Articles for underwater adhesion for soft substrates

Abstract

Embodiments described herein generally relate to bio-inspired articles for underwater adhesion for soft substrates and related methods. In some embodiments, an article configured for underwater adhesion to soft substrates is provided. In some embodiments, the article comprises: an adhesive disk, comprising: an elastomeric compartment; and a plurality of tilt-angled lamellae structures, wherein each adhesive compartment is configured to separately seal lamellae pairs for hydrostatic differentiation. In some embodiments, the article further comprises a backbone support structure. In some embodiments, the article further comprises a pharmaceutical agent (e.g., drug delivery polymer matrix, microneedles), electronic component (e.g., RFID), and / or biochemical sensor (e.g., impedance sensor) associated with the disk. In some embodiments, the tilt-angled lamellae have an angle of greater than or equal to 0 degrees and less than or equal to 60 degrees. In some embodiments, the underwater adhesion of the article does not require the external application of vacuum pressure.

Description

[0001] ARTICLES FOR UNDERWATER ADHESION FOR SOFT SUBSTRATES RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims priority under 35 U.S.C. § 119(e) to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No.63 / 702561, filed October 2nd, 2024, and entitled “Articles for Underwater Adhesion for Soft Substrates,” which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for all purposes. FIELD OF THE INVENTION Embodiments described herein generally relate to bio-inspired articles for underwater adhesion for soft substrates and related methods. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Articles for underwater adhesion e.g., to soft substrates are generally provided. In one aspect, articles configured for adhesion to soft substrates are described. In some embodiments, the article comprises: an adhesive disk, comprising: an elastomeric compartment; and a plurality of tilt-angled lamellae structures disposed within the elastomeric compartment, wherein: at least a portion of the elastomeric compartment and two or more angled lamellae structures define an adhesive compartment, and each adhesive compartment is configured to independently couple the adhesive disk to the substrate. In some embodiments, the article comprises: an adhesive disk, comprising: an elastomeric compartment; a backbone structure positioned disposed within the elastomeric compartment; and a plurality of angled lamellae structures and disposed on the backbone structure, wherein: at least a portion of the elastomeric compartment and two or more lamellae structures define an adhesive compartment, and the hydrostatic pressure in at least some of the adhesive compartments, when coupled to the substrate, is less than the hydrostatic pressure of the surrounding environment. In some embodiments. the article comprises: an adhesive disk, comprising: an elastomeric compartment; a backbone structure positioned in the elastomeric compartment; and a plurality of angled lamellae structures disposed on the backbone structure, wherein: at least a portion of the elastomeric compartment and two or more angled lamellae structures define an adhesive compartment, and at least some of the adhesive compartments are capable of coupling the article to the substrate such that a normal adhesion force between the substrate and the article is greater than or equal to 0.1 N and / or the adhesion-force-to-weight ratio of the article is greater than or equal to 100. In some embodiments, the article comprises an adhesive disk, comprising an elastomeric compartment and a plurality of tilt-angled lamellae structures, wherein each adhesive compartment is configured to separately seal lamellae pairs for hydrostatic differentiation. In some embodiments, the article is configured for underwater adhesion to soft substrates. Other advantages and novel features of the present invention will become apparent from the following detailed description of various non-limiting embodiments of the invention when considered in conjunction with the accompanying figures. In cases where the present specification and a document incorporated by reference include conflicting and / or inconsistent disclosure, the present specification shall control. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Non-limiting embodiments of the present invention will be described by way of example with reference to the accompanying figures, which are schematic and are not intended to be drawn to scale. In the figures, each identical or nearly identical component illustrated is typically represented by a single numeral. For purposes of clarity, not every component is labeled in every figure, nor is every component of each embodiment of the invention shown where illustration is not necessary to allow those of ordinary skill in the art to understand the invention. In the figures: FIG.1A is a schematic diagram depicting an article configured for adhesion to soft substrate comprising an adhesive disk, according to some embodiments. FIG.1B is a schematic diagram depicting the article adhered to a substrate, according to some embodiments. FIG.1C is a schematic diagram depicting a cross-sectional view of the adhesive compartments in an adhesive disk, according to some embodiments. FIGS.2A-2I depict remoras adhesion capabilities to various soft substrates, according to one set of embodiments. FIGS.3A-3K depict the leveraging of remora’s soft adhesion for the development of MUSAS, according to one set of embodiments. FIGS.4A-4I show experimental results of in vitro and ex vivo characterization of MUSAS, according to one set of embodiments. FIGS.5A-5G show an in vivo demonstration and application of MUSAS, according to one set of embodiments. FIG.6 shows the orientation of lamella of remora species from a dorsal view, according to one set of embodiments. FIGS.7A-7G depict the adhesion performance of MUSAS with various lamella orientations and rows, according to one set of embodiments. FIGS.8A-8J depict the design and simulation of an RFID temperature sensor, according to one set of embodiments. FIG.9 shows an overview of the motivation of MUSAS and a summary of its performance capabilities, according to some embodiments. FIGS.10A-10B show measurements of tissue stiffness in swordfish (Xiphias gladius), according to one set of embodiments. FIGS.11A-11F show the characterization of live remoras (E. naucrates), according to one set of embodiments. FIG.12 is a diagram depicting the fabrication of MUSAS, according to one set of embodiments. FIGS.13A-13D show the adhesion performance of MUSAS equipped with different functioning components, according to one set of embodiments. FIGS.14A-14E describe the shear drag performance in terms of contact angle, direction, and spinule length, according to one set of embodiments. FIG.15A-15D describe the adhesion performance of MUSAS on various soft substrates, according to one set of embodiments. FIG.16A-16H describe the adhesion performance of MUSAS under different pH and moisture conditions, according to one set of embodiments. FIGS.17A-17B show the underwater adhesion performance of MUSAS on different swine organs, according to one set of embod wimsents. FIGS.18A-18H depict a representative in vitro and in vivo evaluation of adhesion and retention performance of MUSAS in the buccal region and small intestine (SI) of a swine model, according to some embodiments. FIG.19 shows the 28-L Brett-type swim tunnel used for kinetic temperature readings from a MUSAS attached to the operculum of a tilapia, according to one set of embodiments. FIGS.20A-20C show in vitro and in vivo characterization of MUSAS-enabled mRNA delivery, according to one set of embodiments. FIGS.21A-21E show µ-CT imaging of internal volume changes in MUSAS with varying angles of lamella orientation and row numbers, adhering to soft substrates with distinct stiffness and roughness, according to some embodiments. FIGS.22A-22F show particle imaging velocimetry (PIV) assessment of MUSAS hydrodynamics with varying angle of lamella orientations and row numbers, demonstrated in instantaneous velocity fields, according to some embodiments. FIGS.23A-23B show in vitro and in vivo validation of MUSAS-based impedance sensor for GERD monitoring, according to some embodiments. FIG.24A-24E show extended in vitro and in vivo characterization of MUSAS-enabled mRNA delivery, according to some embodiments. FIG.25A-25H show the in vivo biocompatibility evaluation of MUSAS in a swine model, according to some embodiments. FIG.26A-26D show a pH-responsive coating which allows for programmable targeted delivery of MUSAS to the small intestine, according to some embodiments. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Articles for underwater adhesion e.g., to soft substrates are generally disclosed. Wet and underwater adhesion presents a significant challenge for high-tech industries such as healthcare, manufacturing, robotics, and marine sectors, playing a critical role in production line, exploration, sensing, and clinical processes. Despite this, most commercially available adhesives bond only to dry solids, highlighting a gap in the development of underwater adhesion. Over the past decade, research in underwater adhesion has primarily focused on polymeric adhesives based on chemical bonding, with occasional reports of mechanical solutions. These solutions typically address hard substrates and often impose constraints related to the hydrophobicity, smoothness, and surface energy of the adhesion surfaces, leaving a paucity of solutions for adhesion to soft substrates. Many adhesion substrates, including vertebrate non-bony tissues, are heterogeneous in their surface morphology and ultra-soft, with stiffness ranging from 11 Pa to 1 MPa. Additionally, surfaces comprising cells, such as gastric epithelial cells which renew every three days, pose a significant barrier to long-term residence. Additional factors such as substrate roughness, stiffness, intactness, and dynamic morphing further complicate adhesion. Despite encouraging progress in wet adhesion on tissue surfaces, the molecular bridges formed due to covalent or hydrogen bonding are inherently limited by the highly hydrated surfaces in underwater environments. Nevertheless, solving underwater adhesion to soft substrates could lead to desirable applications, such as robotic- assisted wet production lines, life-based marine exploration, and in-situ drug delivery and health monitoring. Accordingly, new articles and methods are needed. In some embodiments, the article comprises an adhesive disk, comprising an elastomeric compartment and a plurality of tilt-angled lamellae structures, wherein each adhesive compartment is configured to separately seal lamellae pairs for hydrostatic differentiation. In some embodiments, the article is configured for underwater adhesion to soft substrates. Certain of the structures, systems, and methods described herein can be useful, for example, in achieving gastric residence and / or slowed transit via oral administration for extended in vivo residence and administration of therapeutic, diagnostic, and / or enhancement agents. Certain embodiments of structures and systems described herein may offer certain advantages as compared to traditional compositions and structures and systems configured for internal retention and / or drug release, for example, in their ability to adopt a shape and / or size small enough to be ingested by a subject; adopt a shape and / or size internally that slows or prevents further transit in a body cavity (e.g.the gastric cavity) (e.g., passage from the body of the stomach through the pylorus;) be loaded at high levels (e.g., high mass fraction) with therapeutic, diagnostic, and / or enhancement agents; facilitate controlled release of such therapeutic, diagnostic, and / or enhancement agents with low to no potential for burst release; maintain activity / stability of such therapeutic, diagnostic, and / or enhancement agents in a hostile environment such as the gastric environment for an extended duration; maintain safety with low to no potential for gastric or intestinal obstruction and / or perforation; and / or degrade / dissolve / disassociate into one or more forms configured for passing through a gastrointestinal tract. In certain embodiments, the structures and systems described herein can be configured with durable residence times greater than at least twenty-four hours and lasting up to about one year, or more. In some embodiments, the systems, structures, and methods described herein are compatible with subjects, including, but not limited to, humans and non-human animals. In further embodiments, the systems and structures can be configured to deliver a wide variety of therapeutic, diagnostic, and / or enhancement agents, thus potentially increasing and even maximizing patient treatment therapy adherence rates. In some embodiments, an article configured for adhesion to soft substrates and / or underwater adhesion is provided. In some certain embodiments, the article comprises an adhesive disk. The adhesive disk may comprise an elastomeric compartment and plurality of tilted and / or angled lamellae structures that, together, form an adhesive compartment. The adhesive compartment, through any of a variety of mechanisms (e.g., hydrostatic pressure differentiation) may facilitate the adhesion of the article to the substrate. The article, according to some embodiments, may be capable of adhering to substrate with advantageous force and / or have a desirable adhesion-force-to-weight ratio. Moreover, the article may comprise an active substance (e.g., a therapeutic agent and / or a biological material such as an antibody), a sensor (e.g., a biochemical sensor such as an impedance sensor), and / or electronic components (e.g., structures for wireless communication and / or information transfer such as an RFID chip). In some embodiments, the articles described herein may adhere to any of a variety of substrates. In some cases, the article may be capable of adhering to soft substrates and / or substrates that are wet and / or saturated with a liquid. While much of the description herein generally describes ‘underwater’ adhesion, those of ordinary skill in the art would understand based upon the teachings of this specification that the liquids in which the article(s) are at least partially submerged are not so limited (e.g., to water). In some embodiments, the liquid is a biological fluid (e.g., blood, urine, sputum, mucus, gastric fluid). In some embodiments, the liquid comprises water (e.g., an aqueous solution comprising water one or more solutes such as salts, sugars, acids, bases, alcohols, or the like). Other liquids are also possible. For example, in some ethe article may be capable of adhering to biological tissue, such as tissue present in the gastrointestinal tract of a subject. Such tissue may be in the presence of a variety of fluids making it challenging to adhere articles thereto using conventional methods. Moreover, the relatively low modulus of biological tissue may further exacerbate this challenge as the tissue may deform in response to applied pressure, potentially reducing the contact area between the article and the surface. Conventional methodologies to improve adhesion between an article and a substrate, such as the use of a chemical adhesive and / or surface treatment, may be particularly impractical in sensitive environments and / or environments that are difficult to access, such as a body cavity (e.g., a gastrointestinal tract) within a subject. In some embodiments, the article comprises one or more sensor configured to acquire information related to its environment. For example, if the article is in a gastrointestinal tract of a subject, the article may adhere to a portion of the gastrointestinal tract (e.g., a wall of a stomach) and monitor one or more properties of the gastrointestinal environment. Conventional methodologies to improve adhesion in such environments may interfere with the acquisition of information by the sensor and prevent the article from passing through the gastrointestinal tract within a desired period of time. Since the article does not predominantly rely on chemical adhesives and / or surface treatments for adhesion, the article may be desirable for use in biomedical applications. In some embodiments, the adhesion of the article to a substrate does not require the external application of vacuum pressure. For example, it may be possible to adhere a device to a soft substrate by applying a vacuum to the device such that the pressure between the article and the substrate is less than the pressure external to the article. However, the application of vacuum pressure is generally undesirable as it often requires the use of additional equipment (e.g., pumps to generate the vacuum and / or an energy source to provide power to the pump) which would increase the size of the device. Rather, in some embodiments, the article is configured to adhere to the substrate via differentiation of hydrostatic pressure, as opposed to the application of vacuum pressure. For example, the hydrostatic pressure within the device (e.g., in the elastomeric compartment) may be less than the hydrostatic pressure external to the device. The difference in hydrostatic pressure may facilitate the adhesion between the article and the substrate, and mitigates any need for the application of vacuum. In some embodiments, the article is capable of adhering to soft substrates in the presence of liquids. One of ordinary skill in the art would understand that it is generally more challenging for an article to adhere to a wet substrate than a dry substrate. Without wishing to be bound by any particular theory, wet substrates may lead to the formation of a liquid film between the article and the substrate, thereby limiting the adhesion between the article and the substrate. As discussed above, the article may, in some cases, rely on hydrostatic pressure differentiation between the article and the substrate, and may be capable of advantageously adhering to wet substrate despite the presence of liquid between the article and the substrate. For example, the article may be capable of adhering to soft stomach tissue in the presence of bile and / or another bodily fluid. In such cases, the article may be capable of adhering to the tissue even if the article is fully submerged in the bodily fluid. In some embodiments, the article is capable of adhering to substrate in the presence of liquids having a pH of any of a variety of values (e.g., at least 1, at least 1.5, at least 2, at least 2.5, at least 5, at least 7, and / or up to 13, up to 13.5, or up to 14. For example, the article may be capable of adhering to tissue in a stomach of a subject in the presence of bile having a pH of approximately 1.5 and may be capable of adhering to tissue in a liver having a pH of approximately 8.5. In some embodiments, the article comprises an adhesive disk. For example, as shown in FIG.1A, article 100 comprises adhesive disk 102. The adhesive disk may facilitate adhesion of the article to the substrate. In some embodiments, the adhesive disk comprises an elastomeric compartment, lamellae disposed in the elastomeric compartment, and / or a backbone structure. For example, as shown in FIG.1A, adhesive disk 200 comprises elastomeric compartment 104, first lamellar 106A, second lamellar 106B, backbone structure 108, and backing plate 110 comprising backbone structure 108. The adhesive disk may be coupled to another portion of the article housing one or more sensors and / or be incorporated into a capsule (e.g., a digestible pill), as described in the Examples. It should be appreciated that the adhesive disk described herein may take the form of any of a variety of geometric shapes. While the adhesive disk may have a cross-section that is in the shape of an ellipse, the adhesive disk may have a cross-section that is polygonal or another shape as this disclosure is not intended to be so limiting. In some embodiments, the adhesive disk comprises an elastomeric compartment. For example, as shown in FIG.1A, adhesive disk 102 comprises elastomeric compartment 104. In some embodiments, the elastomeric compartment extends away from the backbone structure, and in some cases, the elastomeric compartment at least partially surrounds the lamellae. For example, as shown in FIG.1A, elastomeric compartment extends away from backbone structure 108 and partially surrounds first lamellar 106A and second lamellar 106B. The elastomeric compartment may provide a compartment in which other structures, such as lamellae and / or a backbone structure, may be disposed in. For example, turning again to FIG.1A, first lamellar 106A, second lamellar 106B, and backbone structure 108 are disposed in elastomeric compartment 104. In some embodiments, the elastomeric compartment may deform when in physical contact with the substrate, the elastomeric compartment may at least partially deform. It should be appreciated that, while the article is in physical contact with the substrate, liquid may be present between the substrate and the article. For example, as shown in FIG.1B, elastomeric compartment 104 is deformed and in contact with substrate 112. Liquid layer 114 is present between adhesive 102 and substrate 112, however it should appreciate that liquid layer 114 may not be present in all embodiments. In some cases, elastomeric compartment is in direct contact with the substrate with no intervening layers present. In some embodiments, the elastomeric compartment may comprise any of a variety of materials. In some embodiments, the elastomeric compartment comprises an elastomer. For example, the elastomeric compartment may comprise an elastomer such as silicone rubbers, conductive polymers, or hydrogels. For instance, the elastomeric compartment may comprise EcoFlex (e.g., EcoFlex-0030), Zhermack Elite rubbers, polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), dragonskin, styrene ethylene butylene styrene (SEBS), PEDOT, PEDOT:PSS, and / or double-network acrylamide tough hydrogels. In some embodiments, the elastomeric compartment may have any of a variety of shapes. In some embodiments, the elastomeric compartment may have a cross-sectional shape that is substantially circular and / or elliptical. For example, as shown in FIG.1A, elastomeric compartment 104 has a cross-section that is elliptical. However, the elastomeric compartment, in other embodiments, may have a cross-sectional shape that is polygonal (e.g., a square, a rectangle, a pentagon, a hexagon) as this disclosure is not intended to be limited in such a manner. In some embodiments, the adhesive disk comprises comb-like structures, such as lamellae. As described above, the lamellae may be disposed in the elastomeric compartment. In some embodiments, the lamellae are disposed on the back bone structure of the article. For example, as shown in FIG.1A, first lamellar 106A and second lamellar 106B are disposed in elastomeric compartment 104 and disposed on backbone structure 108. When the article is placed in contact with a substrate, the lamellae may deform and contact the substrate, facilitating the adhesion of the article to the substrate. In some embodiments, the adhesive disk comprises tilt-angled lamellae. For example, as shown in FIG.1A, first lamellar 106A and second lamellar 106B are tilt-angled lamellar. Each lamellar in the adhesive disk may be tilted and / or angled in any of a variety of directions. For instance, an adhesive disk having an elliptical cross-section may be oriented such that a first direction is parallel to the minor axis of the elliptical cross-section, a second direction is parallel to the major axis of the elliptical cross-section, and a third direction that is orthogonal to both the first and second directions. In such instances, a lamellar may be angled when an angle defined by the angle between the lamellar and the third direction is greater or less than 90 degrees. For example, as shown in FIG.1A, first lamellar 106A is angled because the angle between first lamellar 106A and third direction D3 is less than 90 degrees. Second lamellar 106B is also angled because the angle between second lamellar 106B and third direction D3 is less than 90 degrees. In some embodiments, a lamellar may be tilted when an angle defined by the lamellar and the second direction is greater or less than 180 degrees. For example, first lamellar 106A is not tilted because the angle between first lamellar 106A and second direction D2 is 90 degrees on a geometric plane defined by first direction D1 and second direction D2. Second lamellar 106B is not angled because the angle between second lamellar 106B and second direction D2 is also 90 degrees on a geometric plane defined by first direction D1 and second direction D2. First lamellar 106A and second lamellar 106B, despite being angled, are considered to be substantially parallel to each other because the angle between first lamellar 106A and second lamellar 106B is approximately 180 degrees on a geometric plane defined by first direction D1 and second direction D2. It should be appreciated that, while the lamellae depicted in FIG.1A have the same tilt and angle, other embodiments may involve lamellae having various tilts and angles. For example, in some embodiments, a first set of lamellae in the adhesive disk may be tilted and / or angled at a first angle and a second set of lamellae in the adhesive disk may be tilted and / or angled at a second angle that is different from the first angle. More information regarding such configurations can be found in the “Examples” section below. In some embodiments, at least some of lamellae are tiled. In some embodiments, at least some lamellae may be tilted at different angles relative to each other. For example, as shown in FIG.2B, first lamellar 206A, second lamellar 206B, and third lamellar 206C are each tilted at a different angle. First lamellar 206A is tilted at approximately -17.75 degrees, second lamellar is tilted at approximately 37.5 degrees, and third lamellar 206C is tilted at approximately 3.3 degrees. Other lamellae shown in FIG.2B, indicated by the solid lines, are also tilted at differing angles. In some embodiments, the angles of the tilted lamellae may vary along the second direction. For example, as shown in FIG.2B, along direction D2, the lamellae are tilted at angles varying from -23 degrees to 37.5 degrees. As mentioned above, first lamellar is tilted at a relatively steep angle of - 17.75 degrees. Moving further along second direction D2, third lamellar 206C is tilted at a relatively shallow angle of 3.3 degrees. Moving even further along second direction D2, second lamellar 206B is tilted at a relatively steep angle of 37.5 degrees. In some embodiments, nearest neighbor lamellae may be tilted at differing angles. For example, the nearest neighbor lamellae of first lamellar 206A are tilted all at different angles. Similarly, the nearest neighbor lamellae of third lamellar 206C are tilted all at different angles. It should be appreciated that in some but not all cases, nearest neighbor lamellae may have the same angle of any given lamellar. Such embodiments are also described by FIG.3D, which shows adhesive disk 304 comprising first lamellar 306A, second lamellar 306B, and third lamellar 306C. First lamellar 306A is tilted at a different angle than second lamellar 306B and third lamellar 306C. Second lamellar is tilted at a different angle than first lamellar 306A and third lamellar 306B. Moreover, the lamellae shown in FIG.3D also vary along second direction D2. First lamellar 306A is tilted at an angle that is different than the angle of the tilt of second lamellar 306B which is positioned in adhesive disk 304 further along second direction D2. Similarly, second lamellar 306B is tilted at an angle that is different than the angle of the tilt of third lamellar 306C which positioned even further along second direction D2. In some embodiments, the tilt-angled lamellae are tilted and / or angled at any of a variety of angles. In some embodiments, the tilt-angled lamellae are tilted and / or angled an angle of greater than or equal to 0 degrees, greater than or equal to 10 degrees, greater than or equal to 20 degrees, greater than or equal to 30 degrees, greater than or equal to 40 degrees, greater than or equal to 50 degrees, greater than or equal to 60 degrees, greater than or equal to 70 degrees, greater than or equal to 80 degrees, and / or greater than or equal to 89 degrees. In some embodiments, the tilt- angled lamellae are tiled and / or angled at an angle of less than or equal to 89 degrees, less than or equal to 85 degrees, less than or equal to 80 degrees, less than or equal to 70 degrees, less than or equal to 60 degrees, less than or equal to 50 degrees, less than or equal to 40 degrees, less than or equal to 30 degrees, less than or equal to 20 degrees, and / or less than or equal to 10 degrees. Combinations of the these ranges are possible (e.g., greater than or equal to 0 degrees and less than or equal to 89 degrees and / or greater than or equal to 0 degrees and less than or equal to 60 degrees). Other ranges are possible. In some embodiments, the lamellae may be made up of any of a variety of materials. In some embodiments, the lamellae comprise a shape memory material. Non-limiting examples of shape memory materials include: shape memory alloys such as nitinol (NiTi); shape memory polymers; shape memory ceramics; and combinations thereof. Lamellae comprising the shape memory alloy may be advantageous because, when exposed to elevated temperature, such as body temperature, the lamellae may deform and interlock with each other and / or the substrate. For example, as shown in FIG.3F, lamellae at room temperature may be tilted and / or angled at a first angle, but when exposed to body temperature (e.g., 37 degrees Celsius), the angle of the lamellae may be altered as the shape-memory alloy deforms such that the lamellae are angled at a second angle that is different that the first angle. In some embodiments, the shape-memory alloy deforms when exposed to a temperature of less than or equal to 40 degrees Celsius. It should be appreciated that the lamellae may be made up of other materials beyond shape-memory alloys. For example, materials of which deformation can be programmed and / or controlled may be suitable for use as lamellae. In some embodiments, the lamellae comprise a material that may deform in response to a stimuli such as temperature. In some embodiments, the lamellae comprise a material that may deform in response to receiving a signal (e.g., an electrical signal and / or a signal via a wireless communication method) and / or upon contact with the substrate. In some embodiments, the lamellae comprise a bioresorbable and / or biodegradable materials such as an alkali-earth metal (e.g. magnesium, calcium), transition metals (e.g., molybdenum, tungsten, iron, zinc and alloys of thereof), and / or an organic polymer (e.g. bioresorbable dynamic covalent polyurethane (DCPU), polylactic acid (PLA), polypyrrole / polylactic acid (PPy / PLA), polyetherimide (SPT / PEI), polycaprolactone (PCL), polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) PLGA, poly(1,8- octanediol citrate) (POC). In some embodiments, at least some of the lamellae comprise spinules. The spinules may be positioned on a leading edge of a lamellar such that the spinules make contact (e.g., indirect and / or direct contact) with the substrate. For example, as shown in FIG.1A, first lamellar 106A has a plurality of spinules comprising first spinule 107A and second spinule 107B on lead edge 116 of first lamellar 106A. In some embodiments, at least some (e.g., at least 5%, at least 10%, at least 20%, at least 30%, at least 40%, at least 50%, at least 60%, at least 70%, at least 80%, at least 90%, or all) of the lamellar have at least 1 spinules, at least 1 spinules, at least 2 spinules, at least 3 spinules, at least 4 spinules, at least 5 spinules, at least 6 spinules, at least 8 spinules, at least 10 spinules, at least 12 spinules, at least 15 spinules, or at least 20 spinules. In some embodiments, the spinules have a penetration depth. For example, as shown in FIG. 1A, first lamellar 106A comprises third spinule 107C having a penetration depth L1. The penetration depth of a spinule may be determined by measuring the length of a spinule from the leading edge of the lamellar to the distal end of the spinule. In some embodiments, at least some of the spinules have a penetration depth greater than or equal to 100 microns, greater than or equal to 200 microns, greater than or equal to 300 microns, greater than or equal to 400 microns, greater than or equal to 500 microns, greater than or equal to 600 microns, greater than or equal to 700 microns, and / or greater than or equal to 800 microns. In some embodiments, at least some of the spinules have a penetration depth less than or equal to 800 microns, less than or equal to 700 microns, less than or equal to 600 microns, less than or equal to 500 microns, less than or equal to 400 microns, less than or equal to 300 microns, less than or equal to 200 microns, and / or less than or equal to 100 microns. Combinations of these ranges are possible (e.g., greater than or equal to 100 microns and less than or equal to 800 microns). Other ranges are possible. In some embodiments, the adhesive disk comprises one or more adhesive compartment. In some embodiments, the adhesive compartments are defined by at least a portion of the elastomeric compartment and two or more lamellae. For example, as shown in FIG.1A and 1C, third lamellar 106C, fourth lamellar 106D, and fifth lamellar 106E and elastomeric compartment 104 form first adhesive compartment 118A and second adhesive compartment 118B. The adhesive compartments are indicated by the shaded regions in FIG.1C. In some embodiments, the adhesive compartment is defined by two or more nearest neighbor lamellae. For example, third lamellar 106C and fourth lamellar 106D are nearest neighbor lamellae as is fourth lamellar 106D and fifth lamellar 106E. In some embodiments, each adhesive compartment of the adhesive disk is independently capable of coupling the article to the substrate. For instance, first adhesive compartment 118A may facilitate the coupling of adhesive disk 102 to substrate 112 and second adhesive compartment 118B may facilitate the coupling of adhesive disk 102 to substrate 112. Together, first adhesive compartment 118A and second adhesive compartment 118B may provide an advantageous adhesive force to the substrate, but individually, each adhesive compartment may be capable of adhering to the substrate. The cumulative adhesion force exerted by the adhesive compartment onto the substrate may be desirable in a myriad of applications, as discusses elsewhere in this disclosure. In some embodiments, the hydrostatic pressure within the adhesive compartment of the adhesive disk is less than the hydrostatic pressure of the surrounding environment. For instance, when the adhesive disk is coupled to a substrate and the lamellae are deformed, the hydrostatic pressure within at least some of the adhesive compartments may be less than the hydrostatic pressure of the external environment (e.g., the environment surrounding the article). Without wishing to be bound by any particular theory, the different in hydrostatic pressure between the adhesive compartments and the surrounding environment may at least contribute to the advantageous adhesion force between the article and the substrate. In some embodiments, at least some of the adhesive compartments are capable of coupling the article to the substrate. For instance, at least some of the adhesive compartments facilitate the coupling of the article to substrate such that the article adheres to the substrate with an advantageous normal adhesion force. In some embodiments, the normal adhesion force between the substrate and the article is greater than or equal to 0.1 N, greater than or equal to 0.2 N, greater than or equal to 0.3 N, greater than or equal to 0.4 N, greater than or equal to 0.5 N, greater than or equal to 1 N, greater than or equal to 2 N, greater than or equal to 3 N, greater than or equal to 4 N, and / or greater than or equal to 5 N. In some embodiments, the normal adhesion force between the substrate and the article is less than or equal to 5 N, less than or equal to 4 N, less than or equal to 3 N, less than or equal to 2 N, less than or equal to 1 N, less than or equal to 0.5 N, less than or equal to 0.4 N, less than or equal to 0.3 N, less than or equal to 0.2 N, and / or less than or equal to 0.1 N. Combinations of these ranges are possible (e.g., greater than or equal to 0.1 N and less than or equal to 5 N). Other ranges are possible. In some embodiments, the article has a relatively high adhesion-force-to-weight ratio. The article may comprise a payload (e.g., sensors, electronics, therapeutic agents, etc.). The mass of the payload and the adhesive may present challenges when establishing adhesion between the article and the substrate. The article, however, due at least in part to the tilt-angled lamellae, may be capable of adhering to the substrate with a relatively high adhesion-force-to-weight ratio. In some embodiments, the adhesion-force-to-weight ratio of the article is greater than or equal to 100, greater than or equal to 200, greater than or equal to 300, greater than or equal to 400, greater than or equal to 500, greater than or equal to 750, greater than or equal to 1000, and / or greater than or equal to 1500. In some embodiments, the adhesion-force-to-weight ratio of the article is less than or equal to 1500, less than or equal to 1000, less than or equal to 750, less than or equal to 500, less than or equal to 400, less than or equal to 300, less than or equal to 200, less than or equal to 100. Combinations of these ranges are possible (e.g., greater than or equal to 100 and less than or equal to 1500). Other ranges are possible. In some embodiments, the substrate has a relatively low modulus. In some embodiments, the substrate has a modulus of less than or equal to 20 MPa, less than or equal to 15 MPa, less than or equal to 10 MPa, less than or equal to 5 MPa, less than or equal to 4 MPa, less than or equal to 3 MPa, less than or equal to 2 MPa, less than or equal to 1 MPa, and / or less than or equal to 0.5 MPa. In some embodiments, the substrate has a modulus of greater than or equal to 0.5 MPa, greater than or equal to 1 MPa, greater than or equal to 2 MPa, greater than or equal to 3 MPa, greater than or equal to 4 MPa, greater than or equal to 5 MPa, greater than or equal to 10 MPa, greater than or equal to 15 MPa, and / or greater than or equal to 20 MPa. Combinations of these ranges are possible (e.g., greater than or equal to 20 MPa and less than or equal to 0.5 MPa). Other ranges are possible. In some embodiments, the substrate has any of a variety of surface roughness. The article may be capable of adhering to substrates having a wide range of average areal roughness and / or point surface roughness. In some embodiments, the substrate has an average areal roughness of less than or equal to 150 microns, less than or equal to 125 microns, less than or equal to 100 microns, less than or equal to 75 microns, less than or equal to 50 microns, less than or equal to 25 microns, less than or equal to 10 microns, or less than or equal to 5 microns. In some embodiments, the substrate has an average areal roughness of greater than or equal to 5 microns, greater than or equal to 10 microns, greater than or equal to 25 microns, greater than or equal to 50 microns, greater than or equal to 75 microns, greater than or equal to 100 microns, greater than or equal to 125 microns, or greater than or equal to 150 microns. Combinations of these ranges are also possible (e.g., greater than or equal to 5 microns and less than or equal to 150 microns). Other ranges are possible. The roughness of the substrate (e.g., the average areal roughness and / or the point surface roughness) may be measured using a laser profilometer. In some embodiments, the article is capable of adhering to the substrate having any of variety of point surface roughness. In some embodiments, the substrate has a point surface roughness greater than or equal 5 microns, greater than or equal 50 microns, greater than or equal 100 microns, greater than or equal 200 microns, greater than or equal 300 microns, greater than or equal 400 microns, greater than or equal 500 microns, greater than or equal 600 microns, and / or greater than or equal 700 microns. In some embodiments, the substrate has a point surface roughness less than or equal to 700 microns, less than or equal to 600 microns, less than or equal to 500 microns, less than or equal to 400 microns, less than or equal to 300 microns, less than or equal to 200 microns, less than or equal to 100 microns, less than or equal to 50 microns, and / or less than or equal to 5 microns. Combinations of these ranges are also possible (e.g., greater than or equal to 5 microns and less than or equal to 700 microns). Other ranges are possible. In some embodiments, the article comprises a backbone structure. For example, as shown in FIG.1A, article 100 comprises backbone structure 108. The backbone structure may provide additional rigidity to the article and allow the lamellae to be oriented as desired. In some embodiments, the backbone structure is made from a stiff material. For instance, in some cases, the backbone structure is made from a metal, such as stainless steel, aluminum, copper, gold, or any other metal and / or metallic alloy. In certain embodiments, the backbone structure comprises a polymeric material (e.g., a stiff polymeric material) such as polypropylene, polyethylene, and / or other suitable polymers typically used in biomedical applications. In some embodiments, the backbone structure couples and / or supports the lamellae. For example, as shown in FIG.1A, first lamellar 106A and second lamellar 106B are supported by backbone structure 108. Backbone structure 108 provides a rigid platform that first lamellar 106A and second lamellar 106B may be positioned on. In some embodiments, the backbone structure is encapsulated in the elastomeric material of the elastomeric compartment. When molding the elastomeric compartment, backing plate 110 may be formed around backbone structure 108. Backbone structure 108 may be encapsulated in the elastomer used to form elastomeric compartment 104. In some embodiments, one or more components are associated with the adhesive disk. For example, an active substance, an electronic component, and / or a biochemical sensor may be attached to the article and / or is stored in the article itself. For instance, a biochemical sensor may be attached to a portion of the article such that, when the adhesive disk adheres to a substrate (e.g., in a gastrointestinal system of a subject), the biochemical sensor (e.g., an impedance sensor) is able to obtain biochemical information (e.g., the presence and / or amount of substances of interest). Similarly, electronic components may be associated with the article such that, when the adhesive disk adheres to a substrate, electronic components may process information from a sensor (e.g,. the biochemical sensor or another type of sensor), power the sensor, and / or transmit information from the sensor to other devices in the subject and / or external to the subject. In some embodiments, the electronic component is capable of acquiring, storing, and / or transmitting data from one or more sensors associated with the article. For example, an RFID chip may be included in the article to transmit information about the location and / or status of the article while within a subject. Other components, such as a acoustic chip, Bluetooth chip, cellular chip, and / or GPS / satellite chips may be included. The structures and systems described herein may be modular / multi-component (i.e. formed of multiple interconnected subcomponents.) According to some embodiments, the systems, structures, and methods described herein are compatible with one or more therapeutic, diagnostic, and / or enhancement agents, such as drugs, nutrients, microorganisms, in vivo sensors, and tracers. In some embodiments, the active substance, is a therapeutic, nutraceutical, prophylactic or diagnostic agent. The active substance may be entrapped within the polymeric matrix or may be directly attached to one or more atoms in the polymeric matrix through a chemical bond. In certain embodiments, the active substance is covalently bonded to the polymeric matrix. In some embodiments, the active substance is bonded to the polymeric matrix through a carboxylic acid derivative. In some cases, the carboxylic acid derivative may form an ester bond with the active substance. Agents can include, but are not limited to, any synthetic or naturally-occurring biologically active compound or composition of matter which, when administered to a subject (e.g., a human or nonhuman animal), induces a desired pharmacologic, immunogenic, and / or physiologic effect by local and / or systemic action. For example, useful or potentially useful within the context of certain embodiments are compounds or chemicals traditionally regarded as drugs, vaccines, and biopharmaceuticals, Certain such agents may include molecules such as proteins, peptides, hormones, nucleic acids, gene constructs, etc., for use in therapeutic, diagnostic, and / or enhancement areas, including, but not limited to medical or veterinary treatment, prevention, diagnosis, and / or mitigation of disease or illness (e.g., HMG co-A reductase inhibitors (statins) like rosuvastatin, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs like meloxicam, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors like escitalopram, blood thinning agents like clopidogrel, steroids like prednisone, antipsychotics like aripiprazole and risperidone, analgesics like buprenorphine, antagonists like naloxone, montelukast, and memantine, cardiac glycosides like digoxin, alpha blockers like tamsulosin, cholesterol absorption inhibitors like ezetimibe, metabolites like colchicine, antihistamines like loratadine and cetirizine, opioids like loperamide, proton-pump inhibitors like omeprazole, antiviral agents like entecavir, antibiotics like doxycycline, ciprofloxacin, and azithromycin, anti-malarial agents, and synthroid / levothyroxine); substance abuse treatment (e.g., methadone and varenicline); family planning (e.g., hormonal contraception); performance enhancement (e.g., stimulants like caffeine); and nutrition and supplements (e.g., protein, folic acid, calcium, iodine, iron, zinc, thiamine, niacin, vitamin C, vitamin D, and other vitamin or mineral supplements). In some embodiments, the active substance is a radiopaque material such as tungsten carbide or barium sulfate. In certain embodiments, the active substance is one or more specific therapeutic agents. As used herein, the term “therapeutic agent” or also referred to as a “drug” refers to an agent that is administered to a subject to treat a disease, disorder, or other clinically recognized condition, or for prophylactic purposes, and has a clinically significant effect on the body of the subject to treat and / or prevent the disease, disorder, or condition. Listings of examples of known therapeutic agents can be found, for example, in the United States Pharmacopeia (USP), Goodman and Gilman’s The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, 10th Ed., McGraw Hill, 2001; Katzung, B. (ed.) Basic and Clinical Pharmacology, McGraw-Hill / Appleton & Lange; 8th edition (September 21, 2000); Physician’s Desk Reference (Thomson Publishing), and / or The Merck Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy, 17th ed. (1999), or the 18th ed (2006) following its publication, Mark H. Beers and Robert Berkow (eds.), Merck Publishing Group, or, in the case of animals, The Merck Veterinary Manual, 9th ed., Kahn, C.A. (ed.), Merck Publishing Group, 2005; and “Approved Drug Products with Therapeutic Equivalence and Evaluations," published by the United States Food and Drug Administration (F.D.A.) (the “Orange Book"). Examples of drugs approved for human use are listed by the FDA under 21 C.F.R. §§ 330.5, 331 through 361, and 440 through 460, incorporated herein by reference; drugs for veterinary use are listed by the FDA under 21 C.F.R. §§ 500 through 589, incorporated herein by reference. In certain embodiments, the therapeutic agent is a small molecule. Exemplary classes of therapeutic agents include, but are not limited to, analgesics, anti-analgesics, anti-inflammatory drugs, antipyretics, antidepressants, antiepileptics, antipsychotic agents, neuroprotective agents, anti-proliferatives, such as anti-cancer agents, antihistamines, antimigraine drugs, hormones, prostaglandins, antimicrobials (including antibiotics, antifungals, antivirals, antiparasitics), antimuscarinics, anxioltyics, bacteriostatics, immunosuppressant agents, sedatives, hypnotics, antipsychotics, bronchodilators, anti-asthma drugs, cardiovascular drugs, anesthetics, anti–coagulants, inhibitors of an enzyme, steroidal agents, steroidal or non–steroidal anti–inflammatory agents, corticosteroids, dopaminergics, electrolytes, gastro-intestinal drugs, muscle relaxants, nutritional agents, vitamins, parasympathomimetics, stimulants, anorectics and anti-narcoleptics. Nutraceuticals can also be incorporated into the drug delivery device. These may be vitamins, supplements such as calcium or biotin, or natural ingredients such as plant extracts or phytohormones. In some embodiments, the therapeutic agent is one or more antimalarial drugs. Exemplary antimalarial drugs include quinine, lumefantrine, chloroquine, amodiaquine, pyrimethamine, proguanil, chlorproguanil-dapsone, sulfonamides such as sulfadoxine and sulfamethoxypyridazine, mefloquine, atovaquone, primaquine, halofantrine, doxycycline, clindamycin, artemisinin and artemisinin derivatives. In some embodiments, the antimalarial drug is artemisinin or a derivative thereof. Exemplary artemisinin derivatives include artemether, dihydroartemisinin, arteether and artesunate. In certain embodiments, the artemisinin derivative is artesunate. Active substances that contain a carboxylic acid group may be directly incorporated into polymeric matrices that contain ester and hydroxyl groups without further modification. Active substances containing an alcohol may first be derivatized as a succinic or fumaric acid monoester and then incorporated into the polymeric matrix. Active substances that contain a thiol may be incorporated into olefin or acetylene-containing matrices through a sulfur-ene reaction. In other embodiments, the one or more agents are non-covalently associated with the polymeric matrices (e.g., dispersed or encapsulated within). In other embodiments, the active substance is a protein or other biological macromolecule. Such substances may be covalently bound to the polymeric matrix through ester bonds using available carboxylate containing amino acids, or may be incorporated into polymeric material containing olefinic or acetylenic moieties using a thiol-ene type reaction. In some cases, the active substance comprises an amine functional group capable of reacting with an epoxide functional group to form an amide or ester bond. In other embodiments, the active substance is non-covalently associated with the polymeric matrix. In some such embodiments, the active substance may be dispersed or encapsulated within by hydrophilic and / or hydrophobic forces. In some embodiments, the article is administered to a subject (e.g., orally) to a location internal to the subject. In certain embodiments, the article may be administered orally, rectally, vaginally, nasally, or uretherally. In some embodiments, the location internally of the subject is the colon, the duodenum, the ileum, the jejunum, the stomach, or the esophagus. As described above and herein, in some embodiments, an active pharmaceutical ingredient may be released during and / or after penetrate of the tissue located internal to the subject. In some embodiments, the article may have any of a variety of sizes. In some embodiments, the article has a size that renders it ingestible by a subject (e.g., a mammal) such that the article is transported through the subject’s gastrointestinal system. In some embodiments, the article is relatively large such that it may be capable of adhering to an external location on a subject for monitoring of any of a variety of parameters, including but not limited location, temperature, pressure, and / or sweat composition. In some embodiments, the article is relatively small such that it may be capable of attach to and / or inside an eyelid of a subject. For instance, the article may be capable of adhering to an eyelid without inducing significant damage, discomfort, and / or irritation of the eye. A “subject” refers to any animal such as a mammal (e.g., a human). Non-limiting examples of subjects include a human, a non-human primate, a cow, a horse, a pig, a sheep, a goat, a dog, a cat or a rodent such as a mouse, a rat, a hamster, a bird, a fish, or a guinea pig. Generally, the invention is directed toward use with humans. In some embodiments, a subject may demonstrate health benefits, e.g., upon administration of the self-righting article. As used herein, a “fluid” is given its ordinary meaning, i.e., a liquid or a gas. A fluid cannot maintain a defined shape and will flow during an observable time frame to fill the container in which it is put. Thus, the fluid may have any suitable viscosity that permits flow. If two or more fluids are present, each fluid may be independently selected among essentially any fluids (liquids, gases, and the like) by those of ordinary skill in the art. Any terms as used herein related to shape, orientation, alignment, and / or geometric relationship of or between, for example, one or more articles, compositions, structures, materials and / or subcomponents thereof and / or combinations thereof and / or any other tangible or intangible elements not listed above amenable to characterization by such terms, unless otherwise defined or indicated, shall be understood to not require absolute conformance to a mathematical definition of such term, but, rather, shall be understood to indicate conformance to the mathematical definition of such term to the extent possible for the subject matter so characterized as would be understood by one skilled in the art most closely related to such subject matter. Examples of such terms related to shape, orientation, and / or geometric relationship include, but are not limited to terms descriptive of: shape - such as, round, square, circular / circle, rectangular / rectangle, triangular / triangle, cylindrical / cylinder, elipitical / elipse, (n)polygonal / (n)polygon, etc.; angular orientation - such as perpendicular, orthogonal, parallel, vertical, horizontal, collinear, etc.; contour and / or trajectory – such as, plane / planar, coplanar, hemispherical, semi-hemispherical, line / linear, hyperbolic, parabolic, flat, curved, straight, arcuate, sinusoidal, tangent / tangential, etc.; surface and / or bulk material properties and / or spatial / temporal resolution and / or distribution – such as, smooth, reflective, transparent, clear, opaque, rigid, impermeable, uniform(ly), inert, non-wettable, insoluble, steady, invariant, constant, homogeneous, etc.; as well as many others that would be apparent to those skilled in the relevant arts. As one example, a fabricated article that would described herein as being “ square" would not require such article to have faces or sides that are perfectly planar or linear and that intersect at angles of exactly 90 degrees (indeed, such an article can only exist as a mathematical abstraction), but rather, the shape of such article should be interpreted as approximating a “ square," as defined mathematically, to an extent typically achievable and achieved for the recited fabrication technique as would be understood by those skilled in the art or as specifically described. EXAMPLE 1 The following examples are intended to illustrate certain embodiments of the present invention, but do not exemplify the full scope of the invention. Underwater adhesion to soft substrates remains a longstanding challenge with broad implications across healthcare, manufacturing, robotics, and marine industries; however, it has received limited investigation. Inspired by remoras—fish with sucker-like adhesive disks on their heads—we describe a Mechanical Underwater Soft Adhesion System (MUSAS) that addresses limitations in wet and underwater soft-substrate adhesion. By examining the anatomical and behavioral mechanisms of remoras adhering to soft substrates, the physics behind their adhesion was uncovered, revealing potential evolutionary adaptations for adhering to specific hosts with distinct surface physico-mechanical properties. Data in this example shows that MUSAS possesses remarkable versatility in adhering to diverse soft substrates with varying surface textures, roughness, and stiffness, achieving up to a 1391-fold adhesion-force-to-weight ratio and demonstrating insensitivity to environmental pH and moisture conditions. MUSAS was applied across a range of settings, including self-adhesion in the swine gastrointestinal (GI) tract, where enhanced GI residency was applied for local delivery of mRNA. The delivery of an anti-retroviral agent was applied and sensing to monitor gastroesophageal reflux disease was employed. Additionally, the potential of this platform was explored for battery-free environmental sensing while attached to aquatic organisms. We anticipate MUSAS can be applied across a range of conditions and settings. The remoras (Echeneidae) are a family of ray-finned fish capable of adhering to various marine substrates with different surface roughness and stiffness, ranging from whales and sharks to turtles, rays, boats, and even divers (FIG.2A). FIG.2A shows cophylogenetic tanglegram of remora-host association, and a top view µ-CT scan of the remora species’ adhesive disk. The remora's adhesion is facilitated by the evolution of its first dorsal fin into a sucker-like adhesive disk, with the anatomy of its bony structures (e.g., intercalary backbones that support plate-like lamellae lined with minute pectinate spinules, all encapsulated within soft tissue compartments as in FIG. NE1A, 2A, and 2E) varying from species to species (FIG.2A and 2F). Specifically, the adhesive disk (FIG.2F) consists of an axial row of intercalary bones that support broad plate-like structures---the lamellae---which are lined with minute, pectinate spinules, which enable mechanical interlocking with substrates. Despite numerous insights into the ecological and evolutionary importance of the remora disc system, underwater adhesion of remoras on soft substrates has remained largely unexamined. In this work, we systematically studied the anatomical behavioral basis of soft-substrate adhesion in live remoras as well as the relationship between the lamellae anatomy of different remora species and their specific hosts. Based on our findings, we developed a Mechanical Underwater Soft Adhesion System (MUSAS). MUSAS is a mechanical platform for underwater adhesion to diverse soft substrates. This platform exhibits advantageous insensitivity to environmental pH and moisture changes. Specific applications for MUSAS include but are not limited to non-invasive, point-of-care solutions in low pH and slippery environments, such as the mucus barrier in the vertebrate gastrointestinal (GI) tract, offering new alternatives to current long-lasting drug delivery and health monitoring systems that are often implantable or injectable. In addition, MUSAS may be used as a biosensing device to remotely sample kinetic environmental conditions. MUSAS was rigorously validated through independent in vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo testing with established animal models, facilitating applications including ultraminiaturized kinetic temperature sensing for aquatic research, noninvasive gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) monitoring, sustained HIV / AIDS pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) drug release, and efficient mRNA delivery in the gastrointestinal tract. To this end, this example reveals how MUSAS facilitates kinetic biosensing and targeted drug delivery in fish and swine models, respectively. An overview of the data describes in this example is shown in FIG.9. Remoras adhere to various soft substrates The family Echeneidae is comprised of nine different species with distinct patterns of host preferences. A reef clade of three species (Phtheirichthys lineatus, Echeneis neucratoides and E naucrates), are known to adhere to diverse hosts, including sharks, actinopterygian fish, and turtles. P. lineatus (P. Lin.) and E. neucratoides (E. Neu.) are generalists, while E. naucrates (E. Nau.) prefers sharks but will often attach to other hosts. Meanwhile, a pelagic clade comprises of six species (Remora remora, R. australis, R. brachyptera, R. osteochir, and R. albescens), generally adhere to a limited set of hosts species. For example, R. australis (R. Aus.) exclusively adheres to whales, while R. brachyptera (R. bra.) and R. osteochir (R. Ost.) adhere mainly to billfish, including spearfish, marlins, and swordfish. While most remora species adhere to the host’s body surface, R. albescens (R. Alb.) adheres to the mucus-lined oral cavity and gill chambers of their specific host, manta rays (genus Mobula; FIG.2A). Measurements of disc anatomy revealed that remoras have evolved distinct adhesion systems that vary by size and numbers and orientations of lamellae. Without wishing to be bound by any particular theory, the morphological diversity of this system may be the result of phenotypic evolution, adaptations to the variable anatomical and mechanical properties of host skin surfaces (FIG.2A-2C). FIG.1B shows a sample measurement of lamella orientation of P. Lin. C. FIG.1C shows a distribution of lamella orientation of remora species. The diversity in lamella orientation may be associated with the swimming speed and the compliance and roughness of the hosts’ adhesion surfaces. Notably, species specific to fast- swimming hosts (e.g., billfish and dolphins, namely R. australis, R. brachyptera and R. osteochir, possess lamella orientations mainly ranging from 5° to 30° (FIG.2C), indicating that their lamellae are mostly parallel to each other. In contrast, species without specific host preferences, specifically E. neucratoides, P. lineatus, and R. remora, possess bimodal orientation angles, suggesting a mixture of parallel and highly angled lamella orientations (FIG.2C). The exception again lies with R. albescens, whose lamella orientation does not exhibit a particular pattern but rather a varied combination angles. Based on this, we hypothesized that this unique orientation is influenced not only by the slow swimming speed of its manta ray host, but also by variations in the compliance and smoothness of the ray’s mucus-covered surfaces. Indeed, by identifying the hosts of three representative species—E. neucratoides, R.albescens, and R. brachyptera—we revealed that the tissue stiffness of rays is much softer than that of sharks and billfish (FIG.2D). FIG.2D depicts the tissue stiffness of rays (n= 4), sharks (n = 11), and billfish (n = 6, Supp. FIG.10), hosts of representative remora species (R. Alb., E. Neu., and R. Bra). FIG.10A depicts freshly frozen swordfish tissue (Waterfront Bistro) cut into strips (n = 6) approximately 12 × 1 × 0.15 cm in size and gripped on a 5944 Universal Testing System (Instron) for tensile testing. FIG.10B shows stress-strain relationship of the sample strips. Furthermore, numerous studies have confirmed that rays generally possess smooth mucus layers on their gill chamber, oral cavity, and skin surfaces, whereas sharks and billfish have skin surfaces covered by rough denticles or protrusion-shaped bony scales. To better delineate the mechanisms of remoras’ adhesion to soft substrates, studies involving live remoras (E. naurcrates) adhering to a stomach tissue phantom (LifeLike Biotissue) made from LLBT-hydrogel-elastomer were conducted (FIG.2E). FIG.2E depicts the redundant adhesion of a live remora (E. Nau.) to a stomach tissue phantom (STP) (scale bar: 5 mm). Microscopy and micro-CT (µ-CT) imaging (FIG.2F) revealed numerous pectinate spinules on the tip area of the remora’s lamellae, enhancing friction and facilitating mechanical interlocking with the substrate. Additionally, a phenomenon was observed where the remora fully unfurls its disk with multiple adhesive compartments and erects its lamellae when adhering to a soft substrate. This behavior contrasts with its method of establishing adhesion on a hard substrate through friction and sliding (FIG.2G). FIG.2G depicts a configuration of the remora’s adhesive disk from high- resolution camera (scale bar: 5 mm), microscopy (scale bar: 1 mm), SEM (scale bar: left 300 µm, right 100 µm), and µ-CT imaging (scale bar: 5 mm). Moreover, it was determined that the remora can achieve redundant adhesion without needing its adhesive disk to entirely cover the soft substrate. This adhesive redundancy was facilitated by adjusting hydrostatic differentiation through the selective adhesion of adhesive compartments (FIG.2E, 2G). FIG.2G depicts distinct behaviors of remora’s adhesion to soft and hard substrates including an illustration of remora’s adhesion to a soft substrate, remora’s adhesion to STP, and remora’s adhesion to a plastic hard plate (PHP). Subsequently, the adhesion forces were characterized in normal and shear-frictional directions using live and euthanized remoras on stomach tissue phantom, fresh pig stomach tissue, and a hard plastic plate, as shown in FIG.11A-11F. FIG.11A shows the experimental setup for the characterization of live E. naucrates (body length ~7.6 cm). FIG.11B depicts a universal mechanical testing setup (Instron) for characterizing the adhesion of euthanized E. naucrates on a watery plastic hard plate (PHP). FIG.11C and FIG.11D show sample measurements of the normal adhesion force of live E. naucrates. FIG.11E and FIG.11F show sample measurements of normal and shear adhesion forces of euthanized E. naucrates on stomach tissue phantom (STP), real porcine stomach tissue (RST), and plastic hard plate (PHP). The results indicated that the remora exerted similar levels of adhesion pressure on both soft and hard substrates, with stronger normal adhesion observed on hard plastic substrates (FIG.2H & 2I). FIGS.2H-2I show remora’s adhesion performance to soft and hard substrates before and after euthanasia in normal (H, n = 5) and shear drag directions (I, n = 5). These findings reveal two key adhesion strategies underlying remora adhesion to soft substrates. First, robust attachment through coordinated multicompartmental adhesion and mechanical interlocking, compensating for individual compartment failure due to dynamic morphing of substrates (Figs. NE1d, NE1e). Second, unfurling adhesive disc to improve hydrodynamic differentiation and multicompartmental sealing on morphable soft surfaces (FIG. NE1f). Adhesion forces were subsequently quantified of live remoras when feasible, supplemented with tests on euthanized specimens on various soft and hard substrates, including a stomach tissue phantom (STP), real pig stomach tissue (RST), and a 3D-printed polypropylene hard plate (PHP). Results confirmed that the soft-substrate adhesion strategies are effective with comparable adhesion performance on both soft and hard substrates (Figs. NE1G, NE1H). Note that adhesion forces in live specimens were slightly lower due to measurement sampling rate differences and water- induced fluctuations. Understanding the function and evolution of remora’s adhesion to soft substrates To systematically understand the physics behind the unfurling behaviors and redundant adhesion of remoras on soft substrates, physics-based simulations were used to model and compare the hydrodynamic behaviors of a furled adhesive disk, an unfurled adhesive disk with compartments, and a benchmark one-piece adhesive disk without compartments (FIG.3A). FIG.3A depicts the modeling of the underwater contact of different remora adhesive disk mimicries on stomach tissue, including: i) an unfurled disk, ii) a furled disk, iii) a benchmark one-piece disk. The finite element analysis (FEA) modeled the hydrodynamic and mechanical behaviors of the disks when adhering to pig tissue submerged in water. This analysis accounted for fluid-solid interactions among the water, tissue, and disk, as well as solid-solid contact between and within the tissue and disk. Results showed that the unfurled disk held more water volume than the other configurations during the adhesion process. Notably, the furled disk had limited storage space, while the one- piece disk experienced significant bending due to the lack of compartments to maintain the topology of its suction cup, thereby also limiting its water storage capacity. Consequently, the unfurled design expelled the most water volume, achieving the highest vacuum for suction (FIG.3B). FIG.3B shows the relative vacuum Vr created by different remora adhesive disk mimicries of expelled water in respect to the theoretical maximum volume of water AInitial that can be expelled, starting from the time point when the disk mimicry contacts the stomach tissue. This understanding led to the development of MUSAS, a capsule-sized intelligent platform that mimics the unfurled remora adhesive disk, allowing for various soft adhesions for kinetic biosensing and targeted drug delivery (FIG.3C). FIG.3C shows the illustration of MUSAS delivery: 1) Release, 2) Adhesion, 3) Safe passage. MUSAS’ design in this example consists of an elastomer-based soft lip, tilt-angled lamellae made of shape memory alloy (SMA) smart materials, a stainless-steel backbone plate to support the lamellae pairs, and adhesive compartments that individually seal the lamellae pairs for hydrostatic differentiation (Figs.3D). FIG.3D shows schematics of the optimal MUSAS design (scale bar: 5 mm). To facilitate oral administration, MUSAS can be compacted into a size 000 capsule, and the elastomer comprising the soft lip and disk allows for flexible fabrication options (FIG.3E). FIG.3E shows MUSAS fabricated with different elastomers, including EcoFlex-0030 (transparent) and Zhermack Elite Double 8 (pink), encapsulated in a size 000 capsule (scale bar: 1 cm). FIG.3F demonstrates the temperature-induced shape memory deformation of the SMA lamella at body temperature, mimicking the active erection and mechanical interlocking of remora lamellae. FIG.3F shows the illustration, testing, and modeling of active erection and mechanical interlocking of MUSAS mimicking remora under a temperature signal, via customized shape memory alloy- based lamellae (scale bar: 1 mm). FIG.12 shows the general fabrication process of MUSAS. First, silicone rubber (Zhermack) was used to fabricate a negative mold from a 3D-printed positive mold (Protolabs). Then, laser-cut lamellae and the backbone structure were inserted into the negative mold. Next, silicone rubber (Ecoflex 0030 or Zhermack Elite Double 8) was poured into the mold. The cured device was then removed from the negative mold and cleaned. The design of MUSAS was informed by investigating the physico-mechanical advantages of various components in the adhesive disk of remoras. FIG.3G illustrates the different designs fabricated to understand the functionalities of the adhesive disk components and shows illustration of various disk designs tested to determine advantageous designs of tilt-angled MUSAS design. The initial design featured a simple adhesive disk with eight rows of parallel-angled lamellae and compartments, without smoothing the edge of the soft lip to mimic the tissue anatomy of a remora adhesive disk (FIG.3G, iii). Based on this design, the thickness of the soft lip was first studied to reach an optimal 2.0× thickness ratio, achieving an adhesion force to device weight ratio as high as 600 (FIG.3H). FIG.3H describes the adhesion performance of disk designs based on different lip thickness ratios (n = 5). Next, experiments shown in FIG.3I were conducted to answer four questions: i) whether a lamella- only or a disk-compartment-only configuration would achieve desirable adhesion, ii) the functionality of the backbone plate in adhesion, iii) the functionality of the smooth curvature of the lip edge, and iv) the fabrication flexibility of MUSAS with different types of elastomers. FIG.3I shows the adhesion performance of MUSAS equipped with different functioning components in normal and shear-frictional directions (n = 5). Results demonstrates that the presence of the backbone plate and smoothed edge curvature promoted the adhesion of the remora-mimicry disk. Moreover, the combination of suction-based adhesive compartments and lamellae proved highly advantageous, resulting in effective normal and shear-frictional adhesion of the adhesive disk. Additionally, MUSAS demonstrated insensitivity to the type of elastomer used in the fabrication of the soft lip, as there were no statistical differences in the normal and shear adhesion performance between MUSAS fabricated with EcoFlex-0030 and Zhermack Elite Double 8 elastomers. Based on these findings, the physical sophistication of lamella orientation and the number of rows of lamellae to improve MUSAS’ adhesive performance was examined. The adhesive disk configurations of three representative species—R. brachyptera and R. albescens, specific to billfish and rays, and E. neucratoides, which adheres to both sharks and billfish—exemplified parallel- angled (para), tilt-angled (both), and a mixture of parallel- and tilt-angled (side) bimodal designs. As displayed in FIG.2D, the hosts of these species differ in tissue surface roughness, stiffness, and swimming speed. FIG.3J shows that the tilt-angled design performed best on soft substrates in terms of both normal and shear-frictional adhesion, substantiating the desirable design of MUSAS. These findings revealed that R. albescens likely evolved adhesive disk configurations with tilted lamella orientation to enable soft adhesion to the mucus layer of the oral cavity and gill chamber of rays, such as mantas. Results also confirmed that eight rows of lamellae are optimal for MUSAS: these eight-row designs significantly outperform six-row design in every lamella orientation (FIG.3J). Additionally, an interesting phenomenon was observed: parallel-angled disks can slide without losing adhesion, demonstrating stronger resistance to shear drag compared to mixed-angled and tilt- angled configurations. This is illustrated by the ability to maintain frictional adhesion after reaching plateau or maximum during the shear drag test (FIG.3K). FIG.3K depicts the shear sliding performance of MUSAS with various lamella orientations, measuring the time maintaining maximum frictional adhesion relative to shear adhesion sustained (n = 5). The parallel-angled disk can slide over two times the length of its lamella rows without losing shear- frictional adhesion (FIG.7). FIG.7A depicts a photograph of parallel-angled (para), a bimodal mixture of parallel and tilted-angled (side), and tilted-angled (both) MUSAS with 6 and 8 rows of lamella (scale bar: 5 mm). FIGS.7B-7C show sample measurements of normal adhesion forces of MUSAS with different lamella orientations and number of rows. FIGS.7D-7E depict sample measurements of shear adhesion forces of MUSAS with various lamella orientations and number of rows; the shear sliding ratio is calculated as the time MUSAS maintains shear adhesion after reaching the maximum or plateau, relative to the total time of the shear drag test before losing adhesion. FIGS.7F- 7G depict sample measurements of shear sliding distance. This finding indicates that remora species with parallel-angled lamella orientation possess advanced robustness for hitchhiking on high-speed swimmers. They can endure shear drags caused by sudden boosts in swimming speed or volatile host movements by sliding on the host surface without fully losing adhesion, until locating the next ideal adhesion area. This behavior echoes the skimming and sliding observed in R. austaulis adhering to whales when hydrodynamic drag reduction was not advantageous. It further supports why remora species such as R. australis, R. brachyptera, and R. osteochir, which specialize in attaching to high- speed swimmers like cetaceans (dolphins and whales) and billfish (marlins, spearfish, and swordfish), have evolved predominantly parallel lamella orientations. Overall, parallel-angled lamella orientation facilitates adhesion during skimming and sliding caused by shear drag, while tilt-angled lamella orientation excels in adhesion to soft substrates. The different adaptations explain why remoras evolve into distinct species that lean towards either parallel- dominant, tilt- dominant, or bimodal lamella orientations, depending on their host specificity. Examples of lamellae orientations are shown in FIG.6. In vitro and ex vivo characterization of MUSAS Confocal microscopy was used to analyze the hydrostatic differentiation and adhesion mechanisms of optimal MUSAS. Figs.4A and 4B depict the distribution of blue-dyed (Cyanine) fluorescent water before and after MUSAS adhered to a glass slide, respectively, within the upper limits of planar and Z-depth detection of the confocal microscopy. The images are confocal microscopy images showing the water distribution of MUSAS before (FIG.4A) and after (FIG.4B) adhesion (scale bar: 2.5 mm). Initially, water tended to accumulate around the edge area of MUSAS’ soft lips due to surface tension. However, upon adhering to the substrate, the water redistributed towards the lamellae and the soft conjunction area between the lamellae and the lip, forming distinct adhesive compartments. The intensity of this water distribution varied across the surfaces of each lamella and the soft conjunction. A negatively pressured hollow space emerged within the center of each compartment, enabling hydrostatically differentiated, independent suction for each compartment. Subsequently, the underwater performance of MUSAS on soft substrates with diverse material stiffness, surface roughness, and textures was evaluated (Figs.4C and 4D). FIGS.4C-4D show the adhesion performance of MUSAS on various soft substrates with different stiffness, surface roughness, and texture in normal (n = 5) and shear-frictional directions (n = 5). The soft substrate specimens included Bis-Tris polyacrylamide gel (Thermo Fisher Scientific), porous double- network tough hydrogel, pig stomach tissue, stomach tissue phantom, nitrile gloves (MedPride), and styrene-ethylene-butylene-styrene thermoplastic elastomer (SEBS), commonly used for soft electronics (Supp. FIG.15). Adhesion was noticeably stronger on smooth, flat surfaces, such as polyacrylamide gel (Bis-Tris), stomach tissue phantom, and SEBS, compared to rough, lumpy surfaces like porous tough hydrogel, pig stomach tissue, and nitrile gloves. This suggests that a seamless, airtight seal is easier to preserve on smooth surfaces than on rough surfaces. Nevertheless, the adhesive performance remained comparable across different soft substrates due to the contributions of the adhesive compartments and lamellae. Additionally, greater material stiffness generally results in greater adhesion force and increased pressure. MUSAS achieved an impressive adhesion-force-to-weight ratio of 1391 times (FIG.4D). FIGS.4E and 4F show underwater adhesion of MUSAS to various soft substrates (E) and associated scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of the surface texture of these substrates (F, scale bars: hydrogel and stomach tissue phantom 1 µm, stomach tissue 100 µm, nitrile glove 3 µm, SEBS 10 µm, gourami 200 µm). They effectively demonstrate the underwater adhesion of MUSAS on various soft substrates and corresponding scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of the surface texture of the soft substrates, respectively. Following this, the wet and underwater ex vivo adhesion of MUSAS was assessed on the stomach tissue of a swine model, considering environmental pH, prior research, and commercial solutions. These included NHS-EDC-based covalent bonding, Carbopol-based hydrogen bonding, and the biomedical silicone skin adhesive Silbione. Results demonstrated that MUSAS outperforms all comparatives by 2 to 300 times in both wet and underwater adhesion (FIG.4G). FIG.4G depicts the Ex vivo characterization of wet and underwater adhesion of MUSAS on porcine stomach tissue, compared to prevalent solutions (n = 5). Notably, Silbione, as referenced, failed to form adhesion on moist tissue surfaces. Covalent bonding demonstrated considerable adhesion on wet and underwater surfaces, while hydrogen bonding was effective only on wet surfaces. It should be noted that physicochemical adhesives, including hydrogen bonding and covalent bonding, typically exhibit increased strength following a prolonged, pressurized pre-adhesion procedure. Since MUSAS achieves instant mechanical adhesion, the pressured pre-adhesion procedure for NHS-EDC and Carbopol hydrogel was limited to 3 minutes during testing to ensure a fair comparison. Additionally, observations revealed that NHS-EDC hydrogel functions in an highly advantageous manner when in neutral and alkaline environments, aligning with the pH ranges useful for establishing covalent bonds. In contrast, MUSAS demonstrated superior insensitivity to pH and moisture changes due to its intrinsic mechanical adhesion strategies. FIG.4H illustrates the ex vivo adhesion performance of MUSAS in both normal and shear directions on various organ parts of a swine model. FIG.4H shows ex vivo adhesion performance of MUSAS on various organs (n = 5). FIG.4I shows the surface roughness (g, n = 2 samples) of tested substrates. It is noteworthy that the adhesion force of MUSAS on the mucosa of stomach tissue can reach up to 3.5N (Supp. FIG.16), nearly four times higher than the 0.9N minimum gripping force used to prevent the detachment of devices residing on GI mucosa. FIG.16A and 16B show Sample measurements of normal and shear adhesion forces of MUSAS, compared with medical adhesive (Silbione), hydrogen bonding (Carbopol), and covalent bonding (NHS-EDC) on swine stomach tissue (wet, pH = 7.4). FIG.16C and FIG.16D show sample comparison of adhesion force on swine stomach tissue (underwater, pH = 7.4). FIG.16E and FIG.16F show sample comparison of adhesion force on swine stomach tissue in SGF (underwater, pH = 1.5); SGF was prepared with hydrochloric acid (HCl). FIG.16G and FIG.16H show sample comparison of adhesion force on swine stomach tissue (underwater, pH = 8.8); the alkaline solution was prepared with sodium hydroxide (NaOH). FIG. 17A and FIG.17B shows sample measurements of normal and shear adhesion forces of MUSAS on various swine organs. The underwater pH setup for testing liver and kidney considered the pH of bile and the alkaline urine of the “alkaline tide” after a meal. SIG. S9A shows adhesion of MUSAS in various buccal regions. SIG. S9B shows X-ray results confirmed that MUSAS remained adhered for approximately 7 hours in the duodenum of the SI in a swine terminal study. MUSAS for kinetic biosensing and intelligent targeted drug delivery The adaptability of the MUSAS platform to varying environmental conditions and soft substrates allows for its use in diverse applications. As referenced above, this example focuses on biomedical applications, investigating the in vivo performance of MUSAS at various locations in the GI tract of a swine model, including the buccal cavity, esophagus, stomach, and small intestine (FIG.5A, Supp. FIG. S9). FIG.5A depicts the In vivo adhesion and retention achieved by MUSAS in different parts of the GI tract in a swine model. Overall, MUSAS demonstrated robust retention capabilities, remaining in place for seven days on average, and up to three and a half weeks in the stomach, before safely passing through the GI tract (FIG.5B). FIG.5B shows X-rays of long-term retention of 4 MUSAS delivered in the stomach before safe passage in the GI tract, and endoscopic picture of MUSAS residing in the stomach (scale bar: 1 cm). Furthermore, self-adhesion of MUSAS during oral delivery can be facilitated by the contraction and peristaltic movement of the GI tract, demonstrating that non-invasive, ingestible delivery can be achieved through endogenous force (see FIG.5C, Supp. Video 15). FIG.5C describes the self-adhesion of oral-delivered MUSAS leveraging contraction in the esophagus (scale bar: 1cm). Here, four application scenarios for MUSAS are presented: kinetic biosensing, digital health monitoring, sustained drug release, and gene therapies. Monitoring environmental conditions, such as underwater temperatures, can improve understanding of ecological requirements and social behaviors of aquatic species. To this end, kinetic temperature sensing was demonstrated using the MUSAS platform on a tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) model. In vivo data reveals that MUSAS can adhere to various locations on a tilapia's body, including the operculum, head, and body (Figs.5D-I). FIG.5D shows (I) adhesion location of MUSAS on tilapias; (II) skin retention time of MUSAS on swimming tilapias (n = 3); (III) in vitro underwater temperature reading of MUSAS RFID tag, compared to a commercial sensor (Avery). (IV) In vivo kinetic temperature-sensing of MUSAS. The device remained attached to the tilapia for up to 110 hours (Figs.5D-II) without affecting the fish's swimming or feeding behaviors. It was observed that MUSAS adhered longer to intact surfaces, such as the operculum, compared to areas covered with multiple stacked scales, where the size of the scales posed a challenge to achieving a water-tight seal. This observation led us to hypothesize that improved performance can be achieved on fish of similar size, but with smaller scales. Additionally, it was developed that the smallest reported underwater, battery-free, wireless radio frequency identification (RFID) temperature sensor, measuring 1.3×6×12 mm, with a working distance of 1m (FIG.5D). FIG.5D-III illustrates real-time underwater temperature sensing results from our sensor, compared simultaneously with a commercial RFID temperature tag (Avery Dennison, FIG.8). The measurements were almost identical between sensors, with minor discrepancies attributed to differences in antenna aperture. In vivo testing successfully demonstrated the effectiveness of the MUSAS-based RFID sensor adhered to a tilapia swimming in a fish tank for real-time temperature measurement. Swimming tilapia was also tested with MUSAS-based RFID sensors in a swim tunnel at a water flow of 25 cm / s (~ 1.25 body length (BL) / s) and 45 cm / s (2.25 BL / s), mimicking the characteristic flow of natural, steady swimming behaviors. These results collectively exhibit the robustness of MUSAS’ adhesion and kinetic biosensing in the often unpredictable, unconstructed real world. Further investigation could explore integrating MUSAS with other miniature underwater sensing technologies, such as acoustic temperature and pressure sensors, to expand its operational range and capabilities. The MUSAS-based sensing platform can also be applied to digital health solutions, particularly for monitoring gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD). GERD can cause irritation to the esophageal lining, leading to ulceration, esophageal narrowing, GI bleeding, and potentially progressing to esophagitis or Barrett's esophagus. Approximately 10% to 20% of adults in Western countries and nearly 5% of those in Asian populations experience GERD, resulting in over 5.6 million clinical visits annually. The Bravo capsule sensor, a conventional method for detecting gastric reflux, involves endoscopically clipping a pin-like needle onto the mucosa, which can be uncomfortable for patients. Inspired by MUSAS' self-adhesion properties to the esophagus (FIG. 5C), we developed a flexible impedance sensor that integrates seamlessly with MUSAS to monitor pH variations in liquid flushes (FIG.5E). FIG.5E shows digital health monitoring of GERD with MUSAS-based impedance sensor (scale bar: left 5 mm, right 1 mm). Specifically, it descibres (I) In vitro resistive (real, Re) part and reactive (imaginary, Im) impedance for fluid pH differentiation (n = 5), (II) In vivo differentiation of air inhalation, water, and gastric fluid (GF) consumption via MUSAS (n = 5), and (III) MUSAS detecting gastric reflux in a GERD model. In vitro results demonstrate that the impedance sensor effectively distinguishes pH levels across acidic and alkaline environments, exhibiting high impedance sensitivity in the low-frequency range for the resistive (real) part and in the high-frequency range for the reactive (imaginary) part (FIG.5E-I). The MUSAS-based impedance pH sensor in vivo on a swine esophagus model. FIG.5E-II depicts that the MUSAS-based impedance sensor accurately differentiates between air inhalation, water, and gastric fluid consumption, even though gastric fluid typically refluxes rapidly and discretely within a short timeframe, allowing only a limited frequency scanning range. The MUSAS-based sensor’s performance was evaluated in vivo on a GERD model by periodically spraying gastric fluid into the esophagus via endoscopy. Results indicate that the MUSAS-based impedance sensor can precisely detect gastric reflux, offering a novel noninvasive method for GERD monitoring (FIG.5E-III). The gastrointestinal (GI) retention feature of MUSAS also makes it an desirable platform for sustained drug release. Here, MUSAS was demonstrated as a platform for pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) for HIV / AIDS. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), more than 40.4 million people were diagnosed with HIV at the end of 2022, making it a major global public health issue. While there is no cure for HIV infection, effective prevention is crucial in efforts mitigate global HIV transmission. Cabotegravir is an antiviral medication used as PrEP for HIV / AIDS. Currently, long-acting cabotegravir injections like Apretude and Cabenuva are available, but patients initially need to take a daily cabotegravir tablet for a month to establish tolerance, followed by monthly injections of the long-acting formulations. This regimen is less preferable and flexible than oral medications and may thus decrease effectiveness and compliance. To tackle this challenge, polycaprolactone (PCL) and EcoFlex elastomer were leveraged as candidates for the sustained release matrices. PCL matrices were attached to the back pan of MUSAS (FIG.5F). FIG.5F describes the sustained release of Cabotegravir (CAB) with MUSAS (scale bar: 1 cm). Specifically, it shows (I) in vitro release kinetics of CAB via different matrices (n = 3), (II) plasma concentration of CAB through a 7-day study on pigs (n = 3), and (III) histology of microneedle penetration of MUSAS on stomach tissue, dash line represents lamellae interaction (scale bar: 5 mm). In vitro release kinetics studies showed that both PCL and EcoFlex-0030 are ideal for serving as sustained release matrices, while the drug loading and active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) release can be further improved by utilizing the elastomer EcoFlex-0030, which constitutes the adhesive disk (FIG.5F-I). In vivo studies performed on three Yorkshire pigs confirmed that MUSAS-based long- acting cabotegravir pills provide prolonged release over a 7-day study window (FIG.5F-II). Histology studies further indicated that the penetration depth of the spinules of MUSAS ranges from 300 to 800 µm, with a diameter around 100 µm for the penetrating hole (FIG.5F-III and FIG. 5F). This evidence corroborates the noninvasive microneedle features of the spinules of MUSAS and confirms MUSAS’ viability for sustained drug release. It is important to note that the retention time and site-specific delivery of MUSAS- based sustained delivery can be enhanced by integrating of other biodegradable and responsive material solutions, and MUSAS’ potential for use in other small molecule drug formulations. Upon confirming MUSAS as a microneedle delivery platform, its potential for delivering mRNA therapeutics to the GI tract was further explored. GI delivery of mRNA therapeutics has the potential for achieving non-invasive vaccination at a mucosal surface. This can enable the induction of an immune response that is distinct from systemic vaccination. Furthermore, GI delivery of mRNA can enable access to GI tissues, which cannot be accessed via systemic delivery, allowing for gene therapies for GI disorders such as Crohn’s disease. Transitioning mechanical delivery carriers from injection to oral delivery offers may be desirable in improving the bioavailability of large molecules and nanoparticles in the GI tract, as well as avoiding immunogenicity associated with systemic delivery, by physically breaking through the mucus barrier through penetration or mixing. In this example, lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) liquid formulation frozen was leveraged in MUSAS for mRNA delivery to the GI tract of a swine model (FIG.5G). FIG.5G shows luciferase mRNA delivered via MUSAS (scale bar: 5 mm). Specifically, it shows (I) ex vivo delivery of fluorescent LNPs via MUSAS, subcutaneous injection (SC), and pipette smearing, compared to negative control on esophagus 17 tissue (scale bar: 200 µm), (II) bioavailability of fluorescent LNPs (n = 3), (III) IVIS and (IV) fluorescent immunohistochemistry to evaluate transfection of luciferase in the buccal and pharyngeal regions of a swine model (scale bars: left 1 cm, right 400 µm). An ex vivo study delivering fluorescent polystyrene nanoparticles to esophageal tissue suggested that MUSAS-enabled multisite microneedle delivery increased bioavailability by 5-fold compared to single-site subcutaneous injection, while the pipette-based topical application of fluorescent LNPs on the mucosa yielded tissue fluorescence comparable to the untreated control (FIG.5G-I, II). MUSAS was then employed to deliver firefly luciferase mRNA encapsulated in the LNPs to the buccal and pharynx regions of three different Yorkshire pigs. It was first confirmed that LNPs could be frozen and thawed without loss of activity in the presence of sucrose as a cryoprotectant (Supp. FIG.20). Next, the LNPs were applied frozen in MUSAS in pigs. Via in vivo imaging system (IVIS) imaging, robust protein expression in pigs were identified (FIG.5G-III, Supp. FIG.20). FIG. 20A shows in vitro studies of mRNA transfection efficacy with different preparation methods of LNPs (unfrozen, frozen and thawed without sucrose, frozen and thawed with sucrose) for delivery to human oral epithelial cells. FIG.20B shows the time course of the IVIS luminescence signal to evaluate transfection of luciferase in the buccal and pharyngeal regions of a swine model. FIG.20C shows in vivo trial 3 of delivering luciferase mRNA to the buccal region (see FIG.4 for trial 1 and trial 2). Additionally, protein expression in tissue cross-sections using immunofluorescence imaging (FIG.5G-IV). Based on these findings, it was concluded that MUSAS opens new avenues for the buccal and pharyngeal delivery of mRNA therapeutics, potentially enabling mRNA vaccination- based mucosal immunity to tackle viral airborne diseases such as COVID-19. Furthermore, these findings suggest that MUSAS could also be investigated for gene and protein replacement therapies in other parts of the GI tract, such as the stomach and small intestine. FIG.21A shows a setup of µ-CT imaging (scale bar: left, 1 cm; right, 5 mm). FIG.21B shows a representative image of suction marks left by MUSAS after adhesion to pig stomach tissue, demonstrating non-homogeneous substrate morphing. FIG.21C and FIG.21D show relative vacuum ratio (c) and relative compression ratio (d) of different MUSAS designs adhering to representative soft substrates with distinct stiffness and roughness (n = 3 substrates, error bars represent mean ± s.d.). FIG.21E shows a representative µ-CT imaging of MUSAS with varying lamella orientation angles and row numbers, adhering to soft substrates with distinct stiffness and roughness. The red box represents the non-vacuum area AInitialor AAdhesion(scale bar: 5 mm). FIG.22A depicts a bottom-view fluid velocity maps reveal that fewer lamella rows result in minimal water expulsion, as seen in the 4 rows design. FIG.22B and FIG.22C depicts, in terms of 8 rows design, unsubstantial angle variations incline to unidirectional water expulsion, making the performance of the 15 degree dominated design (c) nearly identical to that of the parallel-angled configuration (b). FIG.21D and FIG.21E show that while lamella orientations dominated by 30 degree (d) and 45 degree (e) induce multidirectional water expulsion, the flow is often uneven and accompanied by large air bubble formation in specific regions. FIG.22F shows the tilt-dominant design with the substantial lamella angle variation exhibits superior efficiency in achieving homogeneous, multidirectional water expulsion (scale bar: 5 mm). FIG.18A depicts a representative retention performance of optimal tilt-dominant MUSAS under dynamic shaking interference in a 37°C incubator (New Brunswick Innova 40 / 40R, see Supp. Video 15 for further demonstration, scale bar: 1 cm). FIG.18B shows an illustration of the retention failure mode (scale bar: 1 cm). FIG.18C shows a dynamic interference evaluation of MUSAS retention performance with different angles of lamella orientation (n = 3 devices per design, error bars represent mean ± s.d.). FIG.18D depicts MUSAS with radioactive imaging agents for routine X-rays monitoring (scale bar: 5 mm). FIG.18E shows a representative X-rays depicting retention of MUSAS with superelastic nitinol lamella and stainless steel lamella delivered in the stomach before safe passage in the GI tract (scale bars: left 5 cm, right 1 cm). FIG.18F shows a representative retention performance of MUSAS in the duodenum of the small intestine (SI) in a swine model, evaluated in a terminal study on the day of euthanasia (scale bars: left 5 cm, right 1 cm). FIG.18G shows adhesion of MUSAS in various buccal regions for mRNA delivery (scale bar: 1 cm). FIG. 18H shows representative retention performance of MUSAS on different body surfaces of a tilapia model (scale bar: 2 cm). FIGS.8A is a schematic of the proposed RFID temperature sensor. The RFID sensor comprises a ground plane connected to a Magnus-S RFID temperature sensor chip (Axzon), a substrate, an antenna layer, and a superstrate. FIGS.8B shows a full simulation setup in CST electromagnetic software (Simulia), featuring the RFID antenna encased in Ecoflex polymer and attached to a MUSAS, immersed in an underwater environment. FIGS.8C shows simulated S11 results for three scenarios: “no MUSAS” (RFID sensor in water without MUSAS), “no water” (RFID sensor attached to MUSAS in air), and “full setup” (complete assembly as shown in b). Measured (meas.) and simulated (sim.) impedance values are compared, showing significant overlap in both real and imaginary components, thereby validating the simulation accuracy. FIGS. 8D shows simulated surface current distribution at the resonant frequency with a zero-degree phase. FIGS.8E shows a 3D far-field radiation pattern. FIGS.8F shows a 2D far-field radiation pattern. MUSAS, while not electrically connected to the RFID antenna, influences current distribution and causes distortion in the antenna's backside radiation pattern. FIGS.8G shows a comparison between the commercial Smartrac RFID temperature tag (Avery Dennison) and the MUSAS RFID temperature sensor (scale bar, 5 mm). FIGS.8H shows a close-up view showing the positioning of the TSL 3166 reader (Technology Solution UK Ltd) and the RFID tags under in vitro test. FIGS.8I. Custom Faraday cage setup for the in vitro test, including the S3SensorTagReader app installed on an Android smartphone for collecting temperature and received signal strength indicator (RSSI) data. FIGS.8J. In vitro underwater temperature reading of MUSAS RFID tag, compared to a commercial sensor (Avery Dennison). FIG.23A shows in vitro resistive (real, Re) part and reactive (imaginary, Im) impedance for fluid pH differentiation (n = 5 independent measurements, error bars represent mean ± s.d.). FIG. 23B in vivo differentiation of air inhalation, water, and gastric fluid (GF) consumption via MUSAS- based impedance sensor in the swine esophagus (n = 5 independent measurements, error bars represent mean ± s.d.). FIG.24A shows ex vivo delivery of fluorescent nanoparticles via MUSAS, subcutaneous injection (SC), and pipette smearing, compared to negative control on esophagus tissue (scale bar: 200 µm). FIG.24B shows the bioavailability of fluorescent LNPs (n = 3 samples per treatments, error bars represent mean ± s.d.). FIG.24C shows the in vitro studies of mRNA transfection efficacy with different preparation methods of LNPs (unfrozen, frozen and thawed without sucrose, frozen and thawed with sucrose) for delivery to human oral epithelial cells (n = 4 samples per formulation, error bars represent mean ± s.d.). FIG.24d shows the time course of the IVIS luminescence signal to evaluate transfection of luciferase in the buccal and pharyngeal regions of a swine model. FIG.24E shows the in vivo trial 3 of delivering luciferase mRNA to the buccal region (scale bar: 1 cm, see FIG.5 for trial 1 and trial 2). Observing significant variance differences between groups, Brown-Forsythe and Welch ANOVA with Dunnett's T3 multiple comparison test (b) to compare different treatments and unpaired t-test with Welch’s correction (c) to compare different formulations were used, statistical significance was indicated as follows: non-significant (ns), p ≤ 0.05 (*), p ≤ 0.01 (**), p ≤ 0.001 (***). an of tattooing adhesion sites in a swine model (scale bar: 5 mm). FIG.25B shows a detached MUSAS retrieved from a pig stomach after euthanasia, demonstrating thorough lubrication and accumulation of stomach contents and mucoid materials for safe passage (scale bar: 5 mm). FIG.25C shows that representative pig weight measurements show normal weight gain during MUSAS residence (n = 4 devices delivered during the retention study) in the stomach. Histopathology of H&E stained the gastrointestinal tract showing no damage from MUSAS adhesion and passage that causes hemorrhage, inflammation or indication of tissue repair (fibrosis), shown in FIG.25D. MUSAS adhesion and adjacent internal control sites, collected after 3 and 7 days of MUSAS residence (scale bar: 100 µm, n = 9 Yorkshire pigs evaluated). FIG.25E shows small intestinal and colon, collected after MUSAS residence in the stomach and safe passage through the GI tract (scale bars: small intestine, 200 µm; colon, 100 µm, n = 4 Yorkshire pigs evaluated). FIG.25F shows esophagus, adhesion and adjacent internal control sites, collected 1 day after adhesion (scale bar: 200 µm, n = 3 Yorkshire pigs evaluated). FIG.25G and FIG.25H show buccal tissue and pharynx, adhesion and adjacent internal control sites, collected 1 day after mRNA delivery (scale bar: 100 µm, n = 3 Yorkshire pigs evaluated). FIG.26A shows an in vitro demonstration of the prolonged stability of MUSAS encapsulation in simulated gastric fluid, dip-coated with the pH-dependent copolymer Eudragit S100 (scale bars: left, 5 mm; right, 1 cm). FIG.26B and FIG.26C shows an in vitro demonstration of the programmable controlled release of MUSAS in a simulated intestinal environment, dip- coated with different concentrations of the copolymer Eudragit S100 (scale bars: 1 cm). FIG.26D shows in vivo demonstration of programmable targeted delivery of MUSAS to the small intestine in a swine model, including safe gastric emptying in the stomach from 0 to 30 min and timely deployment in the small intestine from 35 mins to 50 mins (scale bars: 5 mm). Discussion A remora-based biomimetic design program was demonstrated to address the longstanding challenge of underwater adhesion to soft substrates. This study systematically examined the mechanisms by which remoras adhere to soft substrates, considering anatomical, behavioral, and evolutionary perspectives. The investigation revealed the functionality of the remora's adhesive disk unfurling into independent compartments, enhancing vacuum-based suction on soft substrates. It was also uncovered that the evolutionary adaptation of lamella orientation among remora species to adhere to hosts of vastly different swimming speeds, surface roughnesses, and substrate stiffnesses. Specifically, it was concluded that tilt-angled lamellae are better suited for adhering to soft mucosa layers, while parallel-angled lamellae exhibit greater resistance to losing adhesion under shear drag. Based on these insights, a mechanical underwater soft adhesion system (MUSAS) was developed. The mechanical article has a flexible design and is easy to fabricate compared to chemical and biological approaches, demonstrating superior adhesion performance on diverse soft substrates with an adhesion-force-to-weight ratio of up to 1391 times. Additionally, MUSAS showed insensitivity to environmental pH and moisture. In vivo studies confirmed that MUSAS can retain its position for up to three weeks and safely pass through the GI tract, while also demonstrating self-adhesion with endogenous force when orally delivered in a swine model. Through additional in vivo studies on fish and swine models, MUSAS also demonstrated compelling potential for wireless, battery-free sensing of underwater life, monitoring gastroesophageal reflux disease, sustained release of pre-exposure prophylaxis for HIV / AIDS, and targeted delivery of mRNA therapeutics in the GI tract. MUSAS offers a mechanical approach for achieving wet and underwater adhesion on soft substrates. MUSAS may allow for advantageous applications in kinetic biosensing and intelligent targeted delivery in the GI tract. However, current suction-based adhesion theory predominantly relies on empirical estimates of vacuum created by single-piece adhesive cups. This study may pave the way towards addressing the theoretical gap in computational mechanics by modeling suction mechanisms based on multi-compartmental systems. Future theories would benefit from scrutinizing analytical or phenomenological models considering fluid surface tension and solid- solid interactions among soft materials, potentially yielding new design principles for mechanical adhesion. Furthermore, MUSAS was catalyze further exploration into leveraging mechanical methods to develop cost-effective manufacturing-friendly solutions for reversible underwater adhesion on soft substrates across diverse industries. Methods Fabrication of MUSAS MUSAS are flexible to be fabricated using a variety of silicone rubbers and biodegradable lamella materials. A detailed fabrication procedure is provided elsewhere in this disclosure. Unless otherwise specified, all testing of MUSAS was conducted using MUSAS fabricated with Ecoflex 0030 elastomer and shape memory nitinol lamellae. Micro computed tomography A SkyScan1173 micro-CT unit (Bruker) was used to scan individual heads of various remora species. The scanning parameters included a voltage range of 51-130 kV, an amperage range of 40-136 µA, an exposure time range of 337-730 ms, and an image rotation range of 0.06- 0.07°. Slice reconstruction of the osteological structure of the remora suction disk was performed using NRecon (Micro Photonics) and rendered in Mimics 15.0 (Materialise). The lamella angle of the remoras, viewed dorsally, was characterized using Fusion 360 (Autodesk). Universal mechanical testing Universal tensile testing was conducted to measure the stiffness of the specimens and materials of interest. An Instron 5944 universal testing system was used for the tensile test. For both stiffness and adhesion study, the tensile extension rate was set to 30.0 mm / min, with a measurement interval of 100 ms for time, 0.1 N for load, and 0.1 mm for extension. Unless specified otherwise, all mechanical testing of MUSAS used MUSAS fabricated with Ecoflex 0030 elastomer. All devices and materials used for the adhesion test had the same adhesion surface area of roughly 250 mm², which equals the adhesion surface area of MUSAS. The adhesion pressure was calculated by dividing the force by the adhesion surface area. All test specimens, including devices and adhesive materials used in the adhesion test, were bonded to the top of a double-stacked 0.5 mm thickness polyimide Kapton strip (McMaster-Carr) using UV-cured 5055 silicone adhesive (Loctite). The Kapton strips were secured with an Instron tensile grip. A preload of 0.5 N was applied to all devices and adhesive materials before test. To ensure a fair comparison, the pre-adhesion pressurization for other adhesive materials to 3 minutes, while for MUSAS there was no prolonged pressurization. Soft substrates used in the mechanical adhesion testing on freshly prepared inert materials or harvested tissue (< 1 hour post-euthanasia) without surface washout, tissue trimming, or liquid removal. Soft substrates were only partially secured, with the four corners of the tissue squares glued to the holder to allow for natural sliding and dynamic morphing. All devices and adhesive materials used in the adhesion test had the same adhesion surface area of roughly 250 mm², which equals the adhesion surface area of MUSAS. The adhesion pressure was calculated by dividing the force by the adhesion surface area. Numerical simulation Solid-fluid interactions between water, tissue and MUSAS Finite element analysis was conducted to characterize the hydrostatic differentiation of the adhesive disk of remoras. Commercial software Abaqus 2021 (SIMULIA) was used for the study. The remora disk phantom devices were assumed to be composed of EcoFlex 0030, with a density of 1.07 g / cm³, a Young’s modulus of 125 kPa, and a Poisson's ratio of 0.49. The physical parameters of stomach tissue include a density of 1.088 g / cm³, a Young’s modulus of 700 kPa, and a Poisson's ratio of 0.49. Coupled-Eulerian-Lagrangian (CEL) techniques were used to model the solid-fluid interactions between tissue, device, and water. Water was treated as a Newtonian laminar flow, with a density of 0.997 g / cm³ and a dynamic viscosity of 8.90 × 10⁻⁴ Pa·s. The simulation was configured so that the mimicry remora suction cups descended at a constant speed of 0.3 mm / s until they touched the stomach tissue submerged in water. Solid-solid interactions were modeled as hard contact for normal behavior, with tangential behavior modeled using a penalty method with a friction coefficient of 0.02. Details of calculation of relative vacuum ratio Vr are provided elsewhere in the disclosure. Self-actuation of nitinol lamella of MUSAS The self-actuation of nitinol lamellae in MUSAS in response to temperature stimuli was simulated using the commercial software COMSOL Multiphysics (COMSOL). The Lagoudas phenomenological inelastic constitutive model for shape memory alloys (nitinol), including the relevant material properties, was implemented to simulate the phase transformation of the shape memory alloys. Synthesis of materials for in-vitro adhesion characterization pAAm-alginate tough hydrogel The tough hydrogel is composed of alginate and polyacrylamide (pAAm) double networks (pAAm-alginate) crosslinked by numerous dimethacrylate monomers. Hydrogel fabrication is achieved via one-step aqueous free- radical polymerization. Briefly, in a 50 mL tube, 30 mL of phosphate buffer (100 mM, pH 7), 3.6 g of acrylamide, 600 mg of sodium alginate (medium viscosity), 1.3 mg of N,N’- methylenebisacrylamide (MBAA), and 10 mg of ammonium persulfate (APS) are added and vortexed to form solution A (pAAm-alginate). Calcium sulfate (CaSO4) is added to DI water and stirred to form a homogeneous suspension. Then, 5 mL of pre-gel solution A is loaded into a 5 mL syringe (diameter = 12 mm), and 120 mg of calcium sulfate and 29.4 mg of N,N,N’,N’-tetramethylethylenediamine (TEMED) are loaded into another 5 mL syringe. The two syringes are connected with a syringe connector and mixed over 10 times. Afterwards, the gel solution is poured into a glass mold covered with a 3-mm- thick glass plate. After 12 hours, the hydrogel is ready to be removed from the mold. Particularly, for test leveraging tough hydrogel as soft substrates to evaluate adhesion performance of MUSAS (Figs.3C to 3F), air bubbles were manually introduced during the preparation procedure to create a porous and rough substrate surface. NHS-EDC bridging polymers for tough hydrogel The bridging polymers, which include chitosan, polyallylamine, gelatin, and polyethyleneimine, were prepared following a previously reported protocol. Sulfated N- hydroxysuccinimide (NHS) and 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl) carbodiimide (EDC) were used as coupling reagents. Right before the adhesion of the tough hydrogel to tissue surfaces, the bridging polymers and coupling reagents were mixed to achieve a concentration of 12 mg / mL of both NHS and EDC in the bridging polymer solutions. A 250 μL mixed solution was then smeared onto the surface of the tough hydrogel, followed by immediate compression of the tough hydrogel to the tissue surfaces for 3 minutes before the adhesion test. Carbopol tough hydrogel To prepare Carbopol tough hydrogel, 100 mg of Carbopol 971P was dissolved in the pAAm- alginate solution as described pAAm-alginate tough hydrogel protocol. The rest of the preparation procedures were identical to those used for the pAAm-alginate tough hydrogel. A 3- minute compression of the Carbopol tough hydrogel to the tissue surfaces was applied before the adhesion test. Styrene-Ethylene-Butylene-Styrene (SEBS) Thermoplastic Elastomer The SEBS substrate was prepared by mixing 10 ml of toluene with 4 g of SEBS (Kraton G1645). After dissolution, the ink was homogenized using a speedmixer (FlackTek 330) at 2000 rpm for 5 minutes. The ink was then drop-cast onto stainless steel petri dishes to achieve a film thickness of 3 mm. The substrate was dried in a fume hood for 2 hours and cured at 60°C for 1 hour. After curing, the stretchable SEBS substrate was peeled off from the petri dish. In vivo testing All swine studies were approved by and performed in accordance with the Committee on Animal Care at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. All fish studies were approved by and performed in accordance with the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee of Boston College. Fabrication of MUSAS fish tag with a temperature sensor A ProtoLaser R4 laser cutter (LPKF) was used to pattern the top and bottom 35-μm thick copper claddings of an RT / duroid 6010.2LM laminate (Rogers Corporation), which features a 0.635 mm thick ceramic-PTFE composite dielectric core. The laser was then employed to ablate a via hole through the substrate, establishing an electrical connection to the top copper layer using a soldered 32 AWG feedthrough wire. The antenna geometry, measuring 12 mm x 6 mm, was laser-cut from the patterned RT / duroid laminate. A Magnus S3 tag chip (Axzon Inc.) was mounted onto the ground plane with a non-conductive UV-cured epoxy adhesive. Chip-to- antenna interconnections were made via thermosonic gold ball bonding, reinforced with silver conductive paste and cured at 65°C for 40 minutes using a C174740 Mech-El MEI Marpet 1204B wire bonder. A superstrate with hatched top and bottom copper claddings on an RT / duroid 6010.2LM core was then fabricated and affixed to the top surface of the antenna with an adhesive layer. Finally, the assembled antenna was packaged onto the remora device by underfilling and encapsulating the bottom and sides with 5055 UV Curing Silicone Adhesive (Henkel Loctite) epoxy resin. Fabrication and evaluation of MUSAS impedance biosensor for detecting gastroesophageal reflux The impedance sensor was laser cut on single-sided flexible copper laminate (Pulsar Professional fx FR45 mil ½ oz copper). Each of the 13 traces were 75um wide and 75um apart from each other. Alignment of the cut was performed with camera on a R4 laser (LPKF). Parylene coating was then performed on a PDS 2010 Labcoater (Special Coating System), to prevent unnecessary shortcut of the impedance sensor. A Kapton tape mask (0.03mm thickness, McMaster- Carr) was cut with the R4 laser to cover the impedance sensor traces during the parylene coating procedure. After completion of the parylene coating, the Kapton tape mask was peeled off. To improve the electric conductivity and sensitivity of the traces of the impedance sensor, electron beam evaporation was performed to deposit gold on the copper traces. The deposition procedure included coating 10 nm adhesion layer of titanium and then 200 nm gold and was performed on EE- 4 E-beam evaporator (Denton). For impedance measurement of tissue, we used the Sciospec ISX-3 Impedance Analyzer for 4- point impedance measurements. The measurements spanned frequencies between 100 Hz to 1 MHz. The impedance sensor was a square array of gold sputtered copper traces, evenly spaced and sized 120 µm wide, inscribed in a circle of 6 mm diameter. The copper was first laser ablated off from a single-sided flexible copper-fiberglass laminate (Pulsar Professional), which had a copper thickness of 18 um and a total thickness of 127 um. Gold sputtering was performed afterwards. For the in vivo study, MUSAS impedance biosensors were placed via an over tube into the esophagus of anesthetized female Yorkshire pigs (70-95 kg) and self-adhered through the contraction of the esophagus. A gastroesophageal reflux model was created by using an endoscope to periodically spray gastric fluid, obtained from the pig itself, into the esophagus. Fabrication of gastric resident dosage forms for sustained release of Cabotegravir The Polycaprolactone (PCL) matrices containing Cabotegravir (CAB) were prepared with melt mixing. Drug stability of the matrices was confirmed in previous research. Specifically, PCL and Cabotegravir were weighed in a 10 mL glass vial. The vial and a negative mold for the PCL patch were then heated on a heat plate (Thermo Scientific) to 75 °C. The matrices were melted and well mixed before transferring to the mold. After cooling to room temperature, the PCL- CAB patches were adhered onto fabricated MUSAS with UV cured epoxy (Henkel Loctite). The Ecoflex matrices containing Cabotegravir were directly prepared by mixing Cabotegravir with Ecoflex 0030 for molding the suction cup of MUSAS. In vitro and in vivo evaluation of pharmacokinetics of Cabotegravir In vitro evaluation of the drug release of Cabotegravir was conducted in a release medium of simulated gastric fluid (SGF) containing 5% w / v Tween 20 surfactant (Thermo Scientific). The drug-loaded MUSAS were placed in 10 mL of the release medium in a 37 °C incubator shaking at 250 rpm. At 2 hours, 6 hours, 1 day, 2 days, 3 days, 5 days, and 7 days, 1 mL of the medium was sampled and stored at -20°C until HPLC analysis, as described later. During each sampling, the remaining release medium was replaced with fresh medium. In vivo pharmacokinetics were performed in female Yorkshire pigs (55-95 kg) in an unblinded fashion. MUSAS loaded with 40% Cabotegravir in the PCL matrices were either dropped through an over tube or endoscopically placed in the stomach of anesthetized Yorkshire pigs, which were fitted with ear catheters. The pigs were fed and monitored daily in the morning and evening with a laboratory mini-pig grower diet, along with midday snacks of fruits and vegetables. At 2 hours, 6 hours, 1 day, 2 days, 3 days, 5 days, and 7 days, 5 mL of blood were sampled via the ear catheter. The blood samples were centrifuged for serum separation at 4000 rpm for 10 minutes and then stored at -80°C until bioanalysis, as described elsewhere in this disclosure. Synthesis and in vitro characterization of mRNA nanoparticles mRNA-loaded lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) were made using a typical four component lipid mixture. Specifically, ethanol-based solutions of SM102, 1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3- phosphocholine (DSPC), cholesterol and 1,2-dimyristoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine-N- [methoxy(polyethylene glycol)-2000] (ammonium salt) (PEG-PE) were mixed to achieve a molar ratio of 50:10:38.5:1.5. Firefly luciferase mRNA (Trilink) was dissolved in 10 mM citrate buffer, pH 3. The lipid solution was mixed with mRNA solution at a volume ratio 1:3 to achieve a SM102: mRNA weight ratio of 12.86. The LNPs were placed on ice for 10 minutes to complete the complexation. For measuring activity of fresh LNPs, the LNPs were diluted in appropriate media and added to the cells. For measuring activity of freeze-thawed LNPs, the LNPs were diluted with 200 mg / ml sucrose in 10 mM citrate buffer at a volume ratio of 1:1 and incubated at 4C for 1h. The LNPs were then frozen at -20C for one hour. The LNPs were then thawed, diluted with complete media and added to the cells. In vitro studies were conducted with primary human oral epithelial cells (Celprogen). Cells were seeded in a 96-well plate overnight. On the next day, LNPs (fresh, freeze thawed with sucrose solution and freeze thawed without sucrose solution) were added to the cells to achieve an mRNA concentration of 1 ug / ml. The cells were incubated with the LNPs overnight.

[0002] Transfection efficiency was measured using the SteadyGlo assay using the manufacturer’s recommendations. Administration of mRNA nanoparticles to pigs The mRNA LNPs were prepared as described for the in vitro studies. The firefly luciferase mRNA loaded LNPs diluted in sucrose solution were transferred into the MUSAS, and frozen at -20C for 1h. Each MUSAS was loaded with 12.5 ug of mRNA. The MUSAS was applied to the pig buccal and pharynx manually with surgical forceps 8 to 24 hours before euthanasia. Immediately after the pig was euthanized, the site of administration and control were collected and placed in cold DMEM media (Thermo Fisher Scientific) containing 10% fetal bovine serum. Within 30 minutes of pig euthanasia, the tissue was immersed in 0.3 mg / ml potassium luciferin solution (Gold Biotechnology)in PBS without calcium and magnesium. For increased diffusion of the substrate, luciferin solution was injected into the swine esophageal tissue after submersion and before imaging. Bioluminescence was captured over a 30-minute span with an in vivo imaging system (IVIS) imaging system (Perkin Elmer) to capture bioluminescence. The luminescent images were taken using Field of View D, automatic exposure time, medium binning, F / Stop = 1, and taking images every minute. Imaging Confocal microscopy Confocal microscopy to measure hydrostatic differentiation of MUSAS’ underwater adhesion. A near-infrared fluorescent dye solution, Sulfo-Cyani18.5 (Cy5.5) (Thermo Fisher Scientific), was prepared at a concentration of 0.01 mg / mL (40 mL) to stain 1 mL of water spread onto a microscopic glass slide for confocal microscopy. Confocal microscope imaging was performed on MUSAS before and after adhesion to the water-rich glass slide, using a 635 nm laser line with a measuring depth of 400 µm. Firefly-luciferase mRNA transfection visualization in pharyngeal tissue using MUSAS via immunofluorescence confocal microscopy. Fixed esophageal pig tissues transfected for Firefly- luciferase (FLuc) expression with MUSAs along with untransfected controls were stained using DAPI (Thermo Fisher Scientific), as well as Firefly luciferase Polyclonal Antibody primary antibody with a 1:2000 dilution ratio (Thermo Fisher Scientific), conjugated with secondary Goat anti-Rabbit IgG (H+L) Cross- Adsorbed, Alexa Fluor™ 647 (Thermo Fisher Scientific).5 IHC slides per block of pig esophageal tissue were prepared for imaging. Fluorescent images were taken with an Olympus FV1200 Laser Scanning Confocal Microscope with two channels: DAPI (405 nm laser line) and AlexaFluor647 (635 nm laser line). Images were taken using a 10X objective. All images were processed using Fiji (Image J) software. Scanning electron microscopy Before scanning electron microscopy (SEM), all samples were mounted inside a copper vise and then subjected to vacuum and liquid nitrogen inside the Leica EM VCM (headquarter location: 35578 Wetzlar, Deutschland). Using the portable temperature-controlled vacuum arm, each cryogenic sample was transferred to the Leica ACE 600 which cryo-fractured a fresh cross section and sputter coated approximately 10 nm of platinum. This conductive coating prevented excessive surface charging artifacts during SEM imaging. Using the same portable vacuum arm, each cryogenic sample was transferred to the Zeiss Gemini 360 SEC SEM (headquarter location: 73447 Oberkochen, Deutschland). While under high vacuum, using the secondary electron detector, low voltage imaging (2-3 kV) was used to prevent damage from electron bombardment while providing high surface detail. Typical imaging conditions would also entail a probe current near 2 nA and a working distance between 6-8 mm. Fluorescence microscopy Ex vivo study was performed to evaluate bioavailability of a nanoparticle formulation delivered through MUSAS, 215 µL of fluorescent polystyrene nanoparticles prepared with FluoSpheres™ Polystyrene Microspheres (Thermo Fisher Scientific) were prepared and stored at -80°C. The fluorescent nanoparticles were then subcutaneously injected, smeared with a pipette, or delivered via MUSAS to freshly harvested porcine esophagus tissue. The esophagus tissues, including a negative control, were resected, rapidly frozen in OCT gel (Agar Scientific) using liquid nitrogen, and sectioned using a cryostat microtome. Subsequently, the sectioned tissues were imaged using an EVOS fluorescence microscope (Life Technologies) with excitation / emission wavelengths of 580 / 605 nm. Bioanalytics In Vitro high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) Dissolution samples in simulated gastric fluid (SGF) were directly analyzed by high pressure liquid chromatography and UV detection (HPLC / UV) on a 1260 Infinity system (Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, CA). Samples were injected at a volume of 2 µL onto an Agilent EC- C18 Poroshell column (3.0 × 50 mm, 2.7 µm d$_p$) held at 25 °C. The mobile phase consisted of 0.1% formic acid in water (v+v, A) and acetonitrile (B), pumped at 800 µL / min with a gradient program of: 0 min, 5% B; 8 min, 60% B; 8.1 min, 95% B, over 10 min and with an equilibration time of 2 min. Eluite was quantified with a diode array detector at cabotegravir's local absorption maximum at 258 nm in the ultraviolet region at 5 Hz. In Vivo liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC / MS) Porcine serum samples were prepared via protein precipitation at a 1:3 volume ratio of serum to acetonitrile with bictegravir or verapamil as internal standard. The LC / MS method used was validated according to FDA recommendations, on HPLC's coupled to Agilent 6495 triple quadrupole mass spectrometers in positive mode. Concentrations were calculated based on the linear regression of cabotegravir response relative to internal standard response. Specifically, samples were injected at a volume of 10 µL onto the same column using the same mobile phase above, but without temperature control. The gradient program used a 400 µL / min flow rate with 0 min, 5% B; 0.5 min, 5% B; 4 min, 95% B, with a run time of 5 min and equilibration time of 2 min. The AJS source used the following parameters: gas temperature, 200 °C; gas flow, 14 L / min; nebulizer pressure, 20 psi; sheath gas temperature, 250 °C; sheath gas flow, 11 L / min; capillary voltage, 3000 V; nozzle voltage, 1500 V; high RF, 150 V; low RF, 60 V. The same transitions for cabotegravir above were used, except both at 38 V collision energy. Verapamil was used as internal standard, quantified with the transition from 455.1 *m / z* to 303.1 *m / z* at 35 V, and qualified with the transition from 455.1 *m / z* to 303.1 *m / z* at 40 V. Histology fixation Unless specified, histology samples were fixed with 10% formalin for 24h and then stored in 70% ethanol before embedded in paraffin for histology analysis. Statistical quantification and analysis Statistical quantification and analysis were performed via Prism 9.3 (GraphPad). All error bars represent standard deviation (SD). Student t-test and ANOVA (F-test) were performed to compare differences between two groups, and among three or more groups, respectively. We chose several p-values systematically evaluate the statistical significance, including p ≤ 0.05 (*) as the entry level of significance, p ≤ 0.01 (**) for highly significant, p ≤ 0.001 (***) and p ≤ 0.0001 (****) for extremely significant. The number of independent experiments of replicates and definition of significance level were further elaborated in each figure, figure caption and relevant methods section where statistical quantification and analysis was performed. Relative vacuum ratio To differentiate the hydrodynamic behaviors modeled by finite element analysis for various configurations of remora adhesive disk mimicries, we used the relative vacuum ratio Vrto evaluate the amount of water expelled relative to the theoretical maximum volume of water that can be expelled in the disk during underwater adhesion for each case: an unfurled disk, a furled disk, and a benchmark one-piece disk. Given the complexity of accurately calculating the volume of water retained in the various deformation states of the remora adhesive disk mimicries, free image processing software was employed (Inkscape) to measure the precise area of water held in the cross profile of each configuration. The relative vacuum ratio Vrwas then calculated as follows, (Equation 1) where AInitial represents disk mimicry before any deformation, indicating the theoretical maximum amount of water that can be expelled. |An- An-1| measures the cumulative amount of water expelled, beginning from the moment t0when the disk mimicry contacts the stomach tissue, until tend when the disk can no longer be pressed to expel water. Fish study Remora (Echeneis naucrates) and tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) were single-housed in a 40- gallon tank (91.44 cm L × 43.18 cm W × 45.72 cm H) for the fish study. The remora was kept in saltwater at 28 °C, while the tilapia was maintained in freshwater at room temperature (20 °C). Additionally, a gourami (Osphronemidae) was housed separately in a 2-gallon tank (20 cm L × 20 cm W × 20 cm H) with freshwater at 27 °C. For the long-term retention study of MUSAS adhering on tilapia skin, two action cameras (GoPro) were used to capture the tilapia’s movements every hour, allowing for the monitoring of MUSAS detachment. Adhesion of MUSAS on tilapia was instant. The swimming experiments of MUSAS adhering on tilapia were conducted in a 28-L Brett-type swim tunnel (Loligo Systems) filled with water at room temperature (20 °C). Water velocity was controlled using a digital DC inverter (Eurodrive; Lyman) and calibrated using a vane-wheel flow meter (FIG.19). FIG.19 shows that the water flow (blue stream) velocity was controlled by a digital DC inverter (inv). The tilapia swam in the working section (ws) at 25 cm / s (1.25 BL / s) and 45 cm / s (2.25BL / s).The working section of the swim tunnel measured 40 cm L × 20 cm W × 20 cm D. To ensure laminar, nonturbulent flow, plastic honeycomb was inserted upstream in the working section. A 20-cm (body length) tilapia with the MUSA attached to the operculum at 1.25 BL / s (25 cm / s), and 2.25 BL / s (45 cm / s) is approximately half of the critical swimming speed of tilapia, depicting their long-term fast swimming behavior at 20 °C. Design and characterization of a miniaturized RFID temperature sensor Design and simulation of the RFID antenna Designing RFID systems for underwater use presents unique challenges due to the electromagnetic properties of water. The presence of dissolved salts and other materials increases water's conductivity, significantly attenuating radio waves—a phenomenon that is frequency dependent. The design described in this example addresses these challenges by optimizing the antenna and overall system for aquatic operation. FIG.8A shows a schematic of the proposed RFID temperature sensor. The proposed RFID temperature sensor, depicted in FIG.8A, has dimensions of 12 mm L × 6 mm W × 1.35 mm H. The RFID sensor comprises a ground plane connected to a Magnus-S RFID temperature sensor chip (Axzon), a substrate, an antenna layer, and a superstrate. Both the substrate and superstrate, each 0.0635 mm thick, are fabricated from RT / duroid 6010.2LM laminate (Rogers Corporation). The RFID antenna is a center-symmetrical dipole, fed through the bottom substrate. A ground plane provides moderate shielding from the conducting structures of MUSAS. Additionally, an L- shaped slot in the ground plane optimizes impedance matching with the Magnus-S RFID temperature sensor chip (Axzon), which has a resistance of 3.5 Ω and a capacitance of 2.58 pF. Using CST Studio Suite (SIMULIA), a high-performance 3D electromagnetic (EM) analysis software, the antenna's performance was modeled and analyzed under various conditions, including the presence of water and the attachment of MUSAS (FIG.8B). FIG.8B shows a simulation setup in CST electromagnetic software (SIMULIA), featuring the RFID antenna encased in Ecoflex polymer and attached to MUSAS, immersed in an underwater environment. The antenna design is optimally matched to these conditions, as evidenced by the simulated and measured impedance data presented in FIG.8C. FIG.8C depicts simulated S11 results for three scenarios: ‘no MUSAS’ (RFID sensor in water without MUSAS), ‘no water’ (RFID sensor attached to MUSAS in air), and ‘full setup’ (complete assembly as shown in B). Measured (meas.) and simulated (sim.) impedance values are compared, showing significant overlap in both real and imaginary components, thereby validating the simulation accuracy. The simulated S11 parameter, which quantifies the ratio of input power to radiated power by the passive transponder, indicates excellent impedance matching for the complete assembly, with a minimum value of -38 dB at a resonant frequency of 915 MHz. Notably, the presence of water and the attachment to MUSAS detune the S- parameters, as depicted in FIG.8C. The current distribution at a zero-degree phase is presented in FIG.8D. To comprehensively evaluate the backscattering signal in RFID systems, it is essential to assess the antenna's radiation pattern. RFID radiation is not inherently omnidirectional; instead, the strength of the reflected signal from the RFID tag depends on the angle between the reader and the RFID tag, with the tag's information modulated into the signal. Given the antenna's largest dimension (D) of 12 mm and the electromagnetic wavelength in water of approximately 3.7 cm, the far-field range of the antenna can be calculated using the equation 2D2 / λ, resulting in a distance of 0.8 cm. With an operational distance of at least 5 cm, the antenna operates within the far-field range, necessitating an examination of its far-field radiation pattern. In the far field, EM power attenuates radially, following the inverse square law relative to the distance from the antenna. This attenuation means that the radiation pattern does not change shape with increasing distance, making it a critical factor in determining the efficiency and coverage of the RFID system. As shown in FIG.8E, the far-field radiation pattern of the proposed RFID antenna exhibits peaks along the azimuth plane, with a null at θ = 0°. FIG.8E shows a 3D far-field radiation pattern. Further examination of the 2D cuts in the pattern along the ϕ = 0° and ϕ = 90° planes, as shown in FIG.8F, reveals a distorted donut-shaped pattern. FIG.8F depicts a 2D far- field radiation pattern. MUSAS, while not electrically connected to the RFID antenna, influences current distribution and causes distortion in the antenna's backside radiation pattern. This distortion aligns with the simulated current distribution (FIG.8D), where the conducting components of MUSAS share induced current, altering the backside radiation pattern of the dipole antenna. FIG.8D shows simulated surface current distribution at the resonant frequency with a zero-degree phase. The final directivity of the antenna is 2.91 dBi, with a radiation efficiency of 9%. These results underscore the importance of considering both the antenna's design and its interaction with the device to optimize performance in real-world applications. The use of high-permittivity substrate and superstrate facilitates the miniaturization of the antenna, with potential future work to improve the directivity and efficiency by integrating the MUSAS into the ground plane and enlarging the ground plane footprint. FIG.8G compares the dimensions of the MUSAS-based RFID temperature sensor with a commercial RFID temperature tag (Avery Dennison) used for in vitro validation (scale bar, 5 mm). FIG.8H is a close-up view showing the positioning of the TSL 3166 reader (Technology Solution UK Ltd) and the RFID tags under in vitro test. FIG.8I shows a custom Faraday cage setup for the in vitro test, including the S3SensorTagReader app installed on an Android smartphone for collecting temperature and received signal strength indicator (RSSI) data. FIG.8J shows an in vitro underwater temperature reading of MUSAS RFID tag, compared to a commercial sensor (Avery Dennison). In vitro validation To ensure accurate and reproducible in vitro measurements, we constructed a Faraday cage simulating a water environment for the RFID tags, adhering to the UHF RFID (EPC Class 1 Gen 2) protocol for performance testing. This Faraday cage effectively shields the system from external electromagnetic interference, which is crucial for isolating the antenna's performance characteristics. Our measurement methodology includes key performance metrics, such as the Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI), which provides insights into the signal strength between the RFID tag and the reader. The performance of our RFID temperature sensor was compared to a commercial Smartrac RFID temperature sensor (Avery Dennison), both utilizing the Axzon Magnus-S tag chip (FIG.8G). A TSL 3166 Bluetooth Rugged UHF RFID Reader (Technology Solutions UK LTD) was placed inside the Faraday cage to read the tags, creating a controlled environment that minimizes external factors affecting signal propagation (FIG. S11A). FIG. S11A shows a close-up view showing the positioning of the TSL 3166 reader (Technology Solution UK Ltd) and the RFID tags under test. FIG. S11B shows a custom Faraday cage setup, including the S3SensorTagReader app installed on an Android smartphone for collecting temperature and received signal strength indicator (RSSI) data. The S3SensorTagReader developer API (Technology Solutions UK LTD) was employed on an Android smartphone for temperature readout (FIG. S11B). The RFID sensor achieved an RSSI range of 3–12 dBm with a power sweep from 15–30 dBm, demonstrating performance comparable to the commercial tag (FIG. 5D-IV). Species Museum Cat. # Standard Length Phtheirichthys lineatus MCZ 33448 145 mm Echeneis naucrates MCZ 30872 170 mm Echeneis neucratoides MCZ 8678 200 mm Remora albescens MCZ 32104 94 mm Remora australis LACM 30310-18 182 mm Remora remora MCZ83204 133 mm Remora brachyptera MCZ 8668 155 mm Remora osteochir MCZ 101628 161 mm Table 1. Information of remora specimens analyzed in micro-CT. Specimens were obtained from the Museum of Comparative Zoology (MCZ) and Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County (LACM). FIG.13A shows a universal mechanical testing setup (Instron) for characterizing various adhesion devices. FIG.13B shows sample measurements of underwater normal adhesion force to determine the optimal lip thickness ratio on STP. The relative mass of the corresponding tested device is 0.4027 g (1.0x), 0.4201 g (1.4x), 0.4158 g (1.6x), 0.4175 g (1.8x), and 0.4235 g (2.0x). The gravity used to calculate the maximum force-to-weight ratio is 9.807 m / s². FIG.13C and FIG.13D show sample measurements of underwater normal and shear adhesion force of various designs and components of MUSAS on stomach tissue phantom. FIG.14A shows an illustration of the lamella-only device used to characterize the impact of different lamella designs on shear performance. FIG.14B shows an illustration of the contact angle α of the lamella. FIG.14C shows no significant difference was detected in shear frictional performance relative to contact angle α (n = 5, with 3 tested in the anterior shear drag direction and 2 tested in the posterior direction). FIG.14D shows differences in shear frictional performance with varying spinule lengths of the lamella (n = 5). FIG.14E ex vivo studies of the optimal tilted-angled MUSAS (FIG.2) shows no significant difference in adhesion direction to swine small intestine tissue (n = 3). FIG.15A and FIG.15B show sample measurements of the normal and shear adhesion forces of MUSAS on various soft substrates. The mass of the optimal tilted-angled MUSAS used for calculating the maximum force-to-weight ratio is 0.6056 g, considering gravity of 9.807 m / s². FIG.15C shows the mechanical characterization of the Young’s modulus of various substrates, with the mean value labeled (n = 3). FIG.15D shows the sample measurement of the Young’s modulus of various soft substrates. In some embodiments, an article configured for underwater adhesion to soft substrates is provided. In some embodiments, the article comprises: an adhesive disk, comprising: an elastomeric compartment; and a plurality of tilt-angled lamellae structures, wherein each adhesive compartment is configured to separately seal lamellae pairs for hydrostatic differentiation. In some embodiments, the article further comprises a backbone support structure. In some embodiments, the article further comprises a pharmaceutical agent (e.g., drug delivery polymer matrix, microneedles), electronic component (e.g., RFID), and / or biochemical sensor (e.g., impedance sensor) associated with the disk. In some embodiments, the tilt-angled lamellae have an angle of greater than or equal to 0 degrees and less than or equal to 60 degrees. In some embodiments, the underwater adhesion of the article does not require the external application of vacuum pressure. While several embodiments of the present invention have been described and illustrated herein, those of ordinary skill in the art will readily envision a variety of other means and / or structures for performing the functions and / or obtaining the results and / or one or more of the advantages described herein, and each of such variations and / or modifications is deemed to be within the scope of the present invention. More generally, those skilled in the art will readily appreciate that all parameters, dimensions, materials, and configurations described herein are meant to be exemplary and that the actual parameters, dimensions, materials, and / or configurations will depend upon the specific application or applications for which the teachings of the present invention is / are used. Those skilled in the art will recognize, or be able to ascertain using no more than routine experimentation, many equivalents to the specific embodiments of the invention described herein. It is, therefore, to be understood that the foregoing embodiments are presented by way of example only and that, within the scope of the appended claims and equivalents thereto, the invention may be practiced otherwise than as specifically described and claimed. The present invention is directed to each individual feature, system, article, material, kit, and / or method described herein. In addition, any combination of two or more such features, systems, articles, materials, kits, and / or methods, if such features, systems, articles, materials, kits, and / or methods are not mutually inconsistent, is included within the scope of the present invention. The indefinite articles “a” and “an,” as used herein in the specification and in the claims, unless clearly indicated to the contrary, should be understood to mean “at least one.” The phrase “and / or,” as used herein in the specification and in the claims, should be understood to mean “either or both” of the elements so conjoined, i.e., elements that are conjunctively present in some cases and disjunctively present in other cases. Other elements may optionally be present other than the elements specifically identified by the “and / or” clause, whether related or unrelated to those elements specifically identified unless clearly indicated to the contrary. Thus, as a non-limiting example, a reference to “A and / or B,” when used in conjunction with open-ended language such as “comprising” can refer, in one embodiment, to A without B (optionally including elements other than B); in another embodiment, to B without A (optionally including elements other than A); in yet another embodiment, to both A and B (optionally including other elements); etc. As used herein in the specification and in the claims, “or” should be understood to have the same meaning as “and / or” as defined above. For example, when separating items in a list, “or” or “and / or” shall be interpreted as being inclusive, i.e., the inclusion of at least one, but also including more than one, of a number or list of elements, and, optionally, additional unlisted items. Only terms clearly indicated to the contrary, such as “only one of” or “exactly one of,” or, when used in the claims, “consisting of,” will refer to the inclusion of exactly one element of a number or list of elements. In general, the term “or” as used herein shall only be interpreted as indicating exclusive alternatives (i.e. “one or the other but not both”) when preceded by terms of exclusivity, such as “either,” “one of,” “only one of,” or “exactly one of.” “Consisting essentially of,” when used in the claims, shall have its ordinary meaning as used in the field of patent law. As used herein in the specification and in the claims, the phrase “at least one,” in reference to a list of one or more elements, should be understood to mean at least one element selected from any one or more of the elements in the list of elements, but not necessarily including at least one of each and every element specifically listed within the list of elements and not excluding any combinations of elements in the list of elements. This definition also allows that elements may optionally be present other than the elements specifically identified within the list of elements to which the phrase “at least one” refers, whether related or unrelated to those elements specifically identified. Thus, as a non-limiting example, “at least one of A and B” (or, equivalently, “at least one of A or B,” or, equivalently “at least one of A and / or B”) can refer, in one embodiment, to at least one, optionally including more than one, A, with no B present (and optionally including elements other than B); in another embodiment, to at least one, optionally including more than one, B, with no A present (and optionally including elements other than A); in yet another embodiment, to at least one, optionally including more than one, A, and at least one, optionally including more than one, B (and optionally including other elements); etc. In the claims, as well as in the specification above, all transitional phrases such as “comprising,” “including,” “carrying,” “having,” “containing,” “involving,” “holding,” and the like are to be understood to be open-ended, i.e., to mean including but not limited to. Only the transitional phrases “consisting of” and “consisting essentially of” shall be closed or semi-closed transitional phrases, respectively, as set forth in the United States Patent Office Manual of Patent Examining Procedures, Section 2111.03.

Claims

CLAIMS What is claimed is:

1. An article configured for adhesion to soft substrates, the article comprising: an adhesive disk, comprising: an elastomeric compartment; and a plurality of tilt-angled lamellae structures disposed within the elastomeric compartment, wherein: at least a portion of the elastomeric compartment and two or more angled lamellae structures define an adhesive compartment, and each adhesive compartment is configured to independently couple the adhesive disk to the substrate.

2. An article configured for adhesion to soft substrates, the article comprising: an adhesive disk, comprising: an elastomeric compartment; a backbone structure positioned disposed within the elastomeric compartment; and a plurality of angled lamellae structures and disposed on the backbone structure, wherein: at least a portion of the elastomeric compartment and two or more lamellae structures define an adhesive compartment, and the hydrostatic pressure in at least some of the adhesive compartments, when coupled to the substrate, is less than the hydrostatic pressure of the surrounding environment.

3. An article configured for adhesion to soft substrates, the article comprising: an adhesive disk, comprising: an elastomeric compartment; a backbone structure positioned in the elastomeric compartment; anda plurality of angled lamellae structures disposed on the backbone structure, wherein: at least a portion of the elastomeric compartment and two or more angled lamellae structures define an adhesive compartment, and at least some of the adhesive compartments are capable of coupling the article to the substrate such that a normal adhesion force between the substrate and the article is greater than or equal to 0.1 N and / or the adhesion-force-to-weight ratio of the article is greater than or equal to 100.

4. The article of claim 2, wherein the hydrostatic pressure in at least some of the adhesive compartments, when coupled to the substrate, is less than the hydrostatic pressure of the surrounding environment.

5. The article of any one of claims 1-4, wherein at least some of the angled lamellae structures have an angle of greater than or equal to 0 degrees and less than or equal to 80 degrees.

6. The article of any one of claims 1-5, wherein at least some of the angled lamellae structures are substantially parallel to each other.

7. The article of any one of claims 1-6, wherein the adhesion of the article does not require the external application of vacuum pressure.

8. The article of any one of claims 1-7, further comprising an active substance, an electronic component, and / or biochemical sensor associated with the disk.

9. The article of claim 8, wherein the active substance comprises a biological material and / or a pharmaceutical agent.

10. The article of any one of claims 8-9, wherein the electronic component is capable of thearticle is capable of acquiring, storing, and / or transmitting data from one or more sensors associated with the article.

11. The article of any one of claims 8-10, wherein the biochemical sensor comprises animpedance sensor.

12. The article of any one of claims 1-11, wherein the angled lamellae structure comprises ashape-memory alloy that deforms when exposed to temperatures less than or equal to 40 degrees Celsius.

13. The article of any one of claims 1-12, wherein a normal adhesion force between thesubstrate and the article is greater than or equal to 0.1 N.

14. The article of any one of claims 1-13, wherein an adhesion-force-to-weight ratio of thearticle is greater than or equal to 100.

15. The article of any one of claims 1-14, wherein the article is capable of adhering to a wetsubstrate.

16. The article of claim 15, wherein the substrate has a modulus less than or equal to 20 MPa.

17. The article of any one of claims 1-16, wherein the article is ingestible.

18. The article of any one of claims 1-17, wherein at least some of the angled lamellaestructures comprise spinules disposed on a leading edge of the lamellae19. The article of claim 18, wherein the spinules have a penetration depth of less than orequal to 800 microns.

20. The article of any one of claims 2-19, wherein the backbone structure couples the lamellae to the elastomeric compartment

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