Hydrogen production by piezocatalytic decomposition of water at dislocations in a crystalline catalyst
Introducing dislocations into piezoelectric catalysts enhances hydrogen production efficiency and reduces pollution by improving catalytic activity at dislocation sites, addressing the inefficiencies of existing piezocatalytic methods.
Patent Information
- Application Number
- PCT/CN2023/142482
- Authority / Receiving Office
- WO · WO
- Patent Type
- Applications
- Current Assignee / Owner
- Filing Date
- 2023-12-27
- Publication Date
- 2025-07-03
AI Technical Summary
Existing piezocatalytic methods for hydrogen production using piezoelectric catalysts suffer from low efficiency and secondary pollution due to poor recovery and regeneration of catalysts, particularly in powder form.
Introduce dislocations into piezoelectric catalysts with a surface dislocation density of at least 1.0*10^11 m^-2 by methods such as plastic deformation and surface treatment, enhancing the catalytic activity at dislocation sites.
Significantly improves hydrogen production rates by 2.4 to 3.4 times compared to untreated catalysts, reducing the need for sacrificial agents and minimizing secondary pollution.
Smart Images

Figure CN2023142482_03072025_PF_FP_ABST
Abstract
Description
HYDROGEN PRODUCTION BY PIEZOCATALYTIC DECOMPOSITION OF WATER AT DISLOCATIONS IN A CRYSTALLINE CATALYSTTechnical FieldThe present disclosure relates to a method of piezocatalytic decomposition at dislocations and to a setup comprising a piezoelectric catalyst having dislocations. For example, in some embodiments, the dislocation acts as a “highway” for electronic conductivity to the surface of the piezoelectric catalyst.The disclosure is, in particular, characterized by the fact that leveraging dislocation structures within piezoelectric catalysts improves piezoelectric catalytic decomposition of water (water splitting) for the purpose of hydrogen production.BackgroundGlobal climate change, energy conflicts, and energy shortages pose a threat to world stability on local, regional, and global scales. It is known that if fossil fuels continue to be used, major global problems are to occur. Therefore, studying alternative energy strategies has gained paramount relevance for future world stability.Carbon dioxide emissions produced by fossil energy sources, such as coal, oil, and gas, majorly contribute to global warming and climate change. Therefore, the global interest in alternative and renewable fuels for energy has grown significantly in recent years. Hydrogen fuel has the potential to become a valuable and versatile addition to the energy mix since it has the attractive features of being a clean and sustainable energy source with a high energy density and no harmful pollutants or greenhouse gases when burned in oxygen.In 2010, Hong and co-workers (K. -S. Hong, H. Xu, H. Konishi, X. Li, The Journal of Physical Chemistry Letters. 1 (2010) 997-1002) reported that the piezoelectric catalysts ZnO and BaTiO3 are able to decompose water molecules under ultrasound exposure and proposed the piezoelectric chemical effect, which was later referred to as the piezoelectric catalytic effect.The piezocatalysis for H2 evolution with the presence of piezoelectric ceramics involves at least three processes:- Piezoelectric charges with opposite signs (q+and q–, Equation (1) ) can be generated by the external mechanical stress under ultrasonic activation.- The water molecules are reduced by q-for the H2 generation, shown in Equation (2) .- The corresponding q+can be used for oxidation reaction to generate H+and O2.2H++2q-→H2 (2)The schematic of piezocatalysis for water-splitting is depicted in Figure 1. On the surface of piezoelectric catalysts, bound charges are balanced by screening charges. The polarization amplitude will be changed through the fluid by a series of compression and rarefaction based on the piezoelectric effect. This, in turn, can lead to an imbalance of charge carriers and extra screening charges from the surface and tune the band structure to facilitate reduction-oxidation (redox) reactions. As a result, the extra screening charges or the charges in the electrolyte with opposite polarity will participate in the redox reaction to produce H2 and O2. Thus, a piezoelectric catalyst under periodical stress and in an electrolyte environment will offer continuous charge to produce H2. Since then, piezocatalysis, as an emerging catalytic technology, has also been employed in generating renewable fuels by converting mechanical energy into storable chemical energy. However, methods were investigated in the last years targeting powder catalysts, which can lead to secondary pollution in water due to poor recovery and regeneration ability. Furthermore, the respective efficiencies of the previously published studies were meager.Therefore, there is a demand for new strategies to optimize catalysts for piezocatalytic H2 production.Summary of InventionThe inventors found that introducing dislocations into a piezoelectric catalyst leads to a notable and consistent improvement in piezocatalytic hydrogen generation.In particular, the inventors found effective enhancement of water-splitting piezocatalysis at dislocations in dislocation-functionalized catalyst samples.In a first aspect, the present disclosure relates to a method of piezocatalytic decomposition of a reactant, the method comprising the following steps:a) Providing a setup comprising a piezoelectric catalyst immersed in an aqueous solution comprising the reactant, andb) Applying an alternating mechanical strain or stress to the piezoelectric catalyst, the method being characterized by the piezoelectric catalyst comprising or consisting of a semiconductor piezoelectric catalyst comprising dislocations, wherein the surface dislocation density on at least a part of a surface of the piezoelectric catalyst is at least 1.0*1011 m-2.In a second aspect, the present disclosure relates to a setup comprising a piezoelectric catalyst comprising or consisting of a semiconductor piezoelectric catalyst comprising dislocations, wherein the surface dislocation density is at least 1.0*1011 m-2.In a third aspect, the present disclosure relates to the use of a setup of the second aspect in a method of piezocatalytic decomposition of a reactant, in particular in a method of the first aspect.In a fourth aspect, the present disclosure relates to the use of a semiconductor piezoelectric catalyst comprising dislocations with a surface dislocation density of at least 1.0*1011 m-2 as or in a piezoelectric catalyst.In a fifth aspect, the present disclosure relates to a method of preparing a semiconductor piezoelectric catalyst comprising dislocations with a surface dislocation density of at least 1.0*1011 m-2, the method comprising one or more of the following steps:● Plastic deformation of a semiconductor piezoelectric catalyst,● Surface treatment of a semiconductor piezoelectric catalyst, wherein the surface treatment comprises scratching, indentation, polishing, grinding, rolling, or combinations of two or more thereof.Details of InventionThe disclosure relates to a method of piezocatalytic decomposition at dislocations and to an electrochemical setup comprising a piezoelectric catalyst having dislocations. The term “at dislocations” as used herein, includes both piezocatalytic reactions exactly at the position where the dislocation is located and piezocatalytic reactions in the vicinity of the dislocation.In particular, in a first aspect, the disclosure relates to a method of piezocatalytic decomposition of a reactant, the method comprising the following steps:a) Providing a setup comprising a piezoelectric catalyst immersed in an aqueous solution comprising the reactant, andb) Applying an (in particular periodically) alternating mechanical strain or stress to the piezoelectric catalyst, in particular, so that the surface of the piezoelectric catalyst in the vicinity of or at dislocations acts as a reactive site for piezocatalytic reactions.The method is characterized by the piezoelectric catalyst comprising or consisting of a semiconductor piezoelectric catalyst with dislocations, wherein the surface dislocation density on at least a part of a surface of the piezoelectric catalyst is at least 1.0*1011 m-2. Optionally, the part of the surface having the desired dislocation density is at least 20%, at least 40%, at least 60%, or at least 80%of the entire surface area of the piezoelectric catalyst. In this context, the surface dislocation density refers to the number of dislocations within an area of the piezoelectric catalyst surface, i.e., dislocations whose dislocation line ends at the surface of the piezoelectric catalyst. A dislocation is a line defect. If this line penetrates the surface, it is effective at that surface.In some embodiments, the method comprises the steps of detecting and quantifying the products from the piezocatalytic reactions.The aqueous solution in particular comprises more than 50 vol. -%H2O, for example at least 60 vol. -%, at least 70 vol. -%, at least 80 vol. -%, at least 90 vol. -%, at least 95 vol. -%, at least 98 vol. -%, or at least 99 vol. -%H2O. In some embodiments, the aqueous solution is deionized water. “Deionized water” in the sense of the present disclosure is water having a conductivity of less than 50μS / cm at room temperature.The aqueous solution may optionally comprise one or more sacrificial agents. Sacrificial agents can be used to capture electrons or holes for redox reactions. In some embodiments, the sacrificial agents are selected from the group consisting of dyes, alcohols, oxalate, nitrate, nitrite, sulfite, metal cations, and combinations of two or more thereof. In some embodiments, the sacrificial agents are selected from the group consisting of aliphatic amines, aromatic amines, ascorbic acid, and combinations of two or more thereof. Triethanolamine is a particularly preferred sacrificial agent. In some embodiments, the aqueous solution comprises a sacrificial agent. In other embodiments, the aqueous solution does not comprise any sacrificial agents. It is a particular advantage of the present invention that it works without sacrificial agents.The reactant may, in particular, comprise or consist of H2O.In some embodiments, the aqueous solution (in particular deionized water) may be bubbled with N2 gas, for example, with the flow rate in a range of from 5 to 15 L / h, such as 8L / h, in particular until reaching N2 saturation.The bubbled N2 gas is in particular pure N2 gas. In particular, the proportion of N2 in the bubbled N2 gas is preferably at least 95 vol. -%, more preferably at least 98 vol. -%, more preferably at least 99 vol. -%, more preferably at least 99.9 vol. -%, more preferably at least 99.99 vol. -%, more preferably at least 99.999 vol. -%.The products obtained by decomposition of H2O in particular comprise H2, O2 and / or combinations thereof.According to the present disclosure, the method is performed using a setup comprising a piezoelectric catalyst immersed in the aqueous solution comprising the reactant.The core of the present disclosure is the piezoelectric catalyst. According to the disclosure, the piezoelectric catalyst comprises or consists of a semiconductor piezoelectric catalyst comprising dislocations, wherein the surface dislocation density is at least 1.0*1011 m-2.In some embodiments, the piezoelectric catalyst is present in form of a bulk material. In such embodiments, the piezoelectric catalyst is not present as a powder. Bulk material and powder can be differentiated based on the specific surface area. Bulk material, in the sense of the present disclosure, is a material having a specific surface area of at most 2*10-3 m2 / kg.In some embodiments, the piezoelectric catalyst comprises or consists of a ferroelectric piezoelectric ceramic, in particular, a polycrystalline ferroelectric piezoelectric ceramic or a single-crystalline ferroelectric piezoelectric ceramic.The piezoelectric catalyst of the disclosure is a semiconductor, in particular, a polycrystalline ceramic or a single-crystalline ceramic, for example, as bulk ceramic or film. In some embodiments, the piezoelectric catalyst comprises or consists of a single crystal. In some embodiments, the piezoelectric catalysts comprise or consist of perovskites with the general formula ABO3. In this formula, A could be of oxidation state+1 (e.g., Na, K, Li) , then B would be of oxidation state+5 (e.g. Nb, Ta) . Also, A could be of oxidation state+2, (e.g., Ba, Ca, Sr, Zn, etc. ) , then B would be of oxidation state+4 (e.g., Ti, Zr, Sn, Ce) , or both A and B would be of oxidation state+3 (e.g., Bi, La, Fe) . However, it is also possible that A consists of 50%singly ionized elements (e.g., Na) and 50%of threefold ionized elements (e.g. Bi) .In some embodiments, the piezoelectric catalyst comprises or consists of BaTiO3, KNbO3, NaNbO3, Na0.5Bi0.5TiO3, or mixtures of two or more thereof, for example, potassium-sodium niobate (KNbO3-NaNbO3) . In some embodiments, the piezoelectric catalyst comprises or consists of BaTiO3 or KNbO3.Ferroelectric materials, which do not form perovskites, are essentially Pseudo ilmenites as, for example, LiNbO3 und LiTaO3, tungsten bronze types like (Sr, Ba) Nb2O6 und bismuth layered materials like Bi4Ti3O12. In some embodiments, the piezoelectric catalyst comprises or consists of non-ferroelectric piezoelectric ceramics such as ZnO or AlN.In some embodiments, the piezoelectric catalyst comprises or consists of a titanate ceramic.The piezoelectric catalyst comprises dislocations. The surface dislocation density is at least 1.0*1011 m-2, for example, at least 2.0*1011 m-2, at least 5.0*1011 m-2, at least 1.0*1012 m-2, at least 2.0*1012 m-2, at least 5.0*1012 m-2, or at least 1.0*1013 m-2. In some embodiments, the surface dislocation density is at most 1.0*1017 m-2, at most 5.0*1016 m-2, at most 2.0*1016 m-2, at most 1.0*1016 m-2, at most 5.0*1015 m-2, at most 2.0*1015 m-2, or at most 1.0*1015 m-2. The surface dislocation density may, for example, be in a range from 1.0*1011 m-2 to 1.0*1017 m-2, such as from 2.0*1011 m-2 to 5.0*1016 m-2, from 5.0*1011 m-2 to 2.0*1016 m-2, from 1.0*1012 m-2 to 1.0*1016 m-2, from 2.0*1012 m-2 to 5.0*1015 m-2, from 5.0*1012 m-2 to 2.0*1015 m-2, or from 1.0*1013 m-2 to 1.0*1015 m-2.The quantification of the surface dislocation density is, in particular, possible with transmission electron microscopy (TEM) or scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) . The person with skill in the art is familiar with these methods. In particular, a thin sample with a thickness up to 1μm, for example up to 500 nm or up to about 100 nm, such as about 20 nm to 100 nm, for example about 20 nm, about 50 nm or about 100 nm, is prepared, preferably by grinding and ion milling into electron transparency (for example “ion beam thinning” or “focused ion beam” ) . Then, a diffraction contrast allows imaging and quantifying the dislocations and determining the surface density of dislocations. In general, a density of dislocations describes the length of all dislocations per unit volume (units m / m3) . As catalysis is a surface effect, we are interested in the density of points where dislocations intersect the surface (same unit, but stemming from 1 / m2) . Therefore, the surface dislocation density is given herein as the number of dislocations per m2. A representative TEM image is shown in Figure 7.If the dislocation lies perpendicular to the surface, the imaged dislocations represent the projections of the dislocation lines of the surface dislocations. Typical projected dislocation morphologies are therefore either dots (dislocations perpendicular to surface) or short segments (dislocations at an angle to the surface) . The magnification is typically chosen as a balance between good resolution and large area being quantified. The magnification may for example be in a range of from 5,000x to 30,000x, in particular 14,000x or more. The operation voltage may for example be in a range of from 100 kV to 1500 kV, in particular 200 kV or more. The total quantified area may in particular be 10*10-12 m2 or more, for example 25*10-12 m2 or more, or 50*10-12 m2 or more. The total quantified area is not necessarily based on only one image.Rather, the total quantified area may be based on more than one image. For example, quantifying a total number of four images each having an image area of 10*10-12 m2 results in a total quantified area of 40*10-12 m2. The surface dislocation density is determined as the number of imaged dislocations per total quantified area.This technique relies on imaging small surface areas but clearly indicates whether an enhanced density of dislocations has been imprinted or not (imprinted dislocation structures, in particular, give an enhanced density by at least a factor of 100 as compared to untreated samples) . Moreover, small surface areas may, in particular, be representative for and allow determination of the surface dislocation density of a part being at least 20%, at least 40%, at least 60%, or at least 80, %and up to 100%of the entire surface area of the piezoelectric catalyst.The method of the present disclosure is characterized by a particularly high product yield, in particular by a particularly high piezocatalytic hydrogen production rate. The product yield and / or the hydrogen production rate may be given in the unitIt is calculated as the amount of product / hydrogen produced (inμmol) divided by the reaction time (in hours [h] ) and by the weight of piezoelectric catalyst (in grams [g] ) . In some embodiments, the piezocatalytic hydrogen production rate is in a range of from 30 to 200μmol*h-1*g-1 such as from 40 to 150 μmol*h-1*g-1, or from 50 to 100μmol*h-1*g-1. In some embodiments, the piezocatalytic hydrogen production rate is at least 30μmol*h-1*g-1, at least 40μmol*h-1*g-1, or at least 50μmol*h-1*g-1.The method of the disclosure is, in particular, performed at a temperature in a range of from 5℃to 35℃ such as from 10℃ to 30°, from 15℃ to 25℃, or about 20℃. The method of the disclosure is, in particular, performed at room temperature. The temperature may, for example, be at least 5℃, at least 10℃, at least 15℃, or at least 20℃. The temperature may, for example, be at most 35℃, at most 30℃, at most 25℃, or at most 20℃.The temperature may, for example, be controlled by a cooling system such as water-cooling system. The cooling system may comprise a temperature sensor for monitoring the temperature, for example, a thermometer. Temperature may be controlled by partially or completely replacing the aqueous solution (for example, deionized water) whenever the temperature deviates from the desired temperature (for example, room temperature) by more than a given value (for example, by at least 1 K, 2 K, 3 K, 5 K or 10 K) .The method of the present disclosure comprises the step of applying an alternating mechanical strain or stress to the piezoelectric catalyst. This represents a mechanical excitation of the piezoelectric catalyst. The strain or stress may stem from a vibration. This need not be periodical but also could be random. The mechanical stress or strain may be from various sources such as dance floors, highway roads, vibrating bridges, water flow, wind blow, body movement. The vibration could also be supplied by an external machine. The mechanical strain or stress is, in particular, periodically alternating. In some embodiments, the alternating mechanical strain or stress is applied by sound waves, in particular by ultrasonic waves. The frequency may, for example, be in a range of from 20 kHz to 100 kHz, such as from 25 kHz to 75 kHz, from 30 kHz to 50 kHz, or from 35 kHz to 45 kHz. The frequency may, for example, be at least 20 kHz, at least 25 kHz, at least 30 kHz, or at least 35 kHz. The frequency may, for example, be at most 100 kHz, at most 75 kHz, at most 50 kHz, or at most 45 kHz. The power may, for example, be in a range from 10 W to 1000 W, such as from 20 W to 500 W, from 50 W to 200 W, or from 70 W to 100 W. The power may, for example, be at least 10 W, at least 20 W, at least 50 W, or at least 70 W. The power may, for example, be at most 1000 W, at most 500 W, at most 200 W, or at most 100 W.In a second aspect, the present disclosure also relates to a setup comprising a piezoelectric catalyst comprising or consisting of a semiconductor piezoelectric catalyst comprising dislocations, wherein the surface dislocation density is at least 1.0*1011 m-2.According to the disclosure, the piezoelectric catalyst comprises or consists of a semiconductor piezoelectric catalyst comprising dislocations, wherein the surface dislocation density is at least 1.0*1011 m-2.In some embodiments, the piezoelectric catalyst is present in form of a bulk material. In such embodiments, the piezoelectric catalyst is not present as a powder. Bulk material and powder can be differentiated based on the specific surface area. Bulk material, in the sense of the present disclosure, is a material having a specific surface area of at most 2*10-3 m2 / kg.In some embodiments, the piezoelectric catalyst comprises or consists of a ferroelectric piezoelectric ceramic.The piezoelectric catalyst of the disclosure is a semiconductor, in particular, a polycrystalline ceramic or a monocrystalline ceramic. In some embodiments, the piezoelectric catalysts comprise or consist of perovskites with the general formula ABO3. In this formula, A could be of oxidation state+1 (e.g., Na, K, Li) , then B would be of oxidation state+5 (e.g., Nb, Ta) . Also, A could be of oxidation state+2, (e.g., Ba, Ca, Sr, Zn, etc. ) , then B would be of oxidation state+4 (e.g. Ti, Zr, Sn, Ce) , or both A and B would be of oxidation state+3 (e.g., Bi, La, Fe) . However, it is also possible that A consists of 50%of elements with oxidation state+1 (e.g., Na) and 50%of elements with the oxidation state+3 (e.g., Bi) .In some embodiments, the piezoelectric catalyst comprises or consists of BaTiO3, KNbO3, NaNbO3, Na0.5Bi0.5TiO3, or mixtures of two or more thereof, for example, potassium-sodium niobate (KNbO3-NaNbO3) . In some embodiments, the piezoelectric catalyst comprises or consists of BaTiO3 or KNbO3.Ferroelectric materials, which do not form perovskites, are essentially Pseudo ilmenites as, for example, LiNbO3 und LiTaO3, tungsten bronze types like (Sr, Ba) Nb2O6 und bismuth layered materials like Bi4Ti3O12. In some embodiments, the piezoelectric catalyst comprises or consists of non-ferroelectric piezoelectric ceramics such as, for example, ZnO or AlN.In some embodiments, the piezoelectric catalyst comprises or consists of a titanate ceramic.The piezoelectric catalyst comprises dislocations. The surface dislocation density is at least 1.0*1011 m-2, for example, at least 2.0*1011 m-2, at least 5.0*1011 m-2, at least 1.0*1012 m-2, at least 2.0*1012 m-2, at least 5.0*1012 m-2, or at least 1.0*1013 m-2. In some embodiments, the surface dislocation density is at most 1.0*1017 m-2, at most 5.0*1016 m-2, at most 2.0*1016 m-2, at most 1.0*1016 m-2, at most 5.0*1015 m-2, at most 2.0*1015 m-2, or at most 1.0*1015 m-2. The surface dislocation density may, for example, be in a range from 1.0*1011 m-2 to 1.0*1017 m-2, such as from 2.0*1011 m-2 to 5.0*1016 m-2, from 5.0*1011 m-2 to 2.0*1016 m-2, from 1.0*1012 m-2 to 1.0*1016 m-2, from 2.0*1012 m-2 to 5.0*1015 m-2, from 5.0*1012 m-2 to 2.0*1015 m-2, or from 1.0*1013 m-2 to 1.0*1015 m-2.In some embodiments, the setup comprises an excitation source adapted for applying a (in particular periodically) alternating mechanical strain or stress to the piezoelectric catalyst. The excitation source may include various sources such as dance floors, highway roads, vibrating bridges, water flow, wind blow, body movement. The vibration could also be supplied by an external machine. The excitation source may, in particular, be a source of sound waves, in particular ultrasonic waves. In some embodiments, the excitation source is an ultrasonic bath.The frequency of the excitation source may, for example, be in a range from 20 kHz to 100 kHz, such as from 25 kHz to 75 kHz, from 30 kHz to 50 kHz, or from 35 kHz to 45 kHz. The frequency may, for example, be at least 20 kHz, at least 25 kHz, at least 30 kHz, or at least 35 kHz. The frequency may, for example, be at most 100 kHz, at most 75 kHz, at most 50 kHz, or at most 45 kHz. The power of the excitation source may, for example, be in a range from 10 W to 1000 W, such as from 20 W to 500 W, from 50 W to 200 W, or from 70 W to 100 W. The power may, for example, be at least 10 W, at least 20 W, at least 50 W, or at least 70 W. The power may, for example, be at most 1000 W, at most 500 W, at most 200 W, or at most 100 W.In a third aspect, the present disclosure also relates to the use of a setup of the present disclosure in a method of piezocatalytic reduction of a reactant, particularly in a method of the present disclosure.In a fourth aspect, the present disclosure also relates to the use of a semiconductor piezoelectric catalyst comprising dislocations with a surface dislocation density of at least 1.0*1011 m-2 as or in a piezoelectric catalyst, preferably in a method of piezocatalytic reduction of a reactant, in particular, in a method of the present disclosure.In a fifth aspect, the present disclosure also relates to a method of preparing a semiconductor piezoelectric catalyst comprising dislocations with a surface dislocation density of at least 1.0*1011 m-2, the method comprising one or more of the following steps:● Plastic deformation of a semiconductor piezoelectric catalyst, in particular in a temperature range from room temperature to 1600℃, for example, from 100℃ to 1500℃, from 500℃ to 1400℃, from 750℃ to 1300℃, from 1000℃ to 1250℃, or from 1100℃ to 1200℃,● Surface treatment of a semiconductor piezoelectric catalyst, wherein the surface treatment comprises scratching, indentation, polishing, grinding, rolling, or combinations of two or more thereof. The above can be performed with one cycle or multiple cycles.Plastic deformation and / or surface treatment can be used to increase the surface dislocation density. The steps are performed until the desired surface dislocation density is reached.In some embodiments, plastic deformation is uniaxial or biaxial plastic deformation, in particular uniaxial plastic deformation. Plastic deformation may, in particular, be done along the
[0110] or
[0100] direction of the semiconductor piezoelectric catalyst. The direction of applying the load is not so critical, for example, it would be no problem to be off the given direction by up to 5°or up to 10°. In perovskite structures, the dislocations appear on specific glide planes. The mechanical loading is preferably applied such as to generate dislocations either on the {101} <101>or the {100} <100>slip system.Plastic deformation of the semiconductor piezoelectric catalyst may, for example, be done at a temperature of at least room temperature (in particular at least about 20℃) , at least 100℃, at least 200℃, at least 300℃, at least 400℃, at least 500℃, at least 600℃, at least 700℃, at least 750℃, at least 800℃, at least 900℃, at least 1000℃, or at least 1100℃. Plastic deformation of the semiconductor piezoelectric catalyst may, for example, be done at a temperature of at most 1600℃, at most 1500℃, at most 1400℃, at most 1300℃, at most 1250℃, or at most 1200℃.The term “room temperature” as used in the present disclosure, in particular, refers to a temperature of 20℃.In some embodiments, the plastic deformation includes at least 0.2%and / or at most 20%deformation. Plastic deformation may, for example, include 0.2%to 20%, 0.5%to 10%, 1.0%to 5.0%, or 1.5%to 2.5%plastic deformation. Plastic deformation may, for example, include at least 0.2%, at least 0.5%, at least 1.0%, or at least 1.5%plastic deformation. Plastic Deformation may, for example, include at most 20%, at most 10%, at most 5.0%, or at most 2.5%plastic deformation. In some embodiments, the plastic deformation is done under load control or under displacement control. Plastic deformation may be, in particular, done using a load-frame, for example, load-frame Z010 (Zwick / Roell, Ulm, Germany) . The load frame may be equipped with a linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) for precise displacement measurement.According to the invention, deformation is plastic deformation.In some embodiments, plastic deformation includes compression, particularly uniaxial or uniaxial compression at elevated temperatures. This can activate the {100} <100>high-temperature slip system and / or the {101} <101>slip system.In some embodiments, plastic deformation is done at elevated temperatures, for example, at least 100℃, at least 200℃, at least 300℃, at least 400℃, at least 500℃, at least 600℃, at least 700℃, at least 750℃, at least 800℃, at least 900℃, at least 1000℃, or at least 1100℃. The semiconductor piezoelectric catalyst may, for example, be heated at a rate of from 0.1 to 10 K / min, such as from 0.2 to 5.0 K / min or 0.5 to 2.0 K / min, until reaching the target temperature. The heating rate may, for example, be at least 0.1 K / min, at least 0.2 K / min, or at least 0.5 K / min. The heating rate may, for example, be at most 10 K / min, at most 5.0 K / min, or at most 2.0 K / min.The heating step can be followed by thermal equilibration, for example, for a duration of from 1 to 120 minutes, such as from 5 to 90 minutes, from 10 to 60 minutes, or from 20 to 40 minutes. The duration may, for example, be at least 1 minute, at least 5 minutes, at least 10 minutes, or at least 20 minutes. The duration may, for example, be at most 120 minutes, at most 90 minutes, at most 60 minutes, or at most 40 minutes.In some embodiments, a pre-load is applied during the heating process, particularly prior to deformation such as compression. The pre-load may, for example, be in a range of from 0.1 to 10 MPa, such as from 0.2 to 5.0 MPa, from 0.5 to 2.0 MPa, or from 1.0 to 1.5 MPa. The pre-load may, for example, be at least 0.1 MPa, at least 0.2 MPa, at least 0.5 MPa, or at least 1.0 MPa. The pre-load may, for example, be at most 10 MPa, at most 5.0 MPa, at most 2.0 MPa, or at most 1.5 MPa.Deformation (in particular compression) may include a loading rate in a range of from 0.01 to 2.0 N / s, such as from 0.02 to 1.0 N / s, from 0.05 to 0.5 N / s, or from 0.1 to 0.3 N / S, in particular along the
[0110] or
[0100] direction of the semiconductor piezoelectric catalyst. The loading rate may, for example, be at least 0.01 N / s, at least 0.02 N / s, at least 0.05 N / s, or at least 0.1 N / s. The loading rate may, for example, be at most 2.0 N / s, at most 1.0 N / s, at most 0.5 N / s, or at most 0.3 N / s.Once the semiconductor piezoelectric catalysts reach the desired deformation level, they may, in particular, be unloaded at a loading rate in a range of from 0.05 to 5.0 N / s, such as from 0.1 to 2.0 N / s, from 0.2 to 1.0 N / s, or from 0.25 to 0.75 N / s. This may, in particular, be useful to prevent barreling or excessive deformation. The unloading rate may, for example, be at least 0.05 N / s, at least 0.1 N / s, at least 0.2 N / s, or at least 0.25 N / s. The unloading rate may, for example, be at most 5.0 N / s, at most 2.0 N / s, at most 1.0 N / s, or at most 0.75 N / s.The semiconductor piezoelectric catalysts may be cooled down with a cooling rate (in particular following a ramp) in a range of from 0.1 to 10 K / min, such as from 0.2 to 5.0 K / min or 0.5 to 2.0 K / min in particular until reaching a temperature in a range of 15℃ to 25℃ such as room temperature. The cooling rate may, in particular, be at least 0.1 K / min, at least 0.2 K / min, or at least 0.5 K / min. The cooling rate may, for example, be at most 10 K / min, at most 5.0 K / min, or at most 2.0 K / min.The semiconductor piezoelectric catalysts may, in particular, be cooled down after unloading.In some embodiments, uniaxial compressive stress in a range of from 0.1 to 10 MPa, such as from 0.2 to 5.0 MPa, from 0.5 to 2.0 MPa, or from 1.0 to 1.5 MPa, is maintained during cooling down. The stress may, for example, be at least 0.1 MPa, at least 0.2 MPa, at least 0.5 MPa, or at least 1.0 MPa. The stress may, for example, be at most 10 MPa, at most 5.0 MPa, at most 2.0 MPa, or at most 1.5 MPa.In some embodiments, the surface treatment comprises scratching or is scratching, in particular, single-cycle scratching.In some embodiments, scratching is done with an indenter, in particular with an indenter having a diameter in a range of from 0.5 mm to 12.5 mm, for example, from 1.0 mm to 7.5 mm, from 1.5 mm to 5.0 mm, or from 2.0 mm to 3.0 mm. The diameter may, for example, be at least 0.5 mm, at least 1.0 mm, at least 1.5 mm, or at least 2.0 mm. The diameter may, for example, be at most 12.5 mm, at most 7.5 mm, at most 5.0 mm, or at most 3.0 mm.The load on the indenter is, in particular, in a range of from 1.0 N to 75 N, for example, from 2.0 N to 35 N, or from 5.0 N to 15 N. The load on the indenter may optionally be at least 1.0 N, at least 2.0 N, or at least 5.0 N. The load on the indenter may optionally be at most 75 N, at most 35 N, or at most 15 N.In some embodiments, scratch tracks are formed upon scratching. In particular, the scratch tracks are plastically deformed scratch tracks.In some embodiments, the length of the individual scratch tracks is in a range of from 0.5 mm to 20 mm, such as from 1.0 mm to 10 mm or from 2.0 mm to 5.0 mm. The length of the individual scratch tracks may, for example, be at least 0.5 mm, at least 1.0 mm, or at least 2.0 mm. The length of the individual scratch tracks may, for example, be at most 20 mm, at most 10 mm, or at most 5.0 mm.In some embodiments, the width of the individual scratch tracks is in a range of from 15μm to 1500μm such as from 30μm to 750μm, from 50μm to 500μm, from 75μm to 250μm, or from 100μm to 200μm. The width of the individual scratch tracks may, for example, be at least 15 μm, at least 30μm, at least 50μm, at least 75μm, or at least 100μm. The width of the individual scratch tracks may, for example, be at most 1500μm, at most 750μm, at most 500 μm, at most 250μm, or at most 200μm.In some embodiments, the spacing between individual scratch tracks is in a range of from 20 μm to 2000μm such as from 40μm to 1000μm, from 80μm to 500μm, or from 150μm to 250 μm. The spacing between individual scratch tracks may, for example, be at least 20μm, at least 40μm, at least 80μm, or at least 150μm. The spacing between individual scratch tracks may, for example, be at most 2000μm, at most 1000μm, at most 500μm, or at most 250μm. The spacing is, in particular, the average spacing. Preferably, a tool for scratching is chosen with a contact geometry and spacing such that the surface is completely covered with dislocations. However, direct overlap of the scratch tracks is preferably avoided to prevent dislocation pile-up and potential crack formation.The material of the indenter is, in particular, harder than the material to be indented. In some embodiments, the material of the indenter comprises or consists of stainless steel.In some embodiments, the surface treatment comprises scratching, polishing, grinding, rolling, or combinations of two or more thereof. In some embodiments, the lateral velocity of the scratching, polishing, grinding, or rolling tool on the surface of the semiconductor catalyst is in a range of from 0.02 mm / s to 10.0 mm / s, for example, from 0.05 mm / s to 5.0 mm / s, from 0.1 mm / s to 2.0 mm / s, from 0.2 mm / s to 1.0 mm / s, or from 0.25 mm / s to 0.75 mm / s. The lateral velocity of the scratching, polishing, grinding, or rolling tool on the surface of the semiconductor catalyst may optionally be at least 0.02 mm / s, at least 0.05 mm / s, at least 0.1 mm / s, at least 0.2 mm / s or at least 0.25 mm / s. The lateral velocity of the scratching, polishing, grinding, or rolling tool on the surface of the semiconductor catalyst may optionally be at most 10.0 mm / s, at most 5.0 mm / s, at most 2.0 mm / s, at most 1.0 mm / s, or at most 0.75 mm / s.In some embodiments, indentation, polishing, grinding, rolling, scratching, or combinations of two or more thereof are performed with one cycle or multiple cycles with a total of 100 cycles or less. The number of cycles may, for example, be in a range of from 1 to 100, such as from 2 to 50, or from 5 to 15. The number of cycles may be at least 1, for example, at least 2 or at least 5. The number of cycles may optionally be at most 100, at most 50, or at most 15.The present disclosure relates to a method of preparing a semiconductor piezoelectric catalyst comprising dislocations with a surface dislocation density of at least 1.0*1011 m-2.According to the disclosure, there are several mechanical methods to effectively introduce dislocations.In some embodiments, the method comprises point loading using a spherical indenter, which can be stationary, with cyclic loading, or with a moving load, like with scratching.Cyclic point loading by a spherical indenter can increase the dislocation density in the plastic zone below the indenter by a factor of more than ten as compared to one-time point loading. In some embodiments, the method comprises cyclic point loading.If the indented sample is tempered at higher temperatures, the dislocation density can be further enhanced. In some embodiments, the method comprises tempering the indented sample at temperatures from 600℃ to 1300℃, for example, from 800℃ to 1250℃, or from 1000℃ to 1200℃. The tempering time may, for example, be in a range of from 10 minutes to 60 hours, such as from 20 minutes to 30 hours, from 30 minutes to 20 hours, from 45 minutes to 15 hours, or from 60 minutes to 10 hours. The heating rate may, for example, be in a range of from 1.0 to 100 K / min, such as from 2.0 to 50 K / min, from 5.0 to 25 K / min, or from 7.5 to 15 K / min.Scratching is a very efficient method to fast cover large surface areas. In some embodiments, the method comprises scratching.Single-cycle scratching may be advantageous because cyclic scratching may generate cracks.In some embodiments, the method comprises single-cycle scratching.In some embodiments, the method comprises far-field loading under a specific stress on a bulk sample.The method of preparing a semiconductor piezoelectric catalyst of the disclosure can be performed at room temperature or enhanced temperatures. Depending on loading type and temperature, various dislocation structures can be obtained with various affected volumes and dislocation densities.The method of the disclosure can be applied to single crystals and to polycrystalline materials.In some embodiments, the method comprises generating dislocation structures during the production process of the semiconductor piezoelectric catalyst.Description of the FiguresFigure 1 schematically shows the charge development on the surface of the piezoelectric ceramics under the alternating compression 11 and tension 12 forces, for example, realized by the application of ultrasound for water splitting reaction.Figure 2 (a) schematically shows a setup of the present disclosure according to an embodiment, including the experimental arrangement of in-line gas analysis. The setup includes a sealed container 21 degassed with N2 from N2 tank 24. Container 21 is connected with gas chromatograph 22 for in-line gas analysis. The gas chromatograph 22 is connected to N2 tank 24, He tank 23, gas purifier 25, and with computer27. Furthermore, gas chromatograph 22 has a gas out 26.Figure 2 (b) schematically shows container 21 in more detail. Container 21 comprises a piezoelectric catalyst 29 in deionized water 28. Ultrasonic excitation 30 is applied. The piezoelectric catalyst 27 may, in particular, be a single crystal.Figure 3 (a) schematically shows tetragonal<110>-oriented BaTiO3 single crystal before (31) , during (32) , and after (33) high temperature deformation. For high temperature deformation in compressive direction 34, specimen 37 (in particular single crystal) was placed between two Al2O3 pressing dies in a load frame for high-temperature (35) plastic deformation experiments under stress (36) , equipped with a heating chamber (indicated by dotted line) , as indicated in the middle. Figure 3 (b) schematically shows the dislocations with dislocation line and Burgers vector of the<100> {100} slip system 38. Figure 3 (c) shows a representative stress-strain curve for<110>-oriented BaTiO3 single crystal at 1150℃. Figure 3 (d) schematically shows that the investigated samples with a geometry of~4×4×1 mm3 were sliced from the deformed crystal 33. The compressive direction is indicated as 39. In principle, also slices in different orientation can be extracted. Here, slices were prepared with the surface to be investigated perpendicular to the compressive axis, but one could also extract a slab with the surface of interest perpendicular (or any angle) to the compressive axis. The plastic deformation is in particular performed on samples of height 8 mm. The catalytic quantification is in particular done on thin slabs of thickness 1 mm as indicated in Fig. 3d) . Thereby about 8 samples can be obtained from one plastic deformation experiment.Figure 4 is a bar graph showing the piezocatalytic hydrogen production rate in deionized water obtained with different BaTiO3 samples, as indicated. “BT” refers to BaTiO3. The inventive BaTiO3 with dislocations resulted in a strongly increased production rate as compared to the non-inventive comparative examples. Compared with traditional powder catalysts for H2 evolution that have been reported, it is also noticed that the catalytic activity of the BaTiO3 single crystal is highly promising as a piezocatalytic material. Such a single crystal with dislocations is more conducive to the recyclability and avoids the secondary pollution.Figure 5 shows the surfaces of several KNbO3 single crystal surfaces with parallel scratch tracks. The images have been taken by optical microscopy (ZEISS Axio Imager 2, Carl Zeiss Microscopy GmbH, Jena, Germany) with the circular-differential interference contrast (C-DIC) imaging mode. The scale bar shows a distance of 500μm.Figure 6 is a bar graph showing the piezocatalytic hydrogen production rate in deionized water obtained with different KNbO3 and BaTiO3 samples, as indicated. “BT” refers to BaTiO3. The inventive KNbO3 with dislocations resulted in a strongly increased production rate as compared to the non-inventive comparative examples. It is clear that the catalytic performance of KNbO3 single crystal is at a much larger rate than obtained from other reported piezocatalysts such as BaTiO3 nanoparticles (R. Su, Z. Wang, L. Zhu, Y. Pan, D. Zhang, H. Wen, Z.D. Luo, L. Li, F. t. Li, M. Wu, Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 133 (2021) 16155-16162) and BaTiO3 nanowires (R. Su, H.A. Hsain, M. Wu, D. Zhang, X. Hu, Z. Wang, X. Wang, F.T. Li, X. Chen, L. Zhu, Y. Yang, Y. Yang, X. Lou, S.J. Pennycook, Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 58 (2019) 15076-15081) .Figure 7 depicts a TEM image of 2%deformed BaTiO3 (viewed along
[0100] ) , illustrating ferroelectric domain structure (long arrows) and dislocations (arrowheads) in slip planes. The space bar is 500 nm. The magnification was 14,000x. The TEM was taken using an operation voltage of 200 kV. 25 dislocations can be identified on an area of 10*10-12 m2, yielding a surface dislocation density of 2.5*1012 m-2. Note that only the intersection points of the dislocations with the surface are counted. There are some dislocation lines visible, but only one arrowhead with it. This is the place where this dislocation line intersects the surface.Examples1. Introduction of dislocationsDislocations can be introduced into catalytic materials by various methods.a) Plastic deformationFor this experiment, the BaTiO3 single crystal has been plastically deformed at elevated temperatures.
[0110] -oriented high-quality BaTiO3 single crystals with dimensions of 4×4×8 mm3 (Electro-Optics Technology GmbH, Idar-Oberstein, Germany) were subjected to deformation through uniaxial compression at 1150℃, shown in Figure 3. The purpose of the compression was to activate the {100} <100>high-temperature slip system. During the experimental procedure, the samples were heated at a rate of 1℃ / min until reaching the target temperature, followed by a thermal equilibration for 30 min. Prior to compression, a pre-load of 1.25 MPa was applied during the heating process. The compression of the samples was performed at 1150℃, applying a loading rate of 0.2 N / s along the
[0110] direction using a load-frame (Z010, Zwick / Roell, Ulm, Germany) , which was equipped with a linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) for precise displacement measurement. Once the samples reached a deformation level of 2%, they were unloaded at a loading rate of 0.5 N / s to prevent barreling or excessive deformation. Subsequently, the samples were cooled down to room temperature with a ramp rate of 1℃ / min while maintaining uniaxial compressive stress of 1.25 MPa.This plastic deformation yielded a surface dislocation density of 2.5*1012 / m2 (Figure 7) . Undeformed BaTiO3 single crystals feature a surface dislocation density depending on manufacturer and batch of about 108 / m2to 1010 / m2.b) Surface treatmentA technique of surface scratching was employed to introduce a high dislocation density on the surface of KNbO3, as shown in Figure 5.Single crystal KNbO3 with surface orientation (001) was mechanically scratched with stainless steel balls with a diameter of 2.5 mm and an optimized load of 0.8 kg (to avoid or minimize crack formation) . The lateral speed of the indenter is set to be 0.5 mm / s, with a scratching direction along<110>. The scratch track has a length of about 3 mm, and the width of the plastically deformed scratch track is about 150μm. Single-cycle scratching was used for producing the scratch tracks, as cyclic scratching may generate cracks. The spacing between each scratch track was set to be about 200μm (direct overlap of the scratch track was avoided to prevent dislocation pile up and potential crack formation) , shown in Figure 5. The surface dislocation density was estimated to be increased by a factor of 10-fold to 100-fold as compared to pristine KNbO3 single crystals.2. Visualization of DislocationsFor the investigation of dislocations and their structure, multiple techniques can be employed. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) has been proven effective in illustrating the distinct structure of dislocations, particularly the core structure and mesoscopic structure. The sample thickness of the investigated area is typically between 20 and 100 nm.Figure 7 depicts a TEM image of 2%deformed BaTiO3 (viewed along
[0100] ) , illustrating ferroelectric domain structure (long arrows) and dislocations (arrowheads) in slip planes. The TEM was taken using an operation voltage of 200 kV. 25 dislocations (dots or short segments) can be identified on an area of 10*10-12 m2, yielding a surface dislocation density of 2.5*1012 m-2. Note that only the intersection points of the dislocations with the surface were counted. There are some dislocation lines visible, but only one arrowhead with it. This is the place where this dislocation line intersects the surface.3. H2 production by piezocatalytic decomposition of waterThe samples obtained from example 1 were used as piezoelectric catalysts for water splitting.a) Samples obtained by plastic deformationThe experiment has been performed as schematically shown in Figure 2. Piezocatalysis of the BaTiO3 single crystal was performed in a sealed 100 ml container containing 30 ml deionized water without any co-catalyst and sacrificial agent.The catalysis experiment was conducted in sealed vessels at room temperature with a water-cooling system that is monitored by a thermometer and replaces the ultrasonic medium-deionized water-whenever the temperature rises by more than 5℃.The single crystal was put into 30 ml deionized water, and highly pure N2 (99.9995%) was bubbled into the solution at a rate of 8 l / h for 30 min to remove residual air prior to being located in the center of a 80 W ultrasonic bath (Yujie AK-009SD) . The ultrasonic bath was used to provide an alternating mechanical excitation. The ultrasonic bath was filled with sufficient liquid to submerge the bottom of the experimental setup to ensure energy transmission to the crystal.After 30 min of ultrasonication, the H2 production rate was quantified by blowing the product into a gas chromatography (GC) system using the drive gas ultrapure N2 (99.9995 vol%) of 8 l / h. Hydrogen concentration was determined by the gas chromatography (GC) system and using ultra-pure He (99.9995 vol%) of 32 l / h as carrier gas and a thermal conductivity detector (TCD) .Figure 4 reveals the impact of introducing dislocations in BaTiO3 single crystals on H2 production rate under ultrasonic excitation. The undeformed crystal featured a rate of 24.37 μmol g-1 h-1. The rate for the BaTiO3 single crystal with introduced dislocations was 82.58μmol g-1 h-1, which was 3.4 times that of the BaTiO3 single crystal without dislocations.BaTiO3 nanoparticles and nanowires resulted in hydrogen production rates being even much lower as compared to the bulk sample without dislocations.b) Samples obtained by surface treatmentA KNbO3 single crystal was used as a catalyst by being placed into deionized water (30 ml) and bubbling pure N2 for N2 saturation. No sacrificial agent was used.For the H2 evolution rate detection, single crystals are immersed in a quartz container with 30 ml of deionized water. Residual gases are purged using high-purity N2 (99.9995 vol%) . Throughout the reaction, the system was kept sealed. Every ten minutes, the reaction products were transferred into a gas chromatography system (Fanwei, GC-6600) using a high-purity N2 (99.9995 vol%) at a flow rate of 8 l / h, allowing for the measurement of the generated H2 quantity.A piece of ultrasonic equipment provides the external driving force for piezocatalytic H2 evolution. The H2 was quantitatively detected using gas chromatography. According to a detailed estimation of H2 evolution rate with KNbO3 as the catalyst depicted in Figure 6, it provides a 2.4 times higher yield than that without any dislocations. The results prove that introducing dislocations boosts catalytic performance.
Claims
1.Method of piezocatalytic decomposition of a reactant, the method comprising the following steps:a) Providing a setup comprising a piezoelectric catalyst immersed in an aqueous solution comprising the reactant, andb) Applying an alternating mechanical strain or stress to the piezoelectric catalyst,wherein the method is characterized by the piezoelectric catalyst comprising or consisting of a semiconductor piezoelectric catalyst comprising dislocations, wherein the surface dislocation density on at least a part of a surface of the piezoelectric catalyst is at least 1.0*1011 m-2.2.Method of claim 1, wherein the reactant comprises or consists of H2O.3.Method of at least one of the preceding claims, wherein the piezoelectric catalyst is present in form of a bulk material, in particular having a specific surface area of at most 2*10-3 m2 / kg.4.Method of at least one of the preceding claims, wherein the piezoelectric catalyst is a ceramic, in particular, a ferroelectric piezoelectric ceramic.5.Method of at least one of the preceding claims, wherein the piezoelectric catalyst is a single crystal.6.Method of at least one of the preceding claims, wherein the surface dislocation density is at least 1.0*1012 m-2.7.Method of at least one of the preceding claims, wherein the aqueous solution is bubbled with N2 gas.8.Method of at least one of the preceding claims, wherein the aqueous solution comprises at least 99 vol. -%H2O.9.Method of at least one of the preceding claims, wherein the aqueous solution is deionized water.10.Method of at least one of the preceding claims, wherein the products obtained by decomposition of H2O comprise H2, O2 and / or combinations thereof.11.Method of claim 10, wherein the hydrogen production rate is at least 30μmol*h-1*g-1.12.Method of at least one of the preceding claims, wherein the aqueous solution does not comprise a sacrificial agent.13.Method of at least one of the preceding claims, wherein the piezoelectric catalyst comprises or consists of perovskites with the general formula ABO3.14.Method of claim 13, wherein· A is of single valency, in particular, selected from Na, K, Li; and B is of fivefold valency, in particular selected from Nb, Ta; or wherein· A is of twofold valency, in particular, selected from Ba, Ca, Sr, Zn; and B is of fourfold valency, in particular, selected from Ti, Zr, Sn, Ce; or wherein· both A and B are of threefold valency, in particular, selected from Bi, La, Fe; or wherein· A consists of 50%single valency component, in particular Na, and 50%threefold valency component, in particular Bi; and B is of fourfold valency, in particular selected from Ti, Zr, Sn, Ce.15.Method of at least one of the preceding claims, wherein the piezoelectric catalyst comprises or consists of BaTiO3, KNbO3, NaNbO3, Na0.5Bi0.5TiO3, or mixtures of two or more thereof.16.Method of at least one of claims 1 to 8 and 10 to 14, wherein the aqueous solution comprises one or more inorganic salts in an amount of at least 100 mM.17.Method of at least one of the preceding claims, wherein the method is performed at a temperature in a range of from 10℃ to 30℃.18.Method of at least one of the preceding claims, wherein the alternating mechanical strain or stress is applied by sound waves, particularly ultrasonic waves.19.Method of at least one of the preceding claims, wherein the alternating mechanical strain or stress is applied with a frequency ranging from 20 kHz to 100 kHz.20.Method of at least one of the preceding claims, wherein the alternating mechanical strain or stress is applied so that the surface of the piezoelectric catalyst in the vicinity of or at dislocations acts as a reactive site for piezocatalytic reactions.21.Method of at least one of the preceding claims, wherein the alternating mechanical strain or stress is applied with a power in a range of from 10 W to 1000 W.22.Setup comprising a piezoelectric catalyst comprising or consisting of a semiconductor piezoelectric catalyst comprising dislocations, wherein the surface dislocation density is at least 1.0*1011 m-2.23.Setup of claim 22, wherein the piezoelectric catalyst is a ceramic, in particular, a ferroelectric piezoelectric polycrystalline ceramic.24.Setup of at least one of claims 22 and 23, wherein the piezoelectric catalyst is a single crystal.25.Setup of at least one of claims 22 to 24, wherein the surface dislocation density is at least 1.0*1012 m-2.26.Setup of at least one of claims 22 to 25, wherein the setup comprises an excitation source adapted for applying a (in particular periodically) alternating mechanical strain or stress to the piezoelectric catalyst.27.Setup of claim 26, wherein the excitation source is a source of ultrasonic waves, in particular, an ultrasonic bath.28.Setup of at least one of claims 22 to 27, wherein the excitation source has a power in a range of from 10 W to 1000 W.29.Setup of at least one of the claims 22 to 28, wherein piezoelectric catalyst comprises or consists of BaTiO3, KNbO3, NaNbO3, Na0.5Bi0.5TiO3, or mixtures of two or more thereof.30.Use of a setup of at least one of claims 22 to 29 in a method of piezocatalytic decomposition of a reactant, in particular in a method of at least one of claims 1 to 21.31.Use of a semiconductor piezoelectric catalyst comprising dislocations with a surface dislocation density of at least 1.0*1011 m-2 as or in a piezoelectric catalyst.32.Use of claim 31, wherein the piezoelectric catalyst is used in a method of piezocatalytic decomposition of a reactant, particularly in a method of at least one of claims 1 to 21.33.Method of preparing a semiconductor piezoelectric catalyst comprising dislocations with a surface dislocation density of at least 1.0*1011 m-2, the method comprising one or more of the following steps:· Plastic deformation of a semiconductor piezoelectric catalyst,· Surface treatment of a semiconductor piezoelectric catalyst, wherein the surface treatment comprises scratching, indentation, polishing, grinding, rolling, or combinations of two or more thereof.34.Method of claim 33, wherein the plastic deformation is uniaxial.35.Method of at least one of claims 33 and 34, wherein the deformation includes at least 0.2%and / or at most 20%plastic deformation.36.Method of at least one of claims 33 to 35, wherein the deformation is done at a temperature in a range of from 500℃ to 1400℃.37.Method of claim 36, wherein the semiconductor piezoelectric catalyst is heated at a rate of from 0.1 to 10 K / min.38.Method of at least one of claims 36 and 37, wherein the heating step is followed by thermal equilibration, for example for a duration of from 1 to 120 minutes.39.Method of at least one of claims 36 to 38, wherein a pre-load is applied during the heating step prior to deformation.40.Method of claim 39, wherein the pre-load is in a range of from 0.1 to 10 MPa.41.Method of at least one of claims 33 to 40, wherein deformation includes a loading rate in a range of from 0.01 to 2.0 N / s, in particular along the [110] or [100] direction of the semiconductor piezoelectric catalyst.42.Method of at least one of claims 33 to 41, wherein the unloading rate is in a range of from 0.05 to 5.0 N / s.43.Method of at least one of claims 36 to 42, wherein the cooling rate is in a range of from 0.1 to 10 K / min.44.Method of at least one of claims 36 to 43, wherein uniaxial compressive stress is maintained during cooling down, in particular in a range of from 0.1 to 10 MPa.45.Method of at least one of claims 33 to 44, wherein the deformation is done under load control or under displacement control, in particular using a load frame.46.Method of at least one of claims 33 to 45, wherein the surface treatment comprises scratching, in particular, scratching with an indenter.47.Method of claim 46, wherein the load on the indenter is in a range of from 1.0 N to 75 N.48.Method of at least one of claims 46 and 47, wherein the diameter of the indenter is in a range of from 0.5 mm to 12.5 mm.49.Method of at least one of claims 46 to 48, wherein the indenter material comprises or consists of stainless steel.50.Method of at least one of claims 33 to 49, wherein scratch tracks are formed upon scratching, in particular plastically deformed scratch tracks.51.Method of claim 50, wherein the length of the individual scratch tracks is in a range of 0.5 mm to 20 mm.52.Method of at least one of claims 50 and 51, wherein the width of the individual scratch tracks is in a range of from 15μm to 1500μm.53.Method of at least one of claims 50 to 52, wherein the spacing between individual scratch tracks is in a range of from 20μm to 2000μm.54.Method of at least one of claims 33 to 53, wherein the surface treatment comprises scratching, polishing, grinding, rolling, or combinations of two or more thereof and wherein the lateral velocity of the scratching, polishing, grinding, or rolling tool on the surface of the semiconductor catalyst is in a range of from 0.02 mm / s to 10.0 mm / s.55.Method of at least one of claims 33 to 54, wherein scratching, indentation, polishing, grinding, rolling, or combinations of two or more thereof are performed with one cycle or multiple cycles with a total of 100 cycles or less.56.Method of at least one of claims 33 to 55, wherein the surface treatment comprises single-cycle scratching.
Citation Information
Patent Citations
A piezo photocatalytic process for the production of hydrogen from water
WO2023225719A1