD-ROMs, DVDs, DVD-ROMs, any other optical media, punch cards, paper tape, any other physical storage medium with a pattern of holes, RAM, ROM, PROMs and EPROMs, FLASH®-EPROMs, any other memory chip or cartridge, a carrier wave transmitting data or instructions, a cable or link transmitting such a carrier wave, or any other medium from which a computer can read programming code or data. Many of these forms of computer readable media may be involved in transmitting one or more sequences of one or more instructions to a processor for execution.

[0132] The computer system 1101 may include, or be in communication with, an electronic display 1135 with, for example, a user interface (UI) 1140 to provide an interface for controlling the reactor. Examples of a UI include, but are not limited to, a graphical user interface (GUI) and a web-based user interface.

[0133] The methods and systems of the present disclosure may be implemented by one or more algorithms. The algorithms may be implemented by software executed by the central processing unit 1105. For example, the algorithms may implement the generation of various carbon particles based on a user interface. [Example]

[0134] Reactor fouling In one example, the reactor operates in a stable mechanical configuration for several months. The reactor may include two chambers: a plasma-generating section and a carbon particle-generating section separated by a throat section. The reactor may further include a flow straightening device (also referred to herein as a "flow straightener") of the present disclosure located downstream of the throat section. In this example, the flow straightener used was an obstruction configuration similar to that shown in Figures 4 and 7A.

[0135] Table 1A shows example run data, including reactor configurations and injection times per run, for a first set of example runs (Runs 1-10) performed without a baffle device. Table 1B shows run data, including reactor configurations and injection times per run, for a second set of example runs (Runs 11-21) performed with a baffle device of the present disclosure. Table 2A shows example reactor fouling data for a first set of example runs (Runs 1-10) performed without a baffle device. Table 2B shows example reactor fouling data for a second set of example runs (Runs 11-21) performed with a baffle device of the present disclosure.

[0136] In a run without a flow straightener, the reactor bulk flow is estimated to have a swirl number of about 1.5 to about 4, and the average injection time before shutdown is about 40 hours. In a run with a flow straightener, the reactor bulk flow is estimated to have a swirl number of less than 1, and the average injection time is greater than 80 hours. As shown in Tables 1A-1B and 2A-2B, different injector configurations can result in different deposit formation outcomes. The term "TB" injector can refer to a "toothbrush" type injector with a nozzle inserted radially into the bulk plasma gas flow and directing the feedstock in axial alignment with the coflowing plasma gas (e.g., bulk fluid flow). The term "RI" injector can refer to a "radial injector" configured to inject the feedstock into the bulk plasma gas flow perpendicular to the axis of the bulk plasma gas flow to promote mixing of the two fluids. [Table 1] [Table 2]

[0137] Reactor fouling data can be collected from three different reactor sections, including the top, middle, and bottom reactor regions. The top reactor region can be the region closest to the feed injector. The bottom reactor region can be the region located away from the feed injector. The middle reactor region can be the region located between the top and bottom regions. In this example, each reactor region can be or include a cylindrical shape with a height of about 2 meters and an inner diameter of about 1200 millimeters.

[0138] Tables 2A and 2B show the percentage of injected feedstock detected as solid carbon deposits in each reactor region and the percentage of total deposit mass. "Total reactor deposit" is the mass of carbon collected from the interior reaction chamber walls after a run divided by the total mass of carbon injected into the system during the run. "Percentage reactor deposit (% deposit rate)" is the total mass of non-product carbon recovered from the system, including the reactor walls, piping, and settling zone, after a run divided by the total mass of carbon injected into the system during the run. In this example, a reactor without a baffle may have an average total reactor deposit of over 25%. In this example, a comparable reactor with a baffle may have an average total reactor deposit of less than 3% (e.g., 2%). As shown in Table 2B, the reduction in percentage deposits may be greatest in deposit formation regions at or near the top of the reactor. [Table 3] [Table 4]

[0139] While various embodiments of the present disclosure have been shown and described herein, those skilled in the art will understand that such embodiments are provided by way of example only. The present disclosure is not intended to be limited by the specific embodiments, examples, or descriptions and illustrations of embodiments provided herein. Numerous variations, changes, and substitutions may be devised by those skilled in the art without departing from the present disclosure. It should be understood that various alternatives to the embodiments described herein may be employed, and that all aspects of the present disclosure are not limited to the specific depictions, configurations, or relative proportions set forth herein, which depend upon a variety of conditions and variables. It should be understood that various alternatives to the embodiments described herein may be employed in implementing the systems and methods of the present disclosure without departing from the present disclosure. Therefore, the present disclosure is intended to cover all such alternatives, modifications, variations, or equivalents. The following claims define the scope of the invention, and it is intended that systems and methods within the scope of these claims, and their equivalents, be covered thereby.

Claims

1. 1. An apparatus for producing carbon particles, the apparatus comprising: a plasma generating section; a carbon particle generation section; an obstacle disposed between the plasma generating section and the carbon particle generating section, the obstacle configured to contact fluid flowing from the plasma generating section to the carbon particle generating section in use, thereby reducing the angular momentum of the fluid; and An apparatus comprising:

2. The apparatus of claim 1 , wherein the plasma generating section includes a plasma generating electrode.

3. The apparatus of claim 2 , wherein the plasma generating electrode is configured to heat a heat transfer gas within the plasma generating section.

4. The apparatus of claim 1 , wherein the carbon particle production section includes a hydrocarbon injector.

5. The apparatus of claim 4 , wherein the hydrocarbon injector is configured to inject a hydrocarbon feedstock into the carbon particle production section.

6. The apparatus of claim 1 , wherein the obstacle is configured to be stationary when in contact with the fluid.

7. The apparatus of claim 1 , wherein the apparatus comprises a throat section that is narrower than the plasma generating section and the carbon particle generating section.

8. The apparatus of claim 7 , wherein the throat section is disposed between the plasma generating section and the carbon particle generating section.

9. The apparatus of claim 7 , wherein the obstruction is disposed within the throat section.

10. The apparatus of claim 7 , wherein the obstruction is located at an inlet or an outlet of the throat section.

11. The apparatus of claim 1 , wherein the obstacle comprises a flat surface.

12. The apparatus of claim 1 , wherein the obstacle comprises a curved surface.

13. The apparatus of claim 1 , wherein the obstacle comprises a plate.

14. The apparatus of claim 1 , wherein the surface of the obstacle is disposed perpendicular to the fluid flow path.

15. The apparatus of claim 1 , wherein the obstacle comprises a plurality of members.

16. 16. The apparatus of claim 15, wherein a first member of the plurality of members contacts a second member of the plurality of members.

17. 17. The device of claim 16, wherein the first member contacts the second member at a central axis of the device.

18. The apparatus of claim 15 , wherein two or more members of the plurality of members are interconnected.

19. 20. The apparatus of claim 18, wherein the two or more members are interconnected in a grid pattern.

20. The apparatus of claim 15 , wherein the members of the plurality of members are randomly oriented relative to each other.

21. The apparatus of claim 15 , wherein the members of the plurality of members are radially disposed relative to one another.

22. The apparatus of claim 1 , wherein the obstacle comprises a porous structure.

23. 23. The device of claim 22, wherein the porous structure comprises a molecular sieve.

24. 23. The device of claim 22, wherein the pores of the porous structure are visible to the human eye.

25. The apparatus of claim 1 , wherein the obstacle is configured to reduce bulk flow momentum of fluid flowing from the plasma generating section to the carbon particle generating section.

26. 1. A method for producing carbon particles, said method comprising: (a) providing an apparatus comprising: (i) a plasma generating section; (ii) a carbon particle generating section; and (iii) an obstacle disposed between the plasma generating section and the carbon particle generating section; (b) flowing the heat transfer gas from the plasma generation section to the carbon particle generation section such that the heat transfer gas contacts the obstacle, wherein contact of the heat transfer gas with the obstacle reduces angular momentum of the heat transfer gas; (c) generating the carbon particles in the carbon particle generation section using the heat transfer gas; and A method comprising:

27. 27. The method of claim 26, wherein the obstacle comprises a flat surface.

28. 27. The method of claim 26, wherein the obstacle comprises a curved surface.

29. 27. The method of claim 26, wherein the obstacle comprises a plate.

30. 27. The method of claim 26, wherein the surface of the obstacle is positioned perpendicular to the flow path of the heat transfer gas.

31. 27. The method of claim 26, wherein the obstacle comprises a plurality of members.

32. 32. The method of claim 31 , wherein a first member of the plurality of members contacts a second member of the plurality of members.

33. 33. The method of claim 32, wherein the first member contacts the second member at a central axis of the device.

34. 32. The method of claim 31 , wherein two or more members of the plurality of members are interconnected.

35. 35. The method of claim 34, wherein the members are interconnected in a grid pattern.

36. 32. The method of claim 31 , wherein the members of the plurality of members are randomly oriented relative to one another.

37. 32. The method of claim 31 , wherein the members of the plurality of members are radially disposed relative to one another.

38. 27. The method of claim 26, wherein the obstacle comprises a porous structure.

39. 39. The method of claim 38, wherein the porous structure comprises a molecular sieve.

40. 39. The method of claim 38, wherein the pores of the porous structure are visible to the human eye.

41. 27. The method of claim 26, wherein the obstacle reduces the angular momentum of the heat transfer gas by at least about 50%.

42. 27. The method of claim 26, wherein the obstacle reduces the angular momentum of the heat transfer gas by at least about 90%.

43. 27. The method of claim 26, wherein the ratio of the angular momentum of the heat transfer gas to the linear momentum of the heat transfer gas before the heat transfer gas enters the carbon particle production section is less than about 1.

5.

44. 27. The method of claim 26, wherein a ratio of the angular momentum of the heat transfer gas to the linear momentum of the heat transfer gas is less than about 1 before the heat transfer gas enters the carbon particle production section.

45. 27. The method of claim 26, wherein in step (c), the heat transfer gas contacts a hydrocarbon feedstock.

46. 46. ​​The method of claim 45, wherein less than about 25% of the hydrocarbon feedstock is deposited in the carbon particle production section.

47. 46. ​​The method of claim 45, wherein less than about 15% of the hydrocarbon feedstock is deposited in the carbon particle production section.

48. 46. ​​The method of claim 45, wherein less than about 10% of the hydrocarbon feedstock is deposited in the carbon particle production section.

49. 46. ​​The method of claim 45, wherein less than about 5% of the hydrocarbon feedstock is deposited in the carbon particle production section.

50. 1. A method for producing carbon particles, said method comprising: (a) providing an apparatus comprising: (i) a plasma generating section; and (ii) a carbon particle generating section; (b) flowing the heat transfer gas from the plasma generation section to the carbon particle generation section such that the angular momentum of the heat transfer gas is reduced by at least about 50% before the heat transfer gas enters the carbon particle generation section; (c) producing said carbon particles in said carbon particle production section using said heat transfer gas.

51. 51. The method of claim 50, wherein the angular momentum of the heat transfer gas is reduced by at least about 75%.

52. 51. The method of claim 50, wherein the angular momentum of the heat transfer gas is reduced by at least about 90%.

53. 51. The method of claim 50, wherein in step (c), the heat transfer gas contacts a hydrocarbon feedstock.

54. 54. The method of claim 53, wherein less than about 25% of the hydrocarbon feedstock is deposited in the carbon particle production section.

55. 54. The method of claim 53, wherein less than about 15% of the hydrocarbon feedstock is deposited in the carbon particle production section.

56. 54. The method of claim 53, wherein less than about 10% of the hydrocarbon feedstock is deposited in the carbon particle production section.

57. 54. The method of claim 53, wherein less than about 5% of the hydrocarbon feedstock is deposited in the carbon particle production section.

58. 51. The method of claim 50, wherein a ratio of the angular momentum of the heat transfer gas to the linear momentum of the heat transfer gas before the heat transfer gas enters the carbon particle production section is less than about 1.

5.

59. 1. A method for producing carbon particles, said method comprising: (a) providing an apparatus comprising: (i) a plasma generating section; and (ii) a carbon particle generating section; (b) flowing a heat transfer gas from the plasma generation section to the carbon particle generation section, wherein a ratio of the angular momentum of the heat transfer gas to the linear momentum of the heat transfer gas before the heat transfer gas enters the carbon particle generation section is less than about 1.5; (c) generating the carbon particles in the carbon particle generation section using the heat transfer gas; and A method comprising:

60. 60. The method of claim 59, wherein a ratio of the angular momentum of the heat transfer gas to the linear momentum of the heat transfer gas before the heat transfer gas enters the carbon particle production section is less than about 1.

25.

61. 60. The method of claim 59, wherein a ratio of the angular momentum of the heat transfer gas to the linear momentum of the heat transfer gas is less than about 1 before the heat transfer gas enters the carbon particle production section.

62. 60. The method of claim 59, wherein in step (c), the heat transfer gas contacts a hydrocarbon feedstock.

63. 63. The method of claim 62, wherein less than about 25% of the hydrocarbon feedstock is deposited in the carbon particle production section.

64. 63. The method of claim 62, wherein less than about 15% of the hydrocarbon feedstock is deposited in the carbon particle production section.

65. 63. The method of claim 62, wherein less than about 10% of the hydrocarbon feedstock is deposited in the carbon particle production section.

66. 63. The method of claim 62, wherein less than about 5% of the hydrocarbon feedstock is deposited in the carbon particle production section.

67. 1. A method for producing carbon particles, comprising: (a) providing an apparatus comprising: (i) a plasma generating section; and (ii) a carbon particle generating section; (b) flowing a heat transfer gas from the plasma generating section to the carbon particle generating section; (c) contacting the heat transfer gas with a hydrocarbon feedstock in the carbon particle production section to produce carbon particles, wherein less than about 25% of the hydrocarbon feedstock adheres to the carbon particle production section; and A method comprising:

68. 68. The method of claim 67, wherein less than about 20% of the hydrocarbon feedstock is deposited in the carbon particle production section.

69. 68. The method of claim 67, wherein less than about 15% of the hydrocarbon feedstock is deposited in the carbon particle production section.

70. 68. The method of claim 67, wherein less than about 10% of the hydrocarbon feedstock is deposited in the carbon particle production section.

71. 68. The method of claim 67, wherein less than about 5% of the hydrocarbon feedstock is deposited in the carbon particle production section.

72. 1. A method for producing carbon particles, said method comprising: (a) providing an apparatus comprising: (i) a plasma generating section; and (ii) a carbon particle generating section; (b) flowing a heat transfer gas having a first angular momentum from the plasma generation section to the carbon particle generation section, the first angular momentum having a first magnitude and a first direction; (c) contacting the heat transfer gas with a fluid having a second angular momentum, the second angular momentum having a second magnitude and a second direction, wherein contacting the heat transfer gas with the fluid reduces a first magnitude of the first angular momentum in the first direction; (d) producing said carbon particles in said carbon particle production section using said heat transfer gas.

73. 73. The method of claim 72, wherein the second direction of the second angular momentum is opposite to the first direction of the first angular momentum.

74. 73. The method of claim 72, wherein the first magnitude is greater than the second magnitude.

75. 73. The method of claim 72, wherein the ratio of the first magnitude to the second magnitude is greater than about 1.

76. 73. The method of claim 72, wherein the ratio of the first magnitude to the second magnitude is in the range of about 1 to about 5.

77. 73. The method of claim 72, wherein the ratio of the first magnitude to the second magnitude is in the range of about 1 to about 3.

78. 73. The method of claim 72, wherein the ratio of the first magnitude to the second magnitude is in the range of about 1 to about 2.

79. 73. The method of claim 72, wherein the fluid is a hydrocarbon feedstock.

80. 80. The method of claim 79, wherein said contacting of said heat transfer gas with said hydrocarbon feedstock produces said carbon particles in step (d).

81. 73. The method of claim 72, wherein step (c) occurs within the carbon particle production section.

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