Carbon capture and storage system with an abiotic center for enhanced mineral weathering

Abstract

A managed and controlled system for capturing and stably storing carbon from a carbon dioxide source is provided with a reaction chamber configured for receiving and carrying out an enhanced mineral weathering process using a carbon-reactive mineral-containing input, a water-based input, and a carbon dioxide-containing input to form a reaction medium. The mineral-containing and carbon-dioxide-containing inputs are engineered to have selected compositions, and the carbon dioxide-containing input is mixed with the water-based input before being delivered into the reaction chamber using one or more means to optimize reaction kinetics. Additional auxiliary subsystems are provided to process and engineer the system inputs, process the system outputs for safe disposal and optionally, reclaim valuable technology metals from reaction chamber outflows containing (by)products of the enhanced mineral weathering process.

Description

CARBON CAPTURE AND STORAGE SYSTEM WITH AN ABIOTIC CENTER FOR ENHANCED MINERAL WEATHERINGFIELD OF THE INVENTION

[0001] The present invention relates to the field of carbon capture or sequestration and enhanced mineral weathering using reactor systems, and more particularly incorporating an abiotic center for mineral weathering to enhance the weathering of carbon reactive minerals.BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

[0002] The background to the invention provides information about the state of the art relating to abiotic reactor systems for carbon dioxide capture or sequestration using carbon reactive minerals as reactor feedstocks.

[0003] Patent Publication No. W02023069960 summarizes the challenges regarding increasing levels of greenhouse gases generated by human activity. Carbon dioxide is a powerful greenhouse gas, currently comprising a global average of 0.0415% (415 parts per million) of the Earth’s atmosphere. Current anthropogenic emissions of carbon dioxide greatly exceed all available natural and manmade sinks, leading to persistent, long-term increases in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide. The increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration results in multiple deleterious effects on the natural environment, including rising global mean temperature, rising sea level, acidification of rainwater and seawater, and changes in annual weather patterns, collectively known as climate change. These changes cause very serious stresses on existing natural ecosystems, as well as cause serious stresses to human societies through food and water insecurity, deteriorating land use, etc. There exists a need for systems, methods, compositions and processes to effect the capture and permanent (stable) sequestration of atmospheric carbon dioxide.

[0004] Certain naturally occurring geological minerals (e.g., olivine) as well as manmade industrial byproducts (e.g., slag) may chemically interact with carbon dioxideto effect the consumption of protons and the conversion of gaseous carbon dioxide into either aqueous dissolved bicarbonate and carbonate ions HCCU and CCE2') or solidphase carbonate mineral species (CaCCh(s) and MgCCE(s)), both of which act to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere (a process known as “carbon (dioxide) sequestration”). Grinding these minerals to smaller particle sizes may increase the available surface area of such mineral particles, thereby enhancing the rate at which they are able to sequester carbon dioxide from the atmosphere (a process known as “enhanced weathering”). To be effective at carbon sequestration, the process of enhanced weathering must do more than simply capture carbon; it should capture carbon in a manner that results in the stable storage of carbon and ability to reintroduce process byproducts back into the system (recycling), into the general environment and / or obtain them in a form that can be directed to other useful applications.

[0005] As the world faces the real risks associated with anthropogenic climate change, increasing resources are being committed to developing solutions for the capture and stable storage of carbon dioxide. However, solutions that are effective, scalable and cost-efficient are currently lacking to address this problem.

[0006] A suite of technologies exist to capture carbon dioxide, either directly from an emissions point source, or from the atmosphere. Many of these technologies, however, lack the stable storage solutions, as the CO2they capture remains a gaseous waste product. Geochemical solutions are a promising avenue of research, since they involve producing a chemical reaction between a mineral substrate and the CO2, therefore transforming the CO2into a different, stable compound. The key issues faced revolve around technical bottlenecks. These in large part relate to the relatively slow kinetics of (1) CO2dissolution into water, or (2) mineral - CO2reactions. Therefore, many solutions have been proposed to catalyze these reactions, informing the state of the art. These solutions generally involve operating a catalytic reactor vessel at high temperatures and pressures, which requires a lot of energy, or utilizing specific catalysts such as carbonic anhydrase in a limited fashion, which only address some of the issues related to reaction kinetics and thermodynamics.

[0007] Patent Publication No. W02023069960 also discloses the idea of a reactor configured to maximize carbon capture via the accelerated dissolution of a mafic or ultramafic material (e.g., olivine) for weathering applications. The concept is disclosed with reference to a bioreactor system for carbon sequestration leveraging enhanced mineral weathering processes. It provides for a multi-chamber system and highlights certain geochemical considerations that are relevant to the design of biotic reactor systems to enhance mineral weathering and capture carbon, including among others, the use of suitably engineered material (i.e., a carbon-removing sand that includes at least one type of alkaline material), and one or more chambers for carrying out distinct process steps. There is also disclosed the option to have a chamber for collecting useful process by-products, such as extracted “technology metals”.

[0008] US Patent Document No. 11235278B1 discloses an abiotic reactor for the sequestration of carbon dioxide that is operated on a marine vessel. The source of CO2 can include ship flue gases, CO2 stored in cylinders (tanks) transported in the ship and CO2captured through external means during the ship’s journey. Seawater is pumped into the vessel where it is mixed with CO2gas and then brought into contact with a reaction medium in a reaction region. The reaction medium may include carbonates and silicates in equal ratios or ratios comprising greater amounts of carbonates relative to silicates. The mineral component of the reaction medium rests on a diffusion grate that delineates the reaction region above the mixing region. A bubbler may be used to mix water with CO2 and inflow / outflow pumps are used to move the water / gas mixture through the reaction medium and reaction chamber.

[0009] There remains a need, however, to develop geochemically based solutions that are scalable, operate at or near-ambient temperatures and pressures and can catalyze the carbon-mineral reactions in a way to make carbon capture and stable storage efficient and cost-effective for real world application.SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

[0010] The present disclosure relates generally to scalable carbon capture and stable (carbon) storage (CCSS) systems and methods, which leverage advanced knowledge ingeochemistry, mineralogy and fluid dynamics to catalyze reactions that enhance the weathering of carbon-reactive minerals (such as silicates, carbonates or oxides / hydroxides) in order to capture and stably store CO2and optionally other gases from industrial emissions (such as flue gases). More particularly, the dissolution of these minerals in a mineral weathering center (MWC) comprising one or more reaction chambers (RCs or reactors) generates alkalinity, which in turn drives the dissolution of CO2in water, and transforms it to dissolved or solid carbonate species.

[0011] The enhanced mineral weathering process, and its associated alkalinity generation, as well as the CO2drawdown and permanent sequestration in water, can all occur in one MWC and more particularly, if desired, in a single RC, i.e. a self- contained and highly controlled environment, as opposed to an open system such as the oceans. This means that when discharge waters re-enter the natural environment, the excess CO2stored as dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) in alkaline solution is already stable and ready for injection in its permanent storage reservoir (e.g., the oceans).

[0012] A MWC is configured such that the zone of contact between the mineral substrate and dissolved CO2is optimized, and the kinetics of mineral weathering are carried out at rates above what would naturally occur at the ambient / near-ambient temperatures and pressures under which the MWC is generally operated. Among other things, this is achieved by the selective processing and engineering of mineral feedstock (MF) / mineral substrate inputs, and the managed control of multiple loci of mixing for reaction media components upstream of and within a RC using auxiliary subsystems, as well as within a RC. Such mixing is done at rates and with the application of mechanical forces (e.g. using injector devices) that help to drive and optimize reaction kinetics and thermodynamics for enhanced mineral weathering.

[0013] In this manner, the configuration of a CCSS system facilitates a controlled process of enhanced mineral weathering that is scalable and that contributes to environmental sustainability and / or reclamation. A CCSS system is configured and operated so as to alter and optimize the composition and selection of system inputs, drive and optimize enhanced weathering process reactions, and retrieveenvironmentally beneficial (or benign) system outputs. Useful value-added products for use and re-use in industrial activities may also be optionally produced.

[0014] The systems and methods for achieving enhanced mineral weathering provide a controlled environment in which carbon-reactive particles of a mineral substrate are in continuous suspension in a reaction medium, and other non-carbon-reactive particles are not in suspension. This provides a mineral substrate akin to a hybrid packed- fluidized bed that is used to capture carbon in a stable manner. The deliberate processing, engineering and layering (configuring) of mineral feedstock components to provide such a mineral substrate is carried out using various auxiliary subsystems, on the basis of grain / particle size, grain / particle size distribution, minerology, carbon reactivity and / or density in order to support the optimization of the zone of contact of components in reaction media, and reaction kinetics in the RCs.

[0015] The auxiliary subsystems and methods are applied to provide a managed MWC environment to support the optimization of the zone of contact, reaction kinetics and thermodynamics in RCs and may include: carbon injection means, mineral feedstock delivery means, carbon delivery means, solubility promoter (reaction enhancer / accelerant) delivery means, circulation flow means, inflow and outflow processing means, and geochemical monitoring means (e.g. using various sensors). There is also provided means and subsystems for by-product integration back into the external environment (disposal away from the MWC), as well as optionally, value product recovery.

[0016] In aspects there is provided a system for capturing and stably storing carbon comprising: a. a reaction chamber configured for receiving and carrying out an enhanced mineral weathering process using a carbon-reactive mineral-containing input, a water-based input, and a carbon dioxide-containing input to form a reaction medium; b. a mixing means for mixing the water-based input and carbon dioxide-containing input to provide a carbon dioxide saturated gas / water mixture and solution prior to contacting said inputs with the carbon reactive mineral -containing input; and c. one or more means to deliver sufficient kinetic energy to the reaction medium to promote an enhanced mineral weathering process.

[0017] In embodiments, the, the system further comprises one or more of: i. a mineral feedstock delivery subsystem for delivering the mineral -containing input into the reaction chamber; ii. an inflow processing subsystem for processing the water-based input for delivery to the reaction chamber; iii. a carbon delivery subsystem for delivering the carbon dioxide-containing input to be mixed with the water input; iv. a carbon injector subsystem for mixing the carbon dioxide-containing input with the water input and delivering the saturated gas / water mixture and solution to the reaction chamber; v. a circulation flow subsystem to circulate water in and through the reaction chamber and mix the reaction medium; vi. a means to, optionally, provide one or more solubility enhancers or promoters for delivery to the reaction chamber; and vii. a geochemical monitoring and control subsystem to manage the operation of the system for the optimization of the enhanced mineral weathering process. In other embodiments, the system further comprises an outflow processing subsystem for delivering alkalinity-enriched water and dissolved inorganic carbon in the outflows of the reaction chamber to an environment outside of the system. In yet other embodiments, the system further comprises a value product recovery subsystem for recovering technology metals and a carbon recovery unit for recycling back into the reaction chamber, carbon dioxide in the outflow of the reaction chamber.

[0018] In still other embodiments, the mixing means to provide a saturated gas / water mixture and solution is provided by the carbon injector subsystem. In yet other embodiments, the kinetic energy is provided to the reaction chamber by one or more of the circulation flow subsystem, carbon delivery subsystem, carbon injector subsystem and the effect(s) of delivering into the reaction chamber one or more solubility enhancers or promoters. In further embodiments, the mineral-containing input is engineered to provide a mineral substrate of a selected composition and the carbon dioxide containing input is engineered to provide a mixture of gases of a selected composition. In yet other embodiments, a solubility promoter delivery subsystem provides the solubility enhancers or promoters to the water-based input. In still further embodiments, the kinetic energy delivered to the reaction chamber is sufficient to ensure the continuous suspension of particles of the carbon-reactive mineral input and maximize the dissolution of carbon dioxide in reaction chamber waters.

[0019] In embodiments, the carbon-reactive mineral input is configured as part of a hybrid packed-fluidized bed in the reaction chamber.

[0020] In other aspects, a method is provided for capturing and stably storing carbon using a system (including all embodiments thereof) for capturing and stably storing carbon from carbon dioxide comprising: a. a reaction chamber configured for receiving and carrying out an enhanced mineral weathering process using a carb on -reactive mineral-containing input, a water-based input, and a carbon dioxide-containing input to form a reaction medium; b. a mixing means for mixing the water-based input and carbon dioxide-containing input to provide a carbon dioxide saturated gas / water mixture and solution prior to contacting said inputs with the carbon reactive mineralcontaining input; and c. one or more means to deliver sufficient kinetic energy to the reaction medium to promote an enhanced mineral weathering process. In embodiments, the portion of the method carried out in the reaction chamber is at or near ambient temperature and pressure.

[0021] In still other aspects there is provided a method for performing an enhanced mineral weathering process on a commercial scale, comprising the steps of a. identifying or selecting one or more mineral feedstock(s), one or more water source(s) and one or more carbon dioxide source(s); b. procuring the one or more mineral feedstock(s), processing and / or engineering said feedstock(s) to provide a desired mineral substrate, including carbon-reactive minerals, for use in a mineral weathering center comprising at least one reaction chamber; c. delivering the mineral substrate to the reaction chamber; d. providing a water inflow from the one or more water source(s), for delivery to the reaction chamber, including processing the water from said one or more water source(s) to remove particulates and other impurities that could interfere with the enhanced mineral weathering process, or otherwise prevent the optimization thereof; e. managing the flow and delivery of carbon dioxide from the one or more carbon dioxide source(s) to a chamber for mixing with the water inflow; f. mixing the water inflow with the carbon dioxide to provide a carbon dioxide saturated gas / water mixture and solution, and delivering said mixture and solution to the reaction chamber to combine with the mineral substrate and provide a reaction medium; g. applying sufficient kinetic energy to the reaction chamber to suspend in the reaction chamberparticles of the mineral substrate that are carbon-reactive and optimize interactions in a zone of contact between said particles and the carbon dioxide species in the reaction medium, to enhance a rate of carbon capture and storage in the reaction chamber; h. optionally delivering solubility enhancers or promoters to the reaction chamber, to further enhance the rate of carbon capture and storage in the reaction chamber; i. optionally processing an outflow from the reaction chamber to reclaim value-added products including technology metals; j. recycling carbon dioxide from the outflow to input into the reaction chamber; and k. delivering from the outflow an alkalinity- enriched solution including dissolved inorganic carbon back into a natural environment or into a man-made or delineated reservoir.

[0022] In embodiments, the mineral weathering center is operatively associated with subsystems to perform steps of the enhanced mineral weathering process including: i. a mineral feedstock delivery system to deliver the mineral substrate to the reaction chamber; ii. an inflow processing subsystem to process the water inflow for delivery to the reaction chamber; iii. a carbon delivery subsystem for delivering the carbon dioxide to the chamber for mixing with the water inflow; iv. a carbon injector system for mixing the carbon dioxide with the water inflow and delivering the carbon dioxide saturated gas / water mixture and solution to the reaction chamber; v. a circulation flow subsystem to mix the reaction medium in the reaction chamber and thereby deliver kinetic energy to suspend the particles of the mineral substrate in the reaction medium; vi. a solubility promoter delivery subsystem to optionally deliver solubility enhancers or promoters to the reaction chamber; vii. a value product recovery subsystem to reclaim the value-added products; viii. a carbon recovery unit for the recycling of the carbon dioxide from the outflow back to the reaction chamber; and ix. an outflow processing subsystem for delivering the alkalinity-enriched solution back into the natural environment or into the man-made or delineated reservoir.

[0023] In other embodiments, the mineral substrate is configured as part of a hybrid packed-fluidized bed in the reaction chamber.

[0024] In still other embodiments, enhanced mineral weathering of the mineral substrate proceeds at a rate in the reaction chamber that is at least an order of magnitude greater than a rate of mineral weathering in the natural environment.

[0025] In additional aspects, there are provided uses of the systems of the present disclosure (in all embodiments thereof) to capture carbon dioxide, stably store the carbon from said carbon dioxide and release alkalinity-enriched water and dissolved inorganic carbon into an environment outside of the system. In embodiments, the environment may be a natural environment, such as a surface water body, including a sea, ocean, river, lake, or bay, and in other embodiments the environment may be a man-made or delineated reservoir.INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE

[0026] All publications, patents, and patent applications mentioned in this specification are herein incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each individual publication, patent, or patent application was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference. To the extent publications and patents or patent applications incorporated by reference contradict the disclosure contained in the specification, the specification is intended to supersede and / or take precedence over any such contradictory material.BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0027] The novel features of the invention are set forth with particularity in the appended claims. A better understanding of the features and advantages of the present invention will be obtained by reference to the following detailed description that sets forth illustrative embodiments, in which the principles of the invention are utilized, and the accompanying drawings (also “Figure” and “FIG.” herein), of which:

[0028] Figure 1: is a process flow schematic for a CCSS system to illustrate a MWC, system inputs and outputs as well as the role of certain subsystems operatively- associated with the MWC to provide for enhanced mineral weathering and stable carbon capture (sequestration) according to embodiments.

[0029] Figure 2: is a process flow schematic to illustrate the function of a mineral feedstock delivery subsystem (MFDS) including steps for processing and engineering mineral feedstock (MF) to provide mineral substrate (material) for use in a RC of a MWC, for carrying out enhanced mineral weathering, according to embodiments.

[0030] Figures 3A-3C: are process flow schematics of MF engineering protocols to provide mineral substrate for packed bed (A), fully fluidized bed (B) and hybrid packed-fluidized bed (C) substrate regimes selected for a given MWC environment, according to embodiments.

[0031] Figures 4A-4B: are exemplary configurations of a CDS for a CCSS system, according to embodiments.

[0032] Figure 5: is an exemplary configuration of a RC and CIS for a CCSS system, according to embodiments.

[0033] Figures 6A-6C: are exemplary injectors that can be used in a CIS, according to embodiments.

[0034] Figure 7: is an exemplary configuration of a SPDS, according to embodiments.

[0035] Figure 8: is an exemplary configuration of an inflow processing subsystem, according to embodiments.

[0036] Figure 9: is an exemplary configuration of an outflow processing subsystem, according to embodiments.

[0037] Figure 10: is an exemplary value product recovery subsystem according to embodiments.

[0038] Figure 11: is a CCSS system configuration with a single RC for enhanced mineral weathering, according to embodiments.

[0039] Figure 12: is a CCSS system configuration with two RCs for enhanced mineral weathering, according to embodiments. One RC is for acid neutralization ofcomponents of flue gas inputs and the second RC is for carbon capture and stable storage.

[0040] Figures 13A-13B: are exemplary schematic illustrations of how a CIS can be operatively configured with a RC, according to embodiments. In Figure 13 A, the CIS chamber is integrated into the RC. In Figure 13B the CIS chamber is outside of the RC and in fluid communication with the RC.

[0041] Figure 14: is a plot illustrating normalized mineral dissolution rate as a function of temperature and water residence time, for consideration in the design of a CCSS system, according to embodiments.

[0042] Figure 15: is a plot illustrating normalized mineral dissolution rate as a function of pH and water residence time, for consideration in the design of a CCSS system, according to embodiments.

[0043] Figure 16: is a plot illustrating normalized mineral dissolution rate as a function of minerology and CO2 atmospheric partial pressure, along with water residence time, for consideration in the design of a CCSS system, according to embodiments.

[0044] Figure 17: is a CCSS system configuration with a single RC for enhanced mineral weathering, according to embodiments and includes an illustration of a carbon recovery unit (CRU) and further illustrates source points for mineral substrate, water and carbon dioxide.

[0045] Figures 18A-18D: are illustrative replicate experimental results showcasing CO2 transfer rates from the gas stream into the reactor waters, as well as associated reactor (RC) water pH, according to embodiments. The former (left y-axis) is displayed as solid lines representing the mass transfer rate mean, and the light shaded area represents the full range of the noise for each measurement point. The latter (right y- axis) is represented by dashed lines. Blue colors indicate values for blank experiments containing no carbon-reactive minerals and are positioned below the grey and blackcolors that represent experimental olivine-rich mineral feedstock (MF) (prepared as mineral substrate).

[0046] Figure 19: is a table illustrating the quantification of net CO2transfer from the gas stream into the reactor waters during the time of the experiments that gave rise to Figures 18A-18D, as well as linear projections of yearly CO2transfer rates, according to embodiments.

[0047] Figures 20A-20B: provide exemplary inner diameter (ID) and height measurements for RC reaction media capacities (Fig, 20A) and an exemplary illustration of a cylindrical RC with a stirrer mechanism (Fig. 20B) according to embodiments. The lighter shaded values for RC dimensions pertaining to 50L, 100L and 150L capacity RCs offer reasonable height construction options relative to the applicable ID. The gas mixture introduced into the RC can include injecting a gas stream or nanobubbles that are stirred with the fluidized carbon-reactive fines of a mineral substrate.

[0048] Figure 21: illustrates an exemplary pilot CCSS system according to embodiments.DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

[0049] While various embodiments of the invention have been shown and described herein, it will be obvious to those skilled in the art that such embodiments are provided by way of example only. Numerous variations, changes, and substitutions may occur to those skilled in the art without departing from the invention. It should be understood that various alternatives to the embodiments of the invention described herein may be employed.Definitions

[0050] Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention pertains.

[0051] As used herein, the terms “comprising,” “having,” “including” and “containing,” and grammatical variations thereof, are inclusive or open-ended and do not exclude additional, unrecited elements and / or method steps. The term “consisting essentially of’ when used herein in connection with a composition, device (mechanism), article, system, use or method, denotes that additional elements and / or method steps may be present, but that these additions do not materially affect the manner in which the recited composition, device, article, system, method or use functions. The term “consisting of’ when used herein in connection with a composition, device (mechanism), article, system, use or method, excludes the presence of additional elements and / or method steps. A composition, device (mechanism), article, system, use or method described herein as comprising certain elements and / or steps may also, in certain embodiments consist essentially of those elements and / or steps, and in other embodiments consist of those elements and / or steps, whether or not these embodiments are specifically referred to.

[0052] The use of the word “a” or “an” when used herein in conjunction with the term “comprising” may mean “one,” but it is also consistent with the meaning of “one or more,” “at least one” and “one or more than one.”

[0053] The use of any examples or exemplary language, e.g. “such as”, “exemplary embodiment”, “illustrative embodiment” and “for example” is intended to illustrate or denote aspects, embodiments, variations, elements or features relating to the invention and not intended to limit the scope of the invention.

[0054] As used herein, the term “about” refers to an approximately + / -10% variation from a given value. It is to be understood that such a variation is always included in any given value provided herein, whether or not it is specifically referred to.

[0055] The recitation of ranges herein is intended to convey both the ranges and individual values falling within the ranges, to the same place value as the numerals used to denote the range, unless otherwise indicated herein.

[0056] Whenever the term “at least,” “greater than,” or “greater than or equal to” precedes the first numerical value in a series of two or more numerical values, the term“at least,” “greater than” or “greater than or equal to” applies to each of the numerical values in that series of numerical values. For example, greater than or equal to 1, 2, or 3 is equivalent to greater than or equal to 1, greater than or equal to 2, or greater than or equal to 3.

[0057] Whenever the term “no more than,” “less than,” or “less than or equal to” precedes the first numerical value in a series of two or more numerical values, the term “no more than,” “less than,” or “less than or equal to” applies to each of the numerical values in that series of numerical values. For example, less than or equal to 3, 2, or 1 is equivalent to less than or equal to 3, less than or equal to 2, or less than or equal to 1.

[0058] The term “real time” or “real-time,” as used interchangeably herein, generally refers to an event (e.g., an operation, a process, a method, a technique, a computation, a calculation, an analysis, a visualization, an optimization, etc.) that is performed using recently obtained (e.g., collected or received) data. In some cases, a real time event may be performed almost immediately or within a short enough time span, such as within at least 0.0001 millisecond (ms), 0.0005 ms, 0.001 ms, 0.005 ms, 0.01 ms, 0.05 ms, 0.1 ms, 0.5 ms, 1 ms, 5 ms, 0.01 seconds, 0.05 seconds, 0.1 seconds, 0.5 seconds, 1 second, or more. In some cases, a real time event may be performed almost immediately or within a short enough time span, such as within at most 1 second, 0.5 seconds, 0.1 seconds, 0.05 seconds, 0.01 seconds, 5 ms, 1 ms, 0.5 ms, 0.1 ms, 0.05 ms, 0.01 ms, 0.005 ms, 0.001 ms, 0.0005 ms, 0.0001 ms, or less

[0059] As used herein, the terms “connect” and “connected” refer to any direct or indirect physical association between elements or features of CCSS systems according to the present disclosure. Accordingly, these terms may be understood to denote elements or features that are partly or completely contained within one another, attached, coupled, disposed on, joined together, etc., even if there are other elements or features intervening between the elements or features described as being connected. Elements or features that connect or are connected may also be elements or features that are operatively-associated, operatively-coupled or otherwise configured with one another to provide a function within or with a CCSS system.

[0060] As used herein, the term “alkalinity-enriched” refers to the quality of outflow waters / solutions from a reaction chamber relative to the inflow waters / solutions entering the reaction chamber. Reference to alkalinity-enriched waters / solutions may be a reference the such qualities in outflows before or after further processing and prior to disposal of said outflows, or a portion thereof, outside of a CCSS system, e.g. into the natural environment (such as a surface water body), or into a man-made or delineated reservoir (such as industrial and production waters, including brine). It is to be understood that while alkalinity-enriched waters / solutions have added alkalinity content, said alkalinity is also compensated by carbonic acid. References to “alkaline solution” or “alkaline water(s)” herein are alternative terms to and have equivalent meaning herein to the term “alkalinity-enriched” waters / solutions in that such waters / solutions are not intended to be caustic and will generally have a pH < 9. More typically, alkalinity-enriched waters / solutions that may be disposed of outside of a CCSS system will be in a range of about pH 7 to about pH 8.4.

[0061] As used herein with reference to a mineral substrate, the term “composition” refers to both the mineral components (minerology) and / or the physical distribution of said components in a RC, such as the formation (configuration) of mineral substrate layers and matrices. The composition of a mineral substrate delivered into a RC will have carbon-reactive components and may have non- or low-carbon-reactive components. As the carbon-reactive components react with the carbon dioxide dissolved in water that is delivered to the RC, the mineral substrate composition will change in the RC. As the carbon-reactive components of a mineral substrate are spent, new carbon-reactive mineral substrate is delivered to the RC to maintain a substantially consistent mineral substrate composition in the RC including carbon-reactive components. Alternatively, the mineral substrate composition may be changed over the course of an enhanced mineral weathering process to provide different compositions including carbon-reactive components (with or without non-carbon-reactive components). Spent and other substantially non-carbon-reactive mineral substrate may also be removed from the RC to be recycled back into the RC after chemical or physical treatment and / or after being recombined with other mineral components of mineral feedstock to provide a selected (desired) mineral substrate in a RC over thecourse of an enhanced mineral weathering process. Patent Publication WO2019213704 provides an exemplary method for the recycling of mineral substrate for this purpose.

[0062] As used herein with reference to mineral feedstock, the terms “engineer” and “engineered” as it is applied to providing a mineral feedstock that can be delivered and used as a mineral substrate in a RC. The engineering of a mineral feedstock is a process that generally follows the physical processing of mineral feedstock sourced for use in a CCSS system (e.g. by way of grinding and mixing), in order to curate the minerology of mineral feedstock that can be delivered as a mineral substrate into a RC, or otherwise used to provide a mineral substrate composition inside of a RC. A mineral substrate in a RC is also referred to herein as an “ / / / situ mineral substrate”. The engineering of mineral feedstock entails combining, homogenizing, and / or chemically pre-treating mineral feedstock from two or more sources. When the terms “engineer” and “engineered” are applied to other system inputs such as the water and gas inputs, it is an indication that these inputs are processed or their composition is otherwise curated to support an enhanced mineral weathering process. When these terms are applied to mechanical and electrical aspects of a CCSS system they are used to convey their commonly understood meaning as would be understood by one skilled in the art to which the invention pertains. In each case, the use of these terms is understood to involve the application of some degree of skill and / or manipulation to create or bring about a desired outcome.

[0063] As used herein, the term “kinetic energy regime” refers to one or more of a range of subsystems of a CCSS system, such as a carbon delivery subsystem (CDS), carbon injector subsystem (CIS), circulation flow subsystem (CFS), as well as the effects of a solubility promoter delivery subsystem (SPDS), which alone (e.g. as may be the case using a CFS) or combined, generate enough turbulent kinetic energy within RC so as to ensure the continuous suspension of carbon-reactive mineral particles, as well as maximizing CO2dissolution within RC waters. This is defined by a fluidized velocity, which is a function of the fluidization Reynold’s number. In this sense the kinetic energy regime delivered by a CCSS system to the RC provides engineered turbulence to the RC reaction media,

[0064] As used herein, “substrate” refers to a solid (generally particulate) material available to support an enhanced mineral weathering process in the RC. A mineral substrate according to the present disclosure will contain carbon-reactive material and may contain non-carbon-reactive material. As used in the present disclosure, reference to “non-carbon-reactive” (mineral-based) material, mineral feedstock or mineral substrate may include “low-carbon-reactive” or “substantially non-carbon-reactive” material, mineral feedstock, or mineral substrate. “Carbon-reactive” material, mineral feedstock or mineral substrate denotes (mineral -based) material, mineral feedstock or mineral substrate that once suitably processed and / or engineered will be the primary material, mineral feedstock or mineral substrate that is reacted with dissolved CO2 to drive and optimize an enhanced mineral weathering process in a RC.

[0065] As used herein, reference to an “enhanced mineral weathering process” means an ex situ process of increasing the rate of mineral weathering, and associated carbon capture and storage, compared to those rates as they occur in natural environments. Such a process provides a means to capture carbon dioxide, stably store the carbon from said carbon dioxide and release alkaline water and dissolved inorganic carbon into a natural environment. In the present disclosure, the performance of an enhanced mineral weathering process is generally done at near-ambient temperatures and atmospheric pressures with a view to increase the rate of natural weathering by one or more orders of magnitude and facilitate the safe disposal of alkaline water and stored carbon species into the natural environment. This level of enhanced mineral weathering (when appropriately scaled and widely adopted) is understood to be a viable and desirable strategy to effectively mitigate climate change due to excess atmospheric carbon dioxide emissions and the acidification of rain and surface water reservoirs. An enhanced mineral weathering process may optionally include further processing steps to obtain useful (by)products (e.g. nickel) from RC outflows, and / or recycle process outputs, such as mineral components, water and carbon dioxide for use as new process inputs.

[0066] It is contemplated that any embodiment of the compositions, devices, articles, methods and uses disclosed herein can be implemented by one skilled in the art, as is,or by making such variations or equivalents without departing from the scope and spirit of the invention.Designing Systems and Methods for Scalable Carbon Sequestration

[0067] The earth’s long-term carbonate-silicate cycle is how our planet has naturally captured carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. Over millennia, rain falling on exposed igneous rock causes such rocks to slowly dissolve in a process known as “weathering.” Carbonic acid dissolved in the rainwater reacts with silicate from such rocks, generating alkalinity and shifting equilibrium from carbonic acid to bicarbonate. This water eventually flows to the oceans, which ultimately causes the ocean to absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere as bicarbonate dissolved in ocean water. The oceans then serve as reservoirs of long-term (i.e., geological-scale, > 104years) storage. More particularly, natural carbon dioxide removal through rock weathering may be achieved through the following steps: 1) CO2 contained in the atmosphere dissolves into atmospheric precipitation. 2) CCh-containing rain falls on silicate rocks, slowly dissolving them; 3) Carbonic acid dissolved in the rainwater reacts with silicate from such rocks, generating alkalinity and shifting the equilibrium from carbonic acid to bicarbonate; 4) This dissolved bicarbonate flows to the ocean; 5) The bicarbonate combines with calcium and magnesium ions to form carbonate; 6) Carbonate is deposited on the seafloor, thereby capturing atmospheric carbon dioxide in rock.

[0068] The chemical processes of the long-term carbonate-silicate cycle involving mafic or ultramafic materials resulting in carbon dioxide capture and sequestration (storage) are well known, i.e. the conversion of dissolved carbon dioxide and water to bicarbonate via such minerals, which thereby allows uptake of atmospheric carbon dioxide into the ocean and resulting seawater pH increase. Bicarbonate has a long ocean residence time (i.e., 104years or more), significantly longer than human timescales, with any subsequent biotic or abiotic mediated precipitation of carbonate minerals resulting from increased bicarbonate causing the formation of carbonate rock. Similarly, the chemical process that enables carbon dioxide capture and sequestration using olivine is also well known, i.e. as the olivine dissolves, its products are magnesium ions (the second most abundant ion in the ocean behind sodium), silicate(used by diatoms to build their skeletons) and dissolved carbon, and also results in carbon dioxide uptake, raising pH, and generating alkalinity. More particularly, by dissolving alkaline material (e.g., olivine) in water, hydrogen ions are sequestered into dissolved silicate (HjSiCU), a molecule that can be used by diatoms, important photosynthesizing algae that in turn fix carbon dioxide and form the base of the marine food web.

[0069] Such processes of mineral dissolution, when enhanced in a commercially scalable carbon capture and stable storage (CCSS) system, have the potential co-benefit of counteracting ocean acidification, the process by which increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide dissolves in seawater, which reduces pH (increasing acidity that, among other things, reduces the ability of calcifying organisms like corals to grow and produce exoskeletons, or shells).

[0070] A reactor system according to the present disclosure is designed to ensure that no particulate matter that has any potential of generating alkalinity will be released back into the natural environment. This generally requires that all solid particulates derived from a mineral feedstock be retained within said reactor system such that the only components contained in the discharge water, that can be added back into natural environment are dissolved ions, such as magnesium, silica and bicarbonate ions (e.g. if the mineral feedstock is olivine).

[0071] It is estimated that the design of suitable reactor systems should aim to speed up the natural process of rock weathering through rainfall by at least 10 times to absorb carbon dioxide at a rate adequate to address the societal risks of anthropogenic climate change. In the present disclosure, systems and methods are disclosed that can be adapted to, or do enhance mineral weathering by at least on order of magnitude over naturally occurring mineral weathering rates. The potential, or ability to achieve such system mediated rates of enhanced weathering and the ability to gauge the actual level of enhanced mineral weathering will largely depend on how exactly enhanced rates of weathering are measured (e.g., using surface-area normalized measurements, other mass-normalized measurements, or other proxies to track exactly what component of a mineral is weathered).Enhanced Mineral Weathering Process Using a CCSS SystemThere are several process or method steps that are performed by a CCSS system to carry out an enhanced mineral weathering process according to the present disclosure. Such a process or method steps are illustrated in Figure 1 including: a) identifying or selecting a suitable mineral resource (comprising one or more mineral feedstock(s)) 1, one or more water source(s) 2 and one or more carbon dioxide source(s)) 3; b) procuring (sourcing) one or more mineral feedstock(s), and processing and / or engineering said feedstock(s) IA to provide a desired mineral substrate including carbon-reactive minerals 4 for use in a MWC 100 comprising a RC; c) delivering the mineral substrate to the RC IIA; d) providing a water inflow from the one or more water source(s) IB including removing particulates and other impurities from the one or more water source(s) that could interfere with the enhanced mineral weathering process, or otherwise prevent the optimization thereof; e) managing the flow and delivery of carbon dioxide from the one or more carbon dioxide source(s) to a chamber for mixing with the water inflow; f) mixing the water inflow with the carbon dioxide to provide a carbon dioxide saturated gas / water mixture and solution, and delivering said mixture and solution to the RC IIB to combine with the mineral substrate and provide a reaction medium; g) applying sufficient kinetic energy to the RC to suspend in the RC particles of the mineral substrate that are carbon-reactive and optimize interactions in a zone of contact between said particles and the carbon dioxide species in the reaction medium, to enhance a rate of carbon capture and storage in the RC III; h) optionally delivering solubility enhancers or promoters 5 to the RC IIC, to further enhance the rate of carbon capture and storage in the RC; i) optionally processing an outflow from the RC IV to reclaim value-added products 7 (i.e. technology metals, such as nickel and other metals); j) recycling carbon dioxide (and water) from the outflow V to input into the RC; and k) delivering from the outflow an alkaline solution including dissolved inorganic carbon 6 back into a natural environment (e.g. into a surface water (SW) body, compliant with applicable regulatory regimes) VI.General CCSS System Design Considerations

[0072] The general approach taken to design a CCSS system is to provide a MWC (RC), and optimize the enhanced mineral weathering process carried out in the MWC. This entails considering the composition of inputs into the MWC, providing sufficient kinetic energy to drive the enhanced mineral weathering process in the MWC, ensuring that MWC outputs are further processed to support the enhanced mineral weathering process (e.g. recycling RC outflows to provide feedstocks / media for the MWC), obtain useful (by)products, release alkalinity-enriched water into an environment outside of a CCSS system (e.g. the natural environment) and prevent the reintroduction of un-stored carbon dioxide into said environment. Feedstocks / media and auxiliary subsystems are designed and engineered with these objectives in mind to provide a highly engineered, integrated, monitored and controlled CCSS system.

[0073] The general design of a CCSS system is to have one or more chambers to collect, hold, process, engineer, facilitate the physical delivery of, and react substance inputs, intermediates and outputs required. Each chamber will have at least one inlet point and at least one outlet point to facilitate the movement of substances into, within, and out of a given chamber, respectively. The use of a multiplicity of chambers allows for the controlled and scalable enhancement of mineral weathering processes for carbon capture and stable storage.

[0074] In embodiments, a CCSS system comprises a MWC. A MWC may comprise a single vessel (e.g. a tank or other suitable substance containment means). A MWC may alternatively comprise one or more RCs. RCs distributed among several vessels will give rise to multiple MWCs in a CCSS system.

[0075] It is to be understood that a CCSS system may comprise additional chambers for collecting (receiving), holding, processing and providing (delivering) other inputs or intermediates into a given RC as well as for collecting (receiving), holding, processing and removing outputs from a given RC. In a given RC, it is to be understood that there may be different mineral weathering reaction areas and reaction enhancement processing areas, such as mixing areas (or zones) to support optimal mineral weathering conditions. Such areas within a RC may be either fully or partially closed-off (e.g. with physical structures such as walls and valves), or in open communication with one another within a RC.

[0076] In embodiments, a CCSS system comprises one or more reaction chambers (RCs or reactors) in which an enhanced mineral weathering process is carried out. In some embodiments, a CCSS system may comprise one RC and one, two, three, four, five, six, or seven additional chambers to support a CCSS system process flow. A first additional chamber may be used as part of a MFDS. A second additional chamber may be used as part of a SPDS. A third additional chamber may be used as part of an inflow processing subsystem. A fourth additional chamber may be used as part of a CDS. A fifth additional chamber may be used as part of a VPRS. A sixth additional chamber may be used as part of a CIS. A seventh additional chamber may be used as part of an outflow processing subsystem. It is to be understood that each aforementioned subsystem may comprise other chambers depending on the process flow steps it is designed to perform within a CCSS system. Similarly, it is to be understood that additional subsystems may be included in a CCSS system, and in respect of which one more further chambers may be operatively-associated with other subsystems (and their respective chambers) in the CCSS system.

[0077] In some embodiments, two or more chambers of a CCSS system are in fluid communication and operably-coupled together through one or more channels or openings. In some cases, the contents of such chambers may combine and mix together. Any number of or subset(s) of chambers may be provided and / or communicating with one another. In some instances, such chambers may be provided (configured) in series and / or sequence. In other instances, chambers may be arranged (configured) in parallel.

[0078] For the movement of substances in a CCSS system, each chamber may have one or more mechanical components or mechanisms integrated, or otherwise operatively-associated with a chamber. Mechanical components / mechanisms may be part of a chamber configuration of the same subsystem, or be part of a separate subsystem and operatively-associated with a chamber of another subsystem (e.g. a circulation flow subsystem (CFS) comprising a pump to circulate fluids through a RC). Alternatively, the components of a mechanism can be distributed within and outside ofa chamber. Said mechanical components or mechanisms provide the means for a chamber / subsystem to perform its intended function(s) within a CCSS system. The mechanical components induce motion to process, engineer and or move inputs, intermediates and outputs into, within, through and out of a CCSS system, respectively. The motion induced by such mechanical components may provide linear motion (uni- and multi -directional), rotational motion, or a combination thereof.

[0079] The one or more mechanical components may be operably-coupled to a power system, drive train, or mechanical motor. The mechanical components may be powered by the power system, drive train, or mechanical motor to create a motion of substances through, or in one or more of the chambers of the reactor. For example, a rotary mechanical component may be coupled to a geared drive train. The rotary mechanical component may rotate within a RC, which may comprise the carbon-reactive substances (mineral substrate). The rotary mechanical component may introduce mechanical energy into feedstock materials, such as mafic and / or ultramafic minerals, which may accelerate the dissolution of said material within a RC.

[0080] The one or more mechanical components may permit mixing within a chamber and / or between contents of different chambers. In embodiments, one or more mechanical components may facilitate mixing of the contents of a CIS chamber and a RC. In other embodiments, one or more mechanical components may facilitate mixing of the contents of a CDS chamber and a CIS chamber. In still other embodiments, one or more mechanical components may facilitate mixing of the contents of a SPDS chamber, an inflow processing chamber, CDS chamber, CIS chamber and / or RC.

[0081] One or more mechanical components may comprise pumps, or features configured to provide fluid manipulation and thereby transfer mechanical energy to the contents of the chamber. In some instances, subsystems configured to provide fluid manipulation may be configured for fluid filtration, sterilization, cavitation, flow control, particulate recovery, flocculation, centrifugation, phase change reactions, pressurization or de-pressurization, fluid mixing, fluid separation, heat transfer, pressure release, ventilation, or management of sub-, trans-, super- and hyper-sonic fluid flows.

[0082] Optionally, one or more mechanical components are operably-coupled to a body of water within a zone comprising wave or current energy, such that said one or more mechanical components transfer mechanical energy from said body of water to the contents of one or more chambers of a CCSS system. In some instances, a RC may be at or near a naturally occurring body of water that provides wave or current movement that can be used to facilitate the transfer of mechanical energy within one or more chambers of a CCSS system and thereby support weathering, mixing, heat exchanges, and / or other means to enhance a mineral weathering process.

[0083] Movement which causes grain-on-grain (or particle-on-particle) collisions of a mineral substrate in a RC or other chamber of a CCSS system may rapidly break down the particle size of certain minerals, such as olivine, which in turn can enable and / or enhance carbon dioxide uptake and ocean de-acidification. In some cases, the mechanical components / mechanisms of a CCSS system may comprise one or more gears or actuators for inducing a motion that contribute a mechanical weathering effect as part of an enhanced mineral weathering process.

[0084] In embodiments, mechanisms are used to impart mixing forces sufficient to bring about a frothing effect in a reaction medium, comprising mineral particles, water and dissolved carbon dioxide and optionally other reaction additives (enhancers / accelerants) in a RC. Such mechanisms may be integrated into a CIS and / or otherwise integrated in the reaction area (zone) of a RC to optimize an enhanced mineral weathering process.System Inputs and Outputs

[0085] There are generally four types of CCSS system inputs. Three of these are required to have a reaction mixture (medium) to drive mineral weathering, namely a carbon-reactive mineral-containing input, a water-based input, and a carbon dioxidecontaining gas input that is reactive with minerals.

[0086] A carbon dioxide-containing gas may be present in the atmosphere (e.g. ambient air) or otherwise produced as a result of human activity. The gas source will generally include carbon dioxide and may also include other acid-generating gases suchas sulphur dioxide. In this way, a CCSS system not only provides a means to capture carbon and stably store it, it may perform further environmental remediation functions by removing gas emissions that contribute to the acidification of the environment. Each of these inputs may be processed and / or engineered to help drive and optimize an enhanced mineral weathering process. The fourth type of input includes reaction additives used to enhance a mineral weathering process in a CCSS system, such as reaction accelerants in the form of solubility enhancers (promoters).

[0087] Carbon-reactive mineral-containing inputs are needed for a RC in order to have the means to carry out an enhanced mineral weathering process. Silicates are abundantly available around the world and are suitable for use in a CCSS system in the form of mafic, and ultramafic materials. Other useful (alkaline) carbon-reactive feedstocks include carbonates and metal oxides / hydroxides. In embodiments, a carbonreactive MF is sourced from a mine or quarry. In other embodiments, a carbon-reactive MF is sourced from the open market (commercial providers). In still other embodiments, a carbon-reactive MF sourced from the open market is pre-processed to provide a homogeneous MF (e.g. in terms of minerology and grain (particle) size).

[0088] In embodiments, a mineral feedstock for use in a CCSS system comprises an alkaline (mineral) substance. Table 1 below provides a selection of alkaline materials that can form part of or provide all of a mineral feedstock for a CCSS system:

[0089] In some embodiments, a mineral substrate includes particle sizes less than or equal to about 10mm, 5mm, 2mm, 1mm, 900pm, 750pm, 600pm, 500pm, 450pm, 400pm, 350pm, 300pm, 250pm, 200pm, 150pm, 100pm, 50pm, 25pm, or less. In some embodiments, a mineral substrate within a RC has a particle size that is greater than or equal to about 25pm, 50pm, 100pm, 150pm, 200pm, 250pm, 300pm, 350pm, 400pm, 450pm, 500pm, 600pm, 750pm, 900pm, 1mm, 5mm, 10mm, or greater. In some cases, a mineral substrate will include particle sizes between two values described above, forexample between about 250pm and about 500pm. With particle size, past analyses have shown that grinding minerals (e.g. silicate based sand) to <100pm particle size is highly energy -intensive. However, grinding minerals to >300pm particle size requires far less energy.

[0090] The minerals of these mineral feedstocks interact with water mixed with carbon dioxide and / or carbonic acid to produce bicarbonate or carbonate ion or solid carbonate precipitate as a product, thereby decreasing the acidity of the surrounding fluid and converting the carbon dioxide or carbonic acid into environmentally beneficial bicarbonate or carbonate form. In some instances, carbonate precipitates may function as a form of carbon storage.

[0091] A water-based input can be also be variably sourced. In some embodiments, a source of water used in a RC is water recycled from human activity. In other embodiments a source of water may include rain water. In still other embodiments, a RC may be in communication with a body of water. The body of water may optionally be a naturally occurring body of water such as an ocean, bay, lake, river, creek, stream, pond, marsh, wetland, swamp, or any other type of body of water. The body of water may be a marine body of water that may comprise salt water. The water used must be circulated through a CCSS system. The kinetic energy required to achieve this may be provided by one or more mechanical components / mechanisms in a CCSS system and / or may also be provided by a body of water that can be naturally sourced with the energy of waves, current, waterfall flow, rapids flow, tides, or other similar flow activity.

[0092] Through the conversion of carbon dioxide to dissolved bicarbonate and carbonate ions, this reaction acts to reduce the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in seawater. In coastal construction projects, this seawater is in close contact with the surface ocean and atmosphere, allowing net transfer of carbon dioxide across the airsea interface, thereby effecting the net sequestration of atmospheric carbon dioxide as bicarbonate and carbonate ion in seawater.

[0093] In some embodiments, the source of gas reactive with minerals in a CCSS system may be engineered to include additives, including chemicals that can serve to enhance carbon capture, such as, and not limited to fertilizers, plastics processed to release the desired gaseous species, and flue gasses used to increase the concentration of species reactive with the minerals of mineral feedstocks / mineral substrates.

[0094] Additionally, if a CCSS system includes a chamber with microbial growth activity to generate biologically sourced additives, the gas sourced from ambient air, or otherwise at increased concentrations using other sources of gas, can be used to support such microbial growth.

[0095] Reaction accelerants, such as mineral solubility promoters may be inorganic or organic compounds. If organic, such compounds may be sourced commercially, or may be acquired from microbes and their metabolic activities. In embodiments, at least one chamber is provided for microbial culture / growth of one or more microbes to provide microbial products for use as solubility enhancers (promoters) in an enhanced mineral weathering process. Such a chamber may be integrated into a CCSS system as part of a SPDS. The microbial products may be removed from the microbial growth chamber and delivered directly to a RC or to another subsystem to be combined with other RC inputs prior to delivery into a RC (such as an inflow processing subsystem and / or a CIS). Alternatively, another chamber(s) may be provided for receiving microbial products prior to delivery to various subsystems.

[0096] Microbial products used as additives may include live or dead biomass, biological mediators (such as, but not limited to, extracellular ligands, chelators, nucleic acids and / or amino acids), and / or enzymatic accelerants (such as, but not limited to, extracellular metalloenzymes, intracellular metalloenzymes, oxidoreductases, transferases, hydrolases, ligases and / or isomerases).

[0097] Examples of microbes and biomass may be sourced from bacteria, archaea, protozoa, fungi, algae, lichens, slime molds, viruses, and / or prions, from other heterotrophic, chemolitho-autotrophic or photo-autotrophic prokaryotes, and from otherheterotrophic, or photo-autotrophic eukaryotes. The microbes may comprisebacteria that are capable of growth in aqueous media. Examples of such bacteria include Alteromonas or Shewanella. The microbes or may also or otherwise comprise eukaryotic algae capable of uptake of bacterially produced siderophores. In some instances, eukaryotic algae may comprise Phaeodactylum or Thalassiosira diatom genus. Optionally, the microbes may be capable of growing in saltwater.

[0098] A consideration when using an iron containing mineral such as olivine as a feedstock / substrate is the presence of ferrous iron (Fe3+) which can form a surface layer of Fe- oxyhydroxides on the mineral surface of olivine. This surface layer can shield portions of the total olivine surface area from contact with other components in a reaction medium within a RC and thereby impede mineral dissolution. MF processing and engineering can help to compensate for this, as well as the use of suitable solubility promoters, such as siderophores (produced by certain microbes subjected to low iron growth conditions) to mobilize and acquire insoluble iron on mineral surfaces and thereby concurrently increase mineral dissolution rates. In embodiments where siderophore production or the production of other biological mediators of mineral dissolution is desired, various interacting factors may be considered and managed within a CCSS system.

[0099] The selection of advantageous biological strains may be identified through a series of experiments, and in some cases, custom strains may be generated either through directed evolution or genetic editing. These strains are ones capable of accelerating dissolution through the biological production of organic ligands such as, but not limited to, siderophores. These microbes include certain species of bacteria like Alteromonas and Shewanella that can grow in aqueous mediums, as well as eukaryotic algae that can uptake bacterially produced siderophores such as Phaeodactylum and Thalassiosira diatom genus.

[0100] The optimal or beneficial ratios of microbial biomass to siderophore concentrations under managed growth conditions (e.g. to minimize contaminants that affect optimal growth conditions) can also be determined. In some instances, beneficial ratios may include about 100: 1, 50: 1, 20: 1, 10: 1, 5: 1, 3: 1, 2: 1, 1 : 1, 1 :2, 1 :3, 1 :5, 1 : 10, 1 :20, 1 : 50, or 1 : 100. In some cases, the beneficial ratios may be between twoof the values described above, for example the beneficial ratio of microbial to siderophore concentrations may be between about 10: 1 and about 1 : 10.

[0101] The dissolution of mineral substrate using such organically-derived additives may also be managed as a function of mineral particle size / surface area, and the flow rate of inputs and outputs from a RC.

[0102] It will be understood that CCSS system additives may also be selected and used to treat outputs from a RC including spent mineral substrate and water effluent to facilitate the reintegration of substances into the general environment (compliant with local regulations), or their recycled use back into a CCSS system as inputs. In embodiments, such additives may be sourced from commercial providers and / or from microbes grown in a chamber of a VPRS and selected to provide the additives required.

[0103] Outputs of a CCSS system may include alkaline water, dissolved and precipitated forms of inorganic carbon, spent mineral substrate and certain metals otherwise referred to herein as value-added products that can be recovered from an enhanced mineral weathering process. In addition to the use of additives sourced from microbes, or other biological mediators, the processing and / or engineering of outputs may be achieved using one or more mechanical components or mechanisms in a VPRS. Various chambers and mechanical components / mechanisms can also be used to separate out different outputs from a RC in order to direct each output to a desired destinations back into the general environment, for recycled use in a CCSS system, or for other industrial application.Carbon Capture and Stable Storage Systems (CCSS)

[0104] With reference to Figure 1, a CCSS system and process flow leverages advanced knowledge in geochemistry, mineralogy and fluid dynamics to catalyze a reaction that enhances the weathering of carbon reactive minerals (such as silicates, carbonates or oxides / hydroxides) in order to capture and permanently store CO2. Specifically, the dissolution of these minerals generates alkalinity, which in turn neutralizes acidity produced by carbonic acid, which in turn further drives the dissolution of CO2 in water, and transforms it to dissolved or solid carbonate species.

[0105] In embodiments, this is achieved by an abiotic mineral weathering center in the CCSS system comprising a RC, where the zone of contact between the mineral substrate and CO2, as well as the kinetics of the reaction are maximized at ambient or near-ambient temperatures and pressures (0 - 70 °C, and 14 - 150 psia, respectively). To that effect, the RC supports a well-controlled environment in which (1) the most carbon-reactive particles are in continuous contact with CO2species (such as dissolved CO2, bicarbonate and carbonate), and can be held in suspension in the medium, and (2) contains other particles which may not be in suspension, leading to something ranging from a packed bed, a fully fluidized bed and a hybrid packed-fluidized bed, here designed for the purpose of carbon capture and permanent storage. This process deliberately separates out mineral feedstock components on the basis of particle size, carbon reactivity and / or density.

[0106] With reference again to Figure 1, a MWC 100 of a CCSS system comprises a RC 101 (as shown in Figure 11). The CCSS system is designed to combine various inputs including but not limited to a MF from a mineral resource 1, carbon from a carbon dioxide source 3 and water from a water source 2. The (processed) MF 1 input can be the mineral substrate 4 or can be engineered to provide a mineral substrate 4. Solubility promoters 5 are optional inputs. The mineral weathering reaction occurs in the RC in such a manner so as to promote carbon capture and stable carbon storage. Again with reference to Figure 1, this is realized as outputs that may include dissolved inorganic carbon and alkalinity-rich water 6 and value-added products 7. Dissolved inorganic carbon and alkalinity-rich water 6 is flowed back into the environment to a surface water reservoir 8.

[0107] A RC can be designed to accommodate various regimes of gas-water-mineral interactions selected from packed bed, fully fluidized bed, or hybrid packed-fluidized bed regimes (see Figures 3A-3C). The gas-water interactions can be controlled by creating bubbling, turbulence, frothing, slugging or pneumatic flows in the RC. Whereas the inputs into the RC may include MFs, ambient air and water from naturally available sources accessible near a locus of a CCSS system, the present disclosure also provides for the processing and / or engineering these inputs (see Figures 2 and 3A-3C), use of additives to further enhance reactant geochemistry and the control of inputdelivery and mixing within the RC. This results in the optimization of a zone(s) of contact between carbon-reactive minerals and carbon inputs, reaction kinetics and thermodynamics to enhance mineral weathering and stable carbon capture (stored carbon) processes.

[0108] Auxiliary systems (subsystems) of the CCSS system include input delivery subsystems, such as mineral feedstock delivery subsystem(s) (MFDS), surface water feed(s) (of an inflow processing subsystem), carbon delivery subsystem(s) (CDS), and, optionally, solubility promoter delivery subsystem(s) (SPDS). These auxiliary (sub)systems provide functionalities needed for the controlled delivery of inputs for enhanced mineral weathering and carbon capture, and the delivery of (optional) additives, respectively. Additional subsystems include carbon injector system(s) (CIS), and circulation flow system(s) (CFS), which provide functionalities to support the management and control of reaction conditions to achieve enhanced mineral weathering.

[0109] In embodiments, a MWC configured for enhanced mineral weathering comprises a RC. In other embodiments, a RC is operatively-coupled with a CIS. In still other embodiments, a RC is operatively-coupled with a CDS (e.g. via a carbon recovery unit (CRU). In further embodiments, a RC is operatively-coupled with a SPDS. In yet other embodiments, a RC is operatively-coupled with a CFS. In still further embodiments, a RC is operatively-coupled with a MFDS. In additional embodiments, a RC is operatively-coupled with an inflow processing subsystem. In other embodiments, a RC is configured for processing a hybrid packed-fluidized bed of mineral substrate and is operatively-associated (coupled) with a CIS, CDS, CFS, MFDS and inflow processing subsystem. In still other embodiments, a RC is configured for processing a hybrid packed-fluidized bed of mineral substrate and is operatively-associated with a CIS, CDS, SPDS, CFS, MFDS and inflow processing subsystem.

[0110] Use of these subsystems provides the capability to generate kinetic energy, alter medium buoyancy, enhance gas and elemental solubility, enhance the physical and chemical homogeneity within the RC, control and improve / optimize geochemicalconditions (such as pH, Eh, etc.), in order to optimize this zone of contact, reaction kinetics and thermodynamics in the RC.

[0111] In embodiments, a RC is operatively-coupled with a VPRS. In other embodiments, a RC and is operatively-coupled with an outflow processing subsystem. In still other embodiments, a RC is configured for processing a hybrid packed-fluidized bed of mineral substrate and is operatively-associated (coupled) with a VPRS and an outflow processing subsystem.

[0112] Use of these subsystems provides the capability to extract useful value-added (by)products and ensure that any substances returned to the environment can be done so in accordance with environmental goals for the application of a CCSS system, and at a minimum, compliant with environmental regulations and related safety requirements.

[0113] In yet other embodiments, a RC is operatively-coupled to a GMS. Use of this subsystem ensures that CCSS system’s performance can be monitored and adjusted in real-time to support the above noted objectives.

[0114] In further embodiments, a RC is configured for processing a hybrid packed- fluidized bed of mineral substrate and is operatively-associated with a CIS, CDS, SPDS, CFS, MFDS, inflow processing subsystem, VPRS and outflow processing subsystem. In still further embodiments, a RC is configured for processing a hybrid packed-fluidized bed of mineral substrate and is operatively-associated with a CIS, CDS, SPDS, CFS, MFDS, inflow processing subsystem, VPRS, outflow processing subsystem and GMS.

[0115] In alternative embodiments, a RC is configured for processing a fully fluidized bed of mineral substrate. In yet other embodiments, a RC is configured for processing a packed bed of mineral substrate.

[0116] It is to be understood that one or more of the subsystems of a CCSS system may also be operatively-associated with one another to the extent required to ensure the performance of an enhanced mineral weathering process within the CCSS system.

[0117] In embodiments, the GMS is operatively-associated with each of the CIS, CDS, SPDS, CFS, MFDS, inflow processing subsystem, VPRS, and outflow processing subsystem. In further embodiments, the VPRS is operatively-associated with outflow processing subsystem and the outflow processing subsystem is operatively-associated with the inflow processing subsystem. In other embodiments the SPDS is operatively-associated with the VPRS and / or outflow processing subsystem. In yet other embodiments, the SPDS is operatively-associated with the inflow processing subsystem and the inflow processing subsystem is operatively-associated with the CIS.

[0118] In other embodiments, the CIS is operatively-coupled with the CDS. In yet other embodiments, the CIS is operatively-coupled with the CFS. In still other embodiments, the CIS is operatively coupled with the SPDS. In still further embodiments, the CIS is operatively coupled to the inflow processing subsystem. In other embodiments, the CIS is operatively-associated with the CDS, CFS, and inflow processing susbsystem. In further embodiments, the CIS is operatively-associated with the CDS, CFS, SPDS and inflow processing susbsystem.

[0119] The outflow products of a CCSS system include organic or inorganic carbon phases, whether dissolved or particulate, alkaline water, and various metals, whether dissolved or particulate. The organic and inorganic forms of carbon, complemented by associated alkalinity, represent forms of stable carbon storage (i.e., the carbon from CO2 and / or carbonic acid inputs).

[0120] In embodiments, the outputs of a CCSS system comprise stably stored organic carbon. In another embodiment, the outputs of a CCSS system comprise stably stored inorganic carbon. In a further embodiment the outputs of a CCSS system comprise value-added products. In a related embodiment, the value-added products are metals.Reaction Chamber (RC)

[0121] A single RC, series or grouping of RCs function as the core component of a MWC of a CCSS system where an enhanced mineral weathering process is carried out. There may be sub-chambers, compartments or areas within a given RC that areconfigured for the delivery and / or mixing of inputs (including intermediates constituting partially processed or engineered inputs), before being fed into, or combined within a reaction zone of contact (reaction area) where the mineral substrate does or will reside within the RC.

[0122] A RC is essentially a vessel (container) configured to hold mineral substrate and facilitate the optimization of reaction conditions for enhanced mineral weathering in including the design and placement of inlet and outlet points for the various reaction media inputs / inflows and output / outflows.

[0123] The construction of the RC may include materials that do not substantially interfere with, or participate in the mineral-carbon reactions occurring within the RC. In embodiments, the RC is constructed of concrete that is resistant to or otherwise protected or treated to resist weathering reaction conditions. In this regard, a RC internal construction may include various liners and / or coatings (such as geotextile membranes, or teflon-based, silicone-based and plastics-based linings), as well as mechanisms or structure to help move solid materials in and out of the RC.

[0124] In embodiments a RC 101 has a cylindrical shape to prevent sedimentation and dead zones, provide optimal fluid dynamics and mixing, withstand pressure variations and offer even stress distribution. As part of the design of CCSS systems, embodiments of a RC for pilot operations may be configured to hold 50L, 100L, 150L or 200L of reaction media with dimensions that practically reflect or mimic larger scale RCs (see Figures 20A-20B).

[0125] In embodiments, a RC comprises two or more areas, including a first area (water-carbon mixing area) for mixing water and carbon dioxide inputs to form a water-carbon mixture and a second area (reaction or mineral weathering area) for reacting a mineral substrate input with the water-carbon mixture. In further embodiments, one or more additives are included (e.g.. from a SPDS) in a water input to promote mineral dissolution or mineral weathering acceleration.

[0126] In other embodiments, and as shown in Figure 5, water and carbon dioxide inputs are delivered to a water-carbon mixing area 302 using a water manifold 303 anda gas manifold 301. In a related embodiment the delivery of the water-carbon mixture to a mineral weathering area is done using an injection or water jet means to provide kinetic energy to the mineral weathering area. In another related embodiment, the injection means is part of a CIS 300 with illustrated embodiments of such an injection means shown in Figures 6A-6C. In an alternative related embodiment the water jet means is part of a CFS.

[0127] In still other embodiments, a RC comprises one or more mechanical components for mixing reaction media (substances), such as a stirrer 902 as shown in Figure 21. In related embodiments, the mixing of reaction media is in whole or in part achieved using a CFS.Mineral Feedstock Delivery Subsystem (MFDS) and Mineral Feedstock (MF)

[0128] A MF is delivered to a RC of a CCSS system by a MFDS. A MFDS process may include a human controlled input (e.g. using a shovel to fill the RC with MF). The MFDS 800 may include various mechanical distribution means or mechanisms 801 (see Figures 11 and 12) to enable the controlled delivery of MF and thereby provide and replenish the mineral substrates for mineral weathering in the RC, as the mineral substrate becomes consumed (spent) over time via the chemical reaction with CO2 species, such as carbonic acid.

[0129] A MFDS may comprise one or more conveyor belts as mechanisms for distributing MF at intervals, or continuously, at appropriate rates for the optimal performance of the RC environment. Other mechanical distribution means may comprise screw conveyors, (mechanized) shovels, ramps, lifts, platforms and elevators.

[0130] In embodiments, the MFDS comprises one or more mechanical components or mechanisms selected from conveyor belts, screw conveyors, shovels, ramps, lifts, platforms and elevators.

[0131] In other embodiments, the MFDS 800 comprises a controlled mixing chamber (not shown), combining the inflow water from an inflow processing subsystem 500 with the MF, upstream of the RC (see Figure 11), as a means to (1) optimize mineral-water interactions, whether kinetic or chemical, prior to the MF entering the RC, (2) reduce the volatility of the finest particles of the MF for safety and efficiency purposes, and (3) facilitate the flow and even distribution of the MF into the RC. The MF delivery mechanism into the RC may include piping and pumps to deliver MF in the form of slurry or liquid suspended mineral medium.

[0132] In further embodiments, the MFDS may comprise one or more MF input points for the delivery of MF into a RC, e.g. for the layering of MF / mineral substrate of different sizes and mineral composition (minerology) into the RC.

[0133] A MFDS is flexibly designed to deliver a particular MF, including engineered mineral blends (mineral substrates) to a RC. In one embodiment, the MF is delivered into the RC through one input pathway or stream and via one input point. In a further embodiment, the MF is delivered into the RC using one or more input pathways or streams via one or more input points.

[0134] With reference to Figure 2, a MF for a MWC / RC is sourced for a selected mineral bed regime and generally based on the available mineral deposits in a region close to or substantially at the same locale or site where a CCSS system is set up. The MF may, however, be sourced from one or more locales and / or providers and transported to a given CCSS system. For example, mineral resources 1-1 (Stream A), 1- 2 (Stream B) and 1-3 (Stream C) are illustrated as being mined or sourced pre- processed from a commercial provider at step IA-1. Stream A may comprise one or more of carbonate, silicate and oxide or hydroxide minerals. Stream B is illustrated to comprise silicate minerals and Stream C is illustrated to comprise non-carbon reactive minerals such as fieldspar and / or quartz.

[0135] If a mined mineral resource requires processing in the form of sorting, grinding and / or mixing, this is done at step IA-2. MF engineering is carried out at step IA-3 in order to combine different mineral resources in various proportions and with defined grain size ranges, to achieve a selected overall mineral substrate composition for deposition within a RC according to the requirements of a selected mineral bed regime. Once engineered, a mineral substrate is delivered to a MWC / RC at step IIA.

[0136] Figures 3A-3C illustrate exemplary MF processing and engineering protocols for different mineral bed regimes to facilitate diverse and versatile mineral substrate processing and engineering. For simplicity of illustration, each of these protocols begins with sourcing MF commercially (Step IA) from the Stream A, B and C options shown in Figure 2, however, it is to be understood that said protocols may also encompass sourcing mined MF. Step IA-2 is a two-part step. The first part, IA-2-1 is for analyzing MF specifications with reference to provider specifications and desired MF specifications for a selected mineral substrate composition and physical characteristics. The second part, IA-2-2 is for processing MF to a desired grain size (range). This is followed by step IA-3 where MF engineering is undertaken by combining MFs from different sources in desired proportions to provide engineered MF with selected grain size ranges and minerology that can be used a mineral feedstock for a selected mineral bed regime in a RC.

[0137] The selection of a suitable MF may generally include carbonates and / or clean mafic and ultramafic ores, depending on what is most readily accessible and available and will depend on market forces. While carbonates are widely available, there is clear and growing market for ultramafic silicates, which presents an opportunity and path to make systems and methods according to the present disclosure scalable and more commercially viable due to the more widespread availability of suitable mineral resources.

[0138] The MF will generally be processed and / or engineered to one degree or another to enhance the mineral weathering process in a RC so as to enhance the degree of contact between the carbon-reactive components of a mineral substrate and carbon dioxide species in the RC. To select the desired degree of processing / engineering, the MF may be analyzed to determine its minerology and the appropriate processing / engineering steps applied prior to and for delivery into the RC, including placement of the MF (as mineral substrate) in the RC (see Figures 2 and 3A-3C). This allows for the MF to be processed and / or engineered to produce a mineral substrate with one or more selected (desired) mineral substrate profiles or sets of attributes, such as grain size distribution, mineralogy, relative mineral densities and carbon / non-carbon reactivity suitable for a given RC configuration and mineral bed regime.

[0139] In embodiments, a MF is processed and / or engineered to produce a mineral substrate for application in a hybrid packed-fluidized bed regime.

[0140] In other embodiments, a mineral feedstock is processed and / or engineered to produce a mineral substrate for application in a fully fluidized bed regime.

[0141] In still other embodiments, a mineral feedstock is processed and / or engineered to produce a mineral substrate for application in a packed bed regime.

[0142] When using silicates, the MF may contain mafic and / or ultramafic minerals as carbon-reactive components (e.g., olivine, serpentine, wollastonite, pyroxene or hornblende). For carbonates, the MF may contain solid carbonate species such as calcite (calcium carbonate) as carbon-reactive components. For oxides / hydroxides, the MF may contain metal oxide species such as magnesium oxide or metal hydroxide species such as magnesium oxide or brucite (magnesium hydroxide), respectively, as carbon-reactive components.

[0143] In embodiments, a MF comprises mafic and / or ultramafic minerals. In other embodiments, a MF comprises limestone. In still other embodiments, a MF comprises brucite.

[0144] In some embodiments, the mafic or ultramafic material (e.g., olivine) may comprise pure olivine or a mixture of olivine and one or more other elements or materials, including sand. Olivine may be selected, for example, because it is effective at generating the desired level of alkalinity in water as a by-product or result of enhanced mineral weathering. Such mafic and / or ultramafic material may be used to form a carbon-removing mineral feedstock. The mafic / ultramafic material may be unprocessed when received into a chamber of a MFDS, in a form that is similar or identical to the naturally occurring form of said mineral ore body. In other cases, at least a portion of said minerals may be processed upon being received into a chamber of a MFDS in a form that is altered or distinct from a naturally occurring form. Processed olivine, or other mafic and ultramafic mineral feedstock may be ground, crushed, or otherwise physically altered to change one or more physical characteristics of the mineral feedstock, including surface area, grain size, pore size, and density.

[0145] MF is generally processed upstream of the MF delivery mechanism used to deliver MF (as mineral substrate) into a RC. Processing may include one or more of sorting, grinding, crushing, sifting and mixing, as well as thermal treatment to alter the minerology, and mineral distribution (homogeneity of mineral content) of the MF, based on the original mineral content of a quantity of MF. When different quantities of MF from different sources are combined and processed and then layered to provide an in situ mineral substrate composition suitable for a given mineral bed regime within a RC, the MF / mineral substrate is understood to be engineered to promote enhanced weathering and stable carbon storage within a MWC. This is done using one or more mechanisms and processes in order to reach specific design characteristics, including selected grain size, mineral content (minerology) and mineral distribution of (carbon) reactive and non(carbon)-reactive materials. These, in turn are defined by (1) how the RC operates: whether as a packed-bed, as a fully fluidized bed, or as a hybrid packed- fluidized bed system, and (2) the logistical and technical constraints imposed by each locale, such as grinding capabilities on site, or base mineral resource utilized and available.Mineral Substrate

[0146] The purpose of sourcing, processing and / or engineering a MF is to produce a mineral substrate (an intermediate input) comprising or consisting of carbon-reactive materials that will support enhanced mineral weathering and stable carbon storage in a RC. A particular MF, as originally sourced, processed and / or engineered may comprise one or more carbon reactive silicate, carbonate and / or oxide / hydroxide components, as well as comprise non-carbon reactive components (e.g. feldspar, and / or quartz), depending on the mineral substrate minerology and grain size distribution desired or required to provide a designed and managed in situ mineral substrate composition within a RC.

[0147] In embodiments, a MF is processed and / or engineered to form a mineral substrate comprising carbon-reactive minerals combined with non-carbon-reactive minerals. In other embodiments a mineral substrate can be engineered to alter the ratio of mineral types in order to optimize reaction conditions and / or reaction kinetics. Thecarbon-reactive mineral component of a mineral substrate will be the basis for most of the carbon capture and storage. This component can include silicate, carbonate or oxide / hydroxide phases. For silicates, the mineral blend engineered may focus on mafic - ultramafic minerals as carbon-reactive species (e.g., olivine, serpentines, wollastonite, pyroxene or hornblende). For carbonates, the mineral blend engineered may focus on metal carbonate species such as limestone as carbon-reactive species. For hydroxides, the mineral blend engineered may focus on metal oxides such as magnesium oxide or metal hydroxides, such as brucite, as carbon-reactive species.

[0148] When more than one type of carbon-reactive mineral containing input is to be used in a mineral substrate, the ratio of carbon-reactive minerals may be, in the case of blending two mineral types (e.g. from two distinct sources) be by weight: 1:1, 2:1, 3:1, 4:1, 5:1, 6:1, 7:1, 8:1, 9:1, 10:1, 11:1, 12:1, 13:1, 14:1, 15:1, 16:1, 17:1, 18:1, 19:1, 20:1, or greater to optimize reaction conditions and / or kinetics. In related embodiments, the ratio between silicate to carbonate minerals may be 1:1, 2:1, 3:1, 4:1, 5:1, 6:1, 7:1, 8:1, 9:1, 10:1, 11:1, 12:1, 13:1, 14:1, 15:1, 16:1, 17:1, 18:1, 19:1, 20:1, or greater. In other related embodiments, the ratio of silicate to carbonate minerals may be 100:1. In still other related embodiments, the ratio between carbonate to oxide or hydroxide minerals may be 1:1, 2:1, 3:1, 4:1, 5:1, 6:1, 7:1, 8:1, 9:1, 10:1, 11:1, 12:1, 13:1, 14:1, 15:1, 16:1, 17:1, 18:1, 19:1, 20:1, or greater. In embodiments where three different mineral types are blended to provide an engineered mineral substrate, the mineral ratios by weight may be 60% or more silicates, up to about 30% carbonates and up to about 10% oxides or hydroxides.

[0149] In other embodiments, a MF is obtained from one or more sources to provide a mineral substrate delivered to a RC. In related embodiments, a mineral substrate is delivered to a RC to provide a selected in situ mineral substrate composition for use in and for an enhanced mineral weathering process. In further embodiments, an in situ mineral substrate composition is designed and managed to provide a minerology and grain size distribution that supports enhanced mineral weathering and stable carbon storage in a RC. In other related embodiments, an in situ mineral substrate composition is designed and managed to provide a minerology and grain size distribution to optimize enhanced mineral weathering and stable carbon storage processing in a RC.

[0150] For example, in a packed bed operational setting, an in situ mineral substrate composition may comprise predominantly comprise (60 - 100 % by weight) medium - sized grains (about 120 to about 500 pm diameter) as its core carbon-reactive components. In this context, these grains can predominantly comprise (60 - 100 % by weight) carbon-reactive minerals such as carbonates and / or mafic - ultramafic silicates. With reference to Figure 2, this may entail using MF process flow Streams A and / or B, combined with Stream C when carbon-reactive mineral content is selected to be less than 100% of the in situ mineral substrate. A MF processing / engineering protocol is exemplified in Figure 3A. Embodiments of carbon-reactive mineral component can include carbonate (0-80% by weight) and a metal oxide or metal hydroxide (20-80% by weight). A non-recative mineral component can be incorporated as well (0-20% by weight).0

[0151] In a (fully) fluidized bed operational setting, an in situ mineral substrate composition may predominantly comprise (60 - 100 % by weight) fine - sized grains (< 63 pm diameter) as its core suspended carbon-reactive components. In this context, these grains can predominantly comprise (60 - 100 % by weight) carbon-reactive minerals such as carbonates and / or mafic - ultramafic silicates, as well as (metal) oxides and (metal) hydroxides. With reference to Figure 2, this may entail using MF process flow Streams A and / or B, combined with Stream C when carbon-reactive mineral content is selected to be less than 100% of the in situ mineral substrate. A MF processing / engineering protocol is exemplified in Figure 3B. One example of a carbonreactive mineral component can include a pure makeup of forsteritic olivine (100 %).

[0152] In a hybrid packed-fluidized bed operational setting, an in situ mineral substrate composition may use (30 - 80 % by weight) fine - sized grains (< 63 pm diameter) as its core suspended carbon-reactive components. These can predominantly comprise (80 - 100 % by weight) carbon-reactive minerals such as carbonates and / or mafic - ultramafic silicates, as well as oxides or hydroxides, as described above. One example of a carbon-reactive mineral component can include a mix of predominantly forsteritic olivine (> 60 %), mixed with some chlorite (10 - 20 % by weight), and some wollastonite (10 - 20 % by weight). Medium - coarse sized grains (150 - 5,000 pm diameter) can be used to form a structural basis in the reactor that functions as adiffusion layer for a water-carbon dioxide mixture to pass through and reach finer carbon-reactive mineral particles. Such a structural basis can be made up of non- carbon-reactive (low or substantially no reactivity) minerals such as feldspars and / or quartz. With reference to Figure 2, this may entail using MF process flow Streams A and / or B, combined with Stream C. A MF processing / engineering protocol is exemplified in Figure 3C.

[0153] In still other embodiments, a MF is delivered to a RC to provide an in situ mineral substrate composition comprising one or more mineral substrate layers (stratified mineral distribution). Different mineral substrate layers are delivered to a RC sequentially, following processes and using mechanisms to allow each layer to settle in the RC prior to delivering a new mineral substrate layer. In some embodiments, as an in situ mineral substrate is consumed (due to the mineral weathering process that results in carbon capture and stable carbon storage), the mineral substrate residue that remains in a RC may be cleared out of the RC and replaced with new carbon-reactive mineral substrate. In alternative embodiments, a spent mineral substrate may be reactivated by sonicating or treating the spent mineral substrate with acid and then recycling it as an input delivered by a MFDS.

[0154] For a packed bed mineral substrate regime, a mineral substrate layer configuration may comprise a series of sandwiched layers (e.g. alternating layers of coarser sand, mineral fines, coarser sands layers). The mineral fines are selected to be highly carbon-reactive (e.g. calcium carbonate, magnesium oxide or magnesium hydroxide), so as not to require suspension, or substantially no fluidization. For a hybrid packed-fluidized bed regime, coarser sands or other relatively inert minerals may form the lowest layer of a mineral substrate layer configuration followed by sequentially finer and finer carbon-reactive mineral substrate layers. For a fully fluidized bed regime, a mineral substrate layer configuration is not as readily maintained, however, the minerology of a slurry of mineral fines may be varied as it is delivered to a RC to renew and adapt the available carbon-reactive mineral substrate.

[0155] In yet other embodiments, a mineral substrate layer comprises carbon-reactive minerals. In still other embodiments, a mineral substrate layer comprises non-carbonreactive minerals. In still further embodiments, a mineral substrate layer comprises carbon-reactive and non-carbon-reactive minerals. In related embodiments, the carbonreactive minerals are selected from carbonates, silicates and oxides / hydroxides. In other related embodiments, the non-carbon-reactive minerals are selected from feldspar and quartz.

[0156] In embodiments, a carbon-reactive mineral layer consists of minerals with grain sizes less than or equal to 100 microns. In other embodiments, a carbon reactive mineral layer consists of minerals with grain sizes less than 70 microns (pm) in diameter. In further embodiments, a carbon-reactive mineral layer consists of minerals with grain sizes between about 10 to about 40 microns in diameter. When particle sizes are less than 10 microns, they can be supplied through a pipeline as a mud-like fluid.

[0157] In still other embodiments, the mineral substrate layer is a non-carbon- reactive layer. In still further embodiments, the non-carbon-reactive layer consists of minerals with grain sizes greater than 100 microns (pm) in diameter. In related embodiments, the non-carbon-reactive layer consists of minerals with grain sizes of and greater than 120 microns. In other related embodiment, a non-carbon-reactive mineral layer consists of minerals with grain sizes of and greater than 150 microns. In yet further related embodiments, a non-carbon-reactive mineral layer consists of minerals with grain sizes of and greater than 500 microns.

[0158] In embodiments, a mineral distribution of an in situ mineral substrate composition is consistently maintained within a RC during an enhanced mineral weathering process. In other embodiments, a minerology of an in situ mineral substrate composition is consistently maintained within a RC during an enhanced mineral weathering process. In alternative embodiments, a mineral distribution of an in situ mineral substrate composition is varied within a RC during an enhanced mineral weathering process. In other alternative embodiments, the minerology of an in situ mineral substrate composition is varied within a RC during an enhanced mineral weathering process.Carbon Delivery Subsystem and Carbon Source

[0159] A CDS is a subsystem that enables the delivery of carbon, in the form of gaseous carbon dioxide (CO2) and can be constructed from readily available components in suitable configurations 200 as illustrated in Figures 4A and 4B, depending on the source of carbon selected for the CCSS system. A CDS will generally have an air pump 202 and buffering means 203 or mixing means 205 to deliver a steady and homogeneous concentration of CO2 gas (which may be combined with other gases) to a CIS. A carbon input used to react with mineral substrate in a RC may be sourced in various ways. This CO2could be sourced from: i) air as ambient atmospheric CO2, ii) a CO2 provider, such as a direct air capture company (DAC), where CO2 is concentrated and stored in a tank 203 (see Figure 4B), or iii) from flue exhaust 201 gases originating from combustion systems (such as a hydrocarbon power plant). The CDS can recover and re-inject gaseous, unreacted CO2exhausts from a RC in order to enhance CO2capture efficiency (see Figure 11 and Figure 17).

[0160] The CDS can control and deliver appropriate air: CO2 mixtures, as well as pressure and flow rate regimes. In embodiments, a CDS subsystem may include various gas feeds, such as a small flow feed and high flow feed which mix in a chamber and are then combined with a dilution gas from another feed to form a homogenous gas mixture for delivery to a CIS for mixing with the treated water from the inflow processing subsystem.

[0161] In embodiments, a carbon containing inflow gas for a RC comprises a flue gas. In other embodiments, a carbon containing inflow gas for a RC comprises air. In further embodiments, a carbon containing inflow gas for a RC comprises one or more substantially pure, commercially sourced gases. In yet other embodiments, a carbon containing inflow gas for a RC comprises recycled outflow gas from a CCSS system. In still others embodiment, an inflow gas for a RC is an engineered composition of gases selected from a flue gas, air, commercially sourced gas and outflow gas recycled from a CCSS system.

[0162] Figures 4A and 4B illustrate exemplary CDS configurations for the delivery of carbon from a flue source and from air, respectively.

[0163] In the illustrated embodiment of Figure 4A, a flue gas exhaust 201 (e.g. from a hydrocarbon-based power plant) provides a source of CO2 for a CDS. Exhaust gases often have a range of CO2contents between 5 - 25 % CO2. In this embodiment, the exhaust stream is fed, streamed or integrated into a RC using one or more buffer tanks 203 upstream of a CIS. A buffer tank acts as a reservoir and means to regulate the concentration of carbon, pressure regime and flow rates. By controlling the residence time and facilitating the mixing of flue gas with other gases in one or more buffer tanks, the desired concentration of CO2can be delivered to the RC via the CIS at any given point in time. Flue gas can be mixed with readily available gas(es) that will not react with the mineral substrate in the RC under the reaction conditions for enhancing mineral weathering (e.g. air, O2, N2). In this way it is possible to create and control the input of an appropriate blend of inflow gas. This blend can be made in the buffer tank subsystem with a mixer in the form of baffles, or an impellor and by controlling the residence time of the gas blend in one or more buffer tanks.

[0164] The specifications of a given buffer tank(s) 203 can be designed to meet the specific requirements unique to each CCSS system site in order to provide the necessary capacity for creating and varying the composition of the carbon containing inflow gas.

[0165] In the embodiment of Figure 4B, a CO2air-mixing CDS 200 is illustrated. A source of stored CO2is provided from a DAC plant, and mixed with air or other readily available gas(es) that will not react with the mineral substrate in the RC, such as O2and N2), to create an appropriate blend of inflow gas. In this embodiment, the inflow gas blend can be made using a static mixer 205 to efficiently combine different gases into a uniform mixture, useful for processes in the chemical, manufacturing, process engineering, and energy sectors. The design of the static mixer upstream of a CIS can be tailored to specific needs, and to readily integrate into different system configurations, making them a versatile and readily maintained solution for achieving consistent mixing results.

[0166] Exemplary, small scale, static mixer models are sold COTS by McMaster-Carr and can be adapted to meet specific requirements. Static mixers will have to be tailoredaccording to the specific constraints of each industrial implementation setting. The flow of each gas stream needs to be regulated to achieve the selected CO2: air mix, as well as total flow and pressure regimes appropriate for a CIS and a RC of a CCSS system.

[0167] An inflow gas composition entering a RC at a given point in time can range from ambient air concentrations of CO2 (i.e., 0.04% CO2 molar), up to 100% CO2 molar. In one embodiment, the CO2 proportion of inflow gas is 0.5 - 25 % CO2 molar. In embodiments of a CDS 200, an air pump 202 may be optionally used to facilitate the processing (engineering) of inflow gas.Carbon Injector Subsystem (CIS)

[0168] On a general level, a CIS is designed to mix various fluids to optimize a specific reaction providing a solution for the chemical objective of dissolving CO2in water to provide a carbon dioxide (super) saturated gas / water mixture and solution, and optionally also contributing kinetic energy to the RC.

[0169] In the exemplary configuration shown in Figure 5, a mixing chamber or zone 302 of a CIS is partially or wholly integrated into a RC. This mixing chamber / zone 302 may be closed off from the rest of the RC such that the water-carbon dioxide mixture must be distributed using mechanisms such as a manifold, or open to the RC environment such that the mixing occurs in direct contact with a mineral substrate. In another embodiment, the mixing chamber 302 of a CIS is external to a RC (see Figures 13A-13B) so that mixing (with or without promoters from the SPDS) is carried out and then followed by delivery of the gas / water mixture and solution into the RC. Carbon dioxide from a CDS is fed into the mixing zone 302 by a gas manifold 301 and water is fed from an inflow processing subsystem into the mixing zone 302 by a water manifold 303. Such a configuration is illustrated by the use of a nanobubble system and allows for the creation of CO2-super-saturated water for delivery into the RC.

[0170] With reference to Figure 5, a CIS 300 is designed to combine the inflow gas mixture with water in order to: (1) optimize CO2partial pressure into the reactor water, (2) optimize associated dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) phases and carbonate chemistry into the reactor water, (3) diffuse this DIC homogeneously across the RC, (4) provide kinetic energy to the RC to promote the continuous suspension of selected particles of the mineral substrate, (5) optimize the zone of contact between the injected carbon and the reactive mineral substrate in order to enhance mineral weathering reactions. In embodiments, this is achieved by distributing both the inflow gas and the inflow water into a zone of optimal water-gas mixing through manifolds configured so that the gas and water flows (from the CDS and inflow processing subsystem, respectively) impinge on each other and mix optimally, before being released into the broader RC environment to react with the mineral substrate available.

[0171] In other embodiments, an inflow gas can come into contact with water in a water-gas mixing zone through multiple points via a manifold 301. At each of the points of contact, the gas can be made to diffuse into the water via any of several methods, such as flowing it through a sparger assembly, or by coming into contact with water through showerhead or coaxial injector mechanisms (see Figures 6A, 6B and 6C).

[0172] To help meet the objectives stated above, a zone of water-gas mixing can further contain features such as baffles or mixers, to further help homogenize the gas distribution (represented in Figure 5 by dashed lines). Such mixing features can encompass a range of discharge coefficients, for example, within the 0.9 - 0.1 range. This zone of mixing can also be maintained at slightly elevated pressures (approx. 0.5 - 50 psi) higher than that of the surrounding RC environment.

[0173] From there, the outflow of the water-gas mixture from the CIS mixing chamber 302 can be distributed throughout the RC via one or several release manifolds (not shown), or through one or more other inlet means or configurations. Alternative structures may include piping with holes or similar structures that can extend as close as possible to locus of the mineral substrate in order to maintain reaction medium homogeneity in commercial scale CCSS systems. For a in situ mineral substrate composition configured for a hybrid packed-fluidized bed regime, the lower strata of the bed may be the locus of the directed CIS outflow (impingement point) because the lower strata provide the support for the carbon-reactive layers of mineral substrate forming a matrix that allows the injection of the outflow to optimize carbon reactive particle suspension, kinetics and thermodynamics to create a frothing effect with the finer reactive particles of the mineral substrate.

[0174] In embodiments using flue gases as a source of carbon dioxide, there may be other toxic or environmentally damaging gases that can be removed from the flue gases using another RC. With reference to Figure 12, this additional RC may be configured to react sulfur dioxide via an enhanced mineral weathering process / reaction. Similar to a CIS 300 that services a RC 101-2, a flue exhaust injection subsystem (FEIS) 1100 can be configured to mix sulfur dioxide gas with water and deliver the water-sulfur dioxidemixture to a RC 101-1 (see Figure 12).

[0175] It is to be understood that some solubility promoters coming from a SPDS may be delivered into the RC via a water manifold into the water-carbon dioxide mixing area, including some solubility promoters that can alter medium buoyancy or density using additives such as surfactants or ligands.

[0176] A CIS will impart a pressure to the gas mixture at least a bit greater than the pressure at the point of the CIS outflow, which comes from the combined weights of the water and mineral column. Accordingly, to be effective, a CIS can impart a pressure to the gas inflow > 1 of the combined hydrostatic and lithostatic pressure from the column in the RC. A pressure > 1 to about 10 times the combined hydrostatic and lithostatic pressure may be contemplated.Solubility Promoter Delivery Subsystem (SPDS)

[0177] A SPDS provides additives to enhance mineral weathering beyond what can be achieved by engineering the MF, reaction conditions, and other CCSS system inputs. With reference to Figure 7, this is a subsystem 400 that enables the potential addition of chemical agents into the RC that can enhance its overall carbon capture and storage performance, as well as its value-added product recovery performance. The delivery of such promoters can include mechanisms to (1) enhance carbon dissolution in water utilizing enzymes such as carbonic anhydrase, (2) enhance both the destabilization (disruption) of the crystal lattice of minerals and metals mobility utilizing ligands such as siderophores, EDTA, or various organic acids, (3) enhance mineral separation and suspension utilizing surfactants, flocculants or floatation agents such as carboxylates, sulfonates, or amine-based compounds.

[0178] In embodiments, a SPDS delivers one or more agents to enhance carbon dissolution in water. In other embodiments, a SPDS delivers one or more agents to disrupt mineralization structures in the mineral substrate. In still other embodiments, a SPDS delivers one or more agents to promote metal mobility within the zone of contact between the mineral substrate and carbon. In further embodiments, a SPDS delivers one or more agents to promote mineral separation and suspension in the zone of contactbetween the mineral substrate and carbon.

[0179] Many of these agents (reaction additives) can be procured in open markets and made available from a tank or reservoir 402 of a SPDS 400. However, many of them are also agents that are produced by microbes, such as enzymes, ligands or organic acids, and can be synthesized in custom or purpose-built microbial growth chambers (i.e., in microbial growth reactors and systems). Therefore, in certain embodiments, microbial-produced (solubility) promoters, may be synthesized in a microbial growth system 401 and selected using a promoter selection means 403. Both procured and microbial produced promoters are collected in a SPDS tank or reservoir 404 prior to delivery to other subsystems of a CCSS system, such as the RC, the VPRS and / or outflow processing subsystem, as shown in Figure 7.

[0180] Some microbially-produced promoters may be released into the growth media or growth environment by the microbes grown and others may need to be extracted from the microbes after a sufficient growth mass has been achieved. The conditions for the production of such agents may be enhanced by managing microbial growth conditions, including the selection of microbes, growth media and growth environmental conditions. Further processing to purify or control the promoter composition obtained from microbes may be implemented as part of a SPDS.

[0181] With reference to Figure 7, one embodiment of a SPDS includes a microbial source of promoter agents from a microbial growth subsystem 401. Such a system may have a chemostat design as disclosed in US Patent No. 8426159. At a minimum any microbial growth subsystem will require a source of nutrients. Exemplary methods to select and extract specific desired compounds from a microbial growth subsystem are described in: (i) K. M. Ledyard, A. Butler, Structure of putrebactin, a new dihydroxamate siderophore produced by Shewanella putrefaciens. JBIC J. Biol. Inorg. Chem. 2, 93-97 (1997) and (ii) R. T. Reid, A. Butler, Investigation of the mechanism of iron acquisition by the marine bacterium Alteromonas luteoviolaceus : Characterization of siderophore production. LimnoL Oceanogr. 36, 1783-1792 (1991).

[0182] A promoter selection mechanism 403 may be used to separate from microbialbiomass and growth medium selected reaction additives. Methods of extracting specific desired compounds using this mechanism are provided in: (i) K. M. Ledyard, A. Butler, Structure of putrebactin, a new dihydroxamate siderophore produced by Shewanella putrefaciens. JBIC J. Biol. Inorg. Chem. 2, 93-97 (1997) and (ii) R. T. Reid, A. Butler, Investigation of the mechanism of iron acquisition by the marine bacterium Alteromonas luteoviolaceus : Characterization of siderophore production. LimnoL Oceanogr. 36, 1783-1792 (1991).

[0183] Procured sources of promoter agents are made accessible from a vessel 402. The agents from both types of sources are delivered to a RC through one or more solubility promoter delivery tank(s) 404. One or more promoters may reside in a given tank 404 mixed with water where selected amounts can be homogenized (blended), and / or concentrated prior to leaving the tank 404. The tank 404 may be configured with one or more compartments or chambers to facilitate the delivery of distinct promoter agents in a controlled manner to maintain the integrity (e.g. purity profile and activity) of a given promoter agent. In alternative embodiments, multiple solubility promoter tanks 404 or vessels may be used for each promoter agent that may be delivered to the RC. The delivery of promoters from chambers within a tank 404 or from multiple tanks 404 may be facilitated by one or more promoter delivery manifolds (not shown) with appropriate valves to control the flow of solubility promoters into the water manifold of an inflow processing subsystem that feeds into a CIS, directly into a RC and / or into an outflow processing subsystem.

[0184] Surfactants, or anything affecting medium density like floatation agents, may be fed into a CIS, whereas ligands such as siderophores may be fed directly into a RC, and could also be fed into a VPRS and / or outflow processing subsystem to help recover metals and / or treat downstream waters.

[0185] It is to be understood, that a given SPDS design need not have both market procured and microbial-obtained sources of promoters. In embodiments, a SPDS may source all of its promoters from the open market. In other embodiments, a SPDS may source all of its promoters from a microbial growth system.Circulation Flow Subsystem (CFS)

[0186] A CFS 900 is shown in Figures 11 and 12. This is a subsystem that enables the flow of water through the (mineral substrate) sediment pore space, and the water above to (1) promote a more homogenous geochemistry throughout the reaction chamber (both vertically as well as laterally), and (2) provide kinetic energy to the reaction chamber to promote the continuous suspension of selected particles of the mineral substrate. This could involve one or more pump-driven recirculation loops, water jet mechanisms and / or physical mixers, such as an impellor stirring mechanism in a RC (see Figure 21).

[0187] In embodiments, the CFS may be configured to provide the desired kinetic energy regime by creating sufficient turbulence in a RC to keep mineral particles (fines) in suspension in the zone of contact with the gas / water mixture to achieve enhanced mineral weathering, and to provide for the recirculation of fluids through and within a RC. In such embodiments, the features of a CIS that can be provided to impart additional kinetic energy to the RC become optional. A given kinetic energy regime is determined based on a calculated minimum fluidization velocity (MFV) (see Example section of this disclosure).Inflow Processing Subsystem

[0188] The inflow processing steps of the methods of the present disclosure are carried out and managed using an inflow processing subsystem. With reference to Figure 8, such a subsystem 500 is used to treat water sourced from the environment external to the CCSS system. In embodiments, the water source comprises a surface water (SW), such as sea water or freshwater from rivers and lakes. In other embodiments, the water source comprises man-made effluent waters or grey waters. In further embodiments, the water source comprises CCSS system outflow waters recycled for use as inflow water in a MWC.

[0189] On a general level, configurations of such systems may include chemical and particulate processing mechanisms to remove undesirable elements (impurities) or alter the concentration of elements (e.g. salt) in the source water that may interfere or disruptthe optimization of reaction conditions in the MWC.

[0190] Figure 8 illustrates an embodiment of such a system when using sea water as a surface water source. The subsystem treats surface water to produce inflow water for the RC to ensure that the water flowing into the MWC has the appropriate biogeochemical characteristics and can more generally support the optimal performance of the CCSS system. This subsystem may include a filtration unit 504 (such as carbon or silicon-based filters with pore sizes ranging from 0.2 - 5,000 pm), a purifying gas injection mechanism 503 (e.g. using ozone or oxygen), a distillation means (not shown), a UV treatment unit 505, and / or a chamber 502 for using salts and minerals additions (such as magnesium chloride or ferric oxides) or other agents (e.g. sourced from a SPDS, or as other procured substrates 501) to remove or sequester undesirable particulates, organic and inorganic compounds, and produce inflow water that supports the maintenance of appropriate geochemical characteristics for the optimal performance of the CCSS system and more particularly the MWC.Outflow Processing Subsystem

[0191] An outflow processing subsystem facilitates processing steps that result in the return of alkaline water including DIC back to a body (reservoir) of surface water. With reference to Figure 9, an outflow processing subsystem 600 processes / treats water flowing out of a RC of a CCSS system in order to ensure it meets required environmental regulations and / or guidelines, such as those defined by the Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME), e.g. the Canadian Environmental Quality Guidelines, and regulations of the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). This subsystem may also capture and remove dissolved or particulate forms of carbon compounds, whether organic or inorganic, in order to enable the storage of such carbon compounds in designated permanent storage sites (e.g., landfill for specific waste). Components of this subsystem may include filtration units 604 with a waste management unit 606, purifying gas injection mechanisms 603 (using, for example, ozone or oxygen), and / or UV treatment units 605. A treatment chamber 602 for processing outflows from a RC may also be included, wherein salts and minerals additions, or other agents (e.g. procured substrates 601) are used to remove undesirableparticulates (e.g. using a settling tank, a cyclone separator, or both), organic as well as inorganic contaminants, in order to obtain and maintain biogeochemical characteristics appropriate for releasing outflows into the environment (e.g., dissolved Ni concentrations of 8.2 ug / L, pH near 7.5 - 8.5, etc.), or otherwise recycle water back into the system as an inflow for the RC.Value Product Recovery Subsystem

[0192] The availability and sustainable supply of valuable metals for the development of clean energy technologies, otherwise referred to “technology metals”, is addressed by the optional inclusion of a VPRS in a CCSS system.

[0193] Metals may comprise those that are used to fabricate the critical components of numerous products and finished goods, including airplanes, automobiles, batteries, smart phones, and biomedical devices. For example, these can include rare-earth elements (REEs), platinum group metals (PGMs), nickel, cobalt, chromium, lithium, copper, cobalt, silver, and gold. Large amounts of Technology Metals will be required for the sustainable development of clean technologies. Methods to concentrate and extract technology metals in seawater are provided by the inclusion of a VPRS in a CCSS system by providing a means to extract and / or concentrate technology metals at sufficiently high scale to provide for real-world applications.

[0194] In embodiments, technology metals may include but are not limited to nickel and cobalt extracted as byproducts from a RC or other processing subsystem, such as the water inflow subsystem. Extraction methods may include but are not limited to one or several various methods, including the use of chelating agents (e.g., various ligands), macrocycles (e.g., crown ethers and cyclams), cryptands, various separation materials (e.g., sorbents and membranes), adsorption resins, fermentative bioreactors, acid leaching, electrochemical deposition, and liquid extractants.

[0195] With reference to Figure 10, a VPRS 700 can enable the recovery of certain elements and compounds, including valuable technology metals, produced as a consequence of the enhanced mineral weathering and carbon capture / storage reaction. Such elements and compounds can be organic or inorganic in nature, and can be indissolved or in particulate form at a RC output point for an outflow. This subsystem can change that form by affecting physical, biological, chemical or electrochemical conditions within the VPRS in order to extract these compounds from the outflow water. This subsystem may therefore include filtration units, gas injection mechanisms, UV treatment units, outflow treatment chambers for salts and mineral additions, and other agents. This subsystem complements the outflow processing subsystem to the extent that it helps remove elements and compounds that may have potentially negative impacts if released in the environment, and therefore helps restore the outflow water to a state closer to that of the inflow surface water.

[0196] VPRS mediated methods involve taking the outflow of a RC, and separating / concentrating desired compounds in a solution (retained outflow) from effluent destined for release to SW in a unit 701. The retained outflow is further purified to obtain potentially useful by-products, such as metals that would otherwise be toxic for release to the general environment. This is done with some degree of specificity using one or more adsorption or ion exchange columns 702 as shown in Figure 10, followed by further extraction or transforming solubilized elements into a value-added product, e.g. by way of deposition step carried out in a collection unit 703,. For example, a VPRS could be used to remove and recover nickel from outflow water as it gets released from the mineral weathering reaction. This separation step can utilize, amongst other things, adsorption resins such as AmberLite™ IRC83 H Resin, SEPLITE® LSC495 Bis-picolylamine Resin or Chelex-100, or other adsorbents such as carbon-based materials. Other separation step options include ion exchange membranes, using solvents, coagulants or flocculants, or biological absorption.

[0197] An elution and concentration step involves concentrating the nickel (or other metal) in a high concentration solution or matrix. This can be performed by processing a nickel-enriched matrix (such as the aforementioned separation matrices) through a low pH solution. This solution can be made to further increase nickel contents via distillation mechanisms and steps. Then, the nickel can be deposited and extracted out of this concentrated solution into a solid of relatively high purity through processes such as electrochemical deposition using an electrolysis unit at 703. Deposition can also be achieved via chemical precipitation, which commonly involves increasing thepH in combination with other chemical treatments such as adding certain salts or changing the redox potential of the solution.Geochemical Monitoring Subsystem

[0198] A GMS is a monitoring and control subsystem comprising probes and sensors distributed throughout the reactor and its auxiliary (sub)systems, that enables the continuous monitoring of physical and geochemical attributes of the waters and gases, such as temperature, flow rates, DIC, alkalinity, pH, metals contents, carbon fluxes, etc., flowing throughout the technology. Such a system may also incorporate artificial intelligence capabilities to self-monitor data and adjust certain variables (water flow, gas flow, etc.) to maintain system efficiencies and provide auto-pilot functionalities.

[0199] This subsystem 1000 is illustrated in Figures 11 and 12. The GMS 1000 provides the means to monitor reactor performance with respect to carbon capture and storage, e.g. as it is proceeding in real time within the MWC(RC), as well as in all other upstream and downstream auxiliary subsystems, and the natural environment outside of the CCSS system. This allows for adjustments to CCSS system performance based on detected and selected internal and external environmental parameters, such as ambient pressure and temperature, pH, water turbidity, CO2 concentration, DIC concentration, flow rates, etc.

[0200] This subsystem comprises a series of sensors and computer implemented means for collecting sensor data, assessing the date and implementing adjustments to system performance to optimize CCSS system performance in real time. Exemplary methods for monitoring and adjusting performance parameters for systems configured to capture and store carbon are disclosed in International Patent Application Publication Nos. WO2023034869 and WO2023212567.

[0201] In embodiments, one or more sensors may be disposed in, around, or on a RC, and on any of the other features of auxiliary (sub)systems of a CCSS system, including other chambers and fluidic passageways. These sensors are operatively associated with computer hardware adapted with software to provide one or more computing subsystems to manage, evaluate and control CCSS system performance, and therebyoptimize the enhanced mineral dissolution processes within a CCSS system.

[0202] In embodiments, a computing system is configured to calculate carbon dioxide consumption and to measure, record, and verify carbon removal (e.g. as described in the present disclosure and also disclosed in US20230302404). Such a computing system may be configured to determine carbon dioxide consumption and / or carbon removal based on one or more sensor readings, model outputs, and / or one or more input parameters. The one or more input parameters may relate to, for example, the physical and / or chemical properties of the carbon-removing mineral substrate used, the ratio of carbon-removing mineral substrate to microbial biomass, the physical and chemical properties of the reactor water, the ratio of carbon-removing mineral substrate to siderophore concentrations, and / or the manner / configuration in which the carbon- removing mineral substrate and other particulate matter is or is not suspended (e.g., method of mixing within the reactor). In some cases, the sensor readings in the RC or other subsystems may comprise measurements of alkalinity, DIC, pCCh, pH, salinity, conductivity, dissolved oxygen, nutrients, trace metals, organic carbon, water temperature, agitation, and / or additional chemical and physical properties. Data from any individual or combination of sensors described herein may be used to calculate carbon dioxide consumption, conditions of the MWC, or other performance metrics.

[0203] In embodiments, methods and protocols for measuring, recording, and verifying (MRV protocols) carbon removal are provided. See Figure 21 for an embodiment of a data acquisition and control system (GMS) 1000 configured for a scaled CCSS system including sampling and analysis equipment and mass flow controllers responsive to the outcome of monitoring CCSS system performance using the GMS.

[0204] In other embodiments, the present disclosure provides computer subsystems (one or more computers adapted with software applications) that are programmed or otherwise configured to implement methods of the disclosure to assure optimal CCSS system performance. An exemplary computer system configuration is disclosed in International Patent Application Publication No. W02023069960.

[0205] A computer subsystem may be configured to, for example, (i) identify optimal or beneficial microbial / mineral ratios, (ii) optimize one or more procedures for processing mineral substrate, such as olivine to yield favorable properties and / or characteristics for the olivine in a mineral substrate, based on reactor conditions, and (iii) coordinate transportation of the olivine to the target site. A computer subsystem can be an electronic device of a user, or a computer subsystem can be remotely located with respect to a given electronic device (e.g. a sensor and its associated wiring or circuitry). The electronic device can be a mobile electronic device.

[0206] An exemplary computer subsystem may include a central processing unit (CPU, also "processor" and "computer processor" herein), which can be a single core or multi core processor, or a plurality of processors for parallel processing. The computer subsystem will also include memory or memory location (e.g., random-access memory, read-only memory, flash memory), electronic storage unit (e.g., hard disk), communication interface (e.g., network adapter) for communicating with one or more other systems, and peripheral devices, such as cache, other memory, data storage and / or electronic display adapters. The memory, storage unit, interface and peripheral devices are in communication with the CPU through a communication bus, such as a motherboard. The storage unit can be a data storage unit (or data repository) for storing data.

[0207] A computer subsystem can be operatively coupled to a computer network ("network") with the aid of the communication interface. The network can be the Internet, an internet and / or extranet, or an intranet and / or extranet that is in communication with the Internet. The network in some cases is a telecommunication and / or data network. The network can include one or more computer servers, which can enable distributed computing, such as cloud computing. The network in some cases with the aid of the computer subsystem, can implement a peer-to-peer network, which may enable devices coupled to the computer system to behave as a client or a server.

[0208] The CPU of a computer subsystem can execute a sequence of machine- readable instructions, which can be embodied in a program or software. The instructions may be stored in a memory location, such as the memory. The instructionscan be directed to the CPU, which can subsequently program or otherwise configure the CPU to implement methods of the present disclosure. Examples of operations performed by the CPU can include fetch, decode, execute, and write-back.

[0209] The CPU can be part of a circuit, such as an integrated circuit. One or more other components of the system can be included in the circuit. In some cases, the circuit is an application specific integrated circuit (ASIC).

[0210] A storage unit of a control subsystem can store files, such as drivers, libraries and saved programs. The storage unit can store user data, e.g., user preferences and user programs. The computer subsystem in some cases can include one or more additional data storage units that are located external to the computer subsystem (e.g., on a remote server that is in communication with the computer subsystem through an intranet or the Internet).

[0211] A computer subsystem can communicate with one or more remote computer systems through the network. For instance, the computer subsystem can communicate with a remote computer system of a user (e.g., an end user performing or monitoring the processing and / or the transportation or distribution of the olivine). Examples of remote computer systems include personal computers (e.g., portable PC), slate or tablet PC's (e.g., Apple® iPad, Samsung® Tab), telephones, Smart phones (e.g., Apple® iPhone, Android-enabled device, Blackberry®), or personal digital assistants. The user can access the computer system 601 via the network 630.

[0212] Methods as described herein can be implemented by way of machine (e.g., computer processor) executable code stored on an electronic storage location of a computer subsystem, such as, for example, on the memory or electronic storage unit. The machine executable or machine readable code can be provided in the form of software. During use, the code can be executed by the processor. In some cases, the code can be retrieved from the storage unit and stored on the memory for ready access by the processor. In some situations, the electronic storage unit can be precluded, and machine-executable instructions are stored on memory.

[0213] The code can be pre-compiled and configured for use with a machine having aprocessor adapted to execute the code, or can be compiled during runtime. The code can be supplied in a programming language that can be selected to enable the code to execute in a precompiled or as-compiled fashion.

[0214] Aspects of the systems and methods provided herein, such as a computer subsystem, can be embodied in programming. Various aspects of the technology may be thought of as "products" or "articles of manufacture" typically in the form of machine (or processor) executable code and / or associated data that is carried on or embodied in a type of machine readable medium. Machine-executable code can be stored on an electronic storage unit, such as memory (e.g., read-only memory, randomaccess memory, flash memory) or a hard disk. "Storage" type media can include any or all of the tangible memory of the computers, processors or the like, or associated modules thereof, such as various semiconductor memories, tape drives, disk drives and the like, which may provide non-transitory storage at any time for the software programming. All or portions of the software may at times be communicated through the Internet or various other telecommunication networks. Such communications, for example, may enable loading of the software from one computer or processor into another, for example, from a management server or host computer into the computer platform of an application server. Thus, another type of media that may bear the software elements includes optical, electrical and electromagnetic waves, such as used across physical interfaces between local devices, through wired and optical landline networks and over various air-links. The physical elements that carry such waves, such as wired or wireless links, optical links or the like, also may be considered as media bearing the software. As used herein, unless restricted to non-transitory, tangible "storage" media, terms such as computer or machine "readable medium" refer to any medium that participates in providing instructions to a processor for execution.

[0215] Hence, a machine readable medium, such as computer-executable code, may take many forms, including but not limited to, a tangible storage medium, a carrier wave medium or physical transmission medium. Non-volatile storage media including, for example, optical or magnetic disks, or any storage devices in any computer(s) or the like, may be used to implement the databases, etc. shown in the drawings. Volatile storage media include dynamic memory, such as main memory of such a computerplatform. Tangible transmission media include coaxial cables; copper wire and fiber optics, including the wires that comprise a bus within a computer system. Carrier-wave transmission media may take the form of electric or electromagnetic signals, or acoustic or light waves such as those generated during radio frequency (RF) and infrared (IR) data communications. Common forms of computer-readable media therefore include for example: a floppy disk, a flexible disk, hard disk, magnetic tape, any other magnetic medium, a CD-ROM, DVD or DVD-ROM, any other optical medium, punch cards paper tape, any other physical storage medium with patterns of holes, a RAM, a ROM, a PROM and EPROM, a FLASH-EPROM, any other memory chip or cartridge, a carrier wave transporting data or instructions, cables or links transporting such a carrier wave, or any other medium from which a computer may read programming code and / or data. Many of these forms of computer readable media may be involved in carrying one or more sequences of one or more instructions to a processor for execution.

[0216] A computer subsystem can include or be in communication with an electronic display that comprises a user interface (UI) for providing, for example, a portal for a user to monitor the processing and / or the transportation or distribution of the olivine. The portal may be provided through an application programming interface (API). A user or entity can also interact with various elements in the portal via the UI. Examples of UI's include, without limitation, a graphical user interface (GUI) and web-based user interface.

[0217] The methods of a control subsystem of the present disclosure can be implemented by way of one or more algorithms embodied or executed in software. An algorithm can be implemented by way of software upon execution by a central processing unit. For example, the algorithm may be configured to identify optimal or beneficial conditions and optimize a procedure for processing the olivine based on the properties or the characteristics of said conditions.Monitoring and Quantifying Measures of MWC Performance

[0218] Effective systems for carbon capture and stable carbon storage (sequestration), to reduce the amount of human made carbon emissions and damaging excesses ofatmospheric carbon dioxide require monitoring the CCSS system performance, such as quantifying the rate and extent of carbon sequestration with reference to enhanced mineral weathering processes in a MWC.

[0219] In embodiments, processes and methods for quantifying the rate and extent to which carbon-removing mineral substrate sequesters carbon dioxide may include determination of the concentration, flux, or isotopic composition of chemical species resulting from the dissolution of carbon-removing mineral substrate. These processes / methods may also include determination of the impact of carbon-removing mineral substrate upon the ambient concentration, flux, or isotopic composition of gaseous or aqueous carbon dioxide species and alkalinity found in the region surrounding carbon-removing mineral substrate. Such processes and methods may optionally include the introduction of a chemical or isotopic tracer which serves to facilitate the determination of the rate or extent at which carbon-removing mineral substrate undergoes chemical dissolution or transformation.

[0220] In other embodiments, processes and methods of monitoring and quantifying carbon removal may be conducted at a single point in time or as part of a time series.

[0221] In still other embodiments, determinations quantifying the rate of carbon sequestration are made in the pore fluid in contact with the carbon-removing mineral substrate, as well as the overlying water. In further other embodiments, such determinations may be made via the installation of a chamber installed upon the sediment surface (of a mineral substrate) which acts to integrate the accumulation of reaction products and / or the depletion of chemical reactants across the sediment-water interface. In still further embodiments, such determinations may include determining the flux of aqueous or gaseous carbon dioxide in the overlying air or water by means of eddy covariance techniques.

[0222] In yet other embodiments, processes and methods or monitoring enhanced weathering may include determination of the rate of dissolution or chemical transformation of the carbon-removing mineral substrate via quantification of the abundance of the initial and subsequent mineral content present in sediments.

[0223] While all the above processes and methods may be conducted in situ in a reaction chamber, any or all of the above processes / methods may be conducted, at least in part, ex-situ via the construction of a testing or process modelling reactor apparatus which serves to emulate the behavior of carbon-removing processes in the industrial / commercial reactor system environment. Such test / modelling reactors may be conducted at a range of sizes and scales including but not limited to laboratory “benchscale” reactors, batch-scale reactors, larger outdoor mesocosm scale reactors or other reactors designed to replicate desired real-world conditions in certain embodiments. Such reactors may optionally be constructed in such a manner as to make them portable facilitating transportation between sites.

[0224] In embodiments, determination of the rate at which carbon sequestration (removal) processes reactions may be facilitated, predicted, or summarized via the construction of a mathematical computer model, such as that disclosed in US Patent No. 11896930. This patent discloses, among other things, a method of quantifying carbon sequestration from the dissolution of carbon-removing sand substrates. Modelling systems and methods of this kind accept selected environmental, biological parameters and / or physical properties of the carbon-removing processes and / or the results of the aforementioned chemical, biological or physical determinations to output either the dissolution rate of carbon-removing processes and / or the physical and chemical impact of carbon-removing sand on the surrounding environment.Uses of a CCSS System

[0225] Uses of a CCSS system as previously noted include various levels of environmental amelioration / reclamation as well as the recovery of valuable products for other industrial applications.

[0226] In embodiments, a CCSS system is used to enhance mineral weathering. In other embodiments, a CCSS system is used to capture carbon dioxide generated from human activity and stably store this carbon for release back into the environment and optionally for use in other applications, e.g. to support microbial growth systems thatprovide valuable agents for use in a CCSS system. In still other embodiments, a CCSS system is used to capture sulfur dioxide generated from human activity.

[0227] In still additional embodiments, a CCSS system is used to support the administration and participation in carbon credit frameworks and social regimes. In addition to optimizing the capture and stable storage of carbon using the CCSS systems of the present disclosure, the MRV protocols disclosed herein may be submitted to independent, third-party entities (e.g., academics, institutions, etc.) for validation. Once validated, the protocols may be implemented by an individual or an entity. Additional third-party entities may ensure and confirm compliance. The individuals or entities implementing the MRV protocols may then submit the third-party verified, compliant methodologies to a carbon credit verifier, and an offset or a credit may be issued on a registry for sale in domestic and / or international markets.

[0228] In embodiments, a CCSS system may be used to reclaim technology metals (e.g. nickel). In other embodiments, a CCSS system may be used to produce carbonates. In still other embodiments, a CCSS system may be used to remove inorganic and organic environmental toxins and contaminants from surface waters. In further embodiments, a CCSS system may be used in combination with other environmental amelioration or reclamation technologies including water filtration technologies, refuse and garbage incineration technologies, plastic and paper recycling technologies, etc.

[0229] To gain a better understanding of the invention described herein, the following examples are set forth. It will be understood that these examples are intended to describe illustrative embodiments of the invention and are not intended to limit the scope of the invention in any way.EXAMPLE

[0230] The following example is to provide exemplary CCSS system configurations and data on the effect of its operation to further illustrate the invention of the present disclosure.Exemplary CCSS System Configurations

[0231] As illustrated in Figure 11, an embodiment of a CCSS system is provided designed around a single MWC 100 illustrated as having a single RC 101 operatively- configured with various subsystems as herein described below. Such a configuration is representative of smaller pilot systems to larger capacity systems that approximate a viable commercial scale system. Dotted lines represent sensors and electrical lines. Dashed lines represent gas lines. Solid lines represent water lines. This configuration may be used to construct a 10L RC (TRL-5) and may used as a model for, or be scaled for industrial / commercial application (see below).

[0232] Operatively-associated with the RC 101 is a CIS 300 and CFS 900. A SPDS 400 delivers solubility promoters directly into the RC 101 and to the CIS 300, into a water-carbon dioxide mixing zone. In alternative embodiments, however, it may deliver such reaction accelerants into the inflow processing subsystem 500. In the illustrated embodiment the inflow processing subsystem 500 also feeds into the CIS 300 as does the CDS 200 that delivers carbon dioxide in selected concentrations to the water-carbon dioxide mixing zone of the CIS 300.

[0233] A MFDS 800 is also operatively-associated with the RC 101 and delivers processed and / or engineered mineral feedstock (mineral substrate) using a screw conveyor 801. The inflow processing system 500 may feed processed water directly into the RC 101, and into the MFDS 800 to carry in the mineral substrate, particularly the carbon-reactive fines, as a slurry. The liquid outflow from the RC 101 is delivered to a VPRS 700 and subsequently an outflow processing subsystem 600 to deliver DIC in and with alkaline water outputs (labelled as outflow) to a surface water reservoir in the external environment. The alkaline water may be about 1.5x to about lOx more alkaline than the incoming water entering a CCSS system via an inflow processing subsystem 500. Generally, this will mainly be a silicate-based alkalinity, based on the selection of a predominantly silicate minerology for a mineral substrate used in a RC.

[0234] The gas outflow of the RC 101 will generally still contain carbon dioxide and may be recycled back to the CDS 200 via a regulated flow controller unit of a gas vent102. In general, a gas composition that has greater than a 1% concentration of CO2 (10,000 ppm) will be a limiting factor for the rate of weathering in a RC and therefore CO2in the gas outflow may routinely be available for recycling back into the RC. A carbon recovery unit (CRU; 103) may be incorporated as an additional subsystem operatively-coupled to the gas vent 102 to enable the selective recovery of CO2 back to the CDS 200 (see Figure 17), while releasing other gases back to the atmosphere. Mechanisms to achieve this include amine-based CO2capture units, or selective CO2valve systems linked to parallelized RC units.

[0235] In an alternative, illustrated embodiment according to Figure 12, a CCSS system may also be configured to remove sulfur dioxide (SO2) from a flue exhaust course also providing the source of carbon dioxide for the CDS 200. Interposed between the flue exhaust 203 and buffer tank 201 of the CDS 200 is a first MWC 100-1 illustrated as having a single RC 101-1. Once the SO2 is removed from the flue gases mixed and delivered with water via the flue exhaust injection subsystem (FEIS) 1100, the gas outflow from RC 101-1 continues to the mixing chamber of the CDS 200 prior to being delivered to the CIS 300 where it will be mixed with water from the input processing subsystem 500 prior to entering the second MWC 100-2 illustrated with a single RC 101-2. Each of RC 101-1 and 101-2 is operatively-associated with a MFDS, 800-1 and 800-2, respectively.

[0236] Each of the embodiments shown in Figures 11 and 12, also show a portion of the GMS 1000. In Figure 11, the GMS sensor points are shown as preceding inflow processing and after outflow processing. In Figure 12, GMS sensor points are positioned after inflow processing and before outflow processing, respectively. These are two alternative sensor configurations that may be suitable for the design of a CCSS system. The purpose of these sensor points is to measure water in and out of a CCSS system and RC chemistry, namely carbonate geochemistry to track the evolution of carbon chemistry in and out of the RC. Useful monitoring devices / sensors for this purpose may include gas analyzers, pCO2probes, as well as temperature, pH and salinity sensors. Other features that may be implemented to support the monitoring and control of a CCSS system include sampling ports to obtain samples that can be analyzed in a laboratory.Enhanced Weathering Modelling Data

[0237] Exemplary data generated to model the performance of a CCSS system under different conditions is provided in Figures 14-16. Such data can be used to create computerized control systems to manage and put into effect the desired performance of a CCSS system in accordance with the present disclosure.

[0238] Figure 14 represents surface-area normalized dissolution rates of ultramafic minerals, in a liquid medium at ambient pressures, under a range of water residence times and temperatures. Triangles represent experiments run at 5 days residence time, and circles at 14 days residence time.

[0239] The data show that temperatures between 4 and 60 degrees C° do not play a major role in determining mineral dissolution rates. These data further reinforce the idea that decreasing water residence times from 14 to 5 days helps increase dissolution rates by over half an order of magnitude.

[0240] Figure 15 represents surface-area normalized dissolution rates of ultramafic minerals in a liquid medium at ambient temperatures and pressures, under a range of pH and water residence times. Triangles represent experiments run at 5 days residence time, and circles at 14 days residence time.

[0241] The data show that decreasing pH, especially in between 7 and 6, increases mineral dissolution rates by about an order of magnitude. It also shows that decreasing water residence times from 14 days to 5 days also increases dissolution rates nearly an order of magnitude.

[0242] Figure 16 represents surface-area normalized dissolution rates of various ultramafic minerals such as serpentinite, mine wastes and olivine, in a liquid medium at ambient temperatures and pressures, under a range of water residence times as well as under a range of CO2 concentrations. Triangles represent experiments run at 5 days residence time, and circles at 14 days residence time, and squares at 1 day residence time.

[0243] The data show that mineralogy can play a big role in increasing dissolution rates, with olivine having dissolution rates about an order of magnitude greater than serpentine or some mine wastes. These data also reinforce the idea that decreasing water residence times from 14 to 5 days, or even 1 day helps increase dissolution rates up to an order of magnitude. Furthermore, high CO2 content in the medium further increases dissolution rates by up to an order of magnitude.

[0244] While embodiments of the present invention have been shown and described herein, it will be obvious to those skilled in the art that such embodiments are provided by way of example only. It is not intended that the invention be limited by the specific examples provided within the specification. While the invention has been described with reference to the aforementioned specification, the descriptions and illustrations of the embodiments herein are not meant to be construed in a limiting sense. Numerous variations, changes, and substitutions will now occur to those skilled in the art without departing from the invention. Furthermore, it shall be understood that all aspects of the invention are not limited to the specific depictions, configurations or relative proportions set forth herein which depend upon a variety of conditions and variables. It should be understood that various alternatives to the embodiments of the invention described herein may be employed in practicing the invention. It is therefore contemplated that the invention shall also cover any such alternatives, modifications, variations or equivalents. It is intended that the following claims define the scope of the invention and that methods and structures within the scope of these claims and their equivalents be covered thereby.Enhanced Weathering Data from Operation of an Exemplary CCSS System

[0245] Continuous flow-through experiments were run in sealed reactor vessels of ~ 14 L capacity. Real seawater was pumped through at 8 mL / min, while a diluted CO2 gas stream was also injected into the reactor, at a net concentration of CO2 in the inflow gas stream of 8590 ppm. A pCO2analyzer measured CO2concentrations in the gas stream flowing into as well as out of the reactor, in order to measure the mass flow rate of CO2 transferred from the gas stream, into reactor waters. pH in the reactor waters was also measured with a calibrated probe.

[0246] Blank experiments were first run with this apparatus, characterizing the geochemical conditions of a blank reactor, containing no carbon-reactive minerals, and were run for > 4 hours, ensuring CO2transfer rates and pH values were very stable. Four experiments were also run with amendments of 200 g of fine-grained, olivine-rich mineral feedstock (MF) continuously between 4 - 15 days.

[0247] Error! Reference source not found.8 showcases the results of these experiments, comparing the geochemical characteristics of a blank reactor with those of an olivine-containing reactor. Results show that in blank experiments, seawater could absorb CO2from the gas stream at a mean rate of 34 mg / h, which lowered the seawater pH from 8.10 to 6.88. On the other hand, the addition of the MF increased the mean CO2transfer rates to between 40 and 110 mg / h.

[0248] Consistently, the highest CO2transfer rates (60 - 110 mg / h) occurred in the first 24 hours after the MF amendment, and then stabilized around 50 mg / h, with a range of values between 38 and 74 mg / h. These results indicate a net increase in transfer rates of CO2of 16 mg / h (with a range of 40 - 4 mg / h) in experiments with the MF amendment, compared to blank experiments. pH values in MF amendment experiments were generally steady throughout the experiments, holding between 7.08 and 7.26, and stayed within a range of 0.06 pH scale units within a single experiment. Importantly, the increase in MF mass across experiments correlates to an increase in pH in the reaction chamber across experiments.

[0249] The full range of empirical noise (shown as the shaded areas) show very little overlap between the data from the blank and the MF amendment experiments. This, along with the elevated pH values in the MF amendment experiments, emphasize that significant MF weathering and alkalinity generation is taking place in these latter experiments, which are the necessary conditions to convert CO2into stable bicarbonate for permanent surface water storage, such as ocean-based storage.

[0250] Taking the same CO2transfer rate results as a measure of net transfer of CO2in olivine experiments, above those of blank experiments, displayed in grams of CO2per year, provides a direct measure of the excess CO2transferred out of the gas streaminto the reactor waters as a direct consequence of the presence of the MF, and its associated weathering. These results can therefore serve as a constraint in quantifying a reactor’s efficiency as well as for MRV purposes.

[0251] These results show that net CO2transfer rates in MF experiments can be as high as 600 gCO2 / a in the first 24 hours of an amendment, and stable at a mean of about 0.4 gCO2 / day, within a range of 0.1 to 0.9 gCO2 / day. Peak net CO2transfer rates are consistently found in the first 24 hours of the experiments, at rates of 0.5 - 1.5 gCO2 / day.

[0252] It is unclear what exactly causes the high levels of CO2transfer rates in the first 24 hours. A leading hypothesis relates to the finest grain fraction (e.g., < 1 pm) may be the most reactive component of the MF, and weathers extremely fast, generating a spike in reactor performance. If this is true, it implies that such an initial reactor performance is unsustainable and not representative of the reactor’s steady-state performance. Another hypothesis relates to the state of suspension of MF particles, and their associated interaction with carbonic acid. This hypothesis implies that within the course of ~ 24 hours, a significant mass of MF particles would settle at the bottom of the reactor and become less chemically active, thus reducing overall reactor performance. If this is true, then re-suspending particles via a process of enhanced MF suspension may increase CO2transfer and storage rates in a sustainable manner, and therefore increase reactor unit efficiency.

[0253] Best-fit curves can be extrapolated from the net CO2transfer rates to model and quantify actual CO2transfer for a period of time. While R2values in Error! Reference source not found, are relatively low (esp. for experiment A), we believe these values are reasonable due to the inherent degree of noise in the data, especially with regards to the trends in the early hours of each experiment. However, these R2 values reflect more the difficulty to fit a specific function to the data, rather than question the validity of the results. As discussed above, the separation in data (both pH and CO2transfer rates, Error! Reference source not found.) between blank and MF amendment experiments signal that significant weathering and alkalinity generation isoccurring in MF -amended reactors. Thus, these best-fit curves offer significant value in providing a means to quantify net CO2 transfer due to MF amendments.

[0254] Utilizing data in Error! Reference source not found., we can calculate the CO2transferred in the time of the experiments by calculating the area under the curve. From this, we can extrapolate linearly expected CO2 transfer rates per year, as expressed in Error! Reference source not found, (see Figure 19). These values suggest net CO2transfer rates of - 148 - 209 gCO2 / a. In reactors containing 200 g of MF.

[0255] The results presented demonstrate that the CCSS system and process technology is effective at catalyzing and generating excess CO2 transfer out of a gas stream into reactor waters, to a rate that suggests very high MF weathering rates.

[0256] While the measures of net CO2transfer rates indicate the operability of a CCSS system to capture carbon dioxide, they do not tell the whole story about permanent CO2 storage in the oceans. Discharge waters exiting the reactor will still have elevated pCO2, and will de-gas some excess CO2that isn’t matched by weathering-based alkalinity back into the atmosphere, until the discharge water pCO2is at equilibrium with that of the atmosphere. Thus, to quantify permanently stored CO2, such results can be complemented with additional geochemical measurements or models reflective of discharge waters equilibrated with the atmosphere.Scaled CCSS System

[0257] One or more RCs can be set up in series to provide commercial scale operations (TRL 7-9). In one embodiment, two to three 50L RCs (TRL 6) are configured in series to provide a pilot MWC. In other embodiments, each 50L RC has an inner diameter of about 0.3 m and a height ranging from about 0.7 to about 1.0 meters. In yet other embodiments the height of said 50L RCs is about 0.71 m. Key auxiliary mechanisms for a pilot CCSS system include a gas delivery means into the water medium for mixing is provided by a nanobubble system 305 operatively-coupled to a pump 901 of a CFS 900 as shown in Figure 21, and may include a gas manifold301 as shown in Figure 20B, and a mineral suspension means such as a stirrer(impellor) 902 within a RC as illustrated in Figure 20B and in Figure 21.

[0258] Calculating the minimum fluidization velocity (MFV) provides a measure or guide for the amount of energy required to suspend mineral particles (kinetic energy regime) in order to be able to enhance (including optimize) the mineral weathering of the carbon reactive component of a mineral substrate (e.g. the fines of a hybrid packed- fluidized bed regime or fully fluidized bed regime). The MFV can be achieved using either or both of a CFS and a CIS of a CCSS system. The stirrer 902 within the RC and pump 901 represent the CFS 900 of the embodiment illustrated in Figure 21 and can provide sufficient energy to achieve the MFV without the CIS 300 as represented by the nanobubble system 305 having to be operatively coupled to a further mechanism to impart additional kinetic energy. The calculation(s) are based on the following series of equations:• Minimum Fluidization Reynolds Number:{ ■>Ref- 33.7233.7\• Minimum Fluidization Velocity:• Cross-sectional Area of the Column:8Minimum Water Flow Rate:

[0259] The incorporation of several mass flow controllers (MFCs) are an integral aspect of a CCSS control system and are operatively-associated with monitoring and analytical features of the GMS 1000 (e.g. pH analyzer 1004, CO2analyzer 1005 and DIC analyzer 1006). A first MFC 1001 measures and controls the flow of the CO2feedstock to the gas / water mixing chamber of the nanobubble system 305. A secondMFC 1002 measures and controls the flow of the gas / water mixture into the RC 101. A third MFC 1003 measures and controls the water solution outflow from the RC 101.References1. G. Flipkens, R. Blust, R. M. Town, Deriving Nickel (Ni(II)) and Chromium (Cr(III)) Based Environmentally Safe Olivine Guidelines for Coastal Enhanced Silicate Weathering. Environ. Sci. Technol. 55, 12362-12371 (2021).2. J. D. Rimstidt, S. L. Brantley, A. A. Olsen, Systematic review of forsterite dissolution rate data. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 99, 159-178 (2012).3. E. H. Oelkers, D. R. Cole, Carbon Dioxide Sequestration A Solution to a Global Problem. Elements 4, 305-310 (2008).4. E. H. Oelkers, J. Declercq, G. D. Saldi, S. R. Gislason, J. Schott, Olivine dissolution rates: A critical review. Chemical Geology 500, 1-19 (2018).5. F. Montserrat, P. Renforth, J. Hartmann, M. Leermakers, P. Knops, F. J. R. Meysman, Olivine Dissolution in Seawater: Implications for CO 2 Sequestration through Enhanced Weathering in Coastal Environments. Environmental Science & Technology 51, 3960-3972 (2017).6. M. Fuhr, S. Geilert, M. Schmidt, K. Wallmann, Kinetics of olivine weathering in seawater: an experimental study. Frontiers in Climate, doi: 10.7185 / gold2021.7375 (2021).7. D. Wolff-Boenisch, S. Wenau, S. R. Gislason, E. H. Oelkers, Dissolution of basalts and peridotite in seawater, in the presence of ligands, and CO2: Implications for mineral sequestration of carbon dioxide. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 75 (2011).8. D. A. Wolf-Gladrow, R. E. Zeebe, C. Klaas, A. Kbrtzinger, A. G. Dickson, Total alkalinity: The explicit conservative expression and its application to biogeochemical processes. Marine Chemistry, 14 (2007).9. M. J. Wilson, Weathering of the primary rock-forming minerals: processes, products and rates. Clay miner. 39, 233-266 (2004).10. S. A. Wilson, A. L. Harrison, G. M. Dippie, I. M. Power, S. L. L. Barker, K. Ulrich Mayer, S. J. Fallon, M. Raudsepp, G. Southam, Offsetting of CO2emissions by air capture in mine tailings at the Mount Keith Nickel Mine, Western Australia: Rates, controls and prospects for carbon neutral mining. International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control 25, 121-140 (2014).11. C. Paulo, I. M. Power, A. R. Stubbs, B. Wang, N. Zeyen, S. A. Wilson, Evaluating feedstocks for carbon dioxide removal by enhanced rock weathering and CO2mineralization. Applied Geochemistry 129, 104955 (2021).12. I. M. Power, A. L. Harrison, G. M. Dippie, S. A. Wilson, P. B. Kelemen, M. Hitch, G. Southam, Carbon Mineralization: From Natural Analogues to Engineered Systems. Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry 77, 305-360 (2013).13. S. A. Wilson, J. L. Hamilton, Fizzy ore processing sequesters CO2while supplying critical metals. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 119, e2212424119 (2022).14. A. R. Stubbs, C. Paulo, I. M. Power, B. Wang, N. Zeyen, S. A. Wilson, Direct measurement of CO2drawdown in mine wastes and rock powders: Implications for enhanced rock weathering. International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control 113, 103554 (2022).15. S. J. Romaniello, B. ley, D. Edwards, M. G. Andrews, N. G. Walworth, T. Ishoey, T. Green, F. Montserrat, M. Van Den Berghe, K. Nealson, D. Cole, K. Erhart, System for accelerating dissolution of mafic and ultramafic materials (2022). W02023069960A1.16. M. Van Den Berghe, N. Merino, K. H. Nealson, A. J. West, Silicate minerals as a direct source of limiting nutrients: Siderophore synthesis and uptake promote ferric iron bioavailability from olivine and microbial growth. Geobiology, 13 (2021).17. K. M. Ledyard, A. Butler, Structure of putrebactin, a new dihydroxamate siderophore produced by Shewanella putrefaciens. JBIG J. Biol. Inorg. Chem. 2, 93-97 (1997).18. R. T. Reid, A. Butler, Investigation of the mechanism of iron acquisition by the marine bacterium Alteromonas luteoviolaceus : Characterization of siderophore production. Limnol. Oceanogr. 36, 1783-1792 (1991).19. M. Van Den Berghe, “Exploring Bacteria-Mi neral Interactions,” thesis, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA (2021).20. A. Lunstrum, M. Van Den Berghe, X. Bian, S. John, K. Nealson, A. J. West, Bacterial use of siderophores increases olivine dissolution rates by nearly an order of magnitude. Geochem. Perspect. Lett. 25, 51-55 (2023).20. Neil C. Dalvie, Amogh P. Jalihal, Jan-Tobias Bohnke, Quincey A. Justman, Pamela A. Silver, Michael Springer, Continuous accelerated rock weathering by marine bacteria with enhanced siderophore production, bioRxiv preprint doi: https: / / doi.Org / 10.l 101 / 2025.04.08.647837; this version posted April 14, 2025.21. Martin Van Den Berghe, Nathan G. Walworth, Neil C. Dalvie, Chris L. Dupont, Michael Springer, M. Grace Andrews, Stephen J. Romaniello, David A. Hutchins, Francesc Montserrat, Pamela A. Silver, and Kenneth H. Nealson, Microbial Catalysis for CO2 Sequestration: A Geobiological Approach, in Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology, published by Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, October 7, 2023.

Claims

THE EMBODIMENTS OF THE INVENTION IN WHICH AN EXCLUSIVEPROPERTY OR PRIVILEGE IS CLAIMED ARE DEFINED AS FOLLOWS:

1. A system for capturing and stably storing carbon comprising: a. a reaction chamber configured for receiving and carrying out an enhanced mineral weathering process using a carbon-reactive mineral -containing input, a water-based input, and a carbon dioxide-containing input to form a reaction medium; b. a mixing means for mixing the water-based input and carbon dioxide-containing input to provide a carbon dioxide saturated gas / water mixture and solution prior to contacting said inputs with the carbon reactive mineral-containing input; and c. one or more means to deliver sufficient kinetic energy to the reaction medium to promote an enhanced mineral weathering process.

2. The system according to claim 1, further comprising one or more of: i. a mineral feedstock delivery subsystem for delivering the mineral-containing input into the reaction chamber; ii. an inflow processing subsystem for processing the water-based input for delivery to the reaction chamber; iii. a carbon delivery subsystem for delivering the carbon dioxide-containing input to be mixed with the water input; iv. a carbon injector subsystem for mixing the carbon dioxide-containing input with the water input and delivering the saturated gas / water mixture and solution to the reaction chamber; v. a circulation flow subsystem to circulate water in and through the reaction chamber and mix the reaction medium; vi. a means to, optionally, provide one or more solubility enhancers or promoters for delivery to the reaction chamber; and vii. a geochemical monitoring and control subsystem to manage the operation of the system for the optimization of the enhanced mineral weathering process.

3. The system according to claim 1 or 2, further comprising an outflow processing subsystem for delivering alkalinity-enriched water and dissolved inorganic carbon in the outflows of the reaction chamber to an environment outside of the system.

4. The system according to any one of claims 1 to 3, further comprising a value product recovery subsystem for recovering technology metals.

5. The system according to any one of claims 1 to 4, further comprising a carbon recovery unit for recycling back into the reaction chamber, carbon dioxide in the outflow of the reaction chamber.

6. The system according to any one of claims 2 to 5, wherein the mixing means to provide a saturated gas / water mixture and solution is provided by the carbon injector subsystem.7.. The system according to any one of claims 2 to 6, wherein the kinetic energy is provided to the reaction chamber by one or more of the circulation flow subsystem, carbon delivery subsystem, carbon injector subsystem and the effect(s) of delivering into the reaction chamber one or more solubility enhancers or promoters.

8. The system according to any one of claims 1 to 7, wherein the mineral -containing input is engineered to provide a mineral substrate of a selected composition.

9. The system according to any one of claims 1 to 8, wherein the carbon dioxide containing input is engineered to provide a mixture of gases of a selected composition.

10. The system according to any one of claims 2 to 9, wherein a solubility promoter delivery subsystem provides the solubility enhancers or promoters to the water-based input.

11. The system according to any one of claims 1 to 10, wherein kinetic energy delivered to the reaction chamber is sufficient to ensure the continuous suspension of particles of the carbon-reactive mineral input and maximize the dissolution of carbon dioxide in reaction chamber waters.

12. The system according to any one of claims 1 to 11, wherein the carbon-reactive mineral input is configured as part of a hybrid packed-fluidized bed in the reaction chamber.

13. A method of capturing and stably storing carbon using a system according to any one of claims 1-12.

14. The method of claim 13, wherein the portion of the method carried out in the reaction chamber is at or near ambient temperature and pressure.

15. Use of a system according to any one of claims 1 to 12 to capture carbon dioxide, stably store the carbon from said carbon dioxide and release alkalinity-enriched water and dissolved inorganic carbon into an environment outside of the system.

16. The use according to claim 15, wherein the environment is a natural environment.

17. The use according to claim 16, wherein the natural environment is a surface water body.

18. The use according to claim 17, wherein the surface water body is a sea, ocean, river, lake, or bay.

19. The use according to claim 15, wherein the environment is a man-made or delineated reservoir.

20. A method of performing an enhanced mineral weathering process on a commercial scale, comprising the steps of a. identifying or selecting one or more mineral feedstock(s), one or more water source(s) and one or more carbon dioxide source(s); b. procuring the one or more mineral feedstock(s), processing and / or engineering said feedstock(s) to provide a desired mineral substrate, including carbon-reactive minerals, for use in a mineral weathering center comprising at least one reaction chamber; c. delivering the mineral substrate to the reaction chamber; d. providing a water inflow from the one or more water source(s), for delivery to the reaction chamber, including processing the water from said one or more water source(s) to remove particulates and other impurities that could interfere with the enhanced mineral weathering process, or otherwise prevent the optimization thereof; e. managing the flow and delivery of carbon dioxide from the one or more carbon dioxide source(s) to a chamber for mixing with the water inflow; f. mixing the water inflow with the carbon dioxide to provide a carbon dioxide saturated gas / water mixture and solution, and delivering said mixture and solution to the reaction chamber to combine with the mineral substrate and provide a reaction medium; g. applying sufficient kinetic energy to the reaction chamber to suspend in the reaction chamber particles of the mineral substrate that are carbon-reactive and optimize interactions in a zone of contact between said particles and the carbon dioxide species in the reaction medium, to enhance a rate of carbon capture and storage in the reaction chamber; h. optionally delivering solubility enhancers or promoters to the reaction chamber, to further enhance the rate of carbon capture and storage in the reaction chamber; i. optionally processing an outflow from the reaction chamber to reclaim value-added products including technology metals;j . recycling carbon dioxide from the outflow to input into the reaction chamber; and k. delivering from the outflow an alkalinity-enriched solution including dissolved inorganic carbon back into a natural environment or into a man-made or delineated reservoir.

21. The method according to claim 17, wherein the mineral weathering center is operatively associated with subsystems to perform steps of the enhanced mineral weathering process including: i. a mineral feedstock delivery system to deliver the mineral substrate to the reaction chamber; ii. an inflow processing subsystem to process the one or more water source(s) for delivery of the water inflow to the reaction chamber; iii. a carbon delivery subsystem for delivering the carbon dioxide to the chamber for mixing with the water inflow; iv. a carbon injector system for mixing the carbon dioxide with the water inflow and delivering the carbon dioxide saturated gas / water mixture and solution to the reaction chamber; v. a circulation flow subsystem to mix the reaction medium in the reaction chamber and thereby deliver kinetic energy to suspend the particles of the mineral substrate in the reaction medium; vi. a solubility promoter delivery subsystem to optionally deliver solubility enhancers or promoters to the reaction chamber; vii. a value product recovery subsystem to reclaim the value-added products; viii. a carbon recovery unit for the recycling of the carbon dioxide from the outflow back to the reaction chamber; and ix. an outflow processing subsystem for delivering the alkalinity-enriched solution back into the natural environment or into the man-made or delineated reservoir.

22. The method according to claim 20 or 21, wherein the mineral substrate is configured as part of a hybrid packed-fluidized bed in the reaction chamber.

23. The method according to any one of claims 20 to 22, wherein enhanced mineral weathering of the mineral substrate proceeds at a rate in the reaction chamber that is at least an order of magnitude greater than a rate of mineral weathering in the natural environment.

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