Method for producing planarized surfaces in layered structures used for producing OPTO-electronic devices

Abstract

A method for producing a layered structure, comprising the steps of a. providing an intermediate layered structure that comprises i. an element of a first kind, wherein the element of the first kind has a first surface and a thickness d1, measured along a first direction, wherein d1 ≤ 1.5 µm; ii. a layer of a second kind superimposed on at least the first surface of the element of the first kind, wherein the layer of the second kind has a first surface and a thickness d2, measured along the first direction, wherein d2 ≤ 100 nm; iii. a first layer of a further kind that at least partially surrounds the element of the first kind, wherein a first section of the first layer of the further kind is superimposed on the first surface of the layer of the second kind, and a further section of the first layer of the further kind is arranged at a first distance l3 from the element of the first kind, wherein the first distance l3 is measured along a further direction, wherein the further direction is perpendicular to the first direction, and l3 ≤ 100 nm, and the first section has a first thickness d3A and the further section has a further thickness d3B, measured along the first direction; b. reducing the first thickness d3A, and preferably the further thickness d3B, of the first layer of the further kind, using a first thickness-reducing technique, wherein at least one or all of the following applies: i. d3A is reduced by at least 20 %, preferably at least 50 %, more preferably at least 70 %, further preferably at least 90 %, and even further preferably at least 99 %, ii. after reduction, d3A ≤ 100 nm; wherein at least one property varies between the layer of the second kind and the element of the first kind, the layer of the second kind and the first layer of the further kind, or both.

Description

[0001] METHOD FOR PRODUCING PLANARIZED SURFACES IN LAYERED STRUCTURES USED FOR

[0002] PRODUCING OPTO-ELECTRONIC DEVICES

[0003] FIELD OF THE INVENTION

[0004] The invention pertains to methods for producing a layered structure, wherein said layered structure preferably comprises a waveguide. The invention also pertains to a method for producing an opto-electronic device using the layered structure, wherein said opto-electronic device preferably comprises one or more graphene layers.

[0005] BACKGROUND

[0006] Opto-electronic devices such as modulators and photodetectors are important electronic components for optical communication systems, e.g., data transmission via fibre optics. Some of the important parameters for these devices are bandwidth, operation speed, extinction ratio, insertion loss, energy consumption, and footprint. One option is silicon-based modulators. However, silicon modulators have a number of disadvantages. For example, silicon-based modulators have a narrow bandwidth. Furthermore, in order to integrate a silicon-based modulator with other electronic components, such as CMOS integrated circuits, silicon-based modulators have to be produced as part of a front-end-of-line process. In addition, silicon-based modulators cannot easily be integrated with newer technologies that are being developed in the electronic industry. This is in contrast to graphene -based modulators, which have a number of advantages. For example, graphene -based modulators have a broader bandwidth compared to silicon- based modulators. Furthermore, graphene -based modulators can be integrated with other electronic components as part of a back-end-of-line process, without requiring significant development to enable the integration. Graphenebased modulators can also be more easily integrated with newer technologies in the electronic industry. Graphenebased modulators further allow for a better use of surface area, and thus a more compact electronic device or system. Examples of graphene -based modulators are disclosed in, e.g., Liu et al. (2011), A graphene-based broadband optical modulator, Nature, 474, 65, and Liu et al. (2012), Double-layer graphene optical modulator, Nano Letter, 12, 1482.

[0007] Producing graphene-based opto-electronic devices remains challenging. In particular, it is required that any surface onto which the graphene is deposited is highly planarized. Discontinuities in said surface, such as step discontinuities, can lead to stresses in the graphene layer, which in turn can lead to the graphene layer breaking. This is especially the case if the graphene layer is not conformal with the discontinuities. However, due to local strain variations, a graphene layer that is conformal with the discontinuities also leads to problems with controlling electrical properties, such as potential difference and electric fields, in the opto-electronic device. It is also highly desirable to have the one or more graphene layers as close as possible to the waveguide of the opto-electronic device. However, to obtain a sufficiently planarized surface that also reduces the distances between the waveguide and the one or more graphene layers is still an open problem to be solved.

[0008] OBJECTS

[0009] An object of the present invention is to at least partially overcome at least one of the disadvantages encountered in the state of the art.

[0010] It is a further object of the invention to provide a method for producing a layered structure, wherein the layered structure is used for the production of an opto-electronic device.

[0011] It is a further object of the invention to provide a method for producing a layered structure, wherein the layered structure is used for the production of an opto-electronic device, and wherein the layered structure has a flatter surface.

[0012] It is a further object of the invention to provide a method for producing a layered structure, wherein the layered structure is used for the production of an opto-electronic device, and wherein the largest discontinuity of the layered structure is reduced.

[0013] It is a further object of the invention to provide a method for producing a layered structure, wherein the layered structure is used for the production of an opto-electronic device, and wherein use of the layered structure reduces the damage of electrically conducting elements deposited on the layered structure. An example of an electrically conducting element is a graphene layer or a perovskite layer.

[0014] It is a further object of the invention to provide a method for producing a layered structure, wherein the layered structure is used for the production of an opto-electronic device, and wherein use of the layered structure allows for a reduction in the distance between an element of the first kind and an electrically conducting element. An example of an element of the first kind is a waveguide adapted and arranged for the propagation of electromagnetic waves. An example of an electrically conducting element is a graphene layer or a perovskite layer.

[0015] It is a further object of the invention to provide a method for producing a layered structure, wherein the layered structure is used for the production of an opto-electronic device, and wherein use of the layered structure allows for the production of a plurality of opto-electronic devices that are more uniform.

[0016] It is an object of the invention to provide an opto-electronic device that has an increased bit-rate.

[0017] It is an object of the invention to provide a modulator that has a reduced insertion loss.

[0018] It is an object of the invention to provide a modulator that uses less energy.

[0019] It is an object of the invention to provide a photodetector that has an improved responsivity.

[0020] It is an object of the invention to provide a photodetector wherein the distance between the maximum intensity of the electromagnetic waves, propagating in the waveguide of the photodetector, and the graphene layer of the photodetector is reduced. PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS OF THE INVENTION

[0021] A contribution to at least partially fulfilling at least one of the above-mentioned objects is made by any of the embodiments of the invention.

[0022] A 1stembodiment of the invention is a first method for producing a layered structure, comprising the steps of a. providing an intermediate layered structure that comprises i. an element of a first kind, wherein the element of the first kind

[0023] A. has a first surface,

[0024] B. has a thickness di, measured along a first direction, wherein di < 1.5 pm; ii. a layer of a second kind superimposed on at least the first surface of the element of the first kind, wherein the layer of the second kind

[0025] A. has a first surface,

[0026] B. has a thickness < ?, measured along the first direction, wherein d2 < 100 nm; iii. a first layer of a further kind that at least partially surrounds the element of the first kind, wherein

[0027] A. a first section of the first layer of the further kind is superimposed on the first surface of the layer of the second kind,

[0028] B. a further section of the first layer of the further kind is arranged at a first distance I3 from the element of the first kind, wherein

[0029] I. / the first distance I3 is measured along a further direction, wherein the further direction is perpendicular to the first direction, and

[0030] II. / / 3 < 100 nm,

[0031] C. the first section has a first thickness dsA and the further section has a further thickness dsn. measured along the first direction; b. reducing the first thickness dsA, and preferably the further thickness dsn. of the first layer of the further kind, using a first thickness-reducing technique, wherein at least one or all of the following applies: i. d3A is reduced by at least 20 %, preferably at least 50 %, more preferably at least 70 %, further preferably at least 90 %, and even further preferably at least 99 %, ii. after reduction, dsA < 100 nm; wherein at least one property varies between the layer of the second kind and the element of the first kind, the layer of the second kind and the first layer of the further kind, or both.

[0032] In an aspect of the 1stembodiment, it is preferred that the layered structure is obtained after the reduction step has been completed. In another aspect of the 1stembodiment, it is preferred that the layered structure is obtained following the completion of the reduction step and at least one further method step. In an aspect of the 1stembodiment, it is preferred that a cross-sectional cut of the intermediate layered structure, made at the position of the element of the first kind, has the following layers and element, in this order: the element of the first kind, the layer of the second kind, and the first section of the first layer of the further kind. In an aspect of the 1st, it is preferred that at least two, more preferably all, of the following match by less than 90 wt-%, more preferably by less than 80 wt-%, even more preferably less than 70 wt-%, even more preferably less than 60 wt-%, even more preferably less than 50 wt-%, and further preferably by less than 40 wt-% in their chemical composition: the element of the first kind, the layer of the second kind, and the first layer of the further kind. In an aspect of the 1stembodiment, feature b., the following combinations are preferred aspects of the embodiment: b.i: b.ii; b.i + b.ii. The combination b.i + b.ii is particularly preferred. In an aspect of the 1stembodiment, it is particularly preferred that the first thickness-reducing technique is chemical-mechanical polishing. In an aspect of the 1stembodiment, it is particularly preferred that the first thickness d3A is reduced such that the layer of the second kind is at least partially exposed. In an aspect of the 1stembodiment, it is particularly preferred that the element of the first kind is a waveguide that is adapted and arranged for the propagation of electromagnetic waves. In an aspect of the 1stembodiment, it is particularly preferred that the layered structure that is obtainable from the 1stembodiment is suitable to be used for the production of an optoelectronic device, more preferably an opto-electronic device comprising graphene. In an aspect of the 1stembodiment, it is particularly preferred that the at least one property varies between the layer of the second kind and the first layer of the further kind.

[0033] In a preferred embodiment of the first method for producing a layered structure, the at least one property is at least one or all of the following: a. a hardness, e.g. , a scratch hardness, an indentation hardness, a rebound hardness, or a combination of at least two thereof; b. a chemical reaction rate, preferably a chemical reaction rate of a chemical reaction involving a processing chemical substance used in chemical-mechanical polishing; c. an etch rate; d. a material removal rate, preferably a material removal rate during employment of a method adapted and arranged for reducing the first thickness diA of the first layer of the further kind, the further thickness diB of the first layer of the further kind, or both. It is particularly preferred that the material removal rate is during chemical-mechanical polishing; e. a chemical composition; f. an oxidation rate; g. an optical attenuation coefficient; h. a refractive index; i. an electrical conductivity; j. a thermal conductivity; k. a laser ablation rate. This preferred embodiment is a 2ndembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on the 1stembodiment of the invention.

[0034] In an aspect of the 2ndembodiment, all combinations of the features a. to k. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. In an aspect of the 2ndembodiment, the combination of the features a. to f. are more preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; c; d; e; f; a+b; a+c; a+d; a+e; a+f; b+c; b+d; b+e; b+f; c+d; c+e; c+f; d+e: d+f; e+f; a+b+c: a+b+d: a+b+c: a+b+f; a+c+d: a+c+c: a+c+f; a+d+c: a+d+f; a+e+f; b+c+d: b+c+c: b+c+f; b+d+c: b+d+f; b+e+f; c+d+c: c+d+f; c+e+f; d+e+f; a+b+c+d: a+b+c+c: a+b+c+f; a+b+d+c: a+b+d+f; a+b+e+f; a+c+d+c: a+c+d+f; a+c+e+f; a+d+e+f; b+c+d+c: b+c+d+f; b+c+e+f; b+d+e+f; c+d+e+f; a+b+c+d+c: a+b+c+d+f; a+b+c+e+f; a+b+d+e+f; a+c+d+e+f; b+c+d+e+f; a+b+c+d+e+f. In another aspect of the 2ndembodiment, all possible combination of the features b. to d. are particularly preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are, e.g., b; c; d; b+c; b+d; c+d; b+c+d.

[0035] In a preferred embodiment of the first method for producing a layered structure, at least one or all of the following applies: a. the at least one property is a first etch rate, preferably during employment of the first thicknessreducing technique, wherein the first etch rate of the first layer of the further kind is larger than the first etch rate of the layer of the second kind; b. the at least one property is a first chemical reaction rate, preferably during employment of the first thickness-reducing technique, wherein the first chemical reaction rate of the first layer of the further kind is larger than the first chemical reaction rate of the layer of the second kind; c. the at least one property is a first material removal rate, preferably during employment of the first thickness-reducing technique, wherein the first material removal rate of the first layer of the further kind is larger than the first material removal rate of the layer of the second kind; d. the at least one property is a hardness, preferably during employment of the first thickness-reducing technique, wherein the hardness of the first layer of the further kind is less than the hardness of the layer of the second kind.

[0036] This preferred embodiment is a 3rdembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 1stto 2ndembodiments of the invention.

[0037] In an aspect of the 3rdembodiment, all possible combination of the features a. to d. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; c; d; a+b; a+c; a+d; b+c; b+d; c+d; a+b+c; a+b+d; a+c+d; b+c+d; a+b+c+d. In an aspect of the 3rdembodiment, all possible combination of the features b. and c. are particularly preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., b; c; b+c. In yet another aspect of the 3rdembodiment, feature c. is particularly preferred.

[0038] In a preferred embodiment of the first method for producing a layered structure, at least one or all of the following applies: a. the at least one property is a first etch rate, preferably during employment of the first thicknessreducing technique, wherein the first etch rate of the element of the first kind is larger than the first etch rate of the layer of the second kind; b. the at least one property is a first chemical reaction rate, preferably during employment of the first thickness-reducing technique, wherein the first chemical reaction rate of the element of the first kind is larger than the first chemical reaction rate of the layer of the second kind; c. the at least one property is a first material removal rate, preferably during employment of the first thickness-reducing technique, wherein the first material removal rate of the element of the first kind is larger than the first material removal rate of the layer of the second kind; d. the at least one property is a hardness, preferably during employment of the first thickness-reducing technique, wherein the hardness of the element of the first kind is less than the hardness of the layer of the second kind.

[0039] This preferred embodiment is a 4thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 1stto 3rdembodiments of the invention.

[0040] In an aspect of the 4thembodiment, all possible combination of the features a. to d. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; c; d; a+b; a+c; a+d; b+c; b+d; c+d; a+b+c; a+b+d; a+c+d; b+c+d; a+b+c+d. In an aspect of the 4thembodiment, all possible combination of the features b. and c. are particularly preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., b; c; b+c. In yet another aspect of the 4thembodiment, feature c. is particularly preferred.

[0041] In a preferred embodiment of the first method for producing a layered structure, at least one or all of the following applies: a. the first etch rate of the first layer of the further kind is at least 1. 1 times, preferably at least 1.5 times, more preferably at least 3 times, more preferably at least 5 times, more preferably at least 10 times, more preferably at least 20 times, more preferably at least 50 times, more preferably at least 100 times, further preferably at least 200 times, further preferably at least 500 times, and even further preferably at least 1000 times larger than the first etch rate of the layer of the second kind; b. the first material removal rate of the first layer of the further kind is at least 1.1 times larger, more preferably at least 1.5 times larger, even more preferably at least 3 times larger, further preferably at least 5 times larger, further preferably at least 10 times larger, further preferably at least 20 times larger, and even further preferably at least 50 times larger than the first material removal rate of the layer of the second kind; c. the first etch rate of the element of the first kind is at least 1.1 times, preferably at least 1.5 times, more preferably at least 3 times, more preferably at least 5 times, more preferably at least 10 times, more preferably at least 20 times, more preferably at least 50 times, more preferably at least 100 times, further preferably at least 200 times, further preferably at least 500 times, and even further preferably at least 1000 times larger than the first etch rate of the layer of the second kind; d. the first material removal rate of the element of the first kind is at least 1.1 times larger, more preferably at least 1.5 times larger, even more preferably at least 3 times larger, further preferably at least 5 times larger, further preferably at least 10 times larger, further preferably at least 20 times larger, and even further preferably at least 50 times larger than the first material removal rate of the layer of the second kind.

[0042] This preferred embodiment is a 5thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 3rdto 4thembodiments of the invention.

[0043] In an aspect of the 5thembodiment, all possible combination of the features a. to d. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; c; d; a+b; a+c; a+d; b+c; b+d; c+d; a+b+c; a+b+d; a+c+d; b+c+d; a+b+c+d. In another aspect of the 5thembodiment, all possible combination of the features a. and b. are more preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; a+b. In yet another aspect of the 5thembodiment, feature b. is particularly preferred. In an aspect of the 5thembodiment, aspect a., it is preferred that the first etch rate of the first layer of the further kind is in the range of 4 to 200 times, more preferably in the range of 5 to 150 times, and further preferably in the range of 10 to 100 times larger than the first etch rate of the layer of the second kind. In an aspect of the 5thembodiment, aspect b., it is preferred that the first material removal rate of the first layer of the further kind is in the range of 1.5 to 200 times, more preferably in the range of 5 to 150 times, and further preferably in the range of 10 to 100 times larger than the first material removal rate of the layer of the second kind. In an aspect of the 5thembodiment, aspect c., it is preferred that the first etch rate of the element of the first kind is in the range of 4 to 200 times, more preferably in the range of 5 to 150 times, and further preferably in the range of 10 to 100 times larger than the first etch rate of the layer of the second kind. In an aspect of the 5thembodiment, aspect d., it is preferred that the first material removal rate of the element of the first kind is in the range of 1.5 to 200 times, more preferably in the range of 5 to 150 times, and further preferably in the range of 10 to 100 times larger than the first material removal rate of the layer of the second kind.

[0044] In a preferred embodiment of the first method for producing a layered structure, after the reduction step in the 1stembodiment has been completed (step b.), the first section has a first thickness dsA < 50 nm, more preferably dsA < 20 nm, even more preferably dsA < 10 nm, further preferably dsA < 5 nm, further preferably dsA < 2 nm, and even further preferably dsA < 1 nm. This preferred embodiment is a 6thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 1stto 5thembodiments of the invention.

[0045] In an aspect of the 6thembodiment, it is preferred that the thickness d2 of the layer of the second kind is also reduced as part of the “reducing” step. In this aspect, it is however, preferred that the thickness < ? of the layer of the second kind d2 > 0 nm after completion of the “reduction step”. In this aspect, it is preferred that the thickness < ? is reduced by less than 20 %, more preferably by less than 10 %, and further preferably by less than 5 %. In an aspect of the 6thembodiment, it is preferred that the first section is removed, i.e., du = 0 nm.

[0046] In a preferred embodiment of the first method for producing a layered structure, at least one or all of the following applies: a. the thickness t / 2 of the layer of the second kind is < 80 nm, preferably erably d2 < 40 nm, even more preferably < 20 nm, further preferably d erably d2 < 5 nm, further preferably t / 2 < 2 nm, and even further preferabl b. the first distance I3 is I3 < 80 nm, preferably I3 < 60 nm, more preferably preferably 13 < 20 nm, further preferably 13 < 10 nm, further preferably I3 < 5 nm, further preferably I3 < 2 nm, and even further preferably I3 < 1 nm.

[0047] This preferred embodiment is a 7thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 1stto 6thembodiments of the invention.

[0048] In an aspect of the 7thembodiment, all possible combination of the features a. and b. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; a+b. In an aspect of the 7thembodiment, it is preferred that the thickness is measured prior to the start of the reduction step in the 1stembodiment (step b.). In an aspect of the 7thembodiment, it is preferred that the thickness t / 2 of the layer of the second kind is in the range of 0.1 nm to 80 nm, more preferably in the range of 0.2 nm to 60 nm, even more preferably in the range of 0.5 nm to 40 nm, even more preferably in the range from 1 nm to 30 nm, further preferably in the range of 2 nm to 25 nm, further preferably in the range of 5 nm to 20 nm, and even further preferably in the range of 5 nm to 10 nm. In an aspect of the 7thembodiment, it is preferred that the first distance I3 is in the range of 0.1 nm to 80 nm, more preferably in the range of 0.2 nm to 60 nm, even more preferably in the range of 0.5 nm to 40 nm, even more preferably in the range from 1 nm to 30 nm, further preferably in the range of 2 nm to 25 nm, further preferably in the range of 5 nm to 20 nm, and even further preferably in the range of 5 nm to 10 nm. In another aspect of the 7thembodiment, it is preferred that the element of the first kind touches the further section of the first layer of the further kind (I3 = 0 nm).

[0049] In a preferred embodiment of the first method for producing a layered structure, at least one or all of the following applies: a. the thickness di of the element of the first kind is in the range of 1 nm to 1500 nm, preferably in the range of 1 nm to 1250 nm, preferably in the range of 1 nm to 1100 nm, preferably in the range of 1 nm to 900 nm, preferably in the range of 10 nm to 700 nm, more preferably in the range of 20 nm to 600 nm, even more preferably in the range of 40 nm to 500 nm, and further preferably in the range of 50 nm to 400 nm; b. the first thickness dsA of the first section of the first layer of the further kind is in the range of 0.5 to 5 times, preferably in the range of 1 to 4 times, and more preferably in the range of 2 to 3 times larger than the thickness d: of the element of the first kind; c. the further thickness dsB of the further section of the first layer of the further kind is in the range of 0.5 to 5 times, preferably in the range of 1 to 4 times, and more preferably in the range of 2 to 3 times larger than the thickness d: of the element of the first kind.

[0050] This preferred embodiment is an 8thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 1stto 7thembodiments of the invention.

[0051] In an aspect of the 8thembodiment, all possible combination of the features a. to c. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b: c; a+b: a+c: b+c: a+b+c. In an aspect of the 8thembodiment, it is preferred that at least one, preferably all thickness are prior to the start of the reduction step in the 1stembodiment (step b.). In this aspect, these thicknesses include di, ds i. and dsB-

[0052] In a preferred embodiment of the first method for producing a layered structure, during the step of reducing the first thickness dsA, both the first thickness dsA and the further thickness d3B of the first layer of the further kind are reduced using the first thickness-reducing technique, wherein the first thickness dsA is reduced by a value VSA, the further thickness d3B is reduced by a value V3B, and wherein V3A and V3B vary by less than 20 %, preferably by less than 10 %, and more preferably by less than 5 %. This preferred embodiment is a 9thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 1stto 8thembodiments of the invention.

[0053] In a preferred embodiment of the first method for producing a layered structure, the first thickness-reducing technique is at least one of the following: a. chemical-mechanical polishing; b. wet etching; c. dry etching; d. laser ablation.

[0054] This preferred embodiment is a 10thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 1stto 9thembodiments of the invention.

[0055] In an aspect of the 10thembodiment, all possible combination of the features a. to d. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; c; d; a+b; a+c; a+d; b+c; b+d; c+d; a+b+c; a+b+d; a+c+d; b+c+d; a+b+c+d. In another aspect of the 10thembodiment, chemical -mechanical polishing is particularly preferred.

[0056] In a preferred embodiment of the first method for producing a layered structure, prior to the method step of providing the intermediate layered structure, the method further comprises the steps of:

[0057] I.) providing the element of the first kind, wherein the element of the first kind is preferably provided by the following sub-steps:

[0058] Al . providing a layer of the first kind;

[0059] A2. optionally, i. depositing a masking layer on the layer of the first kind, and ii. removing at least one section of the masking layer to at least partially expose the layer of the first kind;

[0060] A3. reducing a thickness of at least one section of the layer of the first kind to obtain the element of the first kind;

[0061] A4. optionally, at least partially removing the masking layer;

[0062] II.) depositing the layer of the second kind such that the layer of the second kind is superimposed on at least the first surface of the element of the first kind, and wherein the layer of the second kind is preferably deposited such that

[0063] (a) preferably, the layer of the second kind at least partially surrounds the element of the first kind, more preferably partially surrounds the element of the first kind;

[0064] (b) preferably, the layer of the second kind is superimposed on at least 50 %, more preferably at least 75 %, and further preferably at least 95 % of a surface area of the first surface of the element of the first kind;

[0065] III.) depositing the first layer of the further kind such that the first layer of the further kind at least partially surrounds the element of the first kind and preferably the layer of the second kind, and wherein the first layer of the further kind is deposited such that

[0066] (a) the first section of the first layer of the further kind is superimposed on at least 50 %, more preferably at least 75 %, and further preferably at least 95 % of a surface area of the first surface of the layer of the second kind,

[0067] (b) the further section of the first layer of the further kind is arranged at the first distance I3 from the element of the first kind.

[0068] This preferred embodiment is an 11thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 1stto 10thembodiments of the invention.

[0069] In an aspect of the 11thembodiment, it is preferred that the intermediate layered structure is obtained following the completion of the steps of the embodiment.

[0070] In a preferred embodiment of the first method for producing a layered structure, prior to the method steps of providing the intermediate layered structure, the method further comprises the steps of:

[0071] I.) providing a layer of the first kind;

[0072] II.) depositing the layer of the second kind such that the layer of the second kind is superimposed on at least the first surface of the layer of the first kind, preferably on at least 50 %, more preferably on at least 75 %, and further preferably on at least 95 % of a surface area of the first surface of the layer of the first kind;

[0073] III.) optionally

[0074] (a) depositing a masking layer on the layer of the second kind, and (b) removing at least one section of the masking layer to at least partially expose the layer of the second kind;

[0075] IV.) reducing a thickness of

[0076] (a) at least one section of the layer of the first kind to obtain the element of the first kind, and

[0077] (b) preferably reducing a thickness of at least one section of the layer of the second kind;

[0078] V.) optionally, at least partially removing the masking layer;

[0079] VI.) depositing the first layer of the further kind such that the first layer of the further kind at least partially surrounds the element of the first kind and preferably the layer of the second kind, and wherein the first layer of the further kind is deposited such that

[0080] (a) the first section of the first layer of the further kind is superimposed on at least 50 %, more preferably at least 75 %, and further preferably at least 95 % of a surface area of the first surface of the layer of the second kind,

[0081] (b) the further section of the first layer of the further kind is arranged at the first distance I3 from the element of the first kind.

[0082] This preferred embodiment is a 12thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 1stto 10thembodiments of the invention.

[0083] In an aspect of the 12thembodiment, it is preferred that the intermediate layered structure is obtained following the completion of the steps of the embodiment.

[0084] In a preferred embodiment of the first method for producing a layered structure, the thickness of at least one section of the layer of the first kind, the thickness of at least one section of the layer of the second kind, or both, are reduced using at least one or all of the following: a. wet etching; b. dry etching; c. laser ablation.

[0085] This preferred embodiment is a 13thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 11thto 12thembodiments of the invention.

[0086] In an aspect of the 13thembodiment, all possible combination of the features a. to c. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; c; a+b; a+c; b+c; a+b+c.

[0087] In a preferred embodiment of the first method for producing a layered structure, the method further comprises the following steps, performed after the step of reducing the first thickness dsA and preferably the further thickness die of the first layer of the further kind (step b. in the 1stembodiment):

[0088] A.] reducing the thickness t / 2 of the of the layer of the second kind using a further thickness-reducing technique, (i) preferably such that at least one recess is formed in the first layer of the further kind, wherein the at least one recess has a depth DR, measured along the first direction;

[0089] (ii) preferably such that at least a part of the first surface of the element of the first kind is exposed;

[0090] B.] depositing a further layer of the further kind, such that the further layer of the further kind is superimposed on at least the first surface of the element of the first kind, preferably on at least 50 %, more preferably on at least 75 %, and further preferably on at least 95 % of the surface area of the first surface of the element of the first kind;

[0091] C.] optionally, reducing a thickness c t of the further layer of the further kind.

[0092] This preferred embodiment is a 14thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 1stto 13thembodiments of the invention.

[0093] In the aspect of the 14thembodiment wherein at least one recess if formed in the first layer of the further kind, it is preferred that the thickness c i of the further layer of the further kind, prior to being reducing in step C.], is at least 1.1 times, more preferably at least 1.5 times, even more preferably at least 2 times, and further preferably at least 4 times larger than the depth DR of the recess.

[0094] In a preferred embodiment of the first method for producing a layered structure, the first surface of the further section of the first layer of the further kind is arranged at a height hia. a first surface of the further layer of the further kind is arranged at a height l , and wherein a. the heights hsu and l are measured along the first direction, b. \h3B - h4\ < 10 nm, preferably \h3B - l \ < 8 nm, more preferably \h3B - l \ < 6 nm, even more preferably \h3B - < 4 nm, further preferably \h3B - h4\ < 2 nm, and even further preferably \h3B

[0095] - h4\ < \ nm.

[0096] This preferred embodiment is a 15thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on the 14thembodiments of the invention.

[0097] In an aspect of the 15thembodiment, it is preferred that the height difference given in aspect b. applies after the reduction step C.] in the 14thpreferred embodiment has been completed.

[0098] In a preferred embodiment of the first method for producing a layered structure, at least one or all of the following applies: a. a further etch rate of the layer of the second kind is larger than a further etch rate of the first layer of the further kind, preferably during employment of the further thickness-reducing technique; b. a further chemical reaction rate of the layer of the second kind is larger than a further chemical reaction rate of the first layer of the further kind, preferably during employment of the further thickness-reducing technique; c. a further material removal rate of the layer of the second kind is larger than a further material removal rate of the first layer of the further kind, preferably during employment of the further thickness-reducing technique.

[0099] This preferred embodiment is a 16thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 14thto 15thembodiments of the invention.

[0100] In an aspect of the 16thembodiment, all possible combination of the features a. to c. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b: c; a+b: a+c: b+c: a+b+c. In an aspect of the 16thembodiment, feature a. is particularly preferred.

[0101] In a preferred embodiment of the first method for producing a layered structure, at least one or all of the following applies: a. a further etch rate of the layer of the second kind is larger than a further etch rate of the element of the first kind, preferably during employment of the further thickness-reducing technique; b. a further chemical reaction rate of the layer of the second kind is larger than a further chemical reaction rate of the element of the first kind, preferably during employment of the further thickness-reducing technique; c. a further material removal rate of the layer of the second kind is larger than a further material removal rate of the element of the first kind, preferably during employment of the further thickness-reducing technique.

[0102] This preferred embodiment is a 17thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 14thto 16thembodiments of the invention.

[0103] In an aspect of the 17thembodiment, all possible combination of the features a. to c. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; c; a+b; a+c; b+c; a+b+c. In another aspect of the 17thembodiment, feature a. is particularly preferred.

[0104] In a preferred embodiment of the first method for producing a layered structure, at least one or all of the following applies: a. the further etch rate of the layer of the second kind is at least 1.1 times, preferably at least 1.5 times, more preferably at least 3 times, more preferably at least 5 times, more preferably at least 10 times, more preferably at least 20 times, more preferably at least 50 times, more preferably at least 100 times, further preferably at least 200 times, further preferably at least 500 times, and even further preferably at least 1000 times larger than the further etch rate of the first layer of the further kind; b. the further material removal rate of the layer of the second kind is at least 1. 1 times larger, more preferably at least 1.5 times larger, even more preferably at least 3 times larger, further preferably at least 5 times larger, further preferably at least 10 times larger, further preferably at least 20 times larger, and even further preferably at least 50 times larger than the further material removal rate of the first layer of the further kind; c. the further etch rate of the layer of the second kind is at least 1.1 times, preferably at least 1.5 times, more preferably at least 3 times, more preferably at least 5 times, more preferably at least 10 times, more preferably at least 20 times, more preferably at least 50 times, more preferably at least 100 times, further preferably at least 200 times, further preferably at least 500 times, and even further preferably at least 1000 times larger than the further etch rate of the element of the first kind; d. the further material removal rate of the layer of the second kind is at least 1. 1 times larger, more preferably at least 1.5 times larger, even more preferably at least 3 times larger, further preferably at least 5 times larger, further preferably at least 10 times larger, further preferably at least 20 times larger, and even further preferably at least 50 times larger than the further material removal rate of the element of the first kind.

[0105] This preferred embodiment is an 18thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 16thto 17thembodiments of the invention.

[0106] In an aspect of the 18thembodiment, all possible combination of the features a. to d. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; c; d; a+b; a+c; a+d; b+c; b+d; c+d; a+b+c; a+b+d; a+c+d; b+c+d; a+b+c+d. In another aspect of the 18thembodiment, all possible combination of the features a. and c. are more preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; c; a+c. In yet another aspect of the 18thembodiment, feature a. is particularly preferred. In an aspect of the 18thembodiment, aspect a., it is preferred that the further etch rate of the layer of the second kind is in the range of 4 to 200 times, more preferably in the range of 5 to 150 times, and further preferably in the range of 10 to 100 times larger than the further etch rate of the first layer of the further kind. In an aspect of the 18thembodiment, aspect b., it is preferred that the further material removal rate of the layer of the second kind is in the range of 1.5 to 200 times, more preferably in the range of 5 to 150 times, and further preferably in the range of 10 to 100 times larger than the further material removal rate of the first layer of the further kind. In an aspect of the 18thembodiment, aspect c., it is preferred that the further etch rate of the layer of the second kind is in the range of 4 to 200 times, more preferably in the range of 5 to 150 times, and further preferably in the range of 10 to 100 times larger than the further etch rate of the element of the first kind. In an aspect of the 18thembodiment, aspect d., it is preferred that the further material removal rate of the layer of the second kind is in the range of 1.5 to 200 times, more preferably in the range of 5 to 150 times, and further preferably in the range of 10 to 100 times larger than the further material removal rate of the element of the first kind.

[0107] In a preferred embodiment of the first method for producing a layered structure, the further thickness-reducing technique is at least one or all of the following: a. wet etching; b. dry etching; c. laser ablation; d. chemical-mechanical polishing.

[0108] This preferred embodiment is a 19thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 14thto 18thembodiments of the invention.

[0109] In an aspect of the 19thembodiment, all possible combination of the features a. to d. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; c; d; a+b; a+c; a+d; b+c; b+d; c+d; a+b+c; a+b+d; a+c+d; b+c+d; a+b+c+d. In an aspect of the 19thembodiment, all possible combination of the features a. to c. are particularly preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; c; a+b; a+c; b+c; a+b+c. In an aspect of the 19thembodiment, wet etching is particularly preferred.

[0110] In a preferred embodiment of the first method for producing a layered structure, the thickness d4 of the further layer of the further kind is reduced using at least one of the following: a. chemical-mechanical polishing, wherein the chemical-mechanical polishing is preferably performed for less than 1 minute, more preferably for less than 50 seconds, and more preferably for less than 40 seconds; b. wet etching; c. dry etching; d. laser ablation.

[0111] This preferred embodiment is a 20thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 14thto 19thembodiments of the invention.

[0112] In an aspect of the 20thembodiment, all possible combination of the features a. to d. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; c; d; a+b; a+c; a+d; b+c; b+d; c+d; a+b+c; a+b+d; a+c+d; b+c+d; a+b+c+d. In an aspect of the 20thembodiment, if the thickness d4 of the further layer of the further kind is reduced used chemical-mechanical polishing, and the first thickness-reducing technique of the 10thembodiment is also chemical-mechanical polishing, then it is preferred that the duration of the chemical-mechanical polishing of the first thickness-reducing technique is longer than the duration of the chemical-mechanical polishing of the 20thembodiment. In another aspect of the 20thembodiment, chemical-mechanical polishing is particularly preferred.

[0113] In a preferred embodiment of the first method for producing a layered structure, at least one or all of the following applies to the intermediate layered structure that is provided: a. the layer of the second kind touches the element of the first kind; b. the layer of the second kind at least partially surrounds the element of the first kind, more preferably partially surrounds the element of the first kind; c. at least the first section of the first layer of the further kind touches the layer of the second kind. This preferred embodiment is a 21stembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 1stto 20thembodiments of the invention. In an aspect of the 21stembodiment, all possible combination of the features a. to c. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b: c; a+b: a+c: b+c: a+b+c. In an aspect of the 21stembodiment, feature a. is particularly preferred.

[0114] In a preferred embodiment of the first method for producing a layered structure, at least one layer is deposited using at least one or all of the following: a. chemical vapour deposition; b. physical vapour deposition; c. atomic layer deposition; d. spin coating; e. molecular epitaxy.

[0115] This preferred embodiment is a 22ndembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 1stto 21stembodiments of the invention.

[0116] In an aspect of the 22ndembodiment, all possible combination of the features a. to e. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; c; d; e; a+b; a+c; a+d; a+e; b+c; b+d; b+e; c+d; c+e; d+e; a+b+c; a+b+d; a+b+e; a+c+d; a+c+e; a+d+e; b+c+d; b+c+e; b+d+e; c+d+e; a+b+c+d; a+b+c+e; a+b+d+e; a+c+d+e; b+c+d+e; a+b+c+d+e. In the 22ndembodiment, “the at least one layer” should preferably be understood to mean at least one or all of the following: the layer of the first kind, the layer of the second kind, the first layer of the further kind, and the further layer of the further kind.

[0117] In a preferred embodiment of the first method for producing a layered structure, at least one or all of the following applies: a. the element of the first kind comprises at least one or all of the following: silicon, oxygen, aluminium, iridium, tantalum, titanium, nitrogen, lithium, niobium, indium, phosphorus, gallium, arsenic, barium, at least one lanthanide (preferably lanthanum), a chalcogenide, at least one polymer, a resin, a combination of at least two thereof; b. the element of the first kind is an optical element, preferably a waveguide adapted and arranged for the propagation of electromagnetic waves; c. the element of the first kind is adapted and arranged for the propagation of electromagnetic waves that have wavelengths in the range from 300 nm to 3000 nm, preferably in the range of 800 nm to 2100 nm, and more preferably in the range of 1250 nm to 1650 nm.

[0118] This preferred embodiment is a 23rdembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 1stto 22ndembodiments of the invention.

[0119] In an aspect of the 23rdembodiment, all possible combination of the features a. to c. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; c; a+b; a+c; b+c; a+b+c. In an aspect of the 23rdembodiment, the combination of the features b. and c. are particularly preferred. In an aspect of the 23rdembodiment, feature a., it is particularly preferred that the element of the first kind comprises at least 50 wt-%, more preferably at least 65 wt- %, even more preferably at least 75 wt-%, further preferably at least 85 wt-%, and even further preferably at least 95 wt-%, based on a total weight of the element of the first kind, of a nitride, more preferably silicon nitride.

[0120] In a preferred embodiment of the first method for producing a layered structure, at least one or all of the following applies: a. the layer of the second kind comprises at least one or all of the following: at least one metal, at least one metal alloy, at least one oxide, at least one nitride, at least one carbide, a combination of at least two thereof. An example of a preferred carbide is silicon carbide. Examples of nitrides include titanium nitride and silicon oxynitride. b. the layer of the second kind comprises at least one or all of the following: titanium, tungsten, aluminium, molybdenum, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, silicon, germanium, a combination of at least two thereof. Examples of a combination of at least two thereof include silicon germanium and silicon carbon oxynitride. An example of silicon is amorphous silicon. c. a refractive index of the layer of the second kind is larger than a refractive index of the element of the first kind. In this aspect it is preferred that the refractive index of the layer of the second kind is at least 1.05 times larger, more preferably at least 1.3 times larger, and further preferably at least 1.6 times larger than the refractive index of the element of the first kind. d. the layer of the second kind has a refractive index that is in the range of 1.5 to 6, preferably in the range of 2 to 5, and further preferably in the range of 2.5 to 4.

[0121] This preferred embodiment is a 24thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 1stto 23rdembodiments of the invention.

[0122] In an aspect of the 24thembodiment, all possible combination of the features a. to d. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b: c; d: a+b: a+c: a+d: b+c: b+d: c+d: a+b+c: a+b+d: a+c+d: b+c+d: a+b+c+d. In an aspect of the 24thembodiment, all possible combination of the features a. and b. are particularly preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b: a+b. In another aspect of the 24thembodiment, feature c., it is preferred that the refractive index of the layer of the second kind is in the range of 1.05 to 4 times larger, more preferably in the range of 1.3 to 3.7 times larger, and further preferably in the range of 1.6 to 2.7 times larger than the refractive index of the element of the first kind. In an aspect of the 24thembodiment, features a. and / or b., it is particularly preferred that the layer of the second kind comprises less than 20 wt-%, more preferably less than 15 wt-%, even more preferably less than 10 wt-%, further preferably less than 5 wt-%, and even further preferably less than 1.5 wt-%, based on a total weight of the layer of the second kind, of a nitride, more preferably silicon nitride.

[0123] In a preferred embodiment of the first method for producing a layered structure, at least one or all of the following applies to the first layer of the further kind, the further layer of the further kind, or both: a. comprises at least one or all of the following: at least one oxide, at least one nitride, at least one lanthanide (preferably lanthanum), a combination of at least two thereof. Examples of an oxide include silicon dioxide, aluminium oxide, zirconium dioxide, hafnium oxide, titanium dioxide, niobium pentoxide, tantalum pentoxide, lanthanum oxide. An example of a nitride is silicon nitride, aluminium nitride, and silicon oxynitride. Silicon dioxide is particularly preferred; b. has an electrical conductivity that is less than 10'5S / m, preferably less than 10'6S / m, more preferably less than IO-7S / m, further preferably less than IO-9S / m, and even further preferably less than IO-11S / m; c. has a dielectric constant of at least 3, more preferably at least 5, and further preferably at least 7. This preferred embodiment is a 25thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 1stto 24thembodiments of the invention.

[0124] In an aspect of the 25thembodiment, all possible combination of the features a. to c. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; c; a+b; a+c; b+c; a+b+c.

[0125] In a preferred embodiment of the first method for producing a layered structure, the intermediate layered structure is superimposed on a wafer layer. This preferred embodiment is a 26thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 1stto 25thembodiments of the invention.

[0126] A 27thembodiment of the invention is a second method for producing a layered structure, comprising the steps of a. providing an intermediate layered structure that comprises i. an element of a first kind, wherein the element of the first kind

[0127] A. has a first surface that is arranged at height hix, wherein hix is measured along a first direction,

[0128] B. has a thickness d:. measured along the first direction, wherein di < 1.5 pm; ii. a first layer of a further kind, wherein

[0129] A. a further section of the first layer of the further kind is arranged at a first distance I3 from the element of the first kind, wherein

[0130] I. / the first distance I3 is measured along a further direction, wherein the further direction is perpendicular to the first direction, and

[0131] II. / / 3 < 100 nm,

[0132] B. the further section has a first surface that is arranged at a height hsu. wherein h3B is measured along the first direction,

[0133] C. \h3B - hix\ > 0 nm; b. oxidising at least a part of the element of the first kind to form a layer of an even-further kind on the first surface of the element of the first kind, wherein I. the layer of the even-further kind has a first surface that is arranged at a height hi, wherein the height hi is measured along the first direction, and

[0134] II. \fi3B - hi\ < \fi3B ~ hix\, with hix being the height of the first surface of the element of the first kind prior to the oxidation step.

[0135] In an aspect of the 27thembodiment, it is preferred that the layered structure is obtained after the oxidising step has been completed. In another aspect of the 27thembodiment, it is preferred that the layered structure is obtained following the completion of the oxidising step and at least one further method step. In an aspect of the 27thembodiment, it is preferred that the oxidising step b. is performed in an environment that has at a pressure of at least 1 atmosphere, more preferably at least 2 atmospheres, and further preferably at least 3 atmospheres. In an aspect of the 27thembodiment, it is preferred that the oxidising step b. is performed in an environment that has a temperature in the range of 200 °C to 1000 °C, more preferably in the range of 300 °C to 900 °C, and further preferably in the range of 350 °C to 850 °C. In this aspect, if the oxidising step b. is performed in an environment that comprises at least 50 wt-% of at least one oxygen radical, it is preferred that the temperature of the environment is 500 °C or less, more preferably 450 °C or less, and further preferably 400 °C or less. In an aspect of the 27thembodiment, it is particularly preferred that the element of the first kind is a waveguide that is adapted and arranged for the propagation of electromagnetic waves. In an aspect of the 27thembodiment, it is particularly preferred that the layered structure that is obtainable from the 27thembodiment is suitable to be used for the production of an opto-electronic device, more preferably an opto-electronic device comprising graphene.

[0136] In a preferred embodiment of the second method for producing a layered structure, the oxidising step is performed using at least one or all of the following: a. exposing the intermediate layered structure to oxygen, preferably in an environment that comprises at least 85 wt-%, more preferably at least 90 wt-%, even more preferably at least 95 wt-%, and further preferably at least 98 wt-% oxygen; the wt-% is based on the weight of the environment; b. exposing the intermediate layered structure to water, preferably in an environment that comprises at least 85 %, more preferably at least 90 %, even more preferably at least 95 %, and further preferably at least 98 % water saturation; c. oxygen plasma, preferably oxygen plasma bombardment.

[0137] This preferred embodiment is a 28thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on the 27thembodiment of the invention.

[0138] In an aspect of the 28thembodiment, all possible combination of the features a. to c. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; c; a+b; a+c; b+c; a+b+c. In an aspect of the 28thembodiment, feature a., it is preferred that the oxygen is in the form of at least one oxygen radical. Examples of an oxygen radical include a peroxide, a superoxide, a hydroxyl radical, singlet oxygen, and alpha-oxygen. In an aspect of the 28thembodiment, feature b., it is preferred that the water is in the form of a gas, e.g., water vapour. In a preferred embodiment of the second method for producing a layered structure, an oxidation rate of the element of the first kind is larger than an oxidation rate of the further section of the first layer of the further kind. This preferred embodiment is a 29thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 27thto 28thembodiments of the invention.

[0139] In an aspect of the 29thembodiment, it is preferred that the oxidation rate of the element of the first kind is at least 1.1 times, preferably at least 5 times, more preferably at least 10 times, more preferably at least 20 times, more preferably at least 50 times, more preferably at least 100 times, more preferably at least 200 times, more preferably at least 500 times, further preferably at least 1000 times, further preferably at least 2000 times, and even further preferably at least 5000 times larger than the oxidation rate of the further section of the first layer of the further kind.

[0140] In a preferred embodiment of the second method for producing a layered structure, at least one or all of the following applies: a. \h3B - hix\ < 10 nm, preferably \hsB - hix\ < 8 nm, more preferably \hsB - hix\ < 6 nm, even more preferably \hsB - hix\ < 4 nm, and further preferably \hsB - hix\ < 2 nm; b. \fi3B - hj\ < 8 nm, preferably \fi3B - hj\ < 6 nm, more preferably \fi3B - hj\ < 4 nm, even more preferably \fi3B - hj\ < 2 nm, and further preferably \fi3B - hj\ < 1 nm.

[0141] This preferred embodiment is a 30thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 27thto 29thembodiments of the invention.

[0142] In an aspect of the 30thembodiment, all possible combination of the features a. and b. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; a+b. In an aspect of the 30thembodiment, it is preferred that \fi3B - hix\ > 4 nm, more preferably \hsB - hix\ > 3 nm, even more preferably \hsB - hix\ > 2 nm, and further preferably \hsB - hix\ > 1 nm.

[0143] In a preferred embodiment of the second method for producing a layered structure, at least one or all of the following applies: a. the layer of the even-further kind comprises an oxide; b. the further section of the first layer of the further kind comprises an oxide; c. the element of the first kind comprises less than 10 wt-%, preferably less than 5 wt-%, and more preferably less than 2 wt-% of an oxide, where the wt-% are based on a weight of element of the first kind.

[0144] This preferred embodiment is a 31stembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 27thto 30thembodiments of the invention.

[0145] In an aspect of the 31stembodiment, all possible combination of the features a. to c. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; c; a+b; a+c; b+c; a+b+c. Examples of an oxide in the 31st embodiment include silicon dioxide, aluminium oxide, zirconium dioxide, hafnium oxide, titanium dioxide, niobium pentoxide, tantalum pentoxide, lanthanum oxide.

[0146] In a preferred embodiment of the second method for producing a layered structure, at least 80 wt-%, preferably at least 90 wt-%, and further preferably at least 99 wt-% of the further section of the first layer of the further kind has the same chemical composition as the layer of the even-further kind. This preferred embodiment is a 32ndembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 27thto 31stembodiments of the invention.

[0147] In a preferred embodiment of the second method for producing a layered structure, at least one or all of the following applies: a. an etch rate of the layer of the even-further kind is larger than an etch rate of the first layer of the further kind. In this aspect it is preferred that the etch rate of the layer of the even-further kind is at least 1. 1 times larger, more preferably at least 1.5 times larger, even more preferably at least 3 times larger, further preferably at least 5 times larger, further preferably at least 10 times larger, further preferably at least 20 times larger, and even further preferably at least 50 times larger than the etch rate of the first layer of the further kind; b. a material removal rate of the layer of the even-further kind is larger than a material removal rate of the first layer of the further kind. In this aspect it is preferred that the material removal rate of the layer of the even-further kind is at least 1.1 times larger, more preferably at least 1.5 times larger, even more preferably at least 3 times larger, further preferably at least 5 times larger, further preferably at least 10 times larger, further preferably at least 20 times larger, and even further preferably at least 50 times larger than the material removal rate of the first layer of the further kind; c. a chemical reaction rate of the layer of the even-further kind is larger than a chemical reaction rate of the first layer of the further kind; d. a hardness of the layer of the even-further kind is larger than a hardness of the first layer of the further kind.

[0148] This preferred embodiment is a 33rdembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 27thto 32ndembodiments of the invention.

[0149] In an aspect of the 33rdembodiment, all possible combination of the features a. to d. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; c; d; a+b; a+c; a+d; b+c; b+d; c+d; a+b+c; a+b+d; a+c+d; b+c+d; a+b+c+d. In an aspect of the 33rdembodiment, it is preferred that the etch rate is either a first etch rate or a further etch rate. In an aspect of the 33rdembodiment, it is preferred that the material removal rate is either a first material removal rate or a further material removal rate. In an aspect of the 33rdembodiment, it is preferred that the chemical reaction rate is either a first chemical reaction rate or a further chemical reaction rate. In a preferred embodiment of the second method for producing a layered structure, at least one or all of the following applies: a. an etch rate of the layer of the even-further kind is less than an etch rate of the first layer of the further kind. In this aspect it is preferred that the etch rate of the first layer of the further kind is at least 1.1 times larger, more preferably at least 1.5 times larger, even more preferably at least 3 times larger, further preferably at least 5 times larger, further preferably at least 10 times larger, further preferably at least 20 times larger, and even further preferably at least 50 times larger than the etch rate of the layer of the even-further kind; b. a material removal rate of the layer of the even-further kind is less than a material removal rate of the first layer of the further kind. In this aspect it is preferred that the material removal rate of the first layer of the further kind is at least 1.1 times larger, more preferably at least 1.5 times larger, even more preferably at least 3 times larger, further preferably at least 5 times larger, further preferably at least 10 times larger, further preferably at least 20 times larger, and even further preferably at least 50 times larger than the material removal rate of the layer of the even- further kind; c. a chemical reaction rate of the layer of the even-further kind is less than a chemical reaction rate of the first layer of the further kind; d. a hardness of the layer of the even-further kind is less than a hardness of the first layer of the further kind.

[0150] This preferred embodiment is a 34thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 27thto 32ndembodiments of the invention.

[0151] In an aspect of the 34thembodiment, all possible combination of the features a. to d. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; c; d; a+b; a+c; a+d; b+c; b+d; c+d; a+b+c; a+b+d; a+c+d; b+c+d; a+b+c+d. In an aspect of the 34thembodiment, it is preferred that the etch rate is either a first etch rate or a further etch rate. In an aspect of the 34thembodiment, it is preferred that the material removal rate is either a first material removal rate or a further material removal rate. In an aspect of the 34thembodiment, it is preferred that the chemical reaction rate is either a first chemical reaction rate or a further chemical reaction rate.

[0152] In a preferred embodiment of the second method for producing a layered structure, the etch rates of the layer of the even-further kind and the layer of the further kind differ by at least 2 times, preferably at least 3 times, more preferably at least 4 times, more preferably at least 5 times, more preferably at least 10 times, more preferably at least 20 times, more preferably at least 50 times, more preferably at least 100 times, further preferably at least 200 times, further preferably at least 500 times, and even further preferably at least 1000 times. This preferred embodiment is a 35thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 33rdto 34thembodiments of the invention. In an aspect of the 35thembodiment, it is preferred that the etch rates differ by 4 to 200 times, more preferably by 5 to 150 times, and further preferably by 10 to 100 times. In a preferred embodiment of the second method for producing a layered structure, the first distance I3 is 13 < 80 nm, preferably I3 < 60 nm, more preferably 13 < 40 nm, even more preferably 13 < 20 nm, further preferably I3 < 10 nm, further preferably I3 < 5 nm, further preferably I3 < 2 nm, and even further preferably I3 < 1 nm. This preferred embodiment is a 36thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 27thto 35thembodiments of the invention.

[0153] In an aspect of the 36thembodiment, it is preferred that the first distance I3 is in the range of 0. 1 nm to 80 nm, more preferably in the range of 0.2 nm to 60 nm, even more preferably in the range of 0.5 nm to 40 nm, even more preferably in the range from 1 nm to 30 nm, further preferably in the range of 2 nm to 25 nm, further preferably in the range of 5 nm to 20 nm, and even further preferably in the range of 5 nm to 10 nm. In another aspect of the 36thembodiment, it is preferred that the element of the first kind touches the further section of the first layer of the further kind (13 = 0 nm).

[0154] In a preferred embodiment of the second method for producing a layered structure, at least one or all of the following applies: a. the thickness di of the element of the first kind is in the range of 1 nm to 1500 nm, preferably in the range of 1 nm to 1250 nm, preferably in the range of 1 nm to 1100 nm, preferably in the range of 1 nm to 900 nm, preferably in the range of 10 nm to 700 nm, more preferably in the range of 20 nm to 600 nm, even more preferably in the range of 40 nm to 500 nm, and further preferably in the range of 50 nm to 400 nm; b. the further thickness 4 / 35 of the further section of the first layer of the further kind is in the range of 0.5 to 5 times, preferably in the range of 1 to 4 times, and more preferably in the range of 2 to 3 times larger than the thickness d: of the element of the first kind.

[0155] This preferred embodiment is a 37thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 27thto 36thembodiments of the invention.

[0156] In an aspect of the 37thembodiment, all possible combination of the features a. and b. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; a+b. In an aspect of the 37thembodiment, it is preferred that at least one, preferably all thickness are measured prior to the start of the oxidising step in the 27thembodiment (step b.). These thicknesses include di, and 4 / 35.

[0157] In a preferred embodiment of the second method for producing a layered structure, the method further comprises the step of reducing a thickness dj of the layer of the even-further kind. This preferred embodiment is a 38thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 27thto 37thembodiments of the invention.

[0158] In an aspect of the 38llVmibodiment. it is preferred that the thickness dj is reduced after the oxidising step in the 27thembodiment (step b.). In a preferred embodiment of the second method for producing a layered structure, the thickness ds is reduced using least one of the following: a. chemical-mechanical polishing; b. wet etching; c. dry etching; d. laser ablation.

[0159] This preferred embodiment is a 39thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on the 38thembodiment of the invention.

[0160] In an aspect of the 39thembodiment, all possible combination of the features a. to d. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; c; d; a+b; a+c; a+d; b+c; b+d; c+d; a+b+c; a+b+d; a+c+d; b+c+d; a+b+c+d.

[0161] In a preferred embodiment of the second method for producing a layered structure, prior to the method steps of providing the intermediate layered structure, the method further comprises the steps of:

[0162] I.) providing the element of the first kind, wherein the element of the first kind is preferably provided by the following sub-steps:

[0163] Al . providing a layer of the first kind;

[0164] A2. optionally, i. depositing a masking layer on the layer of the first kind, and ii. removing at least one section of the masking layer to at least partially expose the layer of the first kind;

[0165] A3. reducing a thickness of at least one section of the layer of the first kind to obtain the element of the first kind;

[0166] A4. optionally, at least partially removing the masking layer;

[0167] II.) depositing the first layer of the further kind such that the first layer of the further kind at least partially surrounds the element of the first kind, and such that

[0168] (a) a first section of the first layer of the further kind is superimposed on at least 50 %, more preferably at least 75 %, and further preferably at least 95 % of a surface area of the first surface of the element of the first kind,

[0169] (b) the further section of the first layer of the further kind is arranged at the first distance 13 from the element of the first kind;

[0170] III.) reducing a thickness of the first section of the first layer of the further kind,

[0171] (a) preferably such that at least one recess is formed in the first layer of the further kind, wherein the at least one recess has a depth DR, measured along the first direction;

[0172] (b) preferably such that at least a part of the first surface of the element of the first kind is exposed. This preferred embodiment is a 40thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 27thto 39thembodiments of the invention.

[0173] In an aspect of the 40thembodiment, it is preferred that the intermediate layered structure is obtained following the completion of the steps of the embodiment.

[0174] In a preferred embodiment of the second method for producing a layered structure, at least one layer is deposited using at least one or all of the following: a. chemical vapour deposition; b. physical vapour deposition; c. atomic layer deposition; d. spin coating; e. molecular epitaxy.

[0175] This preferred embodiment is a 41stembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on the 40thembodiment of the invention.

[0176] In an aspect of the 41stembodiment, all possible combination of the features a. to e. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; c; d; e; a+b; a+c; a+d; a+e; b+c; b+d; b+e; c+d; c+e; d+e; a+b+c; a+b+d; a+b+e; a+c+d; a+c+e; a+d+e; b+c+d; b+c+e; b+d+e; c+d+e; a+b+c+d; a+b+c+e; a+b+d+e; a+c+d+e; b+c+d+e; a+b+c+d+e. In the 41stembodiment, “the at least one layer” should preferably be understood to mean at least one or all of the following: the layer of the first kind and the first layer of the further kind.

[0177] In a preferred embodiment of the second method for producing a layered structure, at least one or all of the following applies: a. the element of the first kind comprises at least one or all of the following: silicon, oxygen, aluminium, iridium, tantalum, titanium, nitrogen, lithium, niobium, indium, phosphorus, gallium, arsenic, barium, at least one lanthanide (preferably lanthanum), a chalcogenide, at least one polymer, a resin, a combination of at least two thereof; b. the element of the first kind is an optical element, preferably a waveguide adapted and arranged for the propagation of electromagnetic waves; c. the element of the first kind is adapted and arranged for the propagation of electromagnetic waves that have wavelengths in the range from 300 nm to 3000 nm, preferably in the range of 800 nm to 2100 nm, and more preferably in the range of 1250 nm to 1650 nm.

[0178] This preferred embodiment is a 42ndembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 27thto 41stembodiments of the invention.

[0179] In an aspect of the 42ndembodiment, all possible combination of the features a. to c. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; c; a+b; a+c; b+c; a+b+c. In an aspect of the 42ndembodiment, the combination of the features b. and c are particularly preferred. In an aspect of the 42ndembodiment, feature a., it is particularly preferred that the element of the first kind comprises at least 50 wt-%, more preferably at least 65 wt- %, even more preferably at least 75 wt-%, further preferably at least 85 wt-%, and even further preferably at least 95 wt-%, based on a total weight of the element of the first kind, of a nitride, more preferably silicon nitride.

[0180] In a preferred embodiment of the second method for producing a layered structure, at least one or all of the following applies to the first layer of the further kind, the layer of the even-further kind, or both: a. comprises at least one or all of the following: at least one oxide, at least one nitride, at least one lanthanide (preferably lanthanum), a combination of at least two thereof. Examples of an oxide include silicon dioxide, aluminium oxide, zirconium dioxide, hafnium oxide, titanium dioxide, niobium pentoxide, tantalum pentoxide, lanthanum oxide. An example of a nitride is silicon nitride, aluminium nitride, and silicon oxynitride. Silicon dioxide is particularly preferred; b. has an electrical conductivity that is less than 10'5S / m, preferably less than 10'6S / m, more preferably less than 10'7S / m, further preferably less than 10'9S / m, and even further preferably less than 10'11S / m; c. has a dielectric constant of at least 3, more preferably at least 5, and further preferably at least 7. This preferred embodiment is a 43rdembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 27thto 42ndembodiments of the invention.

[0181] In an aspect of the 43rdembodiment, all possible combination of the features a. to c. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; c; a+b; a+c; b+c; a+b+c.

[0182] In a preferred embodiment of the second method for producing a layered structure, the intermediate layered structure is superimposed on a wafer layer. This preferred embodiment is a 44thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 27thto 43rdembodiments of the invention.

[0183] A 45thembodiment of the invention is a layered structure obtainable by any of the methods, according to the invention, for producing a layered structure, preferably a layered structure obtainable by any of the methods according to any of the 1stto 44thembodiments of the invention.

[0184] In an aspect of the 45thembodiment, it is preferred that the layered structure is obtainable by the first method for producing a layered structure, more preferably the first method according to any of the 1stto 26thembodiments of the invention. In another aspect of the 45thembodiment, it is preferred that the layered structure is obtainable by the second method for producing a layered structure, more preferably the second method according to any of the 27thto 44thembodiments of the invention.

[0185] A 46thembodiment of the invention is a first layered structure comprising a. an element of a first kind, wherein the element of the first kind i. has a first surface that is arranged at height hi, wherein hi is measured along a first direction, ii. has a thickness di, measured along the first direction, wherein di < 1.5 pm: b. a first layer of a further kind, wherein i. a further section of the first layer of the further kind is arranged at a first distance I3 from the element of the first kind, wherein

[0186] A. the first distance I3 is measured along a further direction, wherein the further direction is perpendicular to the first direction, and

[0187] B. I3 < 100 nm, ii. the further section of the first layer of the further kind has a first surface that is arranged at a height hsu. wherein hsu is measured along the first direction, wherein at least one or all of the following applies:

[0188] I. \h3B - hi\ < 15 nm, preferably \h3B - hi \ < 12 nm, more preferably \h3B - hi\ < 10 nm, even more preferably \hsB - hi\ < 8 nm, even more preferably \hsB - hi\ < 6 nm, preferably \hsB - hi\ < 4 nm, further preferably \hsB - hi\ < 2 nm, and even further preferably \fi3B - hi\ < 1 nm;

[0189] II. a gradient of the first surface of the layered structure is less than or equal to 0.1 , preferably less than or equal to 0.08, more preferably less than or equal to 0.05, and further preferably less than or equal to 0.02.

[0190] In an aspect of the 46thembodiment, all possible combination of the features I. and II. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., I; II; I+II. In aspect of the 46thembodiment, it is particularly preferred that the element of the first kind is a waveguide adapted and arranged for the propagation of electromagnetic waves.

[0191] In a preferred embodiment of the first layered structure, at least one or all of the following applies: a. a surface roughness Rq of the first surface of the element of the first kind varies by less than 15 %, more preferably by less than 10 %, even more preferably by less than 5 %, and further preferably by less than 2 % from a surface roughness Rq of the first surface of the further section of the first layer of the further kind; b. the first surface of the element of the first kind has a surface roughness Rq that is less than or equal to 0.6 nm, preferably less than or equal to 0.5 nm, more preferably less than or equal to 0.4 nm, even more preferably less than or equal to 0.3 nm, further preferably less than or equal to 0.27 nm, further preferably less than or equal to 0.24 nm, further preferably less than or equal to 0.21 nm, further preferably less than or equal to 0.18 nm, and even further preferably less than or equal to 0.15 nm; c. the first surface of the further section of the first layer of the further kind has a surface roughness Rq that is less than or equal to 0.6 nm, preferably less than or equal to 0.5 nm, more preferably less than or equal to 0.4 nm, even more preferably less than or equal to 0.3 nm, further preferably less than or equal to 0.27 nm, further preferably less than or equal to 0.24 nm, further preferably less than or equal to 0.21 nm, further preferably less than or equal to 0. 18 nm, and even further preferably less than or equal to 0.15 nm.

[0192] This preferred embodiment is a 47thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on the 46thembodiment of the invention.

[0193] In an aspect of the 47thembodiment, all possible combination of the features a. to c. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b: c; a+b: a+c: b+c: a+b+c.

[0194] A 48thembodiment of the invention is a second layered structure comprising a. an element of a first kind, wherein the element of the first kind i. has a first surface that is arranged at height hi, wherein hi is measured along a first direction, ii. has a thickness di, measured along the first direction, wherein di < 1.5 pm; b. a levelling layer superimposed on the first surface of the element of the first kind, wherein the levelling layer i. has a first surface that is arranged at height fe, wherein hi is measured along a first direction, ii. has a thickness measured along the first direction, wherein < 100 nm; c. a first layer of a further kind, wherein i. a further section of the first layer of the further kind is arranged at a first distance I3 from the element of the first kind, wherein

[0195] A. the first distance I3 is measured along a further direction, wherein the further direction is perpendicular to the first direction, and

[0196] B. I3 < 100 nm, ii. the further section of the first layer of the further kind has a first surface that is arranged at a height hsu. wherein hsu is measured along the first direction, wherein at least one or all of the following applies:

[0197] I. \h3B - hi] < 15 nm, preferably \h3B - hi < 12 nm, more preferably \h3B - hi] < 10 nm, even more preferably \hsB -hi] < nm, even more preferably \hsB - hi] <6 nm, preferably \hsB - hi] < nm, further preferably \hsB - hi] < 2 nm, and even further preferably \hsB - hi < 1 nm;

[0198] II. a gradient of the first surface of the layered structure is less than or equal to 0.1 , preferably less than or equal to 0.08, more preferably less than or equal to 0.05, and further preferably less than or equal to 0.02. In an aspect of the 48thembodiment, all possible combination of the features I. and II. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., I; II; I+II. In aspect of the 48thembodiment, it is particularly preferred that the element of the first kind is a waveguide adapted and arranged for the propagation of electromagnetic waves.

[0199] In a preferred embodiment of the second layered structure, at least one or all of the following applies: a. a surface roughness Rq of the first surface of the levelling layer varies by less than 15 %, more preferably by less than 10 %, even more preferably by less than 5 %, and further preferably by less than 2 % from a surface roughness Rq of the first surface of the further section of the first layer of the further kind; b. the first surface of the levelling layer has a surface roughness Rq that is less than or equal to 0.6 nm, preferably less than or equal to 0.5 nm, more preferably less than or equal to 0.4 nm, even more preferably less than or equal to 0.3 nm, further preferably less than or equal to 0.27 nm, even further preferably less than or equal to 0.24 nm, further preferably less than or equal to 0.21 nm, further preferably less than or equal to 0. 18 nm, and even further preferably less than or equal to 0. 15 nm; c. the first surface of the further section of the first layer of the further kind has a surface roughness Rq that is less than or equal to 0.6 nm, preferably less than or equal to 0.5 nm, more preferably less than or equal to 0.4 nm, even more preferably less than or equal to 0.3 nm, further preferably less than or equal to 0.27 nm, and even further preferably less than or equal to 0.24 nm, further preferably less than or equal to 0.21 nm, further preferably less than or equal to 0.18 nm, and even further preferably less than or equal to 0.15 nm.

[0200] This preferred embodiment is a 49thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on the 48thembodiment of the invention.

[0201] In an aspect of the 49thembodiment, all possible combination of the features a. to c. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; c; a+b; a+c; b+c; a+b+c.

[0202] In a preferred embodiment of the second layered structure, at least one or all of the following differs between the levelling layer and the element of the first kind: a. a hardness, e.g. , a scratch hardness, an indentation hardness, a rebound hardness, or a combination of at least two thereof; b. a chemical reaction rate; c. an etch rate; d. a material removal rate; e. a chemical composition; f. an oxidation rate; g. an optical attenuation coefficient; h. a refractive index; i. an electrical conductivity; j. a thermal conductivity; k. a laser ablation rate.

[0203] This preferred embodiment is a 50thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 48thto 49thembodiments of the invention.

[0204] In an aspect of the 50thembodiment, all combinations of the features a. to k. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. In an aspect of the 50thembodiment, the combination of the features a. to f. are more preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; c; d; e; f; a+b; a+c; a+d; a+e; a+f; b+c; b+d; b+e; b+f; c+d; c+e; c+f; d+e; d+f; e+f; a+b+c; a+b+d; a+b+e; a+b+f; a+c+d; a+c+e; a+c+f; a+d+e; a+d+f; a+e+f; b+c+d; b+c+e; b+c+f; b+d+e; b+d+f; b+e+f; c+d+e; c+d+f; c+e+f; d+e+f; a+b+c+d; a+b+c+e; a+b+c+f; a+b+d+e; a+b+d+f; a+b+e+f; a+c+d+e; a+c+d+f; a+c+e+f; a+d+e+f; b+c+d+e; b+c+d+f; b+c+e+f; b+d+e+f; c+d+e+f; a+b+c+d+e; a+b+c+d+f; a+b+c+e+f; a+b+d+e+f; a+c+d+e+f; b+c+d+e+f; a+b+c+d+e+f. In another aspect of the 50thembodiment, all possible combination of the features b. to d. are particularly preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are, e.g., b; c; d; b+c; b+d; c+d; b+c+d.

[0205] In a preferred embodiment of the second layered structure, at least one or all of the following differs between the levelling layer and the further section of the first layer of the further kind: a. a hardness, e.g. , a scratch hardness, an indentation hardness, a rebound hardness, or a combination of at least two thereof; b. a chemical reaction rate; c. an etch rate; d. a material removal rate; e. a chemical composition; f. an oxidation rate; g. an optical attenuation coefficient; h. a refractive index; i. an electrical conductivity; j. a thermal conductivity; k. a laser ablation rate.

[0206] This preferred embodiment is a 51stembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 48thto 50thembodiments of the invention.

[0207] In an aspect of the 51stembodiment, all combinations of the features a. to k. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. In an aspect of the 51stembodiment, the combination of the features a. to f. are more preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; c; d; e; f; a+b; a+c; a+d; a+e; a+f; b+c; b+d; b+e; b+f; c+d; c+e; c+f; d+e; d+f; e+f; a+b+c; a+b+d; a+b+e; a+b+f; a+c+d; a+c+e; a+c+f; a+d+e; a+d+f; a+e+f; b+c+d; b+c+e; b+c+f; b+d+e: b+d+f; b+e+f; c+d+e: c+d+f; c+e+f; d+e+f; a+b+c+d: a+b+c+e: a+b+c+f; a+b+d+e: a+b+d+f; a+b+e+f; a+c+d+e: a+c+d+f; a+c+e+f; a+d+e+f; b+c+d+e: b+c+d+f; b+c+e+f; b+d+e+f; c+d+e+f; a+b+c+d+e: a+b+c+d+f; a+b+c+e+f; a+b+d+e+f; a+c+d+e+f; b+c+d+e+f; a+b+c+d+e+f. In another aspect of the 51stembodiment, all possible combination of the features b. to d. are particularly preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are, e.g., b; c; d; b+c; b+d; c+d; b+c+d.

[0208] In a preferred embodiment of the second layered structure, the levelling layer is one of the following: a. a layer of a second kind; b. a first section of the first layer of the further kind; c. a further layer of the further kind; d. a layer of an even-further kind.

[0209] This preferred embodiment is a 52ndembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 48thto 51stembodiments of the invention.

[0210] In a preferred embodiment of the second layered structure, at least one or all of the following applies: a. the levelling layer touches the element of the first kind; b. levelling layer at least partially surrounds the element of the first kind, more preferably partially surrounds the element of the first kind; c. the thickness <4, of the levelling layer is <4, < 80 nm, preferably CIL < 60 nm, more preferably CIL < 40 nm, even more preferably CIL < 20 nm, further preferably CIL < 10 nm, further preferably CIL < 5 nm, further preferably CIL < 2 nm, and even further preferably CIL < 1 nm.

[0211] This preferred embodiment is a 53rdembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 48thto 52ndembodiments of the invention.

[0212] In an aspect of the 53rdembodiment, all possible combination of the features a. to c. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; c; a+b; a+c; b+c; a+b+c. In an aspect of the 53rdembodiment, feature a. is particularly preferred. In an aspect of the 53rdembodiment, it is preferred that the thickness <4, of the levelling layer is in the range of 0.1 nm to 80 nm, more preferably in the range of 0.2 nm to 60 nm, even more preferably in the range of 0.5 nm to 40 nm, even more preferably in the range from 1 nm to 30 nm, further preferably in the range of 2 nm to 25 nm, further preferably in the range of 5 nm to 20 nm, and even further preferably in the range of 5 nm to 10 nm. In an aspect of the 53rdembodiment, it is preferred that the levelling layer is a layer of the second kind.

[0213] In a preferred embodiment of the second layered structure, the levelling layer is a layer of the second kind, and wherein at least one or all of the following applies: a. the layer of the second kind comprises at least one or all of the following: at least one metal, at least one metal alloy, at least one oxide, at least one nitride, at least one carbide, a combination of at least two thereof. An example of a preferred carbide is silicon carbide. Examples of nitrides include titanium nitride and silicon oxynitride. b. the layer of the second kind comprises at least one or all of the following: titanium, tungsten, aluminium, molybdenum, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and silicon, germanium, a combination of at least two thereof. Examples of a combination of at least two thereof include silicon germanium and silicon carbon oxynitride. An example of silicon is amorphous silicon. c. a refractive index of the layer of the second kind is larger than a refractive index of the element of the first kind. In this aspect it is preferred that the refractive index of the layer of the second kind is at least 1.05 times larger, more preferably at least 1.3 times larger, and further preferably at least 1.6 times larger than the refractive index of the element of the first kind. d. the layer of the second kind has a refractive index that is in the range of 1.5 to 6, preferably in the range of 2 to 5, and further preferably in the range of 2.5 to 4.

[0214] This preferred embodiment is a 54thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 48thto 53rdembodiments of the invention.

[0215] In an aspect of the 54thembodiment, all possible combination of the features a. to d. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; c; d; a+b; a+c; a+d; b+c; b+d; c+d; a+b+c; a+b+d; a+c+d; b+c+d; a+b+c+d. In another aspect of the 54thembodiment, feature c., it is preferred that the refractive index of the layer of the second kind is in the range of 1.05 to 4 times larger, more preferably in the range of 1.3 to 3.7 times larger, and further preferably in the range of 1.6 to 2.7 times larger than the refractive index of the element of the first kind. In an aspect of the 54thembodiment, features a. and / or b., it is particularly preferred that the layer of the second kind comprises less than 20 wt-%, more preferably less than 15 wt-%, even more preferably less than 10 wt-%, further preferably less than 5 wt-%, and even further preferably less than 1.5 wt-%, based on a total weight of the layer of the second kind, of a nitride, more preferably silicon nitride.

[0216] In a preferred embodiment of the second layered structure, the levelling layer is a further layer of the further kind, and at least one or all of the following applies: a. comprises at least one or all of the following: at least one oxide, at least one nitride, at least one lanthanide (preferably lanthanum), a combination of at least two thereof. Examples of an oxide include silicon dioxide, aluminium oxide, zirconium dioxide, hafnium oxide, titanium dioxide, niobium pentoxide, tantalum pentoxide, lanthanum oxide. An example of a nitride is silicon nitride, aluminium nitride, and silicon oxynitride. Silicon dioxide is particularly preferred; b. has an electrical conductivity that is less than IO-5S / m, preferably less than IO-6S / m, more preferably less than 10-7S / m, further preferably less than IO-9S / m, and even further preferably less than 10'11S / m; c. has a dielectric constant of at least 3, more preferably at least 5, and further preferably at least 7. This preferred embodiment is a 55thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 48thto 53rdembodiments of the invention.

[0217] In an aspect of the 55thembodiment, all possible combination of the features a. to c. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b: c; a+b: a+c: b+c: a+b+c. In an aspect of the invention, it is preferred that the 55thembodiment, including all the preferred combinations of features, applies to the further section of the first layer of the further kind.

[0218] In a preferred embodiment of any of the layered structures, at least one or all of the following applies: a. the thickness di of the element of the first kind is in the range of 1 nm to 1500 nm, preferably in the range of 1 nm to 1250 nm, preferably in the range of 1 nm to 1100 nm, preferably in the range of 1 nm to 900 nm, preferably in the range of 10 nm to 700 nm, more preferably in the range of 20 nm to 600 nm, even more preferably in the range of 40 nm to 500 nm, and further preferably in the range of 50 nm to 400 nm; b. the first distance I3 is I3 < 80 nm, preferably I3 < 60 nm, more preferably I3 < 40 nm, even more preferably 13 < 20 nm, further preferably 13 < 10 nm, further preferably I3 < 5 nm, further preferably I3 < 2 nm, and even further preferably I3 < 1 nm.

[0219] This preferred embodiment is a 56thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 46thto 55thembodiments of the invention.

[0220] In an aspect of the 56thembodiment, all possible combination of the features a. and b. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; a+b. In an aspect of the 56thembodiment, it is preferred that the first distance I3 is in the range of 0.1 nm to 80 nm, more preferably in the range of 0.2 nm to 60 nm, even more preferably in the range of 0.5 nm to 40 nm, even more preferably in the range from 1 nm to 30 nm, further preferably in the range of 2 nm to 25 nm, further preferably in the range of 5 nm to 20 nm, and even further preferably in the range of 5 nm to 10 nm. In another aspect of the 56thembodiment, it is preferred that the element of the first kind touches the further section of the first layer of the further kind (I3 = 0 nm).

[0221] In a preferred embodiment of any of the layered structures, at least one or all of the following applies: a. the element of the first kind comprises at least one or all of the following: silicon, oxygen, aluminium, iridium, tantalum, titanium, nitrogen, lithium, niobium, indium, phosphorus, gallium, arsenic, barium, at least one lanthanide (preferably lanthanum), a chalcogenide, at least one polymer, a resin, a combination of at least two thereof; b. the element of the first kind is an optical element, preferably a waveguide adapted and arranged for the propagation of electromagnetic waves; c. the element of the first kind is adapted and arranged for the propagation of electromagnetic waves that have wavelengths in the range from 300 nm to 3000 nm, preferably in the range of 800 nm to 2100 nm, and more preferably in the range of 1250 nm to 1650 nm. This preferred embodiment is a 57thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 46thto 56thembodiments of the invention.

[0222] In an aspect of the 57thembodiment, all possible combination of the features a. to c. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b: c; a+b: a+c: b+c: a+b+c. In an aspect of the 57thembodiment, the combination of the features b. and c are particularly preferred. In an aspect of the 57thembodiment, feature a., it is particularly preferred that the element of the first kind comprises at least 50 wt-%, more preferably at least 65 wt- %, even more preferably at least 75 wt-%, further preferably at least 85 wt-%, and even further preferably at least 95 wt-%, based on a total weight of the element of the first kind, of a nitride, more preferably silicon nitride.

[0223] In a preferred embodiment of any of the layered structures, the element of the first kind comprises less than 10 wt- %, preferably less than 5 wt-%, and more preferably less than 2 wt-% of an oxide, where the wt-% are based on a weight of element of the first kind. This preferred embodiment is a 58thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 46thto 57thembodiments of the invention.

[0224] In a preferred embodiment of any of the layered structures of the 46thto 58thembodiments of the invention, the layered structures are obtainable by any of the methods, according to the invention, for producing a layered structure, preferably any of the methods according to any of the 1stto 44thembodiments of the invention.

[0225] In an aspect of the 59thembodiment, it is preferred that any of the layered structures are obtainable by the first method for producing a layered structure, more preferably the first method according to any of the 1stto 26thembodiments of the invention. In another aspect of the 59thembodiment, it is preferred that any of the layered structures are obtainable by the second method for producing a layered structure, more preferably the second method according to any of the 27thto 44thembodiments of the invention.

[0226] A 60thembodiment of the invention is a method for producing an opto-electronic device, comprising the steps of a. providing a layered structure according to the invention, preferably a layered structure according to any of the following: i. a layered structure obtained according to the first method for producing a layered structure, more preferably the first method according to any of the 1stto 26thembodiments of the invention; ii. a layered structure obtained according to the second method for producing a layered structure, more preferably the second method according to any of the 27thto 44thembodiments of the invention iii. a layered structure according to any of the 45thto 59thembodiments of the invention; b. superimposing at least one electrically conducting element on the layered structure.

[0227] In an aspect of the 60thembodiment, it is preferred that the step of providing the layered structure in feature a.i comprises the steps of the first method for producing a layered structure according to any of the 1stto 26th embodiments of the invention. For example, step a. in the 60thembodiment can be replaced by the first method according to any of the 1stto 26thembodiments of the invention. In an aspect of the 60thembodiment, it is preferred that the step of providing the layered structure in feature a.ii comprises the steps of the second method for producing a layered structure according to any of the 27thto 44thembodiments of the invention. For example, step a. in the 60thembodiment can be replaced by the second method according to any of the 27thto 44thembodiments of the invention.

[0228] In a preferred embodiment of the method for producing an opto-electronic device, at least one or all of the following applies to the at least one electrically conducting element: a. comprises at least one or all of the following: carbon, a nitride, at least one metal, at least one metal alloy, at least one conductive oxide, at least one conductive polymer, at least one chalcogen, at least one perovskite, a combination of at least two or more thereof; b. has in the range of 1 to 10, preferably in the range of 1 to 6, and more preferably in the range of 1 to 3 atomic layers; c. is adapted and arranged to have an optical attenuation coefficient in the range of 2 x IO-4to 0.6 dB / pm, preferably in the range of 2 x IO-2to 0.40 dB / pm, and more preferably in the range of 0. 15 to 0.25 dB / pm; d. is adapted and arranged to have a variable optical attenuation coefficient; e. has an electrical conductivity of at least 104S / m, preferably at least 105S / m, and further preferably at least 106S / m.

[0229] This preferred embodiment is a 61stembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on the 60thembodiments of the invention.

[0230] In an aspect of the 61stembodiment, all possible combination of the features a. to e. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; c; d; e; a+b; a+c; a+d; a+e; b+c; b+d; b+e; c+d; c+e; d+e; a+b+c; a+b+d; a+b+e; a+c+d; a+c+e; a+d+e; b+c+d; b+c+e; b+d+e; c+d+e; a+b+c+d; a+b+c+e; a+b+d+e; a+c+d+e; b+c+d+e; a+b+c+d+e. In an aspect of the 61stembodiment, it is preferred that the at least one electrically conducting element is adapted and arranged to have a variable optical attenuation coefficient, wherein said optical attenuation coefficient can be varied to fall within at least one of the ranges of feature c. in the 61stembodiment. In an aspect of the 61stembodiment, it is preferred that the at least one electrically conducting element comprises at least one perovskite. In another aspect of the 61stembodiment, it is particularly preferred that the at least one electrically conducting element comprises carbon, more preferably graphene. In an aspect of the 61stembodiment, feature b., it is preferred that the at least one electrically conducting element has a single atomic layer.

[0231] In a preferred embodiment of the method for producing an opto-electronic device, a distance between the first surface of the layered structure and the at least one electrically conducting element is less than or equal to 50 nm, preferably less than or equal to 20 nm, more preferably less than or equal to 10 nm, even more preferably less than or equal to 5 nm, and further preferably less than or equal to 2 nm. This preferred embodiment is a 62ndembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 60thto 61stembodiments of the invention.

[0232] In a preferred embodiment of the method for producing an opto-electronic device, the opto-electronic device is adapted and arranged to modify the electric field of an electromagnetic wave. This preferred embodiment is a 63rdembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 60thto 62ndembodiments of the invention.

[0233] In a preferred embodiment of the method for producing an opto-electronic device, the opto-electronic device is selected from the group consisting of a modulator; a photodetector; a detector adapted and arranged for the detection of viruses, antibodies, biomarkers, biomolecules, a combination of at least two thereof; a combination of at least two thereof. This preferred embodiment is a 64thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 60thto 63rdembodiments of the invention.

[0234] A 65thembodiment of the invention is an opto-electronic device obtainable according to the method, according to the invention, for producing an opto-electronic device, preferably the method according to any of the 60thto 64thembodiments of the invention.

[0235] A 66thembodiment of the invention is an electronic device comprising a. an opto-electronic device according to the invention, preferably an opto-electronic device according to the 65thembodiment; b. at least one electronic constituent in electrical connection with the opto-electronic device. Examples of the electronic constituent include a processing unit (e.g., a central processing unit), a memory unit (e.g., random access memory, static random access memory, synchronous dynamic random-access memory, a transistor, a capacitor, a semiconductor device, or a combination of at least two thereof.

[0236] Electrical connection should preferably be understood to mean that an electrical current can flow between the optoelectronic device and the at least one electronic constituent. Electrical connection should preferably be understood to mean that a maximum resistance between the opto-electronic device and the at least one electronic constituent is 100 MQ.

[0237] A 67thembodiment of the invention is a use of the layered structure according to the invention, preferably a layered structure according to any of the 45thto 59thembodiments of the invention, for producing an opto-electronic device. In an aspect of the 67thembodiment, it is preferred that the opto-electronic device comprises at least one electrically conducting element, and more preferably that the opto-electronic device comprises at least one electrically conducting element that comprises graphene. In a preferred embodiment of the use of the layered structure, the opto-electronic device is selected from the group consisting of a modulator; a photodetector; a detector adapted and arranged for the detection of viruses, antibodies, biomarkers, biomolecules, or a combination of at least two thereof; a combination of at least two thereof. This preferred embodiment is a 68thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on the 67thembodiments of the invention.

[0238] A 69thembodiment of the invention is a device, preferably adapted and arranged for modifying at least one property of electromagnetic waves, more preferably adapted and arranged for at least partially absorbing electromagnetic waves, comprising a. an element of a first kind, wherein the element of the first kind is a waveguide adapted and arranged for the propagation of electromagnetic waves; b. a layer of a second kind, wherein a first section of the layer of the second kind is superimposed on at least a first surface of the waveguide, c. a first electrically conducting element superimposed on the waveguide, wherein i. in a cross-sectional cut of the device, the first section of the layer of the second kind is arranged between the waveguide and the first electrically conducting element, ii. the first electrically conducting element is adapted and arranged to be electrically charged and discharged.

[0239] In an aspect of the 69thembodiment, it is preferred that the first electrically conducting element is adapted and arranged to be electrically charged and / or discharged as a result of an electromagnetic wave propagating in the waveguide. In an aspect of the 69thembodiment, the device should preferably be understood as a photodetector.

[0240] In a preferred embodiment of the device, the layer of the second kind is arranged to at least partially surround the waveguide, more preferably to surround at least 40 %, even more preferably at least 50 %, further preferably at least 60 %, and even further preferably at least 70 % of a surface of the waveguide. This preferred embodiment is a 70thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on the 69thembodiment of the invention.

[0241] In an aspect of the 70th, it is preferred that the layer of the second kind is arranged to partially surround the waveguide. In this aspect, it is preferred that the layer of the second kind is arranged to surround in the range of 40 % to 95 %, more preferably in the range of 50 % to 90 %, further preferably in the range of 60 % to 85 %, and even further preferably in the range of 70 % to 80 % of the surface of the waveguide.

[0242] In a preferred embodiment of the device, at least one or all of the following applies: a. the layer of the second kind comprises at least one or all of the following: at least one metal, at least one metal alloy, at least one oxide, at least one nitride, at least one carbide, a combination of at least two thereof. An example of a preferred carbide is silicon carbide. Examples of nitrides include titanium nitride and silicon oxynitride. b. the layer of the second kind comprises at least one or all of the following: titanium, tungsten, aluminium, molybdenum, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, silicon, germanium, a combination of at least two thereof. Examples of a combination of at least two thereof include silicon germanium and silicon carbon oxynitride. An example of silicon is amorphous silicon. c. a refractive index of the layer of the second kind is larger than a refractive index of the waveguide. It is preferred that the refractive index of the layer of the second kind is at least 1.05 times larger, more preferably at least 1.3 times larger, and further preferably at least 1.6 times larger than the refractive index of the waveguide. d. the layer of the second kind has a refractive index that is in the range of 1.5 to 6, preferably in the range of 2 to 5, and further preferably in the range of 2.5 to 4.

[0243] This preferred embodiment is a 71stembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 69thto 70thembodiments of the invention.

[0244] In an aspect of the 71stembodiment, all possible combination of the features a. to d. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b: c; d: a+b: a+c: a+d: b+c: b+d: c+d: a+b+c: a+b+d: a+c+d: b+c+d: a+b+c+d. In an aspect of the 71stembodiment, all possible combination of the features a. and b. are particularly preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b: a+b. In another aspect of the 71stembodiment, feature c., it is preferred that the refractive index of the layer of the second kind is in the range of 1.05 to 4 times larger, more preferably in the range of 1.3 to 3.7 times larger, and further preferably in the range of 1.6 to 2.7 times larger than the refractive index of the waveguide. In an aspect of the 71stembodiment, features a. and / or b., it is particularly preferred that the layer of the second kind comprises less than 20 wt-%, more preferably less than 15 wt-%, even more preferably less than 10 wt-%, further preferably less than 5 wt-%, and even further preferably less than 1.5 wt-%, based on a total weight of the layer of the second kind, of a nitride, more preferably silicon nitride.

[0245] In a preferred embodiment of the device, the waveguide is adapted and arranged to be in opto-electronic interaction with the first electrically conducting element. This preferred embodiment is a 72ndembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 69thto 71stembodiments of the invention.

[0246] In a preferred embodiment of the device, a thickness tfe, MAX of the layer of the second kind is <7R, MAX < 80 nm, preferably <7R, MAX < 60 nm, more preferably tfe, MAX < 40 nm, even more preferably tfe, MAX < 20 nm, further preferably <7R, MAX < 10 nm, further preferably tfe, MAX < 5 nm, further preferably tfe, MAX < 2 nm, and even further preferably <7R, MAX < 1 nm. This preferred embodiment is a 73rdembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 69thto 72ndembodiments of the invention.

[0247] In an aspect of the 73rdembodiment, the thickness <7R should preferably be understood as a thickness of the layer of the second kind, measured perpendicular to a surface of the waveguide. In this aspect, d, / MAX should preferably be understood as the maximum value of dn. In an aspect of the 73rdembodiment, it is preferred that the thickness <7R, MAX of the layer of the second kind is in the range of 0.1 nm to 80 nm, more preferably in the range of 0.2 nm to 60 nm, even more preferably in the range of 0.5 nm to 40 nm, even more preferably in the range from 1 nm to 30 nm, further preferably in the range of 2 nm to 25 nm, further preferably in the range of 5 nm to 20 nm, and even further preferably in the range of 5 nm to 10 nm.

[0248] In a preferred embodiment of the device, at least one or all of the following applies to the first electrically conducting element: a. comprises at least one or all of the following: carbon, a nitride, at least one metal, at least one metal alloy, at least one conductive oxide, at least one conductive polymer, at least one chalcogen, at least one perovskite, a combination of at least two or more thereof; b. has in the range of 1 to 10, preferably in the range of 1 to 6, and more preferably in the range of 1 to 3 atomic layers.

[0249] This preferred embodiment is a 74thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 69thto 73rdembodiments of the invention.

[0250] In an aspect of the 74thembodiment, all possible combination of the features a. and b. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; a+b. In an aspect of the 74thembodiment, it is preferred that the first electrically conducting element comprises at least one perovskite. In another aspect of the74thembodiment, it is particularly preferred that the first electrically conducting element comprises carbon, more preferably graphene. In an aspect of the 74thembodiment, feature b., it is preferred that the first electrically conducting element has a single atomic layer.

[0251] In a preferred embodiment of the device, at least one or all of the following applies to the first electrically conducting element: a. is adapted and arranged to have an optical attenuation coefficient in the range of 2 x IO-4to 0.6 dB / pm, preferably in the range of 2 x IO-2to 0.40 dB / pm, and more preferably in the range of 0. 15 to 0.25 dB / pm; b. is adapted and arranged to have a variable optical attenuation coefficient; c. has an electrical conductivity of at least 104S / m, preferably at least 105S / m, and further preferably at least 106S / m.

[0252] This preferred embodiment is a 75thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 69thto 74thembodiments of the invention.

[0253] In an aspect of the 75thembodiment, all possible combination of the features a. to c. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; c; a+b; a+c; b+c; a+b+c. In an aspect of the 75thembodiment, it is preferred that the first electrically conducting element is adapted and arranged to have a variable optical attenuation coefficient, wherein said optical attenuation coefficient can be varied to fall within at least one of the ranges of feature a. in the 75thembodiment. In a preferred embodiment of the device, the waveguide and the layer of the second kind match by less than 90 wt- %, more preferably by less than 80 wt-%, even more preferably less than 70 wt-%, even more preferably less than 60 wt-%, even more preferably less than 50 wt-%, and further preferably by less than 40 wt-% in their chemical composition. This preferred embodiment is a 76thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 69thto 75thembodiments of the invention.

[0254] In a preferred embodiment of the device, at least one or all of the following applies: a. the thickness d i of the waveguide, measured along a first direction, is in the range of 1 nm to 1500 nm, preferably in the range of 1 nm to 1250 nm, preferably in the range of 1 nm to 1100 nm, preferably in the range of 1 nm to 900 nm, preferably in the range of 10 nm to 700 nm, more preferably in the range of 20 nm to 600 nm, even more preferably in the range of 40 nm to 500 nm, and further preferably in the range of 50 nm to 400 nm; b. the waveguide comprises at least one or all of the following: silicon, oxygen, aluminium, iridium, tantalum, titanium, nitrogen, lithium, niobium, indium, phosphorus, gallium, arsenic, barium, at least one lanthanide (preferably lanthanum), a chalcogenide, at least one polymer, a resin, a combination of at least two thereof; c. the waveguide is adapted and arranged for the propagation of electromagnetic waves that have wavelengths in the range from 300 nm to 3000 nm, preferably in the range of 800 nm to 2100 nm, and more preferably in the range of 1250 nm to 1650 nm.

[0255] This preferred embodiment is a 77thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 69thto 76thembodiments of the invention.

[0256] In an aspect of the 77thembodiment, all possible combination of the features a. to c. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; c; a+b; a+c; b+c; a+b+c. In an aspect of the 77thembodiment, feature b., it is particularly preferred that the element of the first kind comprises at least 50 wt-%, more preferably at least 65 wt-%, even more preferably at least 75 wt-%, further preferably at least 85 wt-%, and even further preferably at least 95 wt-%, based on a total weight of the element of the first kind, of a nitride, more preferably silicon nitride.

[0257] In a preferred embodiment of the device, at least one or all of the following applies: a. the layer of the second kind touches the waveguide, preferably at least the first section of the layer of the second kind touches the waveguide; b. at first electrically conducting element touches the layer of the second kind, preferably the first section of the layer of the second kind.

[0258] This preferred embodiment is a 78thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 69thto 77thembodiments of the invention. In an aspect of the 78thembodiment, all possible combination of the features a. and b. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b: a+b. In an aspect of the 78thembodiment, feature a. is particularly preferred.

[0259] In a preferred embodiment of the device, at least one or all of the following is at least partially surrounded by a layer of a further kind: a. the waveguide; b. the layer of the second kind; c. the first electrically conducting element.

[0260] This preferred embodiment is a 79thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 69thto 78thembodiments of the invention.

[0261] In an aspect of the 79thembodiment, all possible combination of the features a. to c. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; c; a+b; a+c; b+c; a+b+c.

[0262] In a preferred embodiment of the device, at least one or all of the following applies to the layer of the further kind: a. comprises at least one or all of the following: at least one oxide, at least one nitride, at least one lanthanide (preferably lanthanum), a combination of at least two thereof. Examples of an oxide include silicon dioxide, aluminium oxide, zirconium dioxide, hafnium oxide, titanium dioxide, niobium pentoxide, tantalum pentoxide, lanthanum oxide. An example of a nitride is silicon nitride, aluminium nitride, and silicon oxynitride. Silicon dioxide is particularly preferred; b. has an electrical conductivity that is less than 10'5S / m, preferably less than 10'6S / m, more preferably less than 10'7S / m, further preferably less than 10'9S / m, and even further preferably less than IO-11S / m; c. has a dielectric constant of at least 3, more preferably at least 5, and further preferably at least 7. This preferred embodiment is an 80thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on the 79thembodiment of the invention.

[0263] In an aspect of the 80thembodiment, all possible combination of the features a. to c. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations are e.g., a; b; c; a+b; a+c; b+c; a+b+c. In an aspect of the 80thembodiment, it is preferred that the device comprises a first section of a layer of the further kind, a further section of the layer of the further kind, or both.

[0264] In a preferred embodiment of the device, the device is superimposed on a wafer layer. This preferred embodiment is an 81stembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 69thto 80thembodiments of the invention. In a preferred embodiment of the device, the device comprises a layered structure obtainable by a method, according to the invention, for producing a layered structure, preferably a layered structure obtainable by the first method for producing a layered structure, and more preferably a layered structure obtainable according to any of the 1stto 11th, and 13thto 26thembodiments of the invention. This preferred embodiment is an 82ndembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 69thto 81stembodiments of the invention.

[0265] In a preferred embodiment of the device, the device comprises a layered structure according to the invention, preferably the layered structure according to any of the 48thto 59thembodiments of the invention. This preferred embodiment is an 83rdembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 69thto 82ndembodiments of the invention.

[0266] In a preferred embodiment of the device, the device is obtainable by a method, according to the invention, for producing an opto-electronic device, preferably the method according to any of the 60thto 64thembodiments of the invention. This preferred embodiment is an 84thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on any of the 69thto 83rdembodiments of the invention.

[0267] An 85thembodiment of the invention is an electronic device comprising a. a device according to the invention, preferably the device according to any of the 69thto 84thembodiments of the invention; b. at least one electronic constituent in electrical connection with the opto-electronic device. Examples of the electronic constituent include a processing unit (e.g., a central processing unit), a memory unit (e.g., random access memory, static random access memory, synchronous dynamic random-access memory, a transistor, a capacitor, a semiconductor device, or a combination of at least two thereof.

[0268] Electrical connection should preferably be understood to mean that an electrical current can flow between the device and the at least one electronic constituent. Electrical connection should preferably be understood to mean that a maximum resistance between the opto-electronic device and the at least one electronic constituent is 100 MQ.

[0269] An 86thembodiment of the invention is a first assembly 1000 comprising a. a first sub-assembly 1001, wherein the first sub-assembly 1001 comprises i. a first electrical constituent 1002, wherein at least one or all of the following applies to the first electrical constituent 1002:

[0270] A. comprises a layered structure according to the invention, preferably a layered structure according to any of the 45thto 59thembodiments of the invention, B. is an opto-electronic device according to the invention, preferably an opto-elec- tronic device according to the 65thembodiment of the invention, more preferably a modulator,

[0271] C. is a device, preferably an opto-electronic device, according to the invention, more preferably a device according to any of the 69thto 84thembodiments of the invention, even more preferably a modulator; ii. a second electrical constituent 1003, wherein at least one or all of the following applies to the second electrical constituent 1003:

[0272] A. comprises a layered structure according to the invention, preferably a layered structure according to any of the 45thto 59thembodiments of the invention,

[0273] B. is an opto-electronic device according to the invention, preferably an opto-electronic device according to the 65thembodiment of the invention, more preferably a photodetector,

[0274] C. is a device, preferably an opto-electronic device, according to the invention, more preferably a device according to any of the 69thto 84thembodiments of the invention, even more preferably a photodetector; iii. a first integrated circuit 1004 in electrical connection with the first electrical constituent 1002, and preferably the second electrical constituent 1003; iv. preferably a first data storage means 1005 adapted and arranged to be in electrical connection with the first integrated circuit 1004; b. a further sub-assembly 1007, wherein the further sub-assembly 1007 comprises i. a further electrical constituent 1008, wherein the further electrical constituent 1008 is preferably adapted and arranged to be in optical connection with the first electrical constituent 1002, and wherein at least one or all of the following applies to the further electrical constituent 1008:

[0275] A. comprises a layered structure according to the invention, preferably a layered structure according to any of the 45thto 59thembodiments of the invention,

[0276] B. is an opto-electronic device according to the invention, preferably an opto-electronic device according to the 65thembodiment of the invention, more preferably a photodetector,

[0277] C. is a device, preferably an opto-electronic device, according to the invention, more preferably a device according to any of the 69thto 84thembodiments of the invention, even more preferably a photodetector; ii. an even-further electrical constituent 1009, wherein the even-further electrical constituent 1009 is preferably adapted and arranged to be in optical connection with the second electrical constituent 1003, and wherein at least one or all of the following applies to the even-further electrical constituent 1009:

[0278] A. comprises a layered structure according to the invention, preferably a layered structure according to any of the 45thto 59thembodiments of the invention,

[0279] B. is an opto-electronic device according to the invention, preferably an opto-elec- tronic device according to the 65thembodiment of the invention, more preferably a modulator,

[0280] C. is a device, preferably an opto-electronic device, according to the invention, more preferably a device according to any of the 69thto 84thembodiments of the invention, even more preferably a modulator; iii. a further integrated circuit 1010 in electrical connection with the further electrical constituent 1008, and preferably the even-further electrical constituent 1009; iv. preferably a further data storage means 1011 adapted and arranged to be in electrical connection with the further integrated circuit 1010; c. a first light emitting means 1006, wherein i. preferably the first electrical constituent 1002 and the first light emitting means 1006 are adapted and arranged to be in optical connection with each other, ii. preferably, the first light emitting means 1006 is arranged in the first sub-assembly 1001; d. preferably a further light emitting means 1012, wherein i. preferably the even-further electrical constituent 1009 and the further light emitting means 1012 are adapted and arranged to be in optical connection with each other, ii. preferably, the further light emitting means 1012 is arranged in the further sub-assembly 1007; wherein the first sub-assembly 1001 and the further sub-assembly 1007 are adapted and arranged to communicate data between said sub-assemblies via an optical signal.

[0281] In an aspect of the 86thembodiment, all possible combinations of the features a.i.A to a.i.C. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations of feature a.i. are e.g., A; B; C; A+B; A+C; B+C; A+B+C. In an aspect of the 86thembodiment, all possible combinations of the features a.ii.A to a.ii.C. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations of feature a.ii. are e.g., A; B; C; A+B; A+C; B+C; A+B+C. In an aspect of the 86thembodiment, all possible combinations of the features b.i. A to b.i.C. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations of feature b.i. are e.g., A; B; C; A+B; A+C; B+C; A+B+C. In an aspect of the 86thembodiment, all possible combinations of the features b.ii.A to b.ii.C. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations of feature b.ii. are e.g., A; B; C; A+B; A+C; B+C; A+B+C. In a preferred aspect of the 86'1' embodiment of the invention, the first sub-assembly and the further sub-assembly are adapted and arranged to communicate data between said sub-assemblies via an optical signal, over a distance of at least 1 mm, more preferably at least 2 mm, even more preferably at least 5 mm, and further preferably at least 10 mm. In a preferred aspect of the 86thembodiment of the invention, the first sub-assembly and the further sub-assembly are adapted and arranged to communicate data between said sub-assemblies via an optical signal, over a distance of at least 10 cm, more preferably at least 30 cm, and further preferably at least 50 cm.

[0282] In a preferred embodiment of the first assembly, the first assembly is selected from the group consisting of an assembly adapted and arranged for communication, an assembly adapted and arranged for telecommunication, an assembly adapted and arranged for high-performance computing, an assembly adapted and arranged for artificial intelligence (e.g., machine learning), an assembly adapted and arranged for a data centre, a switch (e.g., a network switch), an optical interconnect, a chip. This preferred embodiment is an 87thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on the 86thembodiment of the invention.

[0283] An 88thembodiment of the invention is an optical data communication module 2100 comprising a. a first electrical constituent 2101, wherein at least one or all of the following applies to the first electrical constituent 2101:

[0284] I. comprises a layered structure according to the invention, preferably a layered structure according to any of the 45thto 59thembodiments of the invention,

[0285] II. is an opto-electronic device according to the invention, preferably an opto-electronic device according to the 65thembodiment of the invention, more preferably a modulator,

[0286] III. is a device, preferably an opto-electronic device, according to the invention, more preferably a device according to any of the 69thto 84thembodiments of the invention, even more preferably a modulator; b. preferably a light emitting means 2102 adapted and arranged to be in optical connection with the first electrical constituent 2101; c. preferably a further electrical constituent 2103, wherein the further electrical constituent 2103 is preferably in optical connection with the first electrical constituent 2101, wherein at least one or all of the following applies to the further electrical constituent 2103;

[0287] I. comprises a layered structure according to the invention, preferably a layered structure according to any of the 45thto 59thembodiments of the invention,

[0288] II. is an opto-electronic device according to the invention, preferably an opto-electronic device according to the 65thembodiment of the invention, more preferably a photodetector,

[0289] III. is a device, preferably an opto-electronic device, according to the invention, more preferably a device according to any of the 69thto 84thembodiments of the invention, even more preferably a photodetector; d. an integrated circuit 2104 in electrical connection with the first electrical constituent 2101, and preferably in electrical connection with the further electrical constituent 2103.

[0290] In an aspect of the 88thembodiment, all possible combinations of the features a. I to a.III. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations of feature a. are e.g., I; II; III; I+II; 1+ III; 11+ III; 1+11+111. In an aspect of the 88thembodiment, all possible combinations of the features c.I to c.III. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations of feature c. are e.g., I; II; III; I+II; 1+ III; 11+ III; I+II+III. In one preferred aspect of the 88thembodiment, the first electrical constituent is a modulator, and the further electrical constituent is a photodetector. In another preferred aspect of the 88thembodiment, the further electrical constituent is a modulator, and the first electrical constituent is a photodetector.

[0291] An 89thembodiment of the invention is an optical sensing module 1100 comprising: a. a first electrical constituent 1101, wherein the first electrical constituent 1101 is preferably adapted an arranged to modulate first electromagnetic waves directed towards a target area 1102, wherein at least one or all of the following applies to the first electrical constituent 1101:

[0292] I. comprises a layered structure according to the invention, preferably a layered structure according to any of the 45thto 59thembodiments of the invention,

[0293] II. is an opto-electronic device according to the invention, preferably an opto-electronic device according to the 65thembodiment of the invention, more preferably a modulator,

[0294] III. is a device, preferably an opto-electronic device, according to the invention, more preferably a device according to any of the 69thto 84thembodiments of the invention, even more preferably a modulator; b. a sensing means 1103 adapted and arranged to detect further electromagnetic waves from the target area 1102, thereby generating an electrical signal, wherein the sensing means preferably comprises a further electrical constituent, wherein at least one or all of the following applies to the further electrical constituent:

[0295] I. comprises a layered structure according to the invention, preferably a layered structure according to any of the 45thto 59thembodiments of the invention,

[0296] II. is an opto-electronic device according to the invention, preferably an opto-electronic device according to the 65thembodiment of the invention, more preferably a photodetector,

[0297] III. is a device, preferably an opto-electronic device, according to the invention, more preferably a device according to any of the 69thto 84thembodiments of the invention, even more preferably a photodetector; c. preferably optics 1104 adapted and arranged to focus the further electromagnetic waves onto the sensing means 1103, and d. preferably an integrated circuit 1105, wherein the integrated circuit is i. preferably in electrical connection with the first electrical constituent 1101, ii. preferably in electrical connection with the sensing means 1103, iii. preferably adapted and arranged to process the electrical signal generated by the sensing means 1103; e. preferably a light emitting means 1106 in optical connection with the first electrical constituent 1101

[0298] In an aspect of the 89thembodiment, all possible combinations of the features a. I to a.III. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations of feature a. are e.g., I; II; III; I+II; 1+ III; 11+ III; 1+11+111. In an aspect of the 89thembodiment, all possible combinations of the features b.I to b.III. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations of feature b. are e.g., I; II; III; I+II; 1+ III; 11+ III; I+II+III.

[0299] A 90thembodiment of the invention is an apparatus 1200 adapted and arranged for a medical application, comprising a. a first electrical constituent 1201, wherein at least one or all of the following applies to the first electrical constituent 1201:

[0300] I. comprises a layered structure according to the invention, preferably a layered structure according to any of the 45thto 59thembodiments of the invention,

[0301] II. is an opto-electronic device according to the invention, preferably an opto-electronic device according to the 65thembodiment of the invention, more preferably a modulator,

[0302] III. is a device, preferably an opto-electronic device, according to the invention, more preferably a device according to any of the 69thto 84thembodiments of the invention, even more preferably a modulator; b. preferably a further electrical constituent 1202, wherein at least one or all of the following applies to the further electrical constituent 1202:

[0303] I. comprises a layered structure according to the invention, preferably a layered structure according to any of the 45thto 59thembodiments of the invention,

[0304] II. is an opto-electronic device according to the invention, preferably an opto-electronic device according to the 65thembodiment of the invention, more preferably a photodetector,

[0305] III. is a device, preferably an opto-electronic device, according to the invention, more preferably a device according to any of the 69thto 84thembodiments of the invention, even more preferably a photodetector; c. preferably a first light emitting means 1203 in optical connection with the first electrical constituent 1201; d. a first integrated circuit 1204 in electrical connection with the first electrical constituent 1201, and preferably in electrical connection with the further electrical constituent 1202, e. preferably a sensing unit 1205, wherein the sensing unit 1205 is adapted and arranged to measure at least one physical property of a body, preferably a mammalian body, wherein the sensing unit 1205 i. preferably comprises an optical data communication module according to the 88thembodiment of the invention, ii. preferably comprises an optical sensing module according to the 89hembodiment of the invention, iii. is preferably in data communication, and more preferably in optical connection, with at least one or all of the following:

[0306] A. the first electrical constituent 1201,

[0307] B. the further electrical constituent 1202.

[0308] In an aspect of the 90thembodiment, all possible combinations of the features a. I to a.III. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations of feature a. are e.g., I; II; III; I+II; 1+ III; 11+ III; 1+11+111. In an aspect of the 90thembodiment, all possible combinations of the features b.I to b.III. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations of feature b. are e.g., I; II; III; I+II; 1+ III; 11+ III; I+II+III. In one preferred aspect of the 90thembodiment, the first electrical constituent is a modulator, and the further electrical constituent is a photodetector. In another preferred aspect of the 90thembodiment, the further electrical constituent is a modulator, and the first electrical constituent is a photodetector.

[0309] A 91stembodiment of the invention is a vehicle 1300 adapted and arranged for flight, wherein the vehicle 1300 comprises a. a first electrical constituent 1301, wherein at least one or all of the following applies to the first electrical constituent 1301:

[0310] I. comprises a layered structure according to the invention, preferably a layered structure according to any of the 45thto 59thembodiments of the invention,

[0311] II. is an opto-electronic device according to the invention, preferably an opto-electronic device according to the 65thembodiment of the invention, more preferably a modulator,

[0312] III. is a device, preferably an opto-electronic device, according to the invention, more preferably a device according to any of the 69thto 84thembodiments of the invention, even more preferably a modulator; b. preferably a first light emitting means 1302 adapted and arranged to be in optical connection with the first electrical constituent 1301; c. preferably a further electrical constituent 1303, wherein at least one or all of the following applies to the further electrical constituent 1303:

[0313] I. comprises a layered structure according to the invention, preferably a layered structure according to any of the 45thto 59thembodiments of the invention,

[0314] II. is an opto-electronic device according to the invention, preferably an opto-electronic device according to the 65thembodiment of the invention, more preferably a photodetector,

[0315] III. is a device, preferably an opto-electronic device, according to the invention, more preferably a device according to any of the 69thto 84thembodiments of the invention, even more preferably a photodetector; d. preferably a first integrated circuit 1304 in electrical connection with the first electrical constituent 1301, and preferably in electrical connection with the further electrical constituent 1303; e. preferably a propulsion means 1305; f. preferably a means to generate lift 1306; g. preferably a control system 1307 adapted and arranged to control a movement of the vehicle, h. preferably a sensing unit 1308, wherein the sensing unit 1308 i. is preferably adapted and arranged to provide information about surroundings (e.g., a target area) of the vehicle 1300, more preferably spatial information about surroundings of the vehicle 1300, ii. preferably comprises an optical data communication module according to the 88thembodiment of the invention, iii. preferably comprises an optical sensing module according to the 89thembodiment of the invention, iv. is preferably in data communication, and more preferably in optical connection, with at least one or all of the following:

[0316] A. the first electrical constituent 1301, and

[0317] B. the further electrical constituent 1303.

[0318] In an aspect of the 91stembodiment, all possible combinations of the features a. I to a.III. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations of feature a. are e.g., I; II; III; I+II; 1+ III; 11+ III; 1+11+111. In an aspect of the 91stembodiment, all possible combinations of the features c.I to c.III. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations of feature c. are e.g., I; II; III; I+II; 1+ III; 11+ III; I+II+III. In one preferred aspect of the 91stembodiment, the first electrical constituent is a modulator, and the further electrical constituent is a photodetector. In another preferred aspect of the 91stembodiment, the further electrical constituent is a modulator, and the first electrical constituent is a photodetector. In a preferred aspect of the 91stembodiment, the first electrical constituent and the further electrical constituent are in optical connection. In a preferred embodiment of the vehicle adapted and arranged for flight, said vehicle is selected from the group consisting of an airplane, a helicopter, a drone, a rocket, a satellite, a balloon (e.g., a weather balloon, a hot-air balloon) and a missile. This preferred embodiment is a 92ndembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on the 91stembodiment of the invention.

[0319] A 93rdembodiment of the invention is a robotic system 1400, comprising: a. a first electrical constituent 1401, wherein at least one or all of the following applies to the first electrical constituent 1401:

[0320] I. comprises a layered structure according to the invention, preferably a layered structure according to any of the 45thto 59thembodiments of the invention,

[0321] II. is an opto-electronic device according to the invention, preferably an opto-electronic device according to the 65thembodiment of the invention, more preferably a modulator,

[0322] III. is a device, preferably an opto-electronic device, according to the invention, more preferably a device according to any of the 69thto 84thembodiments of the invention, even more preferably a modulator; b. preferably a light emitting means 1402 in optical connection with the first electrical constituent 1401; c. preferably a further electrical constituent 1403, wherein at least one or all of the following applies to the further electrical constituent 1403:

[0323] I. comprises a layered structure according to the invention, preferably a layered structure according to any of the 45thto 59thembodiments of the invention,

[0324] II. is an opto-electronic device according to the invention, preferably an opto-electronic device according to the 65thembodiment of the invention, more preferably a photodetector,

[0325] III. is a device, preferably an opto-electronic device, according to the invention, more preferably a device according to any of the 69thto 84thembodiments of the invention, even more preferably a photodetector; d. preferably a first integrated circuit 1404 in electrical connection with the first electrical constituent 1401, and preferably the further electrical constituent 1403; e. a robotic body 1405 adapted and arranged for movement, wherein the robotic body 1405 preferably comprises the first electrical constituent 1401 and / or the further electrical constituent 1403; f. a sensing unit 1406, wherein the sensing unit 1406 i. is preferably adapted and arranged to provide spatial information about surroundings (e.g., the target area) of the robotic body 1405, ii. preferably comprises an optical data communication module according to the 88thembodiment of the invention, iii. preferably comprises an optical sensing module according to the 89thembodiment of the invention, iv. is preferably in data communication with at least one or all of the following: the first electrical constituent 1401, the further electrical constituent 1403; g. a control module 1407 adapted and arranged to control a movement of the robotic body 1405, preferably based on the spatial information provided by the sensing unit 1406, wherein the control module 1407 is preferably in data communication, and more preferably optical connection, with at least one or all of the following: i. the first electrical constituent 1401, ii. the further electrical constituent 1403, iii. the first integrated circuit 1404; h. preferably, an external entity 1408 in data communication with the robotic body 1405.

[0326] In an aspect of the 93rdembodiment, all possible combinations of the features a. I to a. III. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations of feature a. are e.g., I; II; III; I+II; 1+ III; 11+ III; 1+11+111. In an aspect of the 93rdembodiment, all possible combinations of the features c.I to c.III. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations of feature c. are e.g., I; II; III; I+II; 1+ III; 11+ III; I+II+III. In one preferred aspect of the 93rdembodiment, the first electrical constituent is a modulator, and the further electrical constituent is a photodetector. In another preferred aspect of the 93rdembodiment, the further electrical constituent is a modulator, and the first electrical constituent is a photodetector. In a preferred aspect of the 93rdembodiment, the first electrical constituent and the further electrical constituent are in optical connection.

[0327] A 94thembodiment of the invention is a second assembly 1500, comprising: a. one or more memory units 1501, preferably one or more optical memory units, adapted and arranged to store instructions and / or data; b. one or more processors 1502, preferably one or more optical processors, that are adapted and arranged i. to be in data communication, and preferably in optical connection, with the one or more memory units 1501, ii. to execute the instructions stored in the one or more memory units 1501 and / or to perform operations using optical signals, c. preferably a data communication module 1503, more preferably an optical data communication module according to the 88thembodiment of the invention, wherein the data communication module 1503 is adapted and arranged for the communication of data, more preferably optical data, between at least one or all of the following: i. at least one of the one or more memory units 1501 and at least one of the one or more processors 1502, ii. between at least two of the memory units 1501, iii. between at least two of the processors 1502; d. at least one electrical constituent 1504, i. wherein at least one or all of the following applies to the at least one electrical constituent 1504:

[0328] A. comprises a layered structure according to the invention, preferably a layered structure according to any of the 45thto 59thembodiments of the invention,

[0329] B. is an opto-electronic device according to the invention, preferably an opto-elec- tronic device according to the 65thembodiment of the invention, more preferably a modulator and / or a photodetector,

[0330] C. is a device, preferably an opto-electronic device, according to the invention, more preferably a device according to any of the 69thto 84thembodiments of the invention, even more preferably a modulator and / or a photodetector; ii. wherein the at least one electrical constituent 1504 is preferably arranged in at least one or all of the following: the at least one memory unit 1501, the at least one processer 1502, the data communication module 1503.

[0331] In an aspect of the 94thembodiment, all possible combinations of the features d.i.A to d.i.C. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations of feature d.i. are e.g., A; B; C; A+B; A+C; B+C; A+B+C. In a preferred aspect of the 94thembodiment, the second assembly comprises at least two electrical constituents, more preferably at least two opto-electronic devices. In this aspect, it is preferred that the at least two opto-electronic devices are at least one modulator and at least one photodetector.

[0332] A 95thembodiment of the invention is a third assembly 1600 comprising: a. a homomorphic operation module 1601 that is adapted and arranged for performing homomorphic operations on encrypted optical data to obtain modified encrypted optical data, b. preferably a photonic encryption module 1602, wherein the photonic encryption module 1602 i. is in optical connection with the homomorphic operation module 1601, ii. is adapted and arranged for encrypting optical data, preferably using an optical encoding scheme, to obtain the encrypted optical data; c. preferably a photonic decryption module 1603, wherein the photonic decryption module i. is in optical connection with the homomorphic operation module 1601, the photonic encryption module 1602, or both, ii. is adapted and arranged for decrypting the modified encrypted optical data, preferably using an optical decoding scheme; d. at least one electrical constituent 1604, i. wherein at least one or all of the following applies to the at least one electrical constituent

[0333] 1604:

[0334] A. comprises a layered structure according to the invention, preferably a layered structure according to any of the 45thto 59thembodiments of the invention,

[0335] B. is an opto-electronic device according to the invention, preferably an opto-elec- tronic device according to the 65thembodiment of the invention, more preferably a modulator and / or a photodetector,

[0336] C. is a device, preferably an opto-electronic device, according to the invention, more preferably a device according to any of the 69thto 84thembodiments of the invention, even more preferably a modulator and / or a photodetector; ii. wherein the at least one electrical constituent 1604 is preferably arranged in at least one or all of the following: the homomorphic operation module 1601, the photonic encryption module 1602, the photonic decryption module 1603; e. preferably at least one light emitting means 1606 that is in optical connection with at least one or all of the following; i. the homomorphic operation module 1601, ii. the photonic encryption module 1602, iii. the photonic decryption module 1603.

[0337] In an aspect of the 95thembodiment, all possible combinations of the features d.i.A to d.i.C. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations of feature d.i. are e.g., A; B; C; A+B; A+C; B+C; A+B+C. In a preferred aspect of the 95thembodiment, the third assembly comprises at least two electrical constituents, more preferably at least two opto-electronic devices. In this aspect, it is preferred that the at least two opto-electronic devices are at least one modulator and at least one photodetector.

[0338] A 96thembodiment of the invention is an optical connection module 1700, comprising: a. a first electrical constituent 1701, wherein at least one or all of the following applies to the first electrical constituent 1701:

[0339] I. comprises a layered structure according to the invention, preferably a layered structure according to any of the 45thto 59thembodiments of the invention,

[0340] II. is an opto-electronic device according to the invention, preferably an opto-electronic device according to the 65thembodiment of the invention, more preferably a modulator,

[0341] III. is a device, preferably an opto-electronic device, according to the invention, more preferably a device according to any of the 69thto 84thembodiments of the invention, even more preferably a modulator; b. preferably a further electrical constituent 1702, preferably in optical connection with the first electrical constituent 1701, wherein at least one or all of the following applies to the further electrical constituent 1702:

[0342] I. comprises a layered structure according to the invention, preferably a layered structure according to any of the 45thto 59thembodiments of the invention,

[0343] II. is an opto-electronic device according to the invention, preferably an opto-electronic device according to the 65thembodiment of the invention, more preferably a photodetector,

[0344] III. is a device, preferably an opto-electronic device, according to the invention, more preferably a device according to any of the 69thto 84thembodiments of the invention, even more preferably a photodetector; c. preferably at least one waveguide 1703 in optical connection with the first electrical constituent 1701, the further electrical constituent 1702, or both; d. preferably a light emitting means 1704 in optical connection with the first electrical constituent 1701; e. preferably at least one integrated circuit 1705 in electrical connection with the first electrical constituent 1701, the further electrical constituent 1702, or both.

[0345] In an aspect of the 96thembodiment, all possible combinations of the features a. I to a.III. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations of feature a. are e.g., I; II; III; I+II; 1+ III; 11+ III; 1+11+111. In an aspect of the 96thembodiment, all possible combinations of the features b.I to b.III. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations of feature b. are e.g., I; II; III; I+II; 1+ III; 11+ III; I+II+III. In one preferred aspect of the 96thembodiment, the first electrical constituent is a modulator and the further electrical constituent is a photodetector. In another preferred aspect of the 96thembodiment, the further electrical constituent is a modulator and the first electrical constituent is a photodetector.

[0346] In a preferred embodiment of the optical connection module, the optical connection module is selected from the group consisting of an optical interconnect, an optical transmitter, an optical receiver, an optical transceiver, and an optical switch. This preferred embodiment is a 97thembodiment of the invention, that preferably depends on the 96thembodiment of the invention.

[0347] A 98thembodiment of the invention is a first transportation means 1800, preferably adapted and arranged for autonomous travel, comprising: a. a first electrical constituent 1801, wherein at least one or all of the following applies to the first electrical constituent 1801:

[0348] I. comprises a layered structure according to the invention, preferably a layered structure according to any of the 45thto 59thembodiments of the invention, II. is an opto-electronic device according to the invention, preferably an opto-electronic device according to the 65thembodiment of the invention, more preferably a modulator,

[0349] III. is a device, preferably an opto-electronic device, according to the invention, more preferably a device according to any of the 69thto 84thembodiments of the invention, even more preferably a modulator; b. preferably a first light emitting 1812 means adapted and arranged to be in optical connection with the first electrical constituent 1801; c. preferably a further electrical constituent 1802, wherein at least one or all of the following applies to the further electrical constituent 1802:

[0350] I. comprises a layered structure according to the invention, preferably a layered structure according to any of the 45thto 59thembodiments of the invention,

[0351] II. is an opto-electronic device according to the invention, preferably an opto-electronic device according to the 65thembodiment of the invention, more preferably a photodetector,

[0352] III. is a device, preferably an opto-electronic device, according to the invention, more preferably a device according to any of the 69thto 84thembodiments of the invention, even more preferably a photodetector; d. preferably a first integrated circuit 1811 in electrical connection with the first electrical constituent 1801, the further electrical constituent 1802, or both; e. a sensing unit 1803, wherein the sensing unit 1803 i. is preferably adapted and arranged to provide spatial information about surroundings (e.g., a target area) of the first transportation means 1800, ii. preferably comprises a data communication module, more preferably an optical data communication module according to the 88thembodiment of the invention, iii. preferably comprises an optical sensing module according to the 89thembodiment of the invention, iv. is preferably in data communication, and more preferably in optical connection, with at least one or all of the following:

[0353] A. the first electrical constituent 1801, and

[0354] B. the further electrical constituent 1802; f. a processing module 1804 that i. comprises a perception sub-module 1805 adapted and arranged to analyse and / or process the spatial information from the sensing unit 1803 to provide perception data on a presence and / or a classification of patterns and / or items in the target area, ii. comprises a generation sub-module 1806 adapted and arranged to process the perception data, and to preferably generate a recommendation, a control instruction, or both, i. is preferably in data communication, and more preferably in optical connection, with at least one or all of the following:

[0355] A. the first electrical constituent 1801, and

[0356] B. the further electrical constituent 1802: g. preferably a human-machine interface 1807 adapted and arranged to provide feedback to a user based on the recommendation, the control instruction, or both; h. preferably a control unit 1808 adapted and arranged to execute the recommendation, the control instruction, or both; i. a steering means 1809 adapted and arranged to steer the first transportation means 1800, wherein the control unit 1808 is preferably adapted and arranged to control the steering means; j. a propulsion means 1810 adapted and arranged to provide propulsion to the first transportation means 1800, wherein the control unit 1808 is preferably adapted and arranged to control the propulsion means 1810.

[0357] In an aspect of the 98thembodiment, all possible combinations of the features a. I to a.III. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations of feature a. are e.g., I; II; III; I+II; 1+ III; 11+ III; 1+11+111. In an aspect of the 98thembodiment, all possible combinations of the features c.I to c.III. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations of feature c. are e.g., I; II; III; I+II; 1+ III; 11+ III; I+II+III. In one preferred aspect of the 98thembodiment, the first electrical constituent is a modulator, and the further electrical constituent is a photodetector. In another preferred aspect of the 98thembodiment, the further electrical constituent is a modulator, and the first electrical constituent is a photodetector. In a preferred aspect of the 98thembodiment, the first electrical constituent and the further electrical constituent are in optical connection.

[0358] A 99thembodiment of the invention is a further transportation means 1900 comprising: a. a first electrical constituent 1901, wherein at least one or all of the following applies to the first electrical constituent 1901:

[0359] I. comprises a layered structure according to the invention, preferably a layered structure according to any of the 45thto 59thembodiments of the invention,

[0360] II. is an opto-electronic device according to the invention, preferably an opto-electronic device according to the 65thembodiment of the invention, more preferably a modulator,

[0361] III. is a device, preferably an opto-electronic device, according to the invention, more preferably a device according to any of the 69thto 84thembodiments of the invention, even more preferably a modulator; b. preferably a further electrical constituent 1902, wherein the further electrical constituent 1902 is preferably in optical connection with the first electrical constituent 1901, wherein at least one or all of the following applies to the further electrical constituent 1902: I. comprises a layered structure according to the invention, preferably a layered structure according to any of the 45thto 59thembodiments of the invention,

[0362] II. is an opto-electronic device according to the invention, preferably an opto-electronic device according to the 65thembodiment of the invention, more preferably a photodetector,

[0363] III. is a device, preferably an opto-electronic device, according to the invention, more preferably a device according to any of the 69thto 84thembodiments of the invention, even more preferably a photodetector; c. a steering means 1903 adapted and arranged to steer the further transportation means 1900; d. a propulsion means 1904 adapted and arranged to provide propulsion to the further transportation means 1900

[0364] In an aspect of the 99thembodiment, all possible combinations of the features a. I to a.III. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations of feature a. are e.g., I; II; III; I+II; 1+ III; 11+ III; 1+11+111. In an aspect of the 99thembodiment, all possible combinations of the features b.I to b.III. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations of feature b. are e.g., I; II; III; I+II; 1+ III; 11+ III; I+II+III. In one preferred aspect of the 99thembodiment, the first electrical constituent is a modulator and the further electrical constituent is a photodetector. In another preferred aspect of the 99thembodiment, the further electrical constituent is a modulator and the first electrical constituent is a photodetector.

[0365] A 100thembodiment of the invention is a fourth assembly 2000, comprising: a. one or more memory units 2001 adapted and arranged to store instructions and / or data; b. one or more processors 2002 that are adapted and arranged i. to be in data communication with the one or more memory units 2001, ii. to execute the instructions stored in the one or more memory units 2001 and / or to perform operations; c. at least one electrical constituent 2003, wherein at least one or all of the following applies to the at least one electrical constituent 2003:

[0366] I. comprises a layered structure according to the invention, preferably a layered structure according to any of the 45thto 59thembodiments of the invention,

[0367] II. is an opto-electronic device according to the invention, preferably an opto-electronic device according to the 65thembodiment of the invention, more preferably a modulator and / or a photodetector,

[0368] III. is a device, preferably an opto-electronic device, according to the invention, more preferably a device according to any of the 69thto 84thembodiments of the invention, even more preferably a modulator and / or a photodetector; wherein the fourth assembly is preferably adapted and arranged for at least one or all of the following: artificial intelligence, machine learning, graphics rendering, large-scale visualisation, gaming, high-frequency trading, video streaming, audio recognition, image recognition, object recognition, virtual reality, molecular simulation, scientific simulations (e.g., the modelling of weather patterns and / or climate, the modelling of star formation), the solving of equations, data mining, cloud-based applications.

[0369] In an aspect of the 100thembodiment, all possible combinations of the features c.I to c.III. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations of feature c. are e.g., I; II; III; I +11; 1+ III; 11+ III; 1+11+111. In a preferred aspect of the 100thembodiment, the fourth assembly comprises at least two electrical constituents, more preferably at least two opto-electronic devices. In this aspect, it is preferred that the at least two opto-electronic devices are at least one modulator and at least one photodetector.

[0370] A 101stembodiment of the invention is a use of the first assembly according to the invention, preferably according to the 86thembodiment of the invention, for at least one or all of the following: communication, telecommunication, high-performance computing, for use in a data centre, a switch (e.g., a network switch), an optical interconnect, a chip.

[0371] A 102ndembodiment of the invention is a use of the first assembly according to the invention, preferably according to the 86thembodiment of the invention, in at least one or all of the following: artificial intelligence applications and / or machine learning applications, an apparatus adapted and arranged for a medical application, a vehicle adapted and arranged for flight, a robotic system, an assembly adapted and arranged for optical computing, a homomorphic operation module, a photonic encryption module, photonic decryption module, an optical connection module, a transportation means.

[0372] A 103rdembodiment of the invention is a use of a fourth assembly according to the invention, preferably according to the 100thembodiment of the invention, for at least one or all of the following: artificial intelligence, machine learning, graphics rendering, large-scale visualisation, gaming, high-frequency trading, video streaming, audio recognition, image recognition, object recognition, virtual reality, molecular simulation, scientific simulations (e.g., the modelling of weather patterns and / or climate, the modelling of star formation), the solving of equations, data mining, cloud-based applications.

[0373] A 104thembodiment of the invention is a use of an electrical constituent for at least one or all of the following: a. communication, preferably in an assembly adapted and arranged for communication; b. telecommunication, preferably in an assembly adapted and arranged for telecommunication; c. high-performance computing, preferably in an assembly adapted and arranged for high performance computing; d. a data centre; e. a switch; f. an optical interconnect; g. a computer chip; h. a vehicle adapted and arranged for flight; i. an apparatus adapted and arranged for a medical application; j. a module adapted and arranged for optical sensing; k. a module adapted and arranged for optical data communication; l. a robotic system; m. optical computing, preferably an assembly adapted and arranged for optical computing; n. at least one or all of a homomorphic operation module, a photonic encryption module, photonic decryption module; o. an optical connection module; p. a transportation means; q. an assembly adapted and arranged for artificial intelligence and / or machine learning; wherein at least one or all of the following applies to the electrical constituent:

[0374] I. comprises a layered structure according to the invention, preferably a layered structure according to any of the 45thto 59thembodiments of the invention,

[0375] II. is an opto-electronic device according to the invention, preferably an opto-electronic device according to the 65thembodiment of the invention, more preferably a modulator and / or a photodetector,

[0376] III. is a device, preferably an opto-electronic device, according to the invention, more preferably a device according to any of the 69thto 84thembodiments of the invention, even more preferably a modulator and / or a photodetector.

[0377] In an aspect of the 104thembodiment of the invention, all possible combinations of the features a. to q. are preferred aspects of the invention. In an aspect of the 104thembodiment, all possible combinations of the features I to III. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations of features are e.g., I; II; III; I+II; 1+ III; 11+ III; 1+11+111.

[0378] A 105thembodiment of the invention is a use of an electrical constituent for at least one or all of the following: a. an apparatus adapted and arranged for consumer applications; b. an apparatus adapted and arranged for laser and / or light detection and ranging; c. an apparatus adapted and arranged for optical spectroscopy; d. a system adapted and arranged for high performance computing, preferably for memory intensive applications, big data, or search engines; e. an apparatus adapted and arranged for virtual reality, augmented reality, gaming; f. an apparatus adapted and arranged for streaming and / or video broadcasting; g. a system adapted and arranged for trading, brokerage, and / or financing; h. a system adapted and arranged for wireless communication; i. an apparatus adapted and arranged for biometric searches, personal data management, or patient data management; j . an apparatus adapted and arranged for climate prediction, weather forecast, and / or scientific simulations (e.g., the modelling of star formation); k. an apparatus adapted and arranged for molecular simulation, drug discovery, and / or gene sequencing; and l. an apparatus adapted and arranged for an enterprise cloud; wherein at least one or all of the following applies to the electrical constituent:

[0379] I. comprises a layered structure according to the invention, preferably a layered structure according to any of the 45thto 59thembodiments of the invention,

[0380] II. is an opto-electronic device according to the invention, preferably an opto-electronic device according to the 65thembodiment of the invention, more preferably a modulator and / or a photodetector,

[0381] III. is a device, preferably an opto-electronic device, according to the invention, more preferably a device according to any of the 69thto 84thembodiments of the invention, even more preferably a modulator and / or a photodetector.

[0382] In an aspect of the 105thembodiment of the invention, all possible combinations of the features a. to 1. are preferred aspects of the invention. In an aspect of the 105thembodiment, all possible combinations of the features I to III. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations of features are e.g., I; II; III; I+II; 1+ III; 11+ III; 1+11+111.

[0383] A 106thembodiment of the invention is an item comprising an electrical constituent, wherein the item is selected from a group consisting of: a. an assembly adapted and arranged for communication; b. an assembly adapted and arranged for telecommunication; c. an assembly adapted and arranged for high performance computing; d. a data centre; e. a switch; f. an optical interconnect; g. a computer chip; h. a vehicle adapted and arranged for flight; i. an apparatus adapted and arranged for a medical application; j . a module adapted and arranged for optical sensing; k. a module adapted and arranged for optical data communication; l. a robotic system; m. an assembly adapted and arranged for optical computing; n. at least one or all of a homomorphic operation module, a photonic encryption module, photonic decryption module; o. an optical connection module; p. a transportation means; q. an assembly adapted and arranged for artificial intelligence and / or machine learning; wherein at least one or all of the following applies to the electrical constituent:

[0384] I. comprises a layered structure according to the invention, preferably a layered structure according to any of the 45thto 59thembodiments of the invention,

[0385] II. is an opto-electronic device according to the invention, preferably an opto-electronic device according to the 65thembodiment of the invention, more preferably a modulator and / or a photodetector,

[0386] III. is a device, preferably an opto-electronic device, according to the invention, more preferably a device according to any of the 69thto 84thembodiments of the invention, even more preferably a modulator and / or a photodetector.

[0387] In an aspect of the 106thembodiment of the invention, all possible combinations of the features a. to q. are preferred aspects of the invention. In an aspect of the 106thembodiment, all possible combinations of the features I to III. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations of features are e.g., I; II; III; I+II; 1+ III; 11+ III; 1+11+111.

[0388] A 107thembodiment of the invention is an item comprising an electrical constituent, wherein the item is selected from a group consisting of: a. an apparatus adapted and arranged for consumer applications; b. an apparatus adapted and arranged for laser and / or light detection and ranging; c. an apparatus adapted and arranged for optical spectroscopy; d. a system adapted and arranged for high performance computing, preferably for memory intensive applications, big data, or search engines; e. an apparatus adapted and arranged for virtual reality, augmented reality, gaming; f. an apparatus adapted and arranged for streaming and / or video broadcasting; g. a system adapted and arranged for trading, brokerage, and / or financing; h. a system adapted and arranged for wireless communication; i. an apparatus adapted and arranged for biometric searches, personal data management, or patient data management; j . an apparatus adapted and arranged for climate prediction, weather forecast, and / or scientific simulations (e.g., the modelling of star formation); k. an apparatus adapted and arranged for molecular simulation, drug discovery, and / or gene sequencing; and l. an apparatus adapted and arranged for an enterprise cloud; wherein at least one or all of the following applies to the electrical constituent:

[0389] I. comprises a layered structure according to the invention, preferably a layered structure according to any of the 45thto 59thembodiments of the invention,

[0390] II. is an opto-electronic device according to the invention, preferably an opto-electronic device according to the 65thembodiment of the invention, more preferably a modulator and / or a photodetector,

[0391] III. is a device, preferably an opto-electronic device, according to the invention, more preferably a device according to any of the 69thto 84thembodiments of the invention, even more preferably a modulator and / or a photodetector.

[0392] In an aspect of the 107thembodiment of the invention, all possible combinations of the features a. to 1. are preferred aspects of the invention. In an aspect of the 107thembodiment, all possible combinations of the features I to III. are preferred aspects of the embodiment. These combinations of features are e.g., I; II; III; I+II; 1+ III; 11+ III; 1+11+111.

[0393] DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

[0394] Features described as preferred in one category of the invention, for example according to the first method for producing a layered structure, are analogously preferred in an embodiment of the other categories according to the invention, such as the device and the uses.

[0395] Throughout this document, disclosures of ranges should preferably be understood to include both end points of the range. Furthermore, each disclosure of a range in the document should preferably be understood as also disclosing preferred sub-ranges in which one end point is excluded or both end points are excluded. For example, a disclosure of a range from to X2 is to be understood as disclosing a range that includes both of the end points Xi and X2. Furthermore, it is to be understood as also disclosing a range that includes the end point Xi but excludes the end point X2, a range that excludes the end point Xi but includes the end point X2, and a range that excludes both end points Xi andTG.

[0396] Some preferred embodiments and preferred aspects have various combinations of features as alternatives. Where the various combinations are disclosed, these combinations are separated by a semi-colon For example, the list “a; a+b; a+c+d” should be understood to disclose a preferred embodiment that comprises the feature “a”, an alternative of the preferred embodiment that comprises the features “a” and “b”, and a further alternative of the preferred embodiment that comprises the features “a”, “c”, and “d”.

[0397] Elements, layers, and components

[0398] Throughout this document, “a component” is used to collectively refer to “an element” and “a layer”. I.e., an element and a layer are examples of a component. If, for example, it is disclosed that a component has a first surface, this should preferably be understood to disclose at least one or all of the following: the component is an element that has a first surface; the component is a layer that has a first surface. Throughout this document, where reference is made to a component without any qualification (examples of a qualification include “of the first kind”, “of a second kind”, “of the further kind”, “of the even-further kind”, “masking”, “wafer”, “electrically conducting”), this should preferably be understood as disclosing at least one or all of the following: a layer of the first kind, a layer of the second kind, a layer of the further kind, a layer of the even-further kind, a masking layer, a wafer layer, an element of the first kind, and an electrically conducting element. For example, if it is disclosed that a thickness of a component may be reduced using etching, this should preferably be understood as disclosing that the thickness of at least one or all the following may be reduced using etching: a layer of the first kind, a layer of the second kind, a layer of the further kind, a layer of the even-further kind, a masking layer, a wafer layer, an element of the first kind, and an electrically conducting element.

[0399] Throughout this document, “component X”, “component Y”, and “component Z” are used to distinguish between components of a different kind in a given context. Examples of the components X, Y, and Z include a layer of the first kind, a layer of the second kind, a layer of the further kind, a layer of the even-further kind, a masking layer, a wafer layer, an element of the first kind, and an electrically conducting element. For example, if it is disclosed that component Y is superimposed on component X, this should be understood to disclose, inter alia, the following: a layer of the second kind superimposed on an element of the first kind; a layer of the further kind superimposed on a layer of the second kind; a layer of the further kind superimposed on an element of the first kind. Note that, e.g., a component X may represent a component of one kind in a first context, and a component of a different kind in another context.

[0400] Layers of different kinds preferably have different chemical compositions, although this is not a requirement. However, the first layer of the further kind and the further layer of the further kind preferably have the same a chemical composition. In an aspect of the invention, it is preferred that a layer of an even-further kind has the same chemical composition as a layer of the further kind.

[0401] Layer and element of a first kind

[0402] A layer of the first kind should preferably be understood as a layer of material from which an element of the first kind can be produced and / or that can be used as an element of the first kind. It is, however, preferred that an element of the first kind is obtained by reducing a thickness of at least one section of a layer of the first kind.

[0403] A preferred layer of the first kind and / or preferred element of the first kind comprises at least one or all of the following: silicon, oxygen, aluminium, iridium, tantalum, titanium, nitrogen, lithium, niobium, indium, phosphorus, gallium, arsenic, barium, a chalcogenide, at least one lanthanide (preferably lanthanum), at least one polymer, a resin, a combination of at least two thereof. Examples of combinations of the aforementioned materials include titanium dioxide, aluminium nitride, tantalum pentoxide, lanthanum oxide, silicon nitride, aluminium oxide, silicon oxynitride, lithium niobate, silica, indium phosphide, gallium arsenide, indium gallium arsenide, barium titanate, and aluminium gallium arsenide. A preferred chalcogenide is a dichalcogenide, more preferably a transition metal dichalcogenide. In an aspect of the invention, if an element of the first kind is at least partially surrounded by a layer of a second kind, it is preferred that at least 40 %, more preferably at least 50 %, further preferably at least 60 %, and even further preferably at least 70 % of a surface of the element of the first kind is surrounded by the layer of the second kind. In another aspect of the invention, if an element of the first kind is partially surrounded by a layer of a second kind, it is preferred that in the range of 40 % to 95 %, more preferably in the range of 50 % to 90 %, further preferably in the range of 60 % to 85 %, and even further preferably in the range of 70 % to 80 % of a surface of the element of the first kind is surrounded by the layer of the second kind.

[0404] A preferred optical element is selected from the group consisting of a transmission optic, a conversion optic, a reflection optic, a combination of at least two thereof. A transmission optic should preferably be understood as an optic that is adapted and arranged for the transmission and / or propagation of electromagnetic waves. A preferred transmission optic is selected from the group consisting of a waveguide, a lens, a transmission grating, a combination of at least two thereof. Here, a waveguide is particularly preferred. A conversion optic should preferably be understood as an optic that is adapted and arranged to modify a wavelength of an electromagnetic wave. This may, for example, serve to adjust a colour of light. A reflective optic should preferably be understood as an optic that is adapted and arranged to reflect electromagnetic waves. A preferred reflective optic is a mirror or a reflection grating.

[0405] Lavers of a second kind, a further kind and an even-further kind

[0406] In an aspect of the invention, it is preferred that a layer of the second kind comprises less than 20 wt-%, more preferably less than 15 wt-%, even more preferably less than 10 wt-%, further preferably less than 5 wt-%, and even further preferably less than 1.5 wt-%, based on a total weight of the layer of the second kind, of an oxide, more preferably silicon dioxide.

[0407] In an aspect of the invention, it is preferred that a layer of the further kind comprises less than 20 wt-%, more preferably less than 15 wt-%, even more preferably less than 10 wt-%, further preferably less than 5 wt-%, and even further preferably less than 1.5 wt-%, based on a total weight of the layer of the further kind, of a nitride, more preferably silicon nitride.

[0408] In an aspect of the invention, it is preferred that a layer of the even-further kind comprises less than 20 wt-%, more preferably less than 15 wt-%, even more preferably less than 10 wt-%, further preferably less than 5 wt-%, and even further preferably less than 1.5 wt-%, based on a total weight of the layer of the even-further kind, of a nitride, more preferably silicon nitride.

[0409] In an aspect of the invention, it is particularly preferred that a layer of the further kind comprises at least 50 wt-%, more preferably at least 65 wt-%, even more preferably at least 75 wt-%, further preferably at least 85 wt-%, and even further preferably at least 95 wt-%, based on a total weight of the layer of the further, of an oxide, more preferably silicon dioxide.

[0410] In an aspect of the invention, it is particularly preferred that a layer of the even-further kind comprises at least 50 wt-%, more preferably at least 65 wt-%, even more preferably at least 75 wt-%, further preferably at least 85 wt-%, and even further preferably at least 95 wt-%, based on a total weight of the layer of the even-further, of an oxide, more preferably silicon dioxide.

[0411] In an aspect of the invention, it is preferred that a distance Dsx between the element of the first kind and the layer of the second kind is less than 20 nm, more preferably less than 15 nm, even more preferably less than 10 nm, further preferably less than 7 nm, further preferably less than 5 nm, further preferably less than 3 nm, and even further preferably less than 1 nm. Here the distance Dsx is measured along the first direction, and is defined as the maximum distance, measured along the first direction, between the element of the first kind and the layer of the second kind. This aspect is a preferred aspect of any of the embodiments of the first method for producing a layered structure, the first layered structure, the further layered structure, the method for producing an opto-electronic device, the device, and the use of the layered structure to produce an opto-electronic device.

[0412] In an aspect of the invention, it is particularly preferred that the layer of the second kind comprises at least one carbide, at least one metal alloy, at least one oxide, a combination of at least two thereof.

[0413] Layered structure

[0414] In an aspect of the invention, it is preferred that the layered structure comprises a plurality of elements of the first kind. In this aspect, it is preferred that the layered structure comprises at least 2, more preferably at least 10, even more preferably at least 20, further preferably at least 100, further preferably at least 500, and even further preferably at least 1000 elements of the first kind.

[0415] In the preferred aspect of the invention wherein the layered structure comprises a plurality of elements of the first kind, it is a preferred that a layer of a second kind is superimposed on at least 50 %, more preferably on at least 75 %, and further preferably on at least 95 % of the elements of the first kind. Here each element of the first kind may have a separate layer of the second kind superimposed thereon, or two or more elements may have the same layer of the second kind superimposed thereon.

[0416] In the preferred aspect of the invention wherein the layered structure comprises a plurality of elements of the first kind, it is a preferred that a further section of a first layer of the further kind is arranged at a first distance I3 from at least 50 %, more preferably at least 75 %, and further preferably at least 95 % of the elements of the first kind. Here each element of the first kind may have a separate further section of a first layer of the further kind arranged at a first distance I3, or two or more elements of the first kind may share the same further section of the first layer of the further kind.

[0417] Chemical composition of components

[0418] Examples of transitional metals are molybdenum and tungsten. A chalcogen is defined as a chemical element in Group 16 of the periodic table (e.g., S, Se, and Te). An example of a combination of at least one transitional metal and at least one chalcogen is a transition metal dichalcogenide (e.g., M0S2, WS2, MoSe2, WSe2, MoTe2). A conductive polymer should preferably be understood as an organic polymer that is adapted and arranged to conduct electricity. A preferred conductive polymer has an electrical conductivity, at 20 °C, of at least 104S / m, more preferably of at least 105S / m, even more preferably of at least 106S / m.

[0419] A conductive oxide should preferably be understood as an oxide that is adapted and arranged to conduct electricity. A preferred conductive oxide has an electrical conductivity, at 20 °C, of at least 104S / m, more preferably of at least 105S / m, even more preferably of at least 106S / m.

[0420] In an aspect of the invention, a preferred form of carbon is graphene. In an aspect of the invention, a preferred metal is a transitional metal. In an aspect of the invention, a preferred nitride is boron nitride, more preferably hexagonal boron nitride.

[0421] A perovskite should preferably be understood as a chemical compound that has the same crystal structure as calcium titanate (CaTiOaj. An example of a perovskite is a calcium titanium oxide mineral composed of calcium titanate A 2D material should preferably be understood as a solid, preferably a crystalline solid. In one aspect of the invention, it is preferred that a 2D material consists of a single layer of atoms. In another aspect of the invention, it is preferred that the 2D material comprises more than one layer of atoms (e.g., more than one individual atomic plane), where these layers are bonded to each other by van der Waals forces.

[0422] Waveguide

[0423] In an aspect of the invention, it is preferred that the element of the first kind is a waveguide that is adapted and arranged for the propagation of electromagnetic waves. Preferred waveguides include, but at not limited to, strip waveguides, rib waveguides, slot waveguides, buried waveguides, and diffused waveguides.

[0424] A preferred waveguide adapted and arranged for the propagation of electromagnetic waves, more preferably electromagnetic waves that have wavelengths in the range from 1000 to 2700 nm, even more preferably from 1100 to 2600 nm, and further preferably from 1200 to 2500 nm.

[0425] A preferred waveguide is adapted and arranged for the propagation of electromagnetic waves that have wavelengths in at least one or all of the following ranges: 1260 nm to 1360 nm (also known as the Original Band or O-Band), 1360 nm to 1460 nm (also known as the Extend Band or E-Band), 1460 nm to 1530 nm (also known as the Short Band or S-Band), 1530 nm to 1565 nm (also known as the Conventional Band or C-Band), and 1565 nm to 1625 nm (also known as the Long Band or L-Band). In an aspect of the invention, it is particularly preferred that an element of the first kind is a waveguide that is adapted and arranged for the propagation of electromagnetic waves that have wavelengths in the O-band, the C-band, or both.

[0426] Where it is disclosed that the waveguide is adapted and arranged for the propagation of electromagnetic waves that have wavelengths in a given wavelength range, this should not be understood to mean that the waveguide is only adapted for the propagation of electromagnetic waves in that given wavelength range. Rather, it should preferably be understood to mean that the waveguide is at least adapted and arranged for the propagation of electromagnetic waves in the given wavelength range. A preferred waveguide has a length in the range of 100 nm to 400 pm, preferably in the range of 500 nm to 250 pm, and more preferably in the range of 10 pm to 100 pm. A preferred waveguide has a width in the range of 100 nm to 400 pm, preferably in the range of 500 nm to 100 pm, and more preferably in the range of 1 pm to 10 pm.

[0427] A preferred waveguide comprises at least one or all of the following: silicon, oxygen, aluminium, iridium, tantalum, titanium, nitrogen, lithium, niobium, indium, phosphorus, gallium, arsenic, barium, a chalcogenide, at least one polymer, a resin, a combination of at least two thereof. Examples of combinations of the aforementioned materials include titanium dioxide, aluminium nitride, tantalum pentoxide, silicon nitride, aluminium oxide, silicon oxynitride, lithium niobate, silica, indium phosphide, gallium arsenide, indium gallium arsenide, barium titanate, and aluminium gallium arsenide. A preferred chalcogenide is a dichalcogenide, more preferably a transition metal dichalcogenide.

[0428] Masking layer

[0429] A preferred masking layer is adapted and arranged for at least partially protecting a first section of a component, onto which the masking layer is superimposed, during a process of reducing a thickness of a further section of the component. It is preferred that the masking layer is adapted and arranged to be used during at least one or all of the following: etching, patterning, laser ablation, chemical-mechanical polishing, or a combination of at least two thereof. A preferred masking layer is a photoresist, more preferably a positive photoresist. Photoresists are well- known to the skilled person, and are commercially available from, e.g., MicroChemicals GmbH, Germany (such as AZ® MIR 701).

[0430] Wafer layer

[0431] A wafer layer should preferably be understood as a layer of material from which a wafer can be produced and / or that can be used as a wafer. A preferred wafer layer is used for the production of integrated circuits. A preferred wafer layer comprises a semiconductor substrate, more preferably a monolithic semiconductor substrate. A preferred semiconductor substrate comprises silicon, more preferably crystalline silicon. A preferred wafer layer comprises at least one integrated electronic element, preferably at least one integrated electronic element arranged on the semiconductor substrate, at least partially arranged in the semiconductor substrate, or both.

[0432] A preferred wafer layer has a thickness in the range from 200 pm to 1100 pm, more preferably in the range from 250 pm to 975 pm, and further preferably in the range from 300 pm to 900 pm.

[0433] Preferably, when a wafer layer is viewed in cross-section, the wafer layer’s vertical structure can be divided into different sub-layers. The lowest sub-layer is preferably the Front-End-of-Line (FEOL). A preferred FEOL sub-layer comprises one or more integrated electronics elements. Examples of integrated electronic elements include transistors, capacitors, and resistors. Preferably, a back-end-of-line (BEOL) sub-layer is superimposed on the FEOL sublayer. A preferred BEOL sub-layer comprises at least one or more metal layers, by means of which the integrated electronic elements of the FEOL are electrically connected. Wafer layers suitable for the present invention are well-known to the skilled person, and are commercially available from, e.g., United Microelectronics Corporation (Taiwan) and Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company Limited (Taiwan).

[0434] If the layered structure and / or the intermediate layer structure comprise a wafer layer, it is preferred, but not required, that the first direction is oriented perpendicular to the wafer layer. If the layered structure and / or the intermediate layer structure comprise a wafer layer, it is preferred, but not required, that a first surface of a component faces away from the wafer layer.

[0435] Electrically conducting element

[0436] A preferred electrically conducting element has a width in the range of 10 nm to 40 pm, more preferably in the range of 100 nm to 20 pm, and further preferably in the range of 500 nm to 1 pm. A preferred electrically conducting element has a length in the range of 100 nm to 400 pm, more preferably in the range of 500 nm to 250 pm, and further preferably in the range of 10 pm to 100 pm. A preferred electrically conducting element has a thickness in the range of 0.1 nm to 100 nm, more preferably in the range of 0.7 nm to 50 nm, and further preferably in the range of 1.5 nm to 10 nm.

[0437] A preferred electrically conducting element has an electrical conductivity, at 20 °C, of at least 104S / m, more preferably at least 105S / m, even more preferably at least 106S / m, and further preferably at least 107S / m. The values for the electrical conductivity are preferably for an electrically conducting element that has a thickness of 0.35 nm. A preferred electrically conducting element is in the form of a layer. A preferred electrically conducting element comprises graphene, at least one perovskite, or a combination thereof. Graphene is particularly preferred.

[0438] The at least one property

[0439] A hardness should preferably be understood as at least one or all of the following: a scratch hardness, an indentation hardness, a rebound hardness, or a combination of at least two thereof. A scratch hardness should preferably be understood as a measure of how resistant a component is to fracture and / or plastic deformation, preferably due to friction. Indention hardness should preferably be understood as a measure of how resistant a component is to deformation, preferably due to a constant compression load. Rebound hardness should preferably be understood as a measure of an elasticity of a component.

[0440] A chemical reaction rate should preferable be understood as the rate at which a chemical reaction, that involves at least one processing chemical substance and at least one component as reactants, takes place. A chemical reaction rate is preferably determined by measuring the amount of at least one product that is formed per unit time. Here the at least one product is formed as a result of the chemical reaction.

[0441] A processing chemical substance should preferably be understood as a chemical substance that is used in a thickness-reducing technique.

[0442] A first chemical reaction rate should preferably be understood as a chemical reaction rate of a chemical reaction that involves a first processing chemical substance as a reactant. A further chemical reaction rate should preferably be understood as a chemical reaction rate of a chemical reaction that involves a further processing chemical substance as a reactant.

[0443] If a first chemical reaction rate of a component of one kind is larger than a first chemical reaction rate of a component of another kind, this should preferably be understood as follows: a chemical reaction rate of a chemical reaction that involves a first processing chemical substance and the component of one kind is larger than a chemical reaction rate of a chemical reaction that involves the same, first processing chemical substance and the component of another kind. E.g., a layer of the second kind and a layer of the further kind are both exposed to the same slurry, with the chemical reaction rate between the layer of the further kind and the slurry being larger than the chemical reaction rate between the layer of the second kind and the slurry.

[0444] If a further chemical reaction rate of a component of one kind is larger than a further chemical reaction rate of a component of another kind, this should preferably be understood as follows: a chemical reaction rate of a chemical reaction that involves a further processing chemical substance and the component of one kind is larger than a chemical reaction rate of a chemical reaction that involves the same, further processing chemical substance and the component of another kind. E.g., a layer of the second kind and a layer of the further kind are both exposed to the same etchant, with the chemical reaction rate between the layer of the second kind and the etchant being larger than the chemical reaction rate between the layer of the further kind and the etchant.

[0445] An etch rate should preferable be understood as the rate at which a thickness of a component and / or a section of a component is reduced when the component and / or a section of a component is subjected to etching. A selectively should preferably be understood as the ratio of etch rates for two components, more preferably the ratio of etch rates for two components of different kinds. For example, when exposed to a first processing chemical substance, an element of a first kind has a first etch rate and a layer of a second kind has a second etch rate, with the ratio of the first etch rate to the second etch rate defining the selectivity.

[0446] A first etch rate should preferably be understood as the etch rate when a component and / or a section of a component is subjected to a first etching method, preferably be contacting the component and / or a section of a component with a first etchant. A further etch rate should preferably be understood as the etch rate when a component and / or a section of a component is subjected to a further etching method, preferably be contacting the component and / or a section of a component with a further etchant.

[0447] A material removal rate should preferably be understood as the rate at which a thickness of a component and / or a section of a component is reduced during employment of a method adapted and arranged to reduce the thickness of the component and / or the section of the component. An example of a material removal rate is a polishing rate in chemical-mechanical polishing.

[0448] A first material removal rate should preferably be understood as the material removal rate when a component and / or a section of a component is subjected to a first thickness-reducing technique. A further material removal rate should preferably be understood as the material removal rate when a component and / or a section of a component is subjected to a further thickness-reducing technique. Two components should preferably be understood as having the same chemical composition when both of the two components comprise at least 95 wt-% of the same chemical substance. Two components should preferably be understood as having a different chemical composition when both of the two components comprise less than 95 wt- % of the same chemical substance.

[0449] An oxidation rate should preferably be understood as the rate at which the oxidation reaction, involving a component as a reactant, takes place.

[0450] Properties such as an optical attenuation coefficient and refractive index should preferably be understood as being wavelength dependent. In one or more preferred aspects of the invention wherein the at least one property that varies between two components includes an optical attenuation coefficient and / or a refractive index, this should preferably be understood to include one or all of the following i. an optical attenuation coefficient measured for a first wavelength range; ii. a refractive index measured for a further wavelength range.

[0451] In an aspect of the invention, it is preferred that the first wavelength range at least partially overlaps with the further wavelength range. In another aspect of the invention, it is preferred that the first wavelength range does not overlap with the further wavelength range.

[0452] A component according to the present invention preferably has a refractive index in the range of 0.1 to 10, more preferably in the range of 0.5 to 10, and further preferably in the range of 1 to 6.

[0453] A laser ablation rate should preferably be understood as the rate at which a thickness of a component and / or a section of a component is reduced during employment of laser ablation.

[0454] Height of a component

[0455] The height of a component should preferably be understood as a maximum height, i.e., the height is measured at a position where the component has a maximum height.

[0456] Superimposed

[0457] A component according to the invention preferably has a first surface, and a further surface opposite the first surface. If a component Y is superimposed on a component X, this should preferably be understood to means that the component Y is superimposed on at least the first surface of the component X.

[0458] If a component Y is superimposed on a component X, this should preferably be understood to mean that the component Y at least partially covers a surface of the component X, preferably the first surface of component X. However, this should not be understood to mean that 100 % of a surface area of the component X, preferably the surface area of the first surface of component X, is necessarily covered by the component Y. E.g., if component Y is superimposed on the first surface of component X, then component Y may cover 100 % of the surface area of the first surface of component X, or component Y may cover less than 100 % of the surface area of the first surface of component X. If a component Y is superimposed on a component X, then the components Y and X may touch each other. However, if a component Y is superimposed on a component X, this should not be understood to mean that the components X and Y necessarily have to touch each other. E.g., the component Y is superimposed on the component X, wherein a component Z is arranged between the components X and Y, i.e., the components X and Y both touch the component Z, but the components X and Y do not touch each other. E.g., the component Y is superimposed on the component X, and the components X and Y touch other.

[0459] Thickness and reducing a thickness of a component

[0460] A component according to the invention preferably has a first surface, and a further surface opposite the first surface. The first and further surfaces preferably define a thickness of the component. A thickness should preferably be understood as a maximum thickness, i.e., the thickness is measured at a position where the component has a maximum thickness. Where it is disclosed that a thickness of a component is reduced, this should preferably be understood to disclose both of the following: the thickness of the component is reduced, without complete removal of the component; the component is completely removed. Where it is disclosed that a thickness of a section of a component is reduced, this should preferably be understood to disclose both of the following: the thickness of the section of the component is reduced, without complete removal of the section of the component; the section of the component is completely removed.

[0461] Thickness-reducing technique

[0462] A thickness-reducing technique should preferably be understood as a method that is adapted and arranged for reducing a thickness of a component and / or a section of a component. Various thickness-reducing techniques are well known in the art. Any method, which the skilled person deems suitable for the present invention, may be used. Examples of methods adapted and arranged for reducing a thickness of a component and / or a section of a component include etching, patterning, laser ablation, chemical-mechanical polishing, oxidation of the component, or a combination of at least two or more thereof.

[0463] A first thickness-reducing technique preferably uses a first processing chemical substance to reduce the thickness of a component and / or a section of a component. A preferred first thickness-reducing technique is chemical-mechanical polishing. If the first thickness-reducing technique is chemical-mechanical polishing, then the first processing chemical substance is preferably a slurry.

[0464] A further thickness-reducing technique preferably uses a further processing chemical substance to reduce the thickness of a component and / or a section of a component. A preferred further thickness-reducing technique is etching, such as wet etching, dry etching, or a combination thereof. If the further thickness-reducing technique is etching, then the further processing chemical substance is preferably an etchant. Wet etching is a particularly preferred further thickness-reducing technique.

[0465] When a layer and / or element is at least partially exposed, this should preferably be understood to mean that at least a part of a first surface of the layer and / or element is exposed. Etching

[0466] Various etching methods for, e.g., reducing a thickness of a component and / or a section of a component, are well known in the art. Any etching method, which the skilled person deems suitable for the present invention, may be used. These etching methods include wet etching methods and dry etching methods. Examples of suitable dry etching methods include plasma etching, reactive-ion etching, ion beam etching, and vapour phase etching. A preferred etching method uses at least one masking layer to mask at least one section of the component being etched.

[0467] An etchant should preferably be understood as a processing chemical substance that is used during an etching method. A preferred etchant can be a liquid, a gas, or a combination thereof.

[0468] Preferred processing chemical substances that are suitable to be used for a wet etching method include, but are not limited to, hydrofluoric acid, buffered hydrofluoric acid, buffered oxide etch, ammonium fluoride, phosphoric acid, and combinations of at least two or more thereof. Preferred processing chemical substances that are suitable to be used for a dry etching method include, but are not limited to, boron trichloride (BCE), hydrofluoric acid, buffered hydrofluoric acid, buffered oxide etch, ammonium fluoride, phosphoric acid, chlorine (CI2), sulphur hexafluoride (SFe), hydrobromic acid (HBr), tetrafluoromethane (CF4), trifluoromethane (CHF3), 1 ,2-difluoroethylene (C2H2F2), methyl fluoride (CH3F), and combinations of at least two or more thereof.

[0469] Paterning

[0470] Various paterning methods for, e.g., reducing a thickness of a component and / or a section of a component, are well known in the art. Any patterning method, which the skilled person deems suitable for the present invention, may be used.

[0471] A preferred patterning method uses lithography. Various lithography methods are also well known in the art. Any lithography method, which the skilled person deems suitable for the present invention, may be used. These lithography methods include, but are not limited to, photolithography (such as deep ultraviolet lithography, extreme ultraviolet lithography), electron beam lithography, nanoimprint lithography, interference lithography, magneto-lithography, scanning probe lithography, surface-charge lithography, and diffraction lithography.

[0472] A preferred patterning method comprises the steps of depositing a masking layer, such as a photoresist, on a component; removing at least one section of the making layer to expose at least one section of the component; etching the at least one exposed section of the component. After the at least one exposed section of the component has been etched, it is preferred to remove the masking layer.

[0473] Chemical-mechanical polishing

[0474] Chemical-mechanical polishing (CMP) should preferably be understood as a method that uses a combination of chemical and mechanical forces, with CMP adapted and arranged for at least one or all of the following: to reduce a thickness of a component and / or a section of a component; to polish a surface, preferably a first surface, of a component and / or a section of a component. A preferred CMP uses a slurry in combination with a rotating pad. A preferred pad comprises a polymer. A preferred slurry comprises at least one liquid and particles mixed with the at least one liquid. A preferred slurry is in the form of a colloid. The particles in a preferred slurry comprise at least one or all of the following: aluminium oxide, cerium oxide, zirconium oxide, titanium oxide, thorium oxide, silica, ceria, a combination of at least two thereof.

[0475] Any CMP process parameters, including the chemical composition of the slurry and the rotation rate of the rotating pad, which the skilled person deems suitable for the present invention, may be used. Suitable slurries are commercially available from, e.g., BASF SE (Germany) and Hitachi Chemical Co Ltd (Japan). Any CMP machine, which the skilled person deems suitable for the present invention, may be used. Examples of a CMP machine include the F-REX200M2 or F-REX300X, both commercially available from Ebara Engineering Singapore Pte Ltd.

[0476] Vapour deposition

[0477] Various chemical vapour deposition (CVD) methods, e.g., for depositing a component Y onto a component X, are well known in the art. Any CVD method, which the skilled person deems suitable for the present invention, may be used. These CVD methods include, but are not limited to, atmospheric pressure CVD (APCVD), low-pressure CVD (LPCVD), ultrahigh vacuum CVD (UHCVD), plasma-enhanced CVD (PECVD), atomic-layer deposition (ALD), and metalorganic CVD (MOCVD).

[0478] Various physical vapour deposition (PVD) methods, e.g., for depositing a component Y onto a component X, are well known in the art. Any PVD method, which the skilled person deems suitable for the present invention, may be used. These PVD methods include, but are not limited to, sputtering and evaporation deposition methods. Evaporation deposition methods pertain to the evaporation and condensation of a chemical substance on a component. Suitable sputtering deposition methods include, but are not limited to, high-power impulse magnetron sputtering, high-target-utilisation sputtering, ion beam sputtering, reactive sputtering, ion-assisted deposition, and gas flow sputtering.

[0479] Chemical substance

[0480] A chemical substance should preferably be understood as comprising at least one chemical element, at least one chemical compound, or a combination thereof. A preferred chemical substance may be a liquid, a solid, a gas, or a combination thereof. A preferred chemical substance may be in the form of a mixture, a sol, an emulsion, a colloid, or a combination of at least two thereof.

[0481] An example of a chemical substance is an etchant used for wet etching, and a slurry used for chemical-mechanical polishing.

[0482] Modification

[0483] Modification of an electromagnetic wave should preferably be understood as the modification of one or more properties of an electromagnetic wave. Examples of the properties include amplitude, phase, frequency, and polarisation. In an aspect of the invention, it is preferred that an amplitude is modified by an opto-electronic device. Examples of modifying at least one property of an electromagnetic wave is a modulation of the electromagnetic wave, an at least partial absorption of the electromagnetic wave, or both.

[0484] In an aspect of the invention, it is preferred that the at least one property of an electromagnetic wave is modified by modulation, preferably for the transmission of information, more preferably by imposing a signal on the electromagnetic wave. In this aspect, it is preferred that an amplitude is modulated. In another aspect of the invention, it is preferred that the at least one property of an electromagnetic wave is modified by the at least partial absorption of the electromagnetic wave, preferably for the transmission of information.

[0485] Optical attenuation coefficient

[0486] The optical attenuation coefficient should preferably be understood to be a measure that describes the extent to which a radiant flux of a beam of electromagnetic waves is reduced per unit length when it passes through a specific material.

[0487] Variable optical attenuation coefficient

[0488] An electrically conducting element that is adapted and arranged to have a variable optical attenuation coefficient should preferably be understood to mean that an optical attenuation coefficient of the electrically conducting element can be modified, preferably when the electrically conducting element is placed in an external electrical field and / or an electric field is present between the electrically conducting element and at least one other component (e.g., another electrically conducting element). For example, the optical attenuation coefficient of an electrically conducting element can be increased or decreased when a first electrically conducting element and a second electrically conducting element are electrically charged such that an electric field is present between the first electrically conducting element and the second electrically conducting element. In an aspect of the invention, it is preferred that the optical attenuation coefficient can be reduced, preferably by at least 20 %, more preferably by at least 50 %, and further preferably by at least 85 %.

[0489] In an aspect of the invention, if an electrically conducting element is adapted and arranged to have a variable optical attenuation coefficient, it is preferred that the optical attenuation coefficient is modifiable for multiple wavelengths of electromagnetic waves, preferably for electromagnetic waves that have wavelengths in the range of 1200 nm to 1700 nm.

[0490] Graphene

[0491] Graphene suitable for the present invention is commercially available from, e.g., Graphenea S.A. (Spain), Graphene Laboratories Inc. (USA), and Grolltex Inc (USA). Biomolecules and biomarkers

[0492] Example of biomolecules include DNA, amino acids, fat, constituents of animal or human cells, and proteins. A biomarker should preferably be understood as a marker for biomolecules, wherein the biomarker is adapted and arranged to attach to biomolecules, preferably to make the biomolecules detectable (e.g., by fluorescence).

[0493] Opto-electronic interaction

[0494] A waveguide that is adapted and arranged for opto-electronic interaction with a component should preferably be understood to mean that electromagnetic waves that propagate in the waveguide can interact with the component. An example of the component includes an electrically conducting element. A preferred opto-electronic interaction modifies at least one property of the electromagnetic waves that propagate in the waveguide.

[0495] An opto-electronic device should preferably be understood as a device that controls and / or detects electromagnetic waves. An example of controlling electromagnetic waves is the modulation of electromagnetic waves. An example of detecting electromagnetic waves is the at least partial absorption of electromagnetic waves.

[0496] Electrically charged and discharged

[0497] A component (e.g., the first electrically conducting element) that is adapted and arranged to be electrically charged should preferably be understood to mean that the component is adapted an arranged to store a net electrical charge, preferably on a surface of the component. A component that is adapted and arranged to be electrically charged can, for example, be charged by irradiating the component with photons.

[0498] A component (e.g., the first electrically conducting element) that is adapted and arranged to be electrically discharged should preferably be understood to mean that at least a fraction of any net charge stored by the component can be removed, thereby reducing the net electrical charge of the component.

[0499] Opto-electronic device

[0500] A preferred opto-electronic device is adapted and arranged to modify an electromagnetic wave propagating in a waveguide. Examples of preferred opto-electronic devices include modulators, photodetectors (also spelled photodetectors), and interferometers. More preferred examples are modulators and photodetectors. A preferred modulator at least partially converts an electrical signal to an optical signal. A preferred photodetector at least partially converts an optical signal to an electrical signal.

[0501] A modulator preferably modifies an electromagnetic wave by modulating the electromagnetic wave, more preferably by modulating an amplitude of the electromagnetic wave. It is preferred that the modulator modulates the electromagnetic wave for the sending of data, more preferably by imposing a signal on the electromagnetic wave. A photodetector preferably modifies an electromagnetic wave by at least partially absorbing the electromagnetic wave. The at least partial absorption of the electromagnetic wave preferably leads to a decrease in the amplitude of the electromagnetic wave. It is preferred that the photodetector at least partially absorbs the electromagnetic wave for the receiving of data. For example, if a modulator and a photodetector are in optical connection, the modulator sends data and the photodetector receives the data, e.g., data is transmitted between the modulator and photodetector.

[0502] An opto-electronic device preferably has a height that is at least 10 nm, more preferably at least 100 nm, and further preferably at least 200 nm. For example, an opto-electronic device may have a height in the range from 300 to 400 nm. A preferred opto-electronic device has a height that is equal to or less than 50 pm, preferably equal to or less than 20 pm, and more preferably equal to or less than 10 pm.

[0503] A preferred opto-electronic device comprises at least one layer of graphene. Opto-electronic devices (such as modulators and photodetectors) comprising graphene are well-known to the skilled person.

[0504] Electrical constituent

[0505] A preferred first electrical constituent is an opto-electronic device. A preferred further electrical constituent is an opto-electronic device.

[0506] An electrical constituent may comprise one or more further electrical constituents. In turn, these one or more further electrical constituents may comprise one or more other electrical constituents. For example, a sensor may comprise a chip, that in turn comprises a transistor.

[0507] Examples of an electrical constituent include a semiconductor device (e.g., a transistor, a graphene based field effect transistor, a radio frequency graphene based field effect transistor); an opto-electronic device (e.g., a modulator, a photo-detector, a broad spectrum photo-detector, a single photon photo-detectors); a heating device (e.g., a graphene heater); a measuring device (e.g., a device comprising a hall bar); a sensor (e.g., a pressure sensor, a gas sensor, a magnetic sensor, an ion sensor); an accelerometer; a detector adapted and arranged for the detection of viruses, antibodies, biomarkers, biomolecules, and / or a combination of at least two thereof; quantum dots; a microwave circuit; an antenna (e.g., a THz antenna); a chip; a die; a light emitting means (e.g., a laser); a combination of at least two thereof.

[0508] Optical connection

[0509] Two constituents that are in optical connection should preferably be understood to mean that said two constituents are adapted and arranged for a propagation (e.g., transmission) of electromagnetic waves between said two constituents. Here the two constituents can be, e.g., a light emitting means and an opto-electronic device, two opto-electronic devices (e.g., a modulator and a photodetector). Two opto-electronic devices that are in optical connection are preferably adapted and arranged for the communication (e.g., transfer) of data between the two opto-electronic devices. A modulator that is adapted and arranged to be in optical connection with a photodetector is preferably adapted and arranged to communicate data via an optical signal between the modulator and the photodetector, more preferably to transmit data via an optical signal from the modulator to the photodetector.

[0510] Two constituents that are in optical connection are not required to be in, e.g., the same assembly, the same subassembly, the same apparatus, the same system, but can be in e.g., different assemblies, different sub-assemblies, different apparatuses, different systems. Electrical connection

[0511] Two constituents that are in electrical connection should preferably be understood to mean that an electrical current can flow between the two constituents. Here the two constituents can be, e.g., an integrated circuit and an electrical constituent, an integrated circuit and an opto-electronic device, an integrated circuit and a sensing means. An electrical connection is preferably adapted and arranged for at least one or all of the following: data communication, to provide power to a constituent.

[0512] Integrated circuit

[0513] Examples of a preferred integrated circuit include the following: a processing unit, a memory unit, an applicationspecific integrated circuit, a microcontroller, a field-programmable gate array, and a system-on-chip.

[0514] A processing unit is preferably adapted and arranged to execute instructions of a computer program. Examples of these instructions include arithmetic, logic, controlling, and input / output operations. A memory unit is preferably adapted and arranged to store instructions of a computer program.

[0515] Examples of a processing unit include a central processing unit (CPU), a graphics processing unit (GPU), an X- processing unit (XPU), a tensor processing unit (TPU), a neuromorphic processing unit (NPU). Examples of a memory unit include random access memory (RAM), static RAM (SRAM), synchronous dynamic RAM (SDRAM), double data rate SDRAM (DDR SDRAM), graphics DDR SDRAM (GDDR SDRAM), flash memoiy, magnetoresistive RAM (MRAM), magnetic tunnel junction MRAM, and spin-orbit torque MRAM.

[0516] Examples of a data storage means is a hard drive and a flash drive.

[0517] Data communication

[0518] Two constituents that are in data communication should preferably be understood to mean that data can be communicated between said two constituents. Here the two constituents can be, e.g., two opto-electronic devices, an integrated circuit and an opto-electronic device, a sensing means and an opto-electronic device , an integrated circuit and a sensing means. The data may be communicated using electrical signals, optical signals, or both. Data that is communicated between a first constituent and a further constituent includes at least one or all of the following: A.] a transmission (e.g., transfer) of data from the first constituent to the further constituent, B.] a transmission (e.g., transfer) of data from the further constituent to the first constituent, both A.] and B.]. For example, the first and further constituents are a modulator and a photodetector, respectively.

[0519] An integrated circuit that is in electrical connection with an electrical constituent is preferably in data communication with the electrical constituent. An integrated circuit that is in electrical connection with a data storage means is preferably in data communication with the data storage means. An integrated circuit that is in electrical connection with a sensing means is preferably in data communication with the sensing means. Light emitting means

[0520] A light emitting means is adapted and arranged to emit electromagnetic waves. For example, a light emitting means is adapted and arranged to emit radio waves, microwaves, or optical waves. A preferred light emitting means is adapted and arranged to facilitate at least one or all of the following: communication, sensing, imaging. An example of a light emitting means is a laser.

[0521] Light and photonics

[0522] The terms “optical” and “light”, as used herein, should preferably be understood as electromagnetic radiation, more preferably electromagnetic radiation in any of the visible, infrared, and ultraviolet spectral ranges. An example of an optical signal is a signal and / or data that is communicated using electromagnetic waves. Optical data should preferably be understood as data that is communicated using electromagnetic waves.

[0523] Photonics should preferably be understood to include at least one or all of the following: generation, detection, manipulation, emission, transmission, modulation, signal processing, switching, amplification, and sensing of electromagnetic waves.

[0524] Artificial intelligence and machine learning

[0525] Artificial intelligence (Al) should preferably be understood to include at least one or all of the following: perceiving, synthesizing, inferring, predicting and / or generating information using computerised tools and / or techniques (e.g., machine learning models). Machine learning includes supervised learning (e.g., linear regression, decision trees, support vector machines), unsupervised learning (e.g., hierarchical clustering, k-means clustering), and reinforced learning. Machine learning also includes deep learning, such as convolutional neural networks and recurrent neural networks.

[0526] Sensing means

[0527] A sensing means is preferably adapted and arranged to sense (e.g., measure) at least one or all of the following: sound waves, electromagnetic waves, electrical signals, a movement, a temperature, a speed, an acceleration, a rotation. For example, a movement, a speed, an acceleration and / or a rotation may be of a mammalian body, a vehicle, a robotic body, a transportation means. It is particularly preferred that a sensing means is adapted and arranged to at least partially absorb electromagnetic waves. A sensing means is preferably adapted and arranged to generate an electrical signal, an optical signal, or both, wherein a signal generated is preferably based on an input received by the sensing means. Examples of such input include a measurement and / or the at least partial absorption of an electromagnetic wave.

[0528] A sensing means may comprise at least one or all of the following: photodetectors, photodiodes, phototransistors, image sensors, optical fibre sensors, laser diodes, optical biosensor, optical position sensors, optical touch sensors, photomultiplier tubes, avalanche photodiodes, charge-coupled devices, complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor sensors, thermal infrared detectors, photon counting detectors, superconducting nanowire single -photon detectors. Sensing unit

[0529] A sensing unit comprises a sensing means. A sensing unit preferably comprises an integrated circuit.

[0530] A sensing unit is preferably adapted and arranged to analyse and / or process data of a target area obtained by the sensing unit, wherein said data may be images, sounds, temperature measurements, and / or other sensor readings. The output of a sensing unit is preferably structured data that represents the interpretation and / or analysis of the data obtained by the sensing unit, such as a health of a patient, item detection and recognition, scene information, localization and mapping data, preferably including road geometry and / or landmarks, feature extraction results (including edges, comers, textures, shapes, and / or keypoints), and / or pattern recognition output.

[0531] Spatial information should preferably be understood as information about a space wherein an entity, such as a vehicle, a robotic body, and / or a transportation means, is located. Spatial information may include information on a presence of an item in the vicinity of the entity (e.g., a distance between the entity and the item), a speed of the entity, an acceleration of the entity, and / or a rotation of the entity.

[0532] Data communication module

[0533] A data communication module is preferably adapted and arranged to communicate data between one or more constituents, such as electrical constituents. Here the electrical constituents may be, e.g., one or more chips; one or more dies; one or more integrated circuits located in, e.g., a robotic body, a robotic system, and an assembly; a sensing means and an integrated circuit; a sensing unit and a control system.

[0534] First assembly

[0535] In a preferred aspect of the first assembly, the first sub-assembly and the further sub-assembly are part of the same chip. In another preferred aspect of the first assembly, the first sub-assembly and the further sub-assembly are part of different chips. In this aspect, the different chips may have different functions. For example, a first chip may be a processing unit, and a further chip may be a memory unit (e.g., random access memory). In one preferred aspect of the first assembly, the first sub-assembly and the further sub-assembly are part of the same computational means (such as a computer). In another preferred aspect of the first assembly, the first sub-assembly and the further subassembly are part of different computational means (such as different computers). For example, the first and further sub-assemblies are part of different computers in a computer cluster.

[0536] In a preferred aspect of the first assembly, the first sub-assembly and the further sub-assembly are adapted and arranged to communicate data between said sub-assemblies, via an optical signal, over a distance of at least X mm and / or at least Y cm. This should preferably not be understood to mean that said sub-assemblies cannot communicate data at distances that are smaller than A' mm and / or Y cm. Rather, this should preferably be understood mean that said sub-assemblies can communicate data over distances that range from 0 mm up to at least X mm and / or up to at least Y cm, and preferably distances that are larger than A' mm and / or larger than Y cm. An assembly that is adapted and arranged for communication should preferably be understood as an assembly that is adapted and arranged to communicate data over a distance of less than 10 km. An assembly that is adapted and arranged for communication may communicate the data using at least one opto-electronic device, preferably using at least one modulator and / or at least one photodetector. Alternatively, an assembly that is adapted and arranged for communication may communicate the data using at least one further communication means and at least one optoelectronic device, preferably using at least one modulator and / or at least one photodetector. Examples of a further communication means include an antenna, an optical cable (such as an optical fibre), a wired connection.

[0537] An assembly that is adapted and arranged for telecommunication should preferably be understood as an assembly that is adapted and arranged to communicate data over a distance of at least 10 km. An assembly that is adapted and arranged for telecommunication may communicate the data using at least one opto-electronic device, preferably using at least one modulator and / or at least one photodetector. Alternatively, an assembly that is adapted and arranged for telecommunication may communicate the data using at least one further communication means and at least one opto-electronic device, preferably using at least one modulator and / or at least one photodetector. Examples of a further communication means include an antenna, an optical cable (such as an optical fibre), a wired connection. An assembly that is adapted and arranged for high-performance computing preferably comprises at least one supercomputer and / or at least one computer cluster. A supercomputer should preferably be understood as a computer that can perform at least 1014floating-point operations per second. An assembly for high-performance computing is preferably adapted and arranged for parallel computing.

[0538] An assembly that is adapted and arranged for a data centre is preferably adapted and arranged to store data, and more preferably, to communicate data.

[0539] An assembly that is adapted and arranged for artificial intelligence is preferably an assembly that can be used to obtain artificial intelligence models, more preferably to obtain machine learning models, using e.g., supervised learning, semi-supervised learning, and unsupervised learning.

[0540] A switch is preferably adapted and arranged for, e.g., optically connecting two networks and / or optically connecting a computational means (such as a computer) and a network.

[0541] An optical interconnect is preferably adapted and arranged for optically connecting at least one or all of the following: at least two integrated circuits, at least two computer chips. Here the at least two integrated circuits and / or at least two computer chips may be parts of a system-in-package or a chiplet. Here the at least two integrated circuits may be part of the same chip.

[0542] A first assembly according to the invention allows for an increased data transfer rate, an improved signal-to-noise ratio, a reduced crosstalk and a reduced energy consumption. A first assembly also allows for a communication of data over increased distances, while simultaneously allowing for at least one of all of the following: a reduced energy consumption, an increased data transfer rate, an improved signal-to-noise ratio. Optical data communication module

[0543] An optical data communication module should preferably be understood as a data communication module that communicates data via optical signals. An optical data communication module is preferably adapted and arranged to communicate data via an optical signal using at least one opto-electronic device. An optical data communication module is preferably adapted and arranged to send data via an optical signal using a modulator. An optical data communication module is preferably adapted and arranged to receive data via an optical signal using a photodetector.

[0544] An optical data communication module is preferably adapted and arranged to communicate data between one or more constituents, such as electrical constituents. Here the electrical constituents may be, e.g., one or more chips; one or more dies; one or more integrated circuits located in, e.g., a robotic body, a robotic system, an assembly; a sensing means and an integrated circuit; a sensing unit and a control system.

[0545] An optical data communication module may comprise at least one or all of the following: an optical fibre, an optical interconnect.

[0546] An optical data communication module according to the invention allows for an increased bandwidth, reduced energy consumption, and a reduced error rate in the data communicated.

[0547] Electromagnetic waves from target area

[0548] Further electromagnetic waves detected by a sensing means and / or sensing unit from a target area include, amongst other, electromagnetic waves reflected by an item in the target area, and / or electromagnetic waves emitted by an item in the target area.

[0549] Optical sensing module

[0550] An optical sensing module may comprise at least one or all of the following: photodetectors, photodiodes, phototransistors, image sensors, optical fibre sensors, laser diodes, optical biosensor, optical position sensors, optical touch sensors, photomultiplier tubes, avalanche photodiodes, charge-coupled devices, complementary metal -oxide- semiconductor sensors, thermal infrared detectors: photon counting detectors, superconducting nanowire singlephoton detectors.

[0551] Examples of optics include lenses, prisms, and diffraction gratings.

[0552] An example of an optical sensing module is disclosed in WO2023076132 Al .

[0553] An optical sensing module according to the present invention allows for improved sensing capabilities and performance. Specifically, the optical sensing module according to the present invention allows for enhanced sensitivity, improved signal-to-noise ratio, reduced crosstalk and reduced energy consumption, allowing for an improved performance and versatility in various sensing applications. Apparatus adapted and arranged for a medical application

[0554] A medical application should preferably be understood as including at least one or all of the following: monitoring a health of a patient, diagnosing a pathological condition in a patient; maintaining a state of health of a patient; sending and / or receiving data from a further apparatus, preferably a further apparatus adapted and arranged for a medical application; controlling a further apparatus, preferably a further apparatus adapted and arranged for a medical application. Here a patient is preferably a mammal, and more preferably a human. The apparatus may be implantable in a patient (internal use) and / or may be for use outside a body of a patient.

[0555] Examples of a physical property of a body include an oxygen concentration (e.g., of blood, tissue), a temperature of the body, a heart rate of the body, a blood glucose level. Examples of a sensing means adapted and arranged to measure at least one physical property of a body include a blood glucose monitor, a heart rate monitor, a thermometer, an oximeter.

[0556] The apparatus is preferably adapted and arranged to communicate data via an optical signal by using at least one opto-electronic device, preferably using at least one modulator and / or at least one photodetector. The apparatus preferably comprises one or more integrated circuits, more preferably one or more integrated circuits adapted and arranged to control the at least one opto-electronic device.

[0557] An apparatus, adapted and arranged for a medical application, and according to the present invention, allows for an improved patient safety, an improved monitoring of the health of a patient and an improved diagnosing of a pathological condition in a patient. An apparatus according to the invention also allows for an improved sensitivity, an increased data transfer rate, an improved signal-to-noise ratio, a reduced crosstalk and a reduced energy consumption.

[0558] Vehicle adapted and arranged for flight

[0559] A vehicle, adapted and arranged for flight, is preferably adapted and arranged to communicate data via an optical signal by using at least one opto-electronic device, preferably using at least one modulator and / or at least one photodetector. Here the communication of data may be a communication of data within the vehicle, between the vehicle and another entity (e.g., another vehicle, a ground station), or both. It is particularly preferred that the communication of data is within the vehicle, e.g., between a sensing unit and an integrated circuit in the vehicle.

[0560] Flight should preferably be understood to include both controlled flight and uncontrolled flight. Here controlled flight should preferably be understood to mean that a movement of the vehicle can be controlled by, e.g., a human operator and / or an integrated circuit (such as a processing unit). For example, an airplane is adapted and arranged for controlled flight by a human and / or an autopilot. Here the vehicle may be controlled remotely. Uncontrolled flight should preferably be understood to mean that a movement of the vehicle is generally not controlled by, e.g., a human operator and / or an integrated circuit (such as a processing unit). For example, a weather balloon is generally adapted and arranged for uncontrolled flight. Flight should preferably be understood to include flight in the atmosphere, as well as above the atmosphere. Flight should preferably be understood to include an orbit of the vehicle, e.g., around the Earth. Examples of a propulsion means include an engine, jet propulsion, burners of a hot-air balloon, an envelope of a hot-air balloon, a balloon. Here engines include, but are not limited to, jet engines and turbine engines.

[0561] An example of a means for generating lift is wings.

[0562] A control system preferably comprises a control means and / or a control module. Examples of a control means include a rudder, an elevator, and an aileron. Example of a control module is an integrated circuit that is adapted and arranged to control a movement of a control means.

[0563] A vehicle adapted and arranged for flight may be used for commercial and / or defence purposes.

[0564] A vehicle, adapted and arranged for flight, and according to the present invention, allows for an improved safety of the vehicle, including passengers in the vehicle, an improved control of the vehicle, an improved control of the vehicle when operated remotely, and an improved communication with the vehicle (e.g., including a tracking of the vehicle, a faster data transfer rate, less disruption when communication with the vehicle).

[0565] Robotic system

[0566] A term robotic system should preferably be understood to comprise a robotic body that is designed to perform tasks autonomously and / or under remote control. In a preferred aspect of the robotic system, the robotic system is adapted and arranged for an autonomous movement of the robotic body.

[0567] A robotic system may be used for commercial and / or defence purposes. For example, a robot system can comprise an industrial robot, a service robot, a personal and domestic robot, an educational robot, a research robot, an entertainment robot. A robotic body may be a robotic arm. Robotic arms typically comprise multiple segments connected by joints, resembling a human arm.

[0568] In a preferred aspect of the robotic system, the robotic system comprises a data communication module, more preferably an optical data communication module. In this aspect, it is particularly preferred that the data communication module is arranged in the robotic body. In this aspect, it is alternatively preferred that the data communication module is arranged at a location that is removed from the robotic body (e.g., does not touch the robotic body). In this aspect, it is alternatively preferred that the data communication module is partly arranged in both the robotic body (e.g., some sub-modules of the data communication module are arranged in the robotic body, while other submodules of the data communication module are arranged at a location that is removed from the robotic body). In this aspect, it is preferred that the data communication module is adapted and arranged for at least one or all of the following: data communication in the robotic body (more preferred), data communication between the robotic body and an external entity. An example of the communicating of data in the robotic body is the transfer of data between different parts of the robotic body (e.g., between different computer chips located in the robotic body). An example of the communicating of data between the robotic body and an external entity is the transfer of data between the robotic body and a computer that is located outside the robotic body.

[0569] In a particularly preferred aspect of the robotic system, the robotic body comprises a sensing unit. In another preferred aspect of the robotic system, the sensing unit is arranged at a location that is removed from the robotic body (e.g., does not touch the robotic body). In another preferred aspect of the robotic system, the sensing unit is partly arranged in both the robotic body (e.g., some sub-modules of the sensing unit are arranged in the robotic body, while other sub-modules of the sensing unit are arranged at a location that is removed from the robotic body).

[0570] In a particularly preferred aspect of the robotic system, the robotic body comprises a control module. In another preferred aspect of the robotic system, the control module is arranged at a location that is removed from the robotic body (e.g., does not touch the robotic body). In another preferred aspect of the robotic system, the control module is partly arranged in both the robotic body (e.g., some sub-modules of the control module are arranged in the robotic body, while other sub-modules of the control module are arranged at a location that is removed from the robotic body).

[0571] In a particularly preferred aspect of the robotic system, at least one or all of the following forms part of the robotic body: a data communication module, the sensing unit, the control module. In an alternatively preferred aspect of the robotic system, the robotic body does not comprise the data communication module, the sensing unit, or the control module.

[0572] The robotic system according to the present invention allows for improved reliability of the robotic system, improved communication (e.g., data transfer rate) in the robotic system, improved safety, increased versatility of the robotic system, and a reduced energy usage of the robotic system.

[0573] Second assembly

[0574] A second assembly is preferably adapted and arranged for optical computing. A second assembly as used herein should preferably be understood as a computational architecture that uses the principles of optics and photonics for at least one or all of the following: data processing, data transmission, data storage.

[0575] In a preferred aspect of the second assembly, the at least one or more memory units is at least one or more optical memory units and the at least one of more processors is at least one or more optical processors.

[0576] In a preferred aspect of the second assembly, a memory unit comprises at least one or all of the following: a modulator, a photodetector. In a preferred aspect of the second assembly, a processor comprises at least one or all of the following: a modulator, a photodetector.

[0577] An optical processor preferably comprises at least one or all of the following: an optical switch, an optical transistor. Examples of optical processor include photonic integrated circuits (PICs), Fourier optical processors, optical neural networks (ONNs), all-optical switches, and quantum optical processors.

[0578] Examples of an optical memory unit include holographic memory, photorefractive crystals, optical RAM (ORAM), phase change materials and optical fibre delay lines.

[0579] In a preferred aspect of the second assembly, at least one electrical constituent (e.g., a modulator, a photodetector) is arranged in at least one or all of the following: the at least one processor, the at least one memory unit, the data communications module. If “at least one electrical constituent is arranged in the at least one processer and the at least one memory unit”, this should preferably be understood to mean that at least one electrical constituent is arranged in at least one processor and at least one electrical constituent is arranged in at least one memory unit (i.e., the second assembly comprises at least two electrical constituents). If “at least one electrical constituent is arranged in the at least one processer and the data communication module”, this should preferably be understood to mean that at least one electrical constituent is arranged in at least one processor and at least one electrical constituent is arranged in at data communication module (i.e., the second assembly comprises at least two electrical constituents). If “at least one electrical constituent is arranged in the data communication module and the at least one memory unit”, this should preferably be understood to mean that at least one electrical constituent is arranged in the data communication module and at least one electrical constituent is arranged in at least one memory unit (i.e., the second assembly comprises at least two electrical constituents). If “at least one electrical constituent is arranged in the at least one processor, the at least one memory unit, and the data communication module”, this should preferably be understood to mean that at least one electrical constituent is arranged in at least one processor, at least one electrical constituent is arranged in at least one memory unit, and at least one electrical constituent is arranged in the data communication module (i.e., the second assembly comprises at least three electrical constituents).

[0580] The second assembly according to the invention allows for an increased computational speed, improved energy efficiency, improved scalability, and an improved resistance to electromagnetic interference.

[0581] Optical computing is described in, e.g., WO2023145206 Al and WO2021245701 Al .

[0582] Third assembly

[0583] Homomorphic encryption should preferably be understood as a form of encryption that allows mathematical operations to be performed on encrypted data without decrypting said data first. E.g., it enables computations to be carried out directly on ciphertext, yielding an encrypted result that, when decrypted, corresponds to the result of the operations performed on the unencrypted data. Photonic homomorphic encryption should preferably be understood as an encryption technique that combines principles of both photonics and homomorphic encryption to enable computations on encrypted data using optical signals. In photonic homomorphic encryption, encryption and / or decryption are performed using photonic components and techniques, while homomorphic properties are preserved to allow computations on the encrypted data without decryption. A third assembly adapted and arranged for photonic homomorphic encryption is preferably used for at least one or all of the following: secure data processing, cloud computing, secure multiparty computation, and privacy -preserving data analysis.

[0584] Examples of photonic encryption and / or decryption modules include optical phase encoders and / or decoders, optical polarization encoders and / or decoders, optical frequency encoders and / or decoders, optical chaos-based encryption and / or decryption modules, a quantum key distribution system, and an optical one-time pad system.

[0585] In a preferred aspect of the third assembly, the third assembly comprises at least one or all of the following: a modulator, a photodetector.

[0586] In a preferred aspect of the third assembly, at least one electrical constituent (e.g., a modulator, a photodetector) is arranged in at least one or all of the following: the homomorphic operation module, the photonic encryption module, the photonic decryption module. If “at least one electrical constituent is arranged in the homomorphic operation module and the photonic encryption module”, this should preferably be understood to mean that at least one electrical constituent is arranged in the homomorphic operation module and at least one electrical constituent is arranged in the photonic encryption module (i.e., the third assembly comprises at least two electrical constituents). If “at least one electrical constituent is arranged in the homomorphic operation module and the photonic decryption module”, this should preferably be understood to mean that at least one electrical constituent is arranged in the homomorphic operation module and at least one electrical constituent is arranged in the photonic decryption module (i.e., the third assembly comprises at least two electrical constituents). If “at least one electrical constituent is arranged in the photonic encryption module and the photonic decryption module”, this should preferably be understood to mean that at least one electrical constituent is arranged in the photonic encryption module and at least one electrical constituent is arranged in the photonic decryption module (i.e., the third assembly comprises at least two electrical constituents). If “at least one electrical constituent is arranged in the homomorphic operation module, the photonic encryption module, and the photonic decryption module”, this should preferably be understood to mean that at least one electrical constituent is arranged in the homomorphic operation module, at least one electrical constituent is arranged in the photonic encryption module, and at least one electrical constituent is arranged in the photonic decryption module (i.e., the third assembly comprises at least three electrical constituents).

[0587] A light emitting means that is in optical connection with the homomorphic operation module is preferably in optical connection with at least one opto-electronic device (e.g., a modulator) that is arranged in the homomorphic operation module. A light emitting means that is in optical connection with the photonic encryption module is preferably in optical connection with at least one opto-electronic device (e.g., a modulator) that is arranged in the photonic encryption module. A light emitting means that is in optical connection with the photonic decryption module is preferably in optical connection with at least one opto-electronic device (e.g., a modulator) that is arranged in the photonic decryption module.

[0588] The third assembly according to the present invention allows for an increased computational speed, improved energy efficiency, improved scalability, improved resistance to electromagnetic interference, improved encryption, improved encryption and decryption speed, enhanced security, and an improved compatibility with optical networks.

[0589] Homomorphic enciyption is described in, e.g., WO2022213048 Al, US20220116198 Al, US20220366059 Al, and US20240022394 Al .

[0590] Optical connection module

[0591] An optical connection module should preferably be understood as a link that utilises optical signals, typically transmitted through waveguides, optical fibres and / or free-space optical channels, to transmit data e.g., between electrical constituents and / or components, such as between processors, memory modules, input / output components, and networking equipment.

[0592] A transmitter is adapted and arranged to convert electrical signals received from, e.g., an electrical constituent and / or an integrated circuit, into optical signals. A receiver is adapted and arranged to convert optical signal into electrical signals that are transmitted to, e.g., an electrical constituent and / or an integrated circuit. A transceiver is adapted and arranged to both convert electrical signals into optical signals and optical signals into electrical signals. The optical connection module according to the invention allows for an increased bandwidth, a decreased latency, increased transmission distances, less susceptibility to electromagnetic interference, increased security, increased compactness, decreased insertion loss, and increased energy efficiency.

[0593] Optical connection modules are described in, e.g., WO2023124580 Al, WO2023122711 Al, and US20230314711 Al .

[0594] First and further transportation means

[0595] A transportation means includes a vehicle (e.g., a car, a truck), a train, an airplane, a ship, a bicycle, a drone, a satellite. Examples of autonomous movement include autonomous driving, autonomous flying, autonomous sailing, autonomous walking.

[0596] A processing module is preferably adapted and arranged for executing instructions and performing computations. A processing module preferably comprises a processing unit. In a preferred aspect of the first transportation means, the processing module comprises at least one electrical constituent (preferably an opto-electronic device, e.g., a modulator, a photodetector). In a preferred aspect of the first transportation means, the processing module comprises at least one light emitting means.

[0597] Examples of a human-machine interface include a screen, preferably a touch screen, a device adapted and arranged to play a sound, a device adapted and arranged to emit a signal, preferably a light signal. Examples of a steering means include a steering wheel, a rudder, handlebars, ailerons. Examples of a propulsion means include a combustion engine, a jet engine, a sail, a drivetrain of a bicycle.

[0598] A sensing unit may comprise at least one or all of the following: photodetectors, photodiodes, phototransistors, image sensors, optical fibre sensors, laser diodes, optical biosensor, optical position sensors, optical touch sensors, photomultiplier tubes, avalanche photodiodes, charge-coupled devices, complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor sensors, thermal infrared detectors, photon counting detectors, superconducting nanowire single -photon detectors. A perception sub-module is adapted and arranged to analyse and / or process data of a target area obtained by a sensing unit, wherein said data may be images, sounds, and / or other sensor readings. The output of a perception sub-module is preferably structured data that represents the interpretation and / or analysis of the data obtained by the sensing unit, such as item detection and recognition, scene information, localization and mapping data, preferably including road geometry and / or landmarks, feature extraction results (including edges, comers, textures, shapes, and / or keypoints), and / or pattern recognition output.

[0599] A generation sub-module may be used in e.g., autonomous systems. The generation sub-module is adapted and arranged to process and / or analyse the data provided by the perception module in order to, e.g., determine actions and / or responses based on predefined objectives, rules, and / or constraints. For example, the generation sub-module outputs driving commands, including trajectory planning, path selection, and control commands for steering, acceleration, and braking in autonomous vehicles. Subsequently, a control unit may execute a driving command generated by the generation sub-module and control the transportation means’ motion accordingly.

[0600] A further transportation means preferably comprises an integrated circuit that is adapted and arranged to be in data communication with at least one electrical constituent (preferably an opto-electronic device, e.g., a modulator, a photodetector). A further transportation means preferably comprises a light emitting means that is adapted and arranged to be in optical connection with the at least one opto-electronic device (e.g., a modulator).

[0601] The first and further transportation means according to the present invention allow for improved safety, enhanced traffic efficiency, reduced environmental impact, increased accessibility, enhanced user experience, increased scalability, and increased adaptability.

[0602] A transportation means is described in, e.g., DE 102021121918 Al .

[0603] Fourth assembly

[0604] The fourth assembly preferably comprises a light emitting means that is adapted and arranged to be in optical connection with at least one opto-electronic device (e.g., a modulator).

[0605] Examples of artificial intelligence (Al) include perceiving, synthesizing, inferring, predicting and / or generating information using, e.g., machine learning. For example, a fourth assembly may use a combination of hardware and software to perform operation to perceive, synthesize, infer, predict, and / or generate information.

[0606] The fourth assembly according to the present invention allows for a handling of increased volumes of data, faster processing speeds, reduced susceptibility to electromagnetic interference, and lower energy consumption. The fourth assembly according to the present invention allows for massive parallelism (e.g., parallel computing) and high-speed data processing, such as big data analytics, neural network training, and real-time simulations.

[0607] An assembly for machine Al and machine learning is described in, e.g., US20230114847 Al, WO2018187487 Al, and US20220188155 Al .

[0608] TEST METHODS

[0609] The test methods which follow were utilized within the context of the invention. Unless stated otherwise, the measurements were conducted at an ambient temperature of 23 °C, an ambient air pressure of 100 kPa (0.986 atm) and a relative air humidity of 50 %.

[0610] Thickness and height

[0611] A thickness and a height of a component is measured using transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The TEM device used for the measurement is calibrated according to ISO 29301 :2017. Surface roughness

[0612] The surface roughness Rq (also known as the root mean square average Rms) is measured using atomic force microscopy and according to the standard EN ISO 25178-6:2010-01.

[0613] Material removal rate and etch rate

[0614] The material removal rate of a component is measured as follows: a component with a thickness of 500 nm is provided. The component is then subjected to a thickness-reducing technique, such as chemical-mechanical polishing. The time required to reduce the thickness of the component by 300 nm is measured (i.e., after the thicknessreducing technique has been completed, the component has a thickness of 200 nm). An intermediate material removal rate is then determined by dividing 300 nm with the measured time. The experiment is repeated 10 times to obtain 10 intermediate material removal rates. The material removal rate is then calculated by taking the average of the 10 intermediate material removal rates.

[0615] The etch rate is calculated in the same manner as described for the material removal rate, with the thicknessreducing technique being an etching method.

[0616] It will be understood that different thickness-reducing techniques, or variations of a thickness-reducing technique, may lead to different material removal rates and etch rates for the same component. Therefore, when comparing material removal rates and etch rates between two components of different kinds, e.g., the etch rates of a layer of the second kind and a layer of a further kind, the material removal rates and the etch rates should be calculated using the same thickness-reducing techniques with the same process parameters.

[0617] Oxidation rate

[0618] The oxidation rate of a component is measured as follows: a component with a thickness of 500 nm is provided. The component is then placed in an oxygen-rich environment for 10 minutes. The environment contains 98 wt-% oxygen and 100 % water saturation. The environment has a temperature of 800 °C and a pressure of 1 atmosphere. As a result of the oxidation, the thickness of the component will decrease. Following the oxidation step, the thickness of the component is measured to obtain a change in the thickness of the component (the thickness before oxidation minus the thickness after oxidation). An intermediate oxidation rate is then determined by dividing the change in thickness by 10 minutes. The experiment is repeated 10 times to obtain 10 intermediate oxidation rates. The oxidation rate is then calculated by taking the average of the 10 intermediate oxidation rates.

[0619] Gradient of first surface of layered structure

[0620] The gradient of the first surface of the layered structure is calculated as follows: a first point at an end of the layered structure is selected (see, e.g., Point A in Fig. 5). The height Hi of the first surface of the layered structure is measured at the first point. The height t of the first surface is then measured at a second point. The second point is at a distance of 10 nm from the first point, with said distance measured along the further direction. The gradient for this measurement is calculated by H21 = Ift - 7 j| / l 0 nm. This procedure is repeated between the second point and a third point to obtain a gradient H32, where the second point and the third point are also at a distance of 10 nm from each other. This procedure is again repeated along the length of the first surface of the layered structure. The maximum gradient calculated from the measurements is defined as the gradient of the layered structure.

[0621] Element of the first kind (at least) partially surrounded

[0622] The % of the surface of the element of the first kind that is surrounded by the layer of the second kind is determined by making a cross-sectional cut of the layered structure, or opto-electronic device, where the layer of the second kind is superimposed on the element of the first kind. The % of the circumference of the element of the first kind, in the cross-sectional cut, that is covered by the layer of the second kind defined the % of the surface of the element of the first kind that is surrounded by the layer of the second kind

[0623] The invention is now illustrated by non-limiting examples and exemplifying embodiments.

[0624] FIGURES

[0625] List of figures

[0626] The figures serve to exemplify the present invention, and should not be viewed as limiting the invention. The figures are not drawn to scale.

[0627] Figs 1A to IB: schematic illustration of a first method, according to the invention, for producing a layered structure. Figs 2A to 2L: schematic illustration of a second method, according to the invention, for producing a layered structure.

[0628] Figs 3 A to 3G: schematic illustration of a third method, according to the invention, for producing a layered structure. Figs 4A to 4B: schematic illustration of a fourth method, according to the invention, for producing a layered structure.

[0629] Fig. 5: schematic illustration of a modulator, according to the invention, obtained using a layered structure according to the invention.

[0630] Figs 6A to 6D: examples of discontinuities in a first surface of the layered structure.

[0631] Fig. 7 : flow diagram showing a fifth method, according to the invention, for producing a layered structure.

[0632] Fig. 8: flow diagram showing a sixth method, according to the invention, for producing a layered structure.

[0633] Fig. 9: schematic illustration of a photodetector, according to the invention.

[0634] Fig. 10: schematic illustration showing further details of the photodetector of Fig. 9.

[0635] Figs 11 to 22: schematic diagrams illustrating various embodiments that comprise a layered structure according to the invention, and / or a device according to the invention, and / or an opto-electronic device according to the invention. Description of figures

[0636] With the exception of Figs 7 and 8, the figures show cross-sectional cuts of intermediate layered structures, layered structures, modulators, and photo -detectors.

[0637] Fig. 1 shows the steps of a first method (100), according to the invention, for producing a layered structure (117). The first method comprises the steps illustrated in Figs 1 A and IB.

[0638] In Fig. 1A, an intermediate layered structure (101) is provided. The intermediate layered structure (101) comprises an element of a first kind (102) that has a first surface (103) and a thickness di (104), measured along a first direction (105). The element of the first kind (102) is preferably a waveguide. The intermediate layered structure (101) further comprises a layer of a second kind (106), superimposed on the first surface (103) of the element of the first kind (102). The layer of the second kind (106) partially surrounds the element of the first kind (102). The layer of the second kind (106) has a first surface (107) and a thickness < ? (108), measured along the first direction

[0639] (105). The intermediate layered structure (101) further comprises a first layer of a further kind (109) that partially surrounds the element of the first kind (102) and the layer of the second kind (106). The first layer of the further kind (109) has a first section (110) that is superimposed on the first surface (107) of the layer of the second kind

[0640] (106), and a further section (111) that is arranged at a first distance I3 (112) from the element of the first kind (102). The first distance I3 (112) is measured along a further direction (113), which is perpendicular to the first direction (105). The first section (110) and the further section (111) of the first layer of the further kind (109) has a first thickness dsA (114) and a further thickness 4 / 35 (115), respectively, wherein said thicknesses (114) and (115) are measured along the first direction (105).

[0641] It should be understood that Fig. 1 A is an exemplary embodiment, and various other embodiments of the intermediate layered structure (101) are also possible. For example, the layer of the second kind (106) may also be arranged as shown in Figs 2 and 3. The first layer of the further kind (109) may also have an even-further section arranged as shown in Figs 2 and 3.

[0642] In Fig. IB, the first thickness dsA (114) and the further thickness 4 / 35 (115) of the first layer of the further kind (109) are reduced using chemical-mechanical polishing (a first thickness-reducing technique). As shown in Fig. IB, the first section (110) of the first layer of the further kind (109) is completely removed, i.e., ds i = 0 nm.

[0643] In Figs 1A and IB, at least one property varies between the element of the first kind (102) and the layer of the second kind (106), and between the layer of the second kind (106) and the first layer of the further kind (109). This at least one property includes a chemical composition. For example, the element of the first kind (102) is made from silicon nitride, the layer of the second kind (106) is made from silicon carbide, while the first layer of the further kind (109) is made from silicon dioxide. Furthermore, when subjected to the chemical-mechanical polishing described in Fig. IB, the first layer of the further kind (109) has a larger material removal rate than the layer of the second kind (106).

[0644] In order to obtain a desired planarization of, e.g., the further section (111) of the first layer of the further kind (109), the intermediate layered structure is subjected to chemical-mechanical polishing. However, this leads to the creation of a discontinuity between the element of the first kind (102) and the further section (111) of the first layer of the first kind (109). Examples of possible discontinuities are shown in Figs 6A to 6D. The layer of the second kind (106) allows, amongst others, for an improved planarization, as discontinuities that would normally be created by the chemical-mechanical polishing can be reduced. This includes discontinuities between, e.g., the first surface (107) of the layer of the second kind (106), and a first surface (116) of the further section (111) of the first layer of the further kind (109). Simultaneously, the layer of the second kind (106) protects the element of the first kind (102) during the chemical-mechanical polishing. Upon completion of the chemical-mechanical polishing, the layered structure (117) is obtained.

[0645] Fig. 2 shows the steps of a second method (200), according to the invention, for producing a layered structure (117). The second method comprises the steps illustrated in Figs 2A to 2 J.

[0646] In Fig. 2A, an initial layered structure (118) is provided. The initial layered structure (118) comprises a wafer layer (119) and a layer of a first kind (121) superimposed on the wafer layer (119). The layer of a first kind (121) has a first surface (122). One or more layers of an additional kind (120) (e.g., a layer comprising silicon dioxide, layers comprising a metal) may be arranged between the wafer layer (119) and the layer of the first kind (121).

[0647] In Fig. 2B, a layer of the second kind (106) is deposited on the layer of the first kind (121) such that the layer of the second kind (106) is superimposed on a first surface (122) of layer of the first kind (121). The layer of the second kind (106) is deposited using, e.g., chemical vapour deposition. The layer of the second kind (106) has a thickness < ? (108).

[0648] In Fig. 2C, a masking layer (123) is deposited on the first surface (107) of the layer of the second kind (106), and at least one section of the masking layer (123) is removed to partially expose the layer of the second kind (106). The depositing of the masking layer (123) and the removal of the at least one section of the masking layer (123) can be done using, e.g., photolithography. In Fig. 2C, the masking layer (123) is a photoresist.

[0649] In Fig. 2D, the thickness of at least one section of the layer of the second kind (106) has been reduced. The thickness of at least one section of the layer of the first kind (121) has also been reduced, with the element of the first kind (102) obtained thereby. In Fig. 2D, the sections of the layer of the second kind (106) and the layer of the first kind (121) have been completely removed. It is also possible for the masking layer to be adapted arranged such that a plurality of elements of the first kind (102) can be obtained. For the purposes of illustration, however, Fig. 2D shows only on element of the first kind (102).

[0650] In Fig. 2E, the masking layer (123) is removed.

[0651] In Fig. 2F, a first layer of a further kind (109) is deposited such that the first layer of the further kind (109) at least partially surrounds the element of the first kind (102), as well as the layer of the second kind (106). Furthermore, the first layer of the further kind (109) is deposited such that a first section (110) of the first layer of the further kind (109) is superimposed on the first surface (107) of the layer of the second kind (106), and such that a further section (111) of the first layer of the further kind (109) is arranged at a first distance I3 (112) from the element of the first kind (102). In Fig. 2F, the layer of the second kind (106) is only superimposed on the first surface of the element of the first kind (102). As a result, the further section (111) of the first layer of the further kind (109) touches the element of the first kind (102), such that the first distance 13 = 0 nm. Fig. 2F further shows that as the first layer of the further kind (109) partially surrounds the element of the first kind (102), the first layer of the further kind (109) also has an even-further section (124) that touches the element of the first kind (102). The first section (110) and the further section (111) of the first layer of the further kind (109) have a first thickness dsA (114) and a further thickness 4 / 35 (115), respectively. Similarly, the even-further section (124) has an even-further thickness dsc (125), which is the same as the further thickness 4 / 35 (115). The first layer of the further kind (109) can be deposited using, e.g., chemical vapour deposition. Once the first layer of the further kind (109) has been deposited, an intermediate structure (101) is obtained.

[0652] As described in Fig. IB, in Fig. 2G the first thickness dsA (114), the further thickness dsB (115) and the even- further thickness die (125) are reduced using chemical-mechanical polishing (a first thickness-reducing technique). As shown in Fig. 1G, the first section (110) of the first layer of the further kind (109) is completely removed, i.e., d3A = 0 nm. The method can be stopped at this stage, in which case the structure in Fig. 2G is defined as the layered structure (117). Alternatively, the method may be continued with the steps described in Figs 2H to 2J, in which case the layered structure is obtained after completion of the step described in Fig. 2 J. Fig. 2G also shows a first surface (107) of the layer of the second kind (106), a first surface (116) of the further section (111) of the first layer of the further kind (109), and a first surface (150) of the even-further section (124) of the first layer of the further kind (109).

[0653] In Fig. 2H, the thickness t / 2 of the of the layer of the second kind is reduced using wet etching (a further thickness-reducing technique). This results in the formation of a recess (126) in the first layer of the further kind (109). The recess (126) has a depth DR (127). The wet etching completely removes the layer of the second kind, thereby exposing the first surface (103) of the element of the first kind (102). However, it is not required that the layer of the second kind is completely removed. Reducing the thickness of the layer of the second kind of, e.g., Fig. 2G, without completely removing the layer of the second kind will also lead to the formation of a recess.

[0654] In Fig. 21, a further layer of the further kind (128) is deposited on the first surface (103) of the element of the first kind (102). The further layer of the further kind (128) has a thickness (129). The further layer of the further kind ( 128) is deposited using chemical vapour deposition. While a further layer of the further kind ( 128) is deposited in Fig. 21, it is also possible to deposit a layer of a kind that has a different chemical composition to the first layer of the further kind (109). However, a further layer of the further kind (128) is preferred.

[0655] In Fig. 2J, the thickness (129) of the further layer of the further kind (128) is reduced using chemical-mechanical polishing. After the chemical-mechanical polishing, the layered structure (117) is obtained. The duration of the chemical-mechanical polishing in Fig. 2 J is shorter than the duration of the chemical-mechanical polishing performed in Fig. 2G.

[0656] Fig. 2K (which is the same as Fig. 21) shows how the heights of a layer and an element are defined. The height of the different elements and layers are all measured from a common plane (133), such as a first surface (134) of the wafer layer (119). The common plane (133) can be freely chosen. In Fig. 2K, the first surface (116) of the further section (111) of the first layer of the further kind (109) is arranged at a height hjii (131), and the first surface (130) of the further layer of the further kind (128) is arranged at a height l (132). As a result of the step in Fig. 2J, the difference in height \h3B - h4\ is reduced. Fig. 2L illustrates how a height h (145) of the first surface (107) of the layer of the second kind (106) is measured. As was indicated in Fig. 2K, the height h (145) is measured from a common plane (133). The definitions of the heights in Figs 2K and 2L are not just limited to the method described in Fig. 2, but indicates how height in general should be measured. This applies for any layer and element, regardless of whether these layers and elements are part of an initial layered structure, an intermediate layered structure, a layered structure, or an opto-electronic device. In general, the heights of a layer and an element are measured from a common plane to a first surface.

[0657] In Fig. 2, the thicknesses and heights of the various layers and elements, as well as the depth DR (127) of the recess (126), are measured along a first direction (105). The first distance I3 (112) of the further section (111) of the first layer of the further kind (109) is measured along a further direction (113). The first direction (105) and the further direction (113) are illustrated in Fig. 2A.

[0658] In Figs 2A to 2L, at least one property varies between the element of the first kind (102) and the layer of the second kind (106), and between the layer of the second kind (106) and the first layer of the further kind (109). This at least one property includes a chemical composition. For example, the element of the first kind (102) is made from silicon nitride, the layer of the second kind (106) is made from silicon carbide, while the first layer of the further kind (109) is made from silicon dioxide. Furthermore, the at least one property also includes a material removal rate. When subjected to the chemical -mechanical polishing described in Fig. 2G, the first layer of the further kind (109) has a larger material removal rate than the layer of the second kind (106). The at least one property also includes a further etch rate. When subjected to the wet etching described in Fig. 2H, the layer of the second kind (106) has a further etch rate that is larger than both the further etch rates of the element of the first kind (102) and the first layer of the further kind (109).

[0659] Fig. 3 shows the steps of a third method (300), according to the invention, for producing a layered structure (117). The second method comprises the steps illustrated in Figs 3 A to 3G.

[0660] Similar to Fig. 2A, in Fig. 3 A an initial layered structure (118) is provided. The initial layered structure (118) comprises a wafer layer (119) and a layer of a first kind (121) superimposed on the wafer layer. The layer of a first kind (121) has a first surface (122). One or more layers of an additional kind (e.g., a layer comprising silicon dioxide, layers comprising a metal) may be arranged between the wafer layer (119) and the layer of the first kind (121).

[0661] In Fig. 3B, a masking layer (123) is deposited on the first surface (122) of the layer of the first kind (121), and at least one section of the masking layer (123) is removed to partially expose the layer of the first kind (121). The depositing of the masking layer (123) and the removal of the at least one section of the masking layer (123) can be done using, e.g., photolithography. In Fig. 3B, the masking layer (123) is a photoresist. In Fig. 30, the thickness of at least one section of the layer of the first kind (121) has been reduced, with the element of the first kind (102) obtained thereby. In Fig. 3C, the sections of the layer of the first kind (121) have been completely removed. It is also possible for the masking layer to be adapted arranged such that a plurality of elements of the first kind (102) can be obtained. For the purposes of illustration, however, Fig. 3C shows only on element of the first kind (102).

[0662] In Fig. 3D the masking layer (123) is removed.

[0663] In Fig. 3E, a layer of the second kind (106) is deposited such that the layer of the second kind (106) is superimposed on a first surface (103) of the element of the first kind (102). Furthermore, layer of the second kind (106) is deposited such that the layer of the second kind (106) partially surrounds the element of the first kind (102). The layer of the second kind (106) has a thickness ch (108). The layer of the second kind (106) is deposited using chemical vapour deposition.

[0664] In Fig. 3F, a first layer of the further kind (109) is deposited such that the first layer of the further kind (109) at least partially surrounds the element of the first kind (102). Furthermore, first layer of the further kind (109) is deposited such that a first section ( 110) of the first layer of the further kind ( 109) is superimposed on the first surface (107) of the layer of the second kind (106), and such that a further section (111) of the first layer of the further kind (109) is arranged at a first distance h (112) from the element of the first kind (102). The distance I3 (112) extends between the dashed lines shown in Fig. 3F, and correspond to a thickness of the layer of the second kind (106). Fig. 3F further shows that as the first layer of the further kind (109) partially surrounds the element of the first kind (102), the first layer of the further kind (109) also has an even-further section (124) that is also arranged at a distance from the element of the first kind (102). The first section (110) and the further section (111) of the first layer of the further kind (109) have a first thickness dsA (114) and a further thickness c e (115), respectively. Similarly, the even-further section (124) has an even-further thickness c c (125), which is the same as the further thickness c e (115). The first layer of the further kind (109) can be deposited using, e.g., chemical vapour deposition. Once the first layer of the further kind (109) has been deposited, an intermediate structure (101) is obtained.

[0665] In Fig. 3G the first thickness dsA (114), the further thickness c e (115), and the even-further thickness c c (125) are reduced using chemical-mechanical polishing (a first thickness-reducing technique). As shown in Fig. 3G, the first section (110) of the first layer of the further kind (109) is completely removed, i.e., (I31 = 0 nm. Upon completion of the chemical -mechanical polishing, the layered structure (117) is obtained.

[0666] The method in Fig. 3 may also include the steps illustrated in Figs 2H to 2 J. Where the layer of the second kind (106) is removed, as described in Fig. 2H, the method of Fig. 3 may be modified to only remove a section of the layer of the second kind (106) wherein said section is arranged above (in the sense of Fig. 3) the element of the first kind (102).

[0667] In Fig. 3, with the exception of the layer of the second kind (106), the thicknesses of the various layers and elements are measured along a first direction (105). The first distance I3 (112) of the further section (111) of the first layer of the further kind (109) is measured along a further direction (113). The first direction (105) and the further direction (113) are illustrated in Fig. 3A. For the layer of the second kind (106), the thickness de (108) is measured along the first direction (105). I.e., the thickness h (108) is measured perpendicular to the first surface (103) of the element of the first kind (102). A thickness of the layer of the second kind (106) on the sides of the element of the first kind (103) (in the sense of Fig. 3) is measured along the further direction (113).

[0668] In Figs 3 A to 3G, at least one property varies between the element of the first kind (102) and the layer of the second kind (106), and between the layer of the second kind (106) and the first layer of the further kind (109). This at least one property includes a chemical composition. For example, the element of the first kind (102) is made from silicon nitride, the layer of the second kind (106) is made from silicon carbide, while the first layer of the further kind (109) is made from silicon dioxide. Furthermore, the at least one property also includes a material removal rate. When subjected to the chemical-mechanical polishing described in Fig. 3G, the first layer of the further kind (109) has a larger material removal rate than the layer of the second kind (106).

[0669] Fig. 4 shows the steps of a fourth method (300), according to the invention, for producing a layered structure (117). The fourth method comprises the steps illustrated in Figs 4A and 4B.

[0670] In Fig. 4A, an intermediate layered structure (101) is provided. The intermediate layered structure (101) comprises an element of a first kind (102) that has a first surface (103), wherein the first surface (103) is arranged at a height hix (135). The height hix (135) is measured along a first direction (105). As illustrated in Fig. 2K, the height is measured from a common plane (133). The element of the first kind (102) also has a thickness di (104), measured along the first direction (105). In Fig 4A, the common plane (133) is chosen such that the height hix (135) and the thickness di (104) are equal. The element of the first kind (102) is preferably a waveguide. The intermediate layered structure (101) further comprises a first layer of a further kind (109) that has a further section (111). The further section (111) is arranged at a first distance I3 from the element of the first kind (102), wherein the first distance I3 is measured along a further direction (113). The further direction (113) is perpendicular to the first direction (105). In Fig. 4A, the further section (111) of the first layer of the further kind (109) is arranged to touch the element of the first kind (102), i.e., = 0 nm. The further section (111) of the first layer of the further kind (109) has a first surface (116) that is arranged at height I13B (131), wherein I131; (131) is measured along the first direction (105). The further section (111) of the first layer of the further kind (109) also has a further thickness 4 / 35(115), measured along the first direction (105). As is the case for the element of the first kind (102), the height I13B (131) and the further thickness 4 / 35 (115) of the further section (111) of the first layer of the further kind (109) are equal. Furthermore, Fig. 4A shows that I131; (131) > hix (135), i.e., \fi3B - hix\ > 0 nm. It will be understood that the first layer of the further kind (109) of the intermediate structure (101) can also have an even-further section, as shown in, e.g., Fig. 2G. The element of the first kind (102) has a higher oxidation rate than the further section (111) of the first layer of the further kind (109).

[0671] In Fig. 4B, the intermediate structure (101) is placed in an oxygen-rich environment, which leads to the oxidation of the element of the first kind (102). As a result, a layer of an even-further kind (136) is formed on the first surface (103) of the element of the first kind (102). The layer of the even-further kind (136) has a first surface (137) that is arranged at a height hi (138), wherein the height hi (138) is measured along the first direction (105). As a result of the oxidation, the height hix (135) of the element of the first kind (102) will be reduced to a new height hiY (139). The height hix (135) is thus the height of the element of the first kind (102) prior to the oxidation step, while the height hiY (139) is the height of the element of the first kind (102) after the oxidation step. As also shown in Fig. 4B, the height h$ (138) of the layer of the even-further kind (136) is equal to the height hsu (131) of the further section (111) of the first layer of the further kind (109). In other words, \h3B - hj\ < \fi3B - hix\. After completion of the oxidation step, the layered structure (117) is obtained.

[0672] Optionally, following the formation of the layer of the even-further kind (136), a thickness dj (146) of the layer of the even-further kind (136) may be reduced using, e.g., chemical-mechanical polishing. This thickness reducing step may be performed when, e.g., h$ (138) > hsu (131), and / or h$ (138) < hsu (131), and / or \hsB - hj\ > \fi3B - hix\-

[0673] The method of Fig. 4 may also be combined with the methods shown in Figs 1 to 3. For example, the method of Fig. 2 may be performed up to the step shown in Fig. 2H. However, instead of performing the step described in Fig. 21 (the depositing of a further layer of the first kind), the steps of Fig 4B may be performed (the intermediate layered structure provided in Fig. 4A corresponds to the intermediate layered structure of Fig. 2H). In addition, the step shown in Fig. 4B may be followed by the steps shown in Figs 21 and 2 J.

[0674] Alternatively, the steps shown in Figs 4A and 4B may be followed by the steps of Figs 21 and 2J, without necessarily performing at least one of the steps shown in Figs 2A to 2H. For example, a first layer of a further kind is deposited on an element of the first kind such that a first section of the layer of the further kind is superimposed on a first surface of the element of the first kind, and such that a further section of the first layer of the further kind is arranged at a distance I3 from the element of the first kind (similar to Fig. 2F, but without the layer of the second kind). The element of the first kind and the first layer of the further kind is then subjected to chemical mechanical polishing, which result in the intermediate layered structure of Fig. 4A. The step shown in Fig. 4B is performed, optionally followed by the steps of Figs 21 and 2 J.

[0675] Fig. 5 is a schematic illustration of a modulator (500), according to the invention, obtained by using a layered structure (117) according to the invention. Fig. 5 shows a layered structure (117) obtainable according to the method shown in Fig. 2. Alternatively, the layered structures obtainable according to the methods of Figs 3 and 4 may also be used. The modulator (500), an example of an opto-electronic device, is adapted and arranged to modulate an amplitude of an electromagnetic wave propagating in a waveguide (102). The modulator (500) comprises a layered structure (117). The layered structure (117) comprises a wafer layer (119) and an element of a first kind (102) superimposed on the wafer layer (119). The element of the first kind (102) is a waveguide. A first surface (103) of the waveguide (102) is arranged at a height hi (144). A layer of an additional kind (120) (e.g., a layer comprising silicon dioxide) is arranged between the wafer layer (119) and the waveguide (102). The layered structure (117) further comprises a layer of a second kind (106) superimposed on the waveguide (102). The layered structure (117) further comprises a further section (111) and an even-further section (124) of a first layer of a further kind (109). A first surface of the further section (111) is arranged at a height hsu (131). Although not indicated in Fig. 5, a first surface of the even-further section (124) is arranged at a height that varies by less than 5 % from the height hsu (131). The further section (111) and the even-further section (124) are arranged to touch the waveguide (102). The layered structure (117) has a first surface (140), which in Fig. 5 is formed by the first surfaces of the further section (111) and the even-further section (124) of the first layer of the further kind (109), and the first surface of the layer of the second kind (106) (see Fig. 2G). In Fig. 5, a height H of the first surface (140) is equal to the height hsu (131). In general, a first surface (140) of the layered structure (117) should preferably be understood as the surface onto which at least one electrically conducting element is superimposed, more preferably deposited. In general, a first surface (140) of the layered structure (117) extends over at least an element of the first kind (102).

[0676] The modulator (500) in Fig. 5 also comprises a first electrically conducting element (141) and a further electrically conducting element (142). In Fig. 5, both the first and further electrically conducting elements (141) and (142) are made from a single layer of graphene. Furthermore, a dielectric layer (143) is arranged between the first and further electrically conducting elements (141) and (142). The dielectric layer (143) can comprise an oxide, such as aluminium oxide. An end of the first electrically conducting element (141) is in electrical contact with a first electrode (not shown), while an end of the further electrically conducting element (142) is in electrical contact with a further electrode (not shown).

[0677] The height of the largest discontinuity is determined as follows (Fig. 5 is used as an example): two points A and B are defined. Point A is located at a first edge of the layered structure (117). In Fig. 5, the first edge is an end of the graphene layer (142), where said end is in electrical contact with the further electrode. Point B is located at a further edge of the layered structure (117), where the further edge is opposite the first edge. In Fig. 5, the further edge is an end of the graphene layer (141), where said end is in electrical contact with the first electrode. The height H of the first surface (140) of the layered structure (117) is measured at points A and B. The height H is measured from a common plane (133), which in Fig. 5 is chosen as a lower surface of the wafer layer (119). The height / / is then also measured at 5 nm intervals along the first surface (140) of the layered structure (117). The height of the largest discontinuity is defined as HMAX - HMIN, where HMAX is the largest height measured along the first surface (140), and HMIN is the smallest height measured along the first surface (140).

[0678] The distance between the waveguide (102) and the first graphene layer (141) is defined as the maximum distance measured between the first surface (103) of the waveguide (102) and the first surface (140) of the layered structure (117). This distance is measured along the first direction (105).

[0679] Fig. 6 is a schematic illustration of examples of discontinuities in a first surface of a layered structure. Figs 6A to 6D show part of a layered structure that comprises an element of a first kind (102) and a further section (111) of a first layer of a further kind (109). In Figs 6A to 6D, the first surface of the layered structure is formed by at least a first surface (103) of the element of the first kind (102) and a first surface (116) of the further section (111) of the first layer of the further kind (109). Figs 6A and 6B show a step discontinuity in the first surface of the layered structure. The step discontinuity is located where the element of the first kind (102) and the further section (111) of the first layer of the further kind (109) touch each other. Figs 6C and 6D show a dish discontinuity in the first surface of the layered structure. In Fig. 6C the dish discontinuity is located in the element of the first kind (102), while in Fig. 6D the dish discontinuity is located in the further section (111) of the first layer of the further kind (109). If the height (measured along the first direction 105) of the first surface of the layered structure decreases by more than 10 nm over a 10 nm distance (measured along a further direction 113), this leads to any electrically conducting element deposited on the first surface of the layered structure being damaged.

[0680] Fig. 7 is a flow diagram showing a fifth method, according to the invention, for producing a layered structure. In step 701, an intermediate layered structure is provided, wherein the intermediate layered structure comprises an element of a first kind. The element of the first kind has a first surface and a thickness di, measured along a first direction, wherein di < 1.5 pm. The element of the first kind is a waveguide. The intermediate layered structure further comprises a layer of a second kind superimposed on at least the first surface of the element of the first kind. The layer of the second kind has a first surface and a thickness d2, measured along the first direction, wherein < ? < 100 nm. The layer of the second kind preferably touches the element of the first kind. The intermediate layered structure further comprises a first layer of a further kind that at least partially surrounds the element of the first kind, wherein a first section of the first layer of the further kind is superimposed on the first surface of the layer of the second kind, and a further section of the first layer of the further kind is arranged at a first distance I3 from the element of the first kind. The first distance I3 is measured along a further direction, wherein the further direction is perpendicular to the first direction. Furthermore, I3 < 100 nm, while the first section has a first thickness dsA and the further section has a further thickness dm. measured along the first direction. The first section of the layer of the further kind preferably touches the layer of the second kind.

[0681] In step 702, the first thickness dsA and the further thickness of the first layer of the further kind is reduced using chemical-mechanical polishing. The thickness dsA is reduced such that the first section of the layer of the further kind is preferably completely removed. Furthermore, the material removal rate of the first section of the further kind, during the chemical-mechanical polishing, is larger than the material removal rate of the layer of the second kind.

[0682] In optional step 703, the thickness t / 2 of the of the layer of the second kind is reduced using an etching method to form a recess in the first layer of the further kind. The layer of the second kind is preferably completely removed, such that the first surface of the element of the first kind is exposed. The etching method is chosen such that the etch rate of the layer of the second kind is larger than the etch rate of the first layer of the further kind, and preferably larger than the etch rate of the element of the first kind.

[0683] In optional step 704, a further layer of the further kind is deposited in the recess, such that the further layer of the further kind is superimposed on the first surface of the element of the first kind.

[0684] In optional step 705, a thickness t / 4 of the further layer of the further kind is reduced using chemical-mechanical polishing. The further layer of the further kind is not completely removed.

[0685] Fig. 8 is a flow diagram showing...

Claims

CLAIMS1. A method for producing a layered structure (117), comprising the steps of a. providing an intermediate layered structure (101) that comprises i. an element of a first kind (102), wherein the element of the first kind (102)A. has a first surface (103),B. has a thickness d: (104), measured along a first direction (105), wherein d: < 1.5 pm; ii. a layer of a second kind (106) superimposed on at least the first surface (103) of the element of the first kind (102), wherein the layer of the second kind (106)A. has a first surface (107),B. has a thickness d2(108), measured along the first direction (105), wherein d2< 100 nm; iii. a first layer of a further kind (109) that at least partially surrounds the element of the first kind (102), whereinA. a first section (110) of the first layer of the further kind (109) is superimposed on the first surface (107) of the layer of the second kind (106),B. a further section (111) of the first layer of the further kind (109) is arranged at a first distance I3 (112) from the element of the first kind (102), whereinI. / the first distance I3 (112) is measured along a further direction (113), wherein the further direction (113) is perpendicular to the first direction (105), andII. / / 3 < 100 nm,C . the first section ( 110) has a first thickness dsA (114) and the further section (111) has a further thickness d3B (115), measured along the first direction (105); b. reducing the first thickness dsA (114) using a first thickness-reducing technique, wherein at least one or all of the following applies: i. d3A is reduced by at least 20 %, ii. after reduction, dsA < 100 nm; wherein at least one property varies between the layer of the second kind (106) and the element of the first kind (102), the layer of the second kind (106) and the first layer of the further kind (109), or both.

2. The method according to claim 1, wherein the at least one property is at least one or all of the following: a. a hardness; b. a chemical reaction rate;c. an etch rate; d. a material removal rate; e. a chemical composition; f. an oxidation rate; g. an optical attenuation coefficient; h. a refractive index; i. an electrical conductivity; j. a thermal conductivity; k. a laser ablation rate.

3. The method according to any of the preceding claims, wherein at least one or all of the following applies: a. the at least one property is a first etch rate; b. the at least one property is a first chemical reaction rate; c. the at least one property is a first material removal rate; d. the at least one property is a hardness.

4. The method according to any of the preceding claims, wherein at least one or all of the following applies: a. the thickness ch of the layer of the second kind is c < 80 nm; b. the first distance is I3 < 80 nm.

5. The method according to any of the preceding claims, wherein at least one or all of the following applies: a. the element of the first kind comprises at least one or all of the following: silicon, oxygen, aluminium, iridium, tantalum, titanium, nitrogen, lithium, niobium, indium, phosphorus, gallium, arsenic, barium, at least one lanthanide, a chalcogenide, at least one polymer, a resin, a combination of at least two thereof; b. the element of the first kind is an optical element; c. the element of the first kind is adapted and arranged for the propagation of electromagnetic waves that have wavelengths in the range from 300 nm to 3000 nm.

6. The method according to any of the preceding claims, wherein at least one or all of the following applies: a. the layer of the second kind comprises at least one or all of the following: at least one metal, at least one metal alloy, at least one oxide, at least one nitride, at least one carbide, a combination of at least two thereof; b. the layer of the second kind comprises at least one or all of the following: titanium, tungsten, aluminium, molybdenum, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, silicon, germanium, a combination of at least two thereof.c. a refractive index of the layer of the second kind is larger than a refractive index of the element of the first kind; d. the layer of the second kind has a refractive index that is in the range of 1.5 to 6.

7. A method for producing a layered structure (117), comprising the steps of a. providing an intermediate layered structure (101) that comprises i. an element of a first kind (102), wherein the element of the first kind (102)A. has a first surface (103) that is arranged at height hix (135), wherein hix (135) is measured along a first direction (105),B. has a thickness d: (104), measured along the first direction (105), wherein d: < 1.5 pm; ii. a first layer of a further kind (109), whereinA. a further section (111) of the first layer of the further kind (109) is arranged at a first distance 13 (112) from the element of the first kind (102), whereinI. / the first distance I3 (112) is measured along a further direction (113), wherein the further direction (113) is perpendicular to the first direction (105), andII. / / 3 < 100 nm,B. the further section (111) has a first surface (116) that is arranged at a height hsu (131), wherein hsu (131) is measured along the first direction (105),C. \h3B - hix\ > 0 nm; b. Oxidising at least a part of the element of the first kind (102) to form a layer of an even-further kind (136) on the first surface (103) of the element of the first kind (102), whereinI. the layer of the even-further kind (136) has a first surface (137) that is arranged at a height hj (138), wherein the height hj (138) is measured along the first direction (105), andII. \hsB - hj\ < \fi3B - hix\, with hix (135) being the height of the first surface (103) of the element of the first kind (102) prior to the oxidation step.

8. The method according to claim 7, wherein an oxidation rate of the element of the first kind is larger than an oxidation rate of the further section of the first layer of the further kind.

9. A layered structure obtainable by any of the methods according to any of the claims 1 to 8.

10. A layered structure (117) comprising a. an element of a first kind (102), wherein the element of the first kind (102)i. has a first surface (103) that is arranged at height hi (144), wherein hi (144) is measured along a first direction (105), ii. has a thickness di (104), measured along the first direction (105), wherein di < 1.5 pm: b. a first layer of a further kind (109), wherein i. a further section (111) of the first layer of the further kind (109) is arranged at a first distance 13 (112) from the element of the first kind (102), whereinA. the first distance I3 (112) is measured along a further direction (113), wherein the further direction (113) is perpendicular to the first direction (105), andB. I3 < 100 nm, ii. the further section (111) of the first layer of the further kind (109) has a first surface (116) that is arranged at a height hsu ( 131 ), wherein hsu ( 131 ) is measured along the first direction (105), wherein at least one or all of the following applies:I. \h3B - hi\ < 15 nm;II. a gradient of the first surface of the layered structure is less than or equal to 0.1.

11. A layered structure (117) comprising a. an element of a first kind (102), wherein the element of the first kind (102) i. has a first surface (103) that is arranged at height hi (144), wherein hi (144) is measured along a first direction (105), ii. has a thickness di (104), measured along the first direction (105), wherein di < 1.5 pm; b. a levelling layer (106, 136) superimposed on the first surface (103) of the element of the first kind (102), wherein the levelling layer (106, 136) i. has a first surface that is arranged at height fe, wherein IL is measured along a first direction (105), ii. has a thickness PL, measured along the first direction (105), wherein< 100 nm; c. a first layer of a further kind (109), wherein i. a further section (111) of the first layer of the further kind (109) is arranged at a first distance I3 (112) from the element of the first kind (102), whereinA. the first distance I3 (112) is measured along a further direction (113), wherein the further direction (113) is perpendicular to the first direction (105), andB. I3 < 100 nm, ii. the further section (111) of the first layer of the further kind (109) has a first surface (116) that is arranged at a height hsu (131), wherein hsu ( 131 ) is measured along the first direction (105), wherein at least one or all of the following applies:I. \h3B - hL\ < 15 nm;II. a gradient of the first surface of the layered structure is less than or equal to 0.1.

12. A method for producing an opto-electronic device, comprising the steps of a. providing a layered structure according to any of the claims 9 to 11; b. superimposing at least one electrically conducting element on the layered structure.

13. An opto-electronic device obtainable according to the method of claim 12.

14. An electronic device comprising a. an opto-electronic device according to claim 13; b. at least one electronic constituent in electrical connection with the opto-electronic device.

15. A use of the layered structure according to any of the claims 9 to 11 for producing an opto-electronic device.

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