System, apparatus, and method for pulsed charging and pulsed heating of rechargeable energy source

Abstract

Embodiments are disclosed that provide advanced energy source arrangement charging for energy storage applications. The embodiments may include applying a pulse to an energy source for charging and preheating purposes. Systems and techniques are described for assessing parameters of impedance, inductance, and thermal characteristics used in heating and charging, as well as feedback-based pulse control embodiments that assess voltage variations due to concentration shifts.

Description

[0001] CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

[0002] This application claims the benefit of and priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 63 / 325,509, filed on March 30, 2022, which is incorporated herein in its entirety and for all purposes. Technical Field

[0003] The subject matter described herein generally relates to systems, devices, and methods for pulse charging and pulse heating of a rechargeable energy source. Background Art

[0004] Electrical energy storage systems are an important aspect of the global transition to cleaner forms of energy. Electrical energy storage systems are present in many stationary and mobile applications. Electrical energy storage systems in the form of battery packs can be used to power hybrid and all-electric vehicles, and can be used to store electricity generated by the vehicle (e.g., by using regenerative braking). Electrical energy storage systems can be positioned in stacks or racks and are used to store and supply energy to residential, commercial, and industrial facilities, and can be integrated with or used to form grids and microgrids.

[0005] These energy storage systems (ESS) require periodic charging to replenish the discharged power. Many deficiencies and problems associated with existing charging methods have been found, such as heat loss, degradation, and slow charging rates. For example, the long charging time of electric vehicles (EVs) is a major factor limiting their widespread acceptance. It may take several hours to fully charge a battery pack using conventional constant current charging methods. Such long waiting times can cause great inconvenience and inefficiency when using EVs for travel beyond the range of a single charge of the EV. Therefore, conventional EVs are most commonly used for local commuting, or travel that can be completed without recharging the battery pack. In the presence of charging stations that are capable of charging at higher voltages in a shorter time, repeated use of these charging stations may result in a significantly shortened life of the battery pack.

[0006] The negative impact of slow charging times is not limited to EVs, systems for stationary applications can also benefit. In addition, any device that relies on a battery pack for power may benefit, such as power tools, drones, and remote-controlled vehicles.

[0007] The response of batteries such as lithium-ion batteries to charging depends on the temperature of the battery. If a lithium-ion battery is charged and the anode or cathode overvoltage is too high while still at a relatively low temperature, the battery can be severely degraded. This can lead to failures caused by phenomena such as lithium precipitation within the power battery cells.

[0008] For these and other reasons, there is a need for improved systems, devices, and methods for rapidly charging and / or heating an energy source. Summary of the invention

[0009] Described herein are example embodiments of systems, devices, and methods for fast charging of energy sources that are independent or part of an energy storage system (e.g., a battery pack for an electric vehicle, a fixed system energy buffer, a microgrid, etc.). The embodiments described herein may include heating the energy source by applying a preheating signal that raises the source temperature and reduces the overall impedance of the energy source so that the electrochemical reaction can be accelerated by subsequent charging. The embodiments may include charging the energy source with a charging pulse at a frequency that passes through the bi-plate capacitance of the energy source and reduces the activation impedance of the source, thereby permitting the source to be charged at a higher rate without degradation reactions. The embodiments may also include a combination of a pulse preheating phase or a pulse charging phase with a constant current (or non-pulse) charging phase at a higher temperature, and the embodiments may include at least one instance of all three phases. The embodiments described herein are particularly suitable for applications within a cascaded modular energy storage system, wherein each module includes at least one energy source and a switching circuit system capable of applying current in a pulsed manner for preheating and / or charging.

[0010] Embodiments are described for evaluating one or more parameters of an energy source to be charged and utilizing the evaluated parameters in selecting settings for executing a heating and / or charging regimen. The parameters may be measured by the system, or measured based on previous measurements or representative values ​​stored in a memory (local or remote) and retrieved by the system. Examples of parameters may include impedance, inductance, and thermal characteristics. Examples of settings may relate to frequency, voltage, current, or timing of a heating or charging signal.

[0011] Embodiments are described for evaluating voltage changes that occur due to concentration excursions in an energy source caused by charging. The evaluated voltage changes can be used as real-time feedback to adjust the charging process. For example, the evaluated voltage can be an activation overvoltage due to a concentration excursion, and can be used as feedback to adjust the charging current (or voltage) limit to avoid exceeding the allowable anode overvoltage (and any attendant deleterious effects).

[0012] Other systems, devices, methods, features, and advantages of the subject matter described herein will be apparent or will become apparent to those skilled in the art upon review of the following drawings and detailed description. It is intended that all such additional systems, methods, features, and advantages be included within this description, be within the scope of the subject matter described herein, and be protected by the appended claims. Features of the example embodiments should in no way be construed to limit the appended claims without explicitly reciting such features in the claims. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0013] The details of the subject matter described herein, both as to its structure and operation, may be apparent from a study of the accompanying drawings, in which like reference numerals refer to similar parts. The components in the drawings are not necessarily drawn to scale, with emphasis placed on illustrating the principles of the described subject matter. Furthermore, all illustrations are intended to convey concepts, in which relative sizes, shapes, and other detailed attributes may be shown schematically rather than literally or precisely.

[0014] Figures 1A-1C is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of a modular energy system.

[0015] Figure 1D-1E is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of a control device for an energy system.

[0016] Figure 1F-1G is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of a modular energy system coupled to a load and a charge source.

[0017] Figure 2A-2B is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of modules and control systems within an energy system.

[0018] Figure 2C is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of the physical configuration of the modules.

[0019] Figure 2D is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of a physical configuration of a modular energy system.

[0020] Figures 3A-3C are block diagrams depicting example embodiments of modules having various electrical configurations.

[0021] Figures 4A-4F is a schematic diagram depicting an example embodiment of an energy source.

[0022] Figures 5A-5C is a schematic diagram depicting an example embodiment of an energy buffer.

[0023] Figures 6A-6C is a schematic diagram depicting an example embodiment of a converter.

[0024] Figures 7A-7E is a block diagram depicting example embodiments of modular energy systems having various topologies.

[0025] Fig. 8A is a graph depicting example output voltages of the module.

[0026] Figure 8B is a diagram depicting example multi-level output voltages for an array of modules.

[0027] Figure 8C is a diagram depicting example reference signals and carrier signals that may be used in pulse width modulation control techniques.

[0028] Fig.8D is a diagram depicting example reference signals and carrier signals that may be used in pulse width modulation control techniques.

[0029] Fig. 8E is a diagram depicting example switching signals generated according to a pulse width modulation control technique.

[0030] Fig.8F As a diagram depicting an example multi-level output voltage generated by superimposing the output voltages of an array of modules under a pulse width modulation control technique.

[0031] Figures 9A-9B is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of a controller for a modular energy system.

[0032] Fig. 10A is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of a multi-phase modular energy system having interconnected modules.

[0033] Fig. 10B It is a depiction Fig. 10A Schematic diagram of an example embodiment of an interconnect module in a multi-phase embodiment.

[0034] Fig. 10C is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of a modular energy system having two subsystems connected together by an interconnect module.

[0035] Fig. 10D is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of a three-phase modular energy system having interconnected modules that provide power to an auxiliary load.

[0036] Fig. 10E It is a depiction Fig. 10D Schematic diagram of an example embodiment of an interconnect module in a multi-phase embodiment.

[0037] Fig.10F is a block diagram depicting another example embodiment of a three-phase modular energy system having interconnected modules that provide power to an auxiliary load.

[0038] Figures 11A-11B is a diagram depicting a framework for describing multiple example embodiments of fast charging schemes.

[0039] Figures 11C-11D are current versus time graphs depicting example embodiments of preheat pulse trains with and without time gaps, respectively.

[0040] Fig.11E is a current versus time graph depicting an example embodiment of a pre-heat signal applied during multiple sub-phases.

[0041] Fig.11Fis a current versus time graph depicting an example embodiment of a pulse charging signal for a pulse charging phase.

[0042] Fig. 12A is a cross-sectional view of a generalized lithium-ion battery cell.

[0043] Fig. 12B is an illustrative diagram depicting an enlarged anode and cathode and listing examples of degradation modes that may occur within a typical lithium-ion battery cell.

[0044] Fig. 12C is a graph depicting example voltages of a lithium-ion battery cell over a range of states of charge.

[0045] Fig.12D is an electrical schematic model of a battery cell.

[0046] Fig.12E is a graph depicting an example impedance response of a lithium-ion battery cell.

[0047] Fig.12F is a graph depicting an example voltage response to a charging pulse applied to a lithium-ion battery cell.

[0048] Figure 12G is a graph depicting example concentration gradients within a lithium-ion battery cell.

[0049] Fig.13A is a graph depicting example levels of a constant current charging signal during a constant current charging phase.

[0050] Fig. 13B is a diagram depicting another example embodiment of a fast charging scheme with a constant current signal of gradually decreasing amplitude.

[0051] Fig.14 is a series of graphs depicting example embodiments of monitoring for indications that lithium precipitation has occurred.

[0052] Figures 15A-15B Graphs of absolute capacity retention and normalized capacity retention, respectively, comparing experimental data for example embodiments of constant current charging and pulse charging of pairs of lithium-ion battery cells rated for power applications.

[0053] Figures 16A-16B Graphs of absolute capacity retention and normalized capacity retention, respectively, comparing experimental data for an example embodiment of a constant current charge and a fast charge regimen performed on a pair of lithium-ion battery cells rated for power applications.

[0054] Fig. 16C is a graph of capacity versus time, and Fig.16Dare graphs of voltage versus time, both showing data collected from one example cycle of a fast charging regimen performed on a battery cell.

[0055] Figures 17A-17B is a graph of voltage versus capacity comparing experimental data for example embodiments of constant current charging and pulse charging, respectively, of pairs of lithium-ion battery cells rated for power applications.

[0056] Fig.18A Graphs of the imaginary and real impedance components for a constant current charged battery cell and a pulse charged battery cell at the end of their useful life.

[0057] Fig.18B is a graph of cell voltage versus time depicting experimental data collected for lithium-ion battery cells exposed to constant current charging and pulse charging with varying pulse durations.

[0058] Figures 19A-19G is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of an implementation of a fast charging scheme for various battery types.

[0059] Figures 20A-20F is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of a system configuration that may be used for the heating and charging schemes described herein.

[0060] Fig.21 is a flow chart depicting an example method of evaluating parameters of an energy source and setting and executing a heating and / or charging regimen based on the evaluated parameters.

[0061] Fig. 22 is a voltage versus current graph depicting examples of IV curves for a battery cell under balanced and unbalanced conditions.

[0062] Fig.23 is a voltage versus state of charge diagram for an example of a graphite anode.

[0063] Fig.24A is a flow chart depicting an example method of evaluating a voltage change due to a concentration excursion and adjusting a charging parameter in response.

[0064] Fig. 24B is a flow chart depicting another example method of evaluating voltage changes due to concentration excursions and adjusting charging parameters in response, wherein the previous steps are related to characterization and validation. DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0065] Before describing the subject matter of the present invention in detail, it should be understood that the present disclosure is not limited to the particular embodiments described, as such may, of course, vary. The terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only, and is not intended to be limiting, as the scope of the present disclosure will be limited only by the appended claims.

[0066] Before describing example embodiments related to heating and / or charging energy systems, it is useful to first describe in more detail a type of energy system that may be used with the example embodiments. Figures 1A to 10F , the following sections describe various applications in which embodiments of modular energy systems may be implemented: embodiments of control systems or devices for modular energy systems, configurations of modular energy system embodiments with respect to charging sources and loads, embodiments of individual modules, embodiments of topologies for arrangements of modules within a system, embodiments of control methods, embodiments for balancing operating characteristics of modules within a system, and embodiments for the use of interconnected modules.

[0067] Application Examples

[0068] Fixed applications are applications in which modular energy systems are located at fixed locations during use, but modular energy systems can be transferred to alternative locations when not in use. Module-based energy systems reside in static locations, while providing electrical energy for consumption by one or more other entities, or storing or buffering energy for later consumption. Examples of fixed applications in which embodiments disclosed herein may be used include, but are not limited to: energy systems for use or in one or more residential structures or places, energy systems for use or in one or more industrial structures or places, energy systems for use or in one or more commercial structures or places, energy systems for use or in one or more government structures or places (including both military and non-military use), energy systems for charging mobile applications described below (e.g., charge sources or charging stations), and systems for converting solar energy, wind power, geothermal energy, fossil fuels, or nuclear reactions into electricity for storage. Fixed applications are typically powered by loads such as power grids and microgrids, motors, and data centers. Fixed energy systems can be used for storage or for non-storage.

[0069] Mobile applications, sometimes referred to as traction applications, are typically applications in which a module-based energy system is located on or within an entity and stores and provides electrical energy to be converted into power by a motor to move or assist in moving the entity. Examples of mobile entities that can be used with the embodiments disclosed herein include, but are not limited to, electric and / or hybrid entities that move on the ground or underground, at sea or in the sea, above and not in contact with land or sea (e.g., flying or hovering in the air) or into outer space. Examples of mobile entities that can be used with the embodiments disclosed herein include, but are not limited to, vehicles, trains, trams, ships, boats, aircraft, and spacecraft. Examples of mobile vehicles that can be used with the embodiments disclosed herein include, but are not limited to, mobile vehicles with only one wheel or track, mobile vehicles with only two wheels or tracks, mobile vehicles with only three wheels or tracks, mobile vehicles with only four wheels or tracks, and mobile vehicles with five or more wheels or tracks. Examples of mobile entities that may be used with the embodiments disclosed herein include, but are not limited to, automobiles, buses, trucks, motorcycles, scooters, electric bicycles, industrial vehicles, mining vehicles, aircraft (e.g., airplanes, helicopters, drones, etc.), marine vessels (e.g., commercial transport vessels, ships, yachts, boats, or other watercraft), submarines, locomotives or railroad vehicles (e.g., trains, trams, etc.), military vehicles, spacecraft, and satellites.

[0070] Portable power applications include applications in which a device that can be carried by a person (and is therefore relatively smaller than a stationary ESS or EV) receives power from one or more energy sources. Portable devices are typically powered by one or more battery power cells, typically lithium-ion cells, but not limited to such. Examples of portable devices may include power tools and professional-grade cameras, portable power stations, cell phones, headphones, and wearable electronic devices.

[0071] When describing the embodiments of the present invention, reference may be made to a specific fixed application (e.g., a power grid, a microgrid, a data center, a cloud computing environment), a mobile application (e.g., an electric vehicle), or a portable power application. Such reference is for ease of explanation and does not mean that a particular embodiment is limited to the particular application. Embodiments of the system for providing power to a motor can be used for mobile, fixed, and portable power applications. Although certain configurations may be more suitable for some applications than others, unless otherwise stated, all example embodiments disclosed herein can be used for both mobile and fixed applications.

[0072] Conventional systems using one or more batteries can arrange these batteries in various configurations in energy storage assemblies. For example, the energy storage assembly can be relatively small, such as a battery with only a single battery cell or a battery module with multiple battery cells connected together in a hard-wired (e.g., non-switchable) series and / or parallel configuration, or it can be larger and more complex, such as multiple battery modules (each battery module has multiple battery cells) connected together in a hard-wired (e.g., non-switchable) series and / or parallel configuration (like more than an EV battery pack). These assembly configurations are usually charged by applying a DC voltage to the entire assembly. In the pulse charging and pulse heating embodiments described herein, voltage or current can be applied to these assembly configurations in a pulsed manner to achieve desired effects, such as shortened charging time and temperature control. The pulse can be performed by adding a new switching circuit system between the charge source and the energy storage assembly, for example, in the charge source or in a system or device having the assembly, or by using an existing switching circuit system (e.g., an inverter).

[0073] The embodiments described herein may also be used in energy storage systems having cascaded or distributed AC-DC converters, for example, where each battery module has a discrete converter associated therewith, and the applied DC charging current or power may be pulsed individually for each battery module. Examples of these and other energy storage systems are described in the following sections with reference to system 100.

[0074] Example of a module-based energy system

[0075] Figure 1A 1 is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of a module-based energy system 100. Here, the system 100 includes a control system 102 communicatively coupled to N converter source modules 108-1 to 108-N via communication paths or links 106-1 to 106-N, respectively. The modules 108 are configured to store energy and output energy to a load 101 (or other modules 108) as needed. In these embodiments, any number of two or more modules 108 may be used (e.g., N is greater than or equal to two). The modules 108 may be connected to each other in a variety of ways, such as by connecting the modules 108 to each other relative to each other. Figures 7A-7E For ease of explanation, Figures 1A-1C , modules 108 are shown connected in series, or as a one-dimensional array, where the Nth module is coupled to load 101.

[0076] The system 100 is configured to supply power to a load 101. The load 101 may be any type of load, such as a motor or an electrical grid. The system 100 is also configured to store power received from a charge source. Figure 1F1 is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of a system 100 having a power input interface 151 for receiving power from a charge source 150 and a power output interface for outputting power to a load 101. In this embodiment, the system 100 can receive and store power through interface 151 while outputting power through interface 152. Figure 1G is a block diagram depicting another example embodiment of a system 100 having a switchable interface 154. In this embodiment, the system 100 can select or be instructed to select between receiving power from a charge source 150 and outputting power to a load 101. The system 100 can be configured to supply power to multiple loads 101 (including primary loads and auxiliary loads) and / or receive power from multiple charge sources 150 (e.g., a utility-operated power grid and a local renewable energy source (e.g., solar energy)).

[0077] Figure 1B Another example embodiment of the system 100 is depicted. Here, the control system 102 is implemented as a master control device (MCD) 112, which is communicatively coupled to N different local control devices (LCDs) 114-1 to 114-N via communication paths or links 115-1 to 115-N, respectively. Each LCD 114-1 to 114-N is communicatively coupled to one module 108-1 to 108-N via communication paths or links 116-1 to 116-N, respectively, such that there is a 1:1 relationship between the LCD 114 and the module 108.

[0078] Figure 1C Another example embodiment of the system 100 is depicted. Here, the MCD 112 is communicatively coupled to M different LCDs 114-1 to 114-M via communication paths or links 115-1 to 115-M, respectively. Each LCD 114 can be coupled to and control two or more modules 108. In the example shown here, each LCD 114 is communicatively coupled to two modules 108, such that the M LCDs 114-1 to 114-M are coupled to 2M modules 108-1 to 108-2M, respectively, via communication paths or links 116-1 to 116-2M.

[0079] The control system 102 may be configured as a single device of the entire system 100 (e.g., Figure 1A ), or may be distributed across or implemented as multiple devices (e.g., Figure 1B-1C ). In some embodiments, the control system 102 may be distributed among the LCDs 114 associated with the modules 108 such that the MCD 112 is not required and may be omitted from the system 100 .

[0080] Control system 102 may be configured to perform control using software (instructions stored in memory that can be executed by processing circuitry), hardware, or a combination thereof. One or more devices of control system 102 may each include processing circuitry 120 and memory 122 as shown here. Example implementations of processing circuitry and memory are further described below.

[0081] The control system 102 may have a communication interface for communicating with a device 104 external to the system 100 via a communication link or path 105. For example, the control system 102 (e.g., the MCD 112) may output data or information about the system 100 to another control device 104 (e.g., an electronic control unit (ECU) or motor control unit (MCU) of a vehicle in mobile applications, a grid controller in stationary applications, etc.).

[0082] Communication paths or links 105, 106, 115, 116 and 118 ( Figure 2B ) can each be a wired (e.g., electrical, optical) or wireless communication path that transmits data or information bidirectionally in parallel or in series. Data can be transmitted in a standardized (e.g., IEEE, ANSI) or custom (e.g., proprietary) format. In automotive applications, communication path 115 can be configured to transmit according to FlexRay or CAN protocols. Communication paths 106, 115, 116, and 118 can also provide wired power for providing operating power to system 102 directly from one or more modules 108. For example, operating power for each LCD 114 can be supplied only by one or more modules 108 to which such LCD 114 is connected, and operating power for MCD 112 can be supplied indirectly from one or more of the modules 108 (e.g., such as through the vehicle's power network).

[0083] The control system 102 is configured to control one or more modules 108 based on condition information received from the same or different one or more of the modules 108. Control may also be based on one or more other factors, such as the demand of the load 101. Controllable aspects include, but are not limited to, one or more of the voltage, current, phase, and / or output power of each module 108.

[0084] The status information of each module 108 in the system 100 can be transmitted to the control system 102, and the control system can independently control each module 108-1...108-N. Other variations are also possible. For example, a specific module 108 (or a subset) can be controlled based on the status information of the specific module 108 (or a subset), based on the status information of a different module 108 that is not the specific module 108 (or a subset), based on the status information of all modules 108 except the specific module 108 (or a subset), based on the status information of the specific module 108 (or a subset) and the status information of at least one other module 108 that is not the specific module 108 (or a subset), or based on the status information of all modules 108 in the system 100.

[0085] The status information may be information about one or more aspects, characteristics, or parameters of each module 108. Types of status information include, but are not limited to, the following aspects of a module 108 or one or more components thereof (e.g., energy sources, energy buffers, converters, monitor circuitry): state of charge (SOC) of one or more energy sources of a module (e.g., the charge level of an energy source relative to its capacity, such as a fraction or percentage), state of health (SOH) of one or more energy sources of a module (e.g., a figure of merit of the condition of an energy source compared to its ideal condition), temperature of one or more energy sources or other components of a module, capacity of one or more energy sources of a module, voltage of one or more energy sources and / or other components of a module, current of one or more energy sources and / or other components of a module, state of power (SOP) (e.g., available power limit of an energy source during discharge and / or charge), state of energy (SOE) (e.g., the current available energy level of an energy source relative to the maximum available energy of the energy source), and / or whether a fault exists in any one or more of the components of a module.

[0086] The LCD 114 can be configured to receive status information from each module 108, or determine status information based on signals or data received from or monitored within each module 108, and transmit this information to the MCD 112. In some embodiments, each LCD 114 can transmit raw collected data to the MCD 112, which then determines status information through an algorithm based on this raw data. The MCD 112 can then use the status information of the module 108 to make control decisions accordingly. The determination can be in the form of instructions, commands, or other information (such as the modulation index described herein) that can be used by the LCD 114 to maintain or adjust the operation of each module 108.

[0087] For example, the MCD 112 may receive status information and evaluate the information to determine differences between at least one module 108 (e.g., a component thereof) and at least one or more other modules 108 (e.g., similar components thereof). For example, the MCD 112 may determine that a particular module 108 is operating under one of the following conditions compared to one or more other modules 108: a relatively lower or higher SOC, a relatively lower or higher SOH, a relatively lower or higher capacity, a relatively lower or higher voltage, a relatively lower or higher current, a relatively lower or higher temperature, or with or without a fault. In such instances, the MCD 112 may output control information that causes a relevant aspect (e.g., output voltage, current, power, temperature) of the particular module 108 to be reduced or increased (depending on the condition). In this manner, the utilization of an outlier module 108 (e.g., operating at a relatively lower SOC or higher temperature) may be reduced in order to converge the relevant parameter (e.g., SOC or temperature) of the module 108 toward the relevant parameter of the one or more other modules 108.

[0088] The determination of whether to adjust the operation of a particular module 108 may be made by comparing the status information to a predetermined threshold, limit, or condition, and not necessarily by comparing to the status of other modules 108. The predetermined threshold, limit, or condition may be a static threshold, limit, or condition, such as those set by a manufacturer that do not change during use. The predetermined threshold, limit, or condition may be a dynamic threshold, limit, or condition that is permitted to change or does change during use. For example, if the status information of a module 108 indicates that the operation of the module violates (e.g., is above or below) a predetermined threshold or limit or is outside a predetermined range of acceptable operating conditions, the MCD 112 may adjust the operation of the module 108. Similarly, if the status information of a module 108 indicates the presence of an actual or potential fault (e.g., an alarm or warning) or indicates the absence or removal of an actual or potential fault, the MCD 112 may adjust the operation of the module 108. Examples of faults include, but are not limited to, actual failure of a component, potential failure of a component, a short circuit or other overcurrent condition, an open circuit, an overvoltage condition, an inability to receive communications, receiving corrupted data, and the like. Depending on the type and severity of the fault, utilization of the faulty module may be reduced to avoid damaging the module, or utilization of the module may be stopped entirely. For example, if a fault occurs in a given module, the MCD 112 or LCD 114 may cause the module to enter a bypass state as described herein.

[0089] The MCD 112 can control the modules 108 within the system 100 to achieve a desired goal or converge toward a desired goal. For example, the goal can be to operate all modules 108 at the same or similar level to each other or within a predetermined threshold, limit or condition. This process is also referred to as balancing the operation or operating characteristics of the modules 108 or seeking to achieve a balance thereof. The term "balance" as used herein does not require absolute equality between the modules 108 or their components, but is used broadly to convey that the operation of the system 100 can be used to actively reduce differences in operation (or operating state) that may exist between the modules 108.

[0090] The MCD 112 may communicate control information to the LCD 114 for the purpose of controlling the module 108 associated with the LCD 114. The control information may be, for example, a modulation index and reference signal as described herein, a modulated reference signal, or other. Each LCD 114 may use (e.g., receive and process) the control information to generate a switching signal that controls the operation of one or more components (e.g., a converter) within the associated module 108. In some embodiments, the MCD 112 generates the switching signal directly and outputs it to the LCD 114, which relays the switching signal to the intended module component.

[0091] The entire control system 102 or a portion thereof may be combined with a system external control device 104 that controls one or more other aspects of a mobile or fixed application. When integrated in this shared or common control device (or subsystem), control of the system 100 may be implemented in any desired manner, such as one or more software applications executed by a processing circuit system of the shared device, using hardware of the shared device, or a combination thereof. Non-exhaustive examples of the external control device 104 include: a vehicle ECU or MCU with control capabilities for one or more other vehicle functions (e.g., motor control, drive interface control, traction control, etc.); a grid or microgrid controller responsible for one or more other power management functions (e.g., load interface connection, load power demand forecasting, transmission and switching, interface link with charge source (e.g., diesel, solar, wind power), charge source power forecasting, backup source monitoring, asset scheduling, etc.); and a data center control subsystem (e.g., environmental control, network control, backup control, etc.).

[0092] Figure 1D and 1E 1 is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of a shared or common control device (or system) 132 in which the control system 102 may be implemented. Figure 1D, the common control device 132 includes a main control device 112 and an external control device 104. The main control device 112 includes an interface 141 for communicating with the LCD 114 via a path 115, and an interface 142 for communicating with the external control device 104 via an internal communication bus 136. The external control device 104 includes an interface 143 for communicating with the main control device 112 via a bus 136, and an interface 144 for communicating with other entities of the entire application (e.g., components of a vehicle or power grid) via a communication path 136. In some embodiments, the common control device 132 can be integrated as a common housing or package with devices 112 and 104 implemented as discrete integrated circuit (IC) chips or packages contained therein.

[0093] exist Figure 1E In the embodiment, the external control device 104 acts as a common control device 132, wherein the main control function is implemented as a component within the device 104. This component 112 can be or include software or other program instructions stored and / or hard-coded in the memory of the device 104 and executed by its processing circuit system. The component can also include dedicated hardware. The component can be a self-contained module or core, having one or more internal hardware and / or software interfaces (e.g., application program interface (API)) for communicating with the operating software of the external control device 104. The external control device 104 can manage communication with the LCD 114 through the interface 141, and manage communication with other devices through the interface 144. In various embodiments, the device 104 / 132 can be integrated into a single IC chip, can be integrated into multiple IC chips in a single package, or integrated into multiple semiconductor packages in a common housing.

[0094] exist Figure 1D and 1E In some embodiments, the master control functionality of the system 102 is shared in the common device 132, however, other divisions of shared control are permitted. For example, a portion of the master control functionality may be distributed between the common device 132 and the dedicated MCD 112. In another example, both the master control functionality and at least a portion of the local control functionality may be implemented in the common device 132 (e.g., with the remaining local control functionality implemented in the LCD 114). In some embodiments, the entire control system 102 is implemented in the common device (or subsystem) 132. In some embodiments, the local control functionality is implemented within a device shared with another component of each module 108, such as a battery management system (BMS).

[0095] Examples of modules within the Cascade Energy System

[0096] Module 108 may include one or more energy sources and power electronic converters, and, if desired, energy buffers. Figure 2A-2B 1 is a block diagram depicting another example embodiment of a system 100 having a module 108, the module having a power converter 202, an energy buffer 204, and an energy source 206. The converter 202 may be a voltage converter or a current converter. Embodiments are described herein with reference to a voltage converter, but embodiments are not limited thereto. The converter 202 may be configured to convert a direct current (DC) signal from the energy source 206 into an alternating current (AC) signal and output the AC signal through a power connection 110 (e.g., an inverter). The converter 202 may also receive an AC or DC signal through the connection 110 and apply the AC or DC signal to the energy source 206 in either polarity in a continuous or pulsed form. The converter 202 may be or include an arrangement of switches (e.g., power transistors), such as a half bridge of a full bridge (H bridge). In some embodiments, the converter 202 includes only switches, and the converter (and the entire module) does not include a transformer.

[0097] The converter 202 may also (or alternatively) be configured to perform AC to DC conversion (e.g., rectifier), DC to DC conversion, and / or AC to AC conversion (e.g., in combination with an AC-DC converter) to facilitate charging of a DC energy source from an AC source. In some embodiments, such as to perform AC-AC conversion, the converter 202 may include a transformer alone or in combination with one or more power semiconductors (e.g., switches, diodes, thyristors, etc.). In other embodiments, such as in embodiments where weight and cost are important factors, the converter 202 may be configured to perform conversion using only power switches, power diodes, or other semiconductor devices without a transformer.

[0098] Energy source 206 is preferably a robust energy storage device capable of outputting direct current and having an energy density suitable for energy storage applications for electric devices. Energy source 206 can be an electrochemical battery, such as a single battery cell or multiple battery cells connected together into a battery module or array, or any combination thereof. Figures 4A-4D is depicted as a single battery cell 402 ( Figure 4A ), a battery module having a plurality (eg, four) of battery cells 402 connected in series ( Figure 4B ), a battery module having a single battery cell 402 connected in parallel ( Figure 4C ) and a battery module having legs each having two battery cells 402 connected in parallel ( Figure 4D ) is a schematic diagram of an example embodiment of an energy source 206. A non-exhaustive list of examples of battery types is set forth elsewhere herein.

[0099] Energy source 206 may also be a high energy density (HED) capacitor, such as an ultracapacitor or supercapacitor. Compared to the solid dielectric type of a typical electrolytic capacitor, a HED capacitor may be configured as a double layer capacitor (electrostatic charge storage device), a pseudocapacitor (electrochemical charge storage device), a hybrid capacitor (electrostatic and electrochemical), or other capacitor. In addition to higher capacitance, HED capacitors may also have an energy density that is 10 to 100 times (or more) that of an electrolytic capacitor. For example, a HED capacitor may have a specific energy greater than 1.0 watt-hour / kilogram (Wh / kg), and a capacitance greater than 10-100 farads (F). Figures 4A-4D As with the described batteries, energy source 206 may be configured as a single HED capacitor or as a plurality of HED capacitors connected together in an array (eg, in series, parallel, or a combination thereof).

[0100] The energy source 206 may also be a fuel cell unit. The fuel cell unit may be rechargeable and may be a single fuel cell unit, a plurality of fuel cell units connected in series or in parallel, or a fuel cell unit module. The fuel cell unit may be configured to be rechargeable, and examples of fuel cell unit types include proton exchange membrane fuel cell units (PEMFC), phosphoric acid fuel cell units (PAFC), solid acid fuel cell units, alkaline fuel cell units, high temperature fuel cell units, solid oxide fuel cell units, molten electrolyte fuel cell units, etc. Figures 4A-4D As with the batteries described above, energy source 206 can be configured as a single fuel cell unit or multiple fuel cell units connected together in an array (e.g., in series, in parallel, or a combination thereof). The foregoing examples of source categories (e.g., batteries, capacitors, and fuel cell units) and types (e.g., chemistry and / or structural configuration within each category) are not intended to form an exhaustive list, and one of ordinary skill in the art will recognize other variations that fall within the scope of the inventive subject matter.

[0101] Energy buffer 204 may suppress or filter current fluctuations (eg, +V DCL and -V DCL , as described below) to help maintain stability of the DC link voltage. These fluctuations may be relatively low (e.g., kilohertz) or high (e.g., megahertz) frequency fluctuations or harmonics caused by switching or other transients of converter 202. These fluctuations may be absorbed by buffer 204 rather than being transmitted to source 206 or to ports IO3 and IO4 of converter 202.

[0102] The power connection 110 is a connection for transferring energy or power to, from, and through the module 108. The module 108 can output energy from the energy source 206 to the power connection 110, where the energy can be transferred to other modules or loads of the system. The module 108 can also receive energy from other modules 108 or charging sources (DC chargers, single-phase chargers, multi-phase chargers). Signals can also be passed through the module 108, bypassing the energy source 206. The routing of energy or power into and out of the module 108 is performed by the converter 202 under the control of the LCD 114 (or another entity of the system 102).

[0103] exist Figure 2A In the embodiment of FIG. 1 , LCD 114 is implemented as a separate component from module 108 (e.g., not within a shared module housing) and is connected to and capable of communicating with converter 202 via communication path 116. Figure 2B In the embodiment of the present invention, LCD 114 is included as a component of module 108 and is connected to converter 202 and is capable of communicating with it via internal communication path 118 (e.g., a shared bus or discrete connection). LCD 114 may also be capable of receiving signals from energy buffer 204 and / or energy source 206 via path 116 or 118, and sending signals to the energy buffer and / or energy source.

[0104] The module 108 may also include a monitor circuit system 208 configured to monitor (e.g., collect, sense, measure and / or determine) one or more aspects of the module 108 and / or its components, such as voltage, current, temperature or other operating parameters, which constitute status information (or can be used to determine the status information through, for example, the LCD 114). The primary function of the status information is to describe the state of one or more energy sources 206 of the module 108 so that the utilization of the energy source can be determined compared to other sources in the system 100, but status information describing the state of other components (e.g., voltage, temperature and / or presence of faults in the buffer 204, temperature and / or presence of faults in the converter 202, presence of faults elsewhere in the module 108, etc.) can also be used for utilization determination. The monitor circuit system 208 may include one or more sensors, shunts, dividers, fault detectors, Coulomb counters, controllers, or other hardware and / or software configured to monitor such aspects. The monitor circuit system 208 may be separate from the various components 202, 204, and 206, or may be integrated with each component 202, 204, and 206 (eg, Figure 2A-2B), or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, monitor circuitry 208 may be part of or shared with a battery management system (BMS) of battery energy source 206. No discrete circuitry is required to monitor each type of condition information, as more than one type of condition information may be monitored with a single circuit or device, or determined by an algorithm without the need for additional circuitry.

[0105] LCD 114 can receive status information (or raw data) about the module components via communication paths 116, 118. LCD 114 can also send information to the module components via paths 116, 118. Paths 116 and 118 can include diagnostic, measurement, protection, and control signal lines. The information sent can be a control signal for one or more module components. The control signal can be a switching signal for converter 202 and / or one or more signals requesting status information from the module components. For example, LCD 114 can cause status information to be sent via paths 116, 118 by directly requesting status information or by applying an excitation (e.g., a voltage) to cause status information to be generated, in some cases in conjunction with a switching signal that places converter 202 in a particular state.

[0106] The physical configuration or layout of module 108 may take various forms. In some embodiments, module 108 may include a common housing that houses all of the module components, e.g., converter 202, buffer 204, and source 206, as well as other optional components, such as integrated LCD 114. In other embodiments, the various components may be separated into discrete housings that are secured together. Figure 2C 2 is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of a module 108 having a first housing 220 housing the module's energy source 206 and accompanying electronics, such as monitor circuitry, a second housing 222 housing the module's electronics, such as the converter 202, the energy buffer 204, and other accompanying electronics, such as monitor circuitry, and a third housing 224 housing the module's LCD 114 (not shown). In alternative embodiments, the module electronics and the LCD 114 may be housed within the same single housing. In still other embodiments, the module electronics, the LCD 114, and the energy source may be housed within the same housing of the module 108. Electrical connections between the various module components may pass through the housings 220, 222, 224 and may be exposed on any of the housing exteriors to connect with other devices, such as other modules 108 or the MCD 112.

[0107] The modules 108 of the system 100 can be physically arranged relative to each other in various configurations depending on the needs of the application and the number of loads. For example, in a fixed application in which the system 100 provides power to a microgrid, the modules 108 can be placed in one or more racks or other frames. Such configurations can also be suitable for larger mobile applications, such as marine vessels. Alternatively, the modules 108 can be fixed together and positioned in a common housing referred to as a pack. The rack or pack can have its own dedicated cooling system shared across all modules. The pack configuration can be used for smaller mobile applications, such as electric vehicles. The system 100 can be implemented using one or more racks (e.g., for parallel power supply to a microgrid) or one or more packs (e.g., serving different motors of a vehicle) or a combination thereof. Figure 2D is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of a system 100 configured as a package having nine modules 108 electrically and physically coupled together within a common housing 230 .

[0108] Examples of these and additional configurations are described in International Application No. PCT / US20 / 25366, filed on March 27, 2020 and entitled Module-Based Energy Systems Capable of Cascaded and Interconnected Configurations, and Methods Related Thereto, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for all purposes.

[0109] Figures 3A-3C 1 is a block diagram depicting example embodiments of modules 108 having various electrical configurations. These embodiments are described as having one LCD 114 per module 108, wherein the LCD 114 is housed within the associated module, but the embodiments may be configured otherwise as described herein. Figure 3A A first example configuration of a module 108A within a system 100 is depicted. The module 108A includes an energy source 206, an energy buffer 204, and a converter 202A. Each component has a power connection port (e.g., terminal, connector), referred to herein as an IO port, into which power can be input and / or from which power can be output. Depending on the context, such ports may also be referred to as input ports or output ports.

[0110] Energy source 206 may be configured as any of the energy source types described herein (e.g., as described with respect to Figures 4A-4DThe power source 206 may be connected to the power supply 204 by means of a power supply 201. The power supply 201 may be connected to the power supply 202 by means of a power supply 202. The power supply 202 may be connected to the power supply 204 by means of a power supply 201. The power supply 202 may be connected to the power supply 204 by means of a power supply 202 ... Figures 5A-5C Several (non-exhaustive) example embodiments of the energy buffer 204 are depicted in the schematic diagram of FIG. Figure 5A The buffer 204 is an electrolytic and / or film capacitor C EB ,exist Figure 5B The snubber 204 is composed of two inductors L EB1 and L EB2 and two electrolytic and / or film capacitors C EB1 and C EB2 The Z source network 710 is formed, and Figure 5C The snubber 204 is composed of two inductors L EB1 and L EB2 , two electrolytic and / or film capacitors C EB1 and C EB2 And diode D EB A quasi-Z source network 720 is formed.

[0111] Ports IO3 and IO4 of energy buffer 204 may be connected to ports IO1 and IO2 , respectively, of converter 202A, which may be configured as any of the types of power converters described herein. Fig. 6A is a schematic diagram depicting an example embodiment of a converter 202A, which is configured as a DC-AC converter that can receive a DC voltage at ports IO1 and IO2 and switch at ports IO3 and IO4 to generate pulses. The converter 202A may include a plurality of switches, and here the converter 202A includes four switches S3, S4, S5, S6 arranged in a full-bridge configuration. The control system 102 or LCD 114 can independently control each switch via a control input line 118-3 to each gate.

[0112] The switches may be any suitable switch type, such as power semiconductors, such as metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistors (MOSFETs), insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs), or gallium nitride (GaN) transistors as shown here. The semiconductor switches may be operated at relatively high switching frequencies, thereby permitting the converter 202 to operate in pulse width modulation (PWM) mode as needed and respond to control commands in relatively short time intervals. This may provide high tolerance output voltage regulation and fast dynamic behavior in transient mode.

[0113] In this embodiment, the DC line voltage V DCL It can be applied to the converter 202 between the ports IO1 and IO2. V DCL Connected to ports IO3 and IO4, converter 202 can generate three different voltage outputs at ports IO3 and IO4: +V DCL , 0, and -V DCL The switch signal provided to each switch controls whether the switch is on (closed) or off (open). In order to obtain +V DCL , switches S3 and S6 are turned on, while S4 and S5 are turned off, and -V DCL It can be obtained by turning on switches S4 and S5 and turning off S3 and S6. The output voltage can be set to zero (including near zero) or a reference voltage by turning on S3 and S5 and turning off S4 and S6, or turning on S4 and S6 and turning off S3 and S5. These voltages can be output from the module 108 through the power connection 110. Ports IO3 and IO4 of the converter 202 can be connected to (or form) module IO ports 1 and 2 of the power connection 110 to generate an output voltage for use with the output voltages from other modules 108.

[0114] The control or switching signals for the embodiments of converter 202 described herein may be generated in different ways depending on the control technique used by system 100 to generate the output voltage of converter 202. In some embodiments, the control technique is a PWM technique, such as space vector pulse width modulation (SVPWM) or sinusoidal pulse width modulation (SPWM), or variations thereof. Fig. 8A 802 is a voltage versus time graph depicting an example of an output voltage waveform 802 of the converter 202. For ease of description, the embodiments herein will be described in the context of PWM control techniques, but the embodiments are not limited thereto. Other classes of techniques may be used. An alternative class is based on hysteresis, examples of which are described in the following: International Publication Nos. WO 2018 / 231810A1, WO 2018 / 232403A1, and WO 2019 / 183553A1, which are incorporated herein by reference for all purposes.

[0115] Each module 108 may be configured with multiple energy sources 206 (e.g., two, three, four, or more). Each energy source 206 of a module 108 may be controllable (switchable) to supply power to a connection 110 (or receive power from a charge source) independently of the other sources 206 of the module. For example, all sources 206 may simultaneously output power to a connection 110 (or be charged), or only one source (or subset) of the sources 206 may supply power (or be charged) at any one time. In some embodiments, the sources 206 of a module may exchange energy between them, for example, one source 206 may charge another source 206. Each of the sources 206 may be configured as any energy source described herein (e.g., a battery, a HED capacitor, a fuel cell unit). Each of the sources 206 may be of the same category (e.g., each source may be a battery, each source may be a HED capacitor, or each source may be a fuel cell unit), or of different categories (e.g., a first source may be a battery and a second source may be a HED capacitor or a fuel cell unit, or a first source may be a HED capacitor and a second source may be a fuel cell unit).

[0116] Figure 3B 1 is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of a module 108B in a dual energy source configuration having a primary energy source 206A and a secondary energy source 206B. Ports IO1 and IO2 of the primary source 202A may be connected to ports IO1 and IO2 of an energy buffer 204. Module 108B includes a converter 202B having an additional IO port. Ports IO3 and IO4 of the buffer 204 may be connected to ports IO1 and IO2 of the converter 202B, respectively. Ports IO1 and IO2 of the secondary source 206B may be connected to ports IO5 and IO2 of the converter 202B, respectively (also connected to port IO4 of the buffer 204).

[0117] In this example embodiment of module 108B, primary energy source 202A supplies the average power required by the load along with other modules 108 of system 100. Secondary source 202B may function as an auxiliary energy source 202 by providing additional power at load power peaks, or absorbing excess power or otherwise.

[0118] As mentioned, depending on the switching state of converter 202B, primary source 206A and secondary source 206B can be used simultaneously or at different times. If simultaneously, electrolytic and / or film capacitors (C ES ) can be as follows Figure 4E The depicted energy source 206B is placed in parallel with the energy source 206B to act as an energy buffer for the energy source 206B, or the energy source 206B may be as Figure 4FThe depicted configuration utilizes a HED capacitor in parallel with another energy source (eg, a battery or fuel cell unit).

[0119] Figure 6B and 6C 1 and 2 are schematic diagrams depicting example embodiments of converters 202B and 202C, respectively. Converter 202B includes switch circuitry portions 601 and 602A. Portion 601 includes switches S3 to S6 configured as a full bridge in a manner similar to converter 202A, and is configured to selectively couple IO1 and IO2 to either IO3 and IO4, thereby changing the output voltage of module 108B. Portion 602A includes switches S1 and S2 configured as a half bridge and coupled between ports IO1 and IO2. Coupled inductor L C Connected between port IO5 and node 1 between switches S1 and S2, switch section 602A is a bidirectional converter that can regulate (boost or buck) voltage (or reverse current). Switch section 602A can generate two different voltages at node 1, namely +V DCL2 and 0, referring to port IO2, the port can be at virtual zero potential. By adjusting the coupled inductor L C The voltage across S1 and S2 may control the current drawn from or input to energy source 202B using, for example, a pulse width modulation technique or a hysteresis control method for switching switches S1 and S2. Other techniques may also be used.

[0120] The difference between converter 202C and 202B is that switch portion 602B includes switches S1 and S2 configured as a half bridge and coupled between ports IO5 and IO2. C Connected between the port IO1 and a node 1 present between switches S1 and S2, the switch portion 602B is configured to regulate a voltage.

[0121] Control system 102 or LCD 114 can independently control each switch of converters 202B and 202C via control input line 118-3 to each gate. Fig. 6A In some embodiments, LCD 114 (rather than MCD 112) generates the switching signal for the converter switch. Alternatively, MCD 112 may generate the switching signal, which may be transmitted directly to the switch or relayed by LCD 114. In some embodiments, driver circuitry for generating the switching signal may be present in or associated with MCD 112 and / or LCD 114.

[0122] The aforementioned zero voltage configuration of the converter 202 (S3 and S5 turned on and S4 and S6 turned off, or S4 and S6 turned on and S3 and S5 turned off) may also be referred to as the bypass state of a given module. This bypass state may be entered if a fault is detected in a given module, or if a system fault is detected that warrants shutting down more than one (or all modules) in an array or system. The LCD 114 may detect a fault in a module and may set a control switch signal of the converter 202 to engage the bypass state without intervention by the MCD 112. Alternatively, the fault information of a given module may be transmitted by the LCD 114 to the MCD 112, and then the MCD 112 may determine whether to engage the bypass state, and if so, an instruction to engage the bypass state may be transmitted to the LCD 114 associated with the module having the fault, at which point the LCD 114 may output a switch signal to cause engagement of the bypass state.

[0123] In embodiments where the module 108 includes three or more energy sources 206, the converters 202B and 202C may be scaled accordingly such that each additional energy source 206B is coupled to an additional IO port leading to an additional switch circuitry portion 602A or 602B, depending on the needs of the particular source. For example, a dual source converter 202 may include both switch portions 202A and 202B.

[0124] A module 108 with multiple energy sources 206 is capable of performing additional functions such as energy sharing between sources 206, energy capture from within an application (e.g., regenerative braking), charging the primary source through a secondary source even when the entire system is in a discharged state, and active filtering of the module output. Active filtering functions can also be performed by modules with typical electrolytic capacitors instead of secondary energy sources. Examples of these functions are described in more detail in the following: International Application No. PCT / US20 / 25366, filed on March 27, 2020 and entitled Module-Based Energy Systems Capable of Cascaded and Interconnected Configurations, and Methods Related Thereto; and International Publication No. WO 2019 / 183553, filed on March 22, 2019 and entitled Systems and Methods for Power Management and Control, both of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety for all purposes.

[0125] Each module 108 can be configured to power one or more auxiliary loads with its one or more energy sources 206. An auxiliary load is a load that requires a voltage lower than the voltage of the main load 101. Examples of auxiliary loads can be, for example, an onboard electrical network of an electric vehicle, or an HVAC system of an electric vehicle. For example, the load of the system 100 can be one of the phases of an electric vehicle motor or an electric grid. This embodiment can allow for complete decoupling between the electrical characteristics (terminal voltage and current) of the energy source and the electrical characteristics of the load.

[0126] Figure 3C is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of a module 108C configured to provide power to a first auxiliary load 301 and a second auxiliary load 302, wherein the module 108C includes a Figure 3B The energy source 206, the energy buffer 204, and the converter 202B are coupled together in a manner. The first auxiliary load 301 requires a voltage equal to the voltage supplied by the source 206. The load 301 is coupled to IO ports 3 and 4 of the module 108C, which are in turn coupled to ports IO1 and IO2 of the source 206. The source 206 can output power to the power connection 110 and the load 301. The second auxiliary load 302 requires a constant voltage lower than the voltage of the source 206. The load 302 is coupled to IO ports 5 and 6 of the module 108C, which are coupled to ports IO5 and IO2 of the converter 202B, respectively. The converter 202B may include a switching portion 602 having a coupled inductor L coupled to port IO5 C ( Figure 6B ). The energy supplied by source 206 can be supplied to load 302 through switch portion 602 of converter 202B. Assuming load 302 has an input capacitor (if not, a capacitor can be added to module 108C), switches S1 and S2 can be commutated to adjust the coupled inductor L C The voltage across the source 206 and the current through the coupled inductor are regulated, and thereby a stable constant voltage is generated for the load 302. This regulation can reduce the voltage of the source 206 to a lower magnitude voltage required by the load 302.

[0127] Thus, module 108C may be configured to power one or more first auxiliary loads in the manner described with respect to load 301, wherein the one or more first loads are coupled to IO ports 3 and 4. Module 108C may also be configured to power one or more second auxiliary loads in the manner described with respect to load 302. If there are multiple second auxiliary loads 302, module 108C may be scaled with additional dedicated module output ports (e.g., 5 and 6), additional dedicated switch sections 602, and additional converter IO ports coupled to additional sections 602 for each additional load 302.

[0128] Thus, energy source 206 can power any number of auxiliary loads (eg, 301 and 302) as well as a corresponding portion of the system output power required by primary load 101. The flow of power from source 206 to the various loads can be adjusted as needed.

[0129] The module 108 may be configured with two or more energy sources 206 as required ( Figure 3B ), and is configured to power the first and / or second auxiliary loads by adding a switch portion 602 and a converter port IO5 to each additional energy source 206B or a second auxiliary load 302 ( Figure 3C ). Additional module IO ports (e.g., 3, 4, 5, 6) may be added as needed. Module 108 may also be configured as an interconnect module to exchange energy (e.g., for balancing) between two or more arrays, two or more packages, or two or more systems 100, as further described herein. This interconnect functionality may likewise be combined with multiple sources and / or multiple auxiliary load powering capabilities.

[0130] The control system 102 may perform various functions with respect to the components of the modules 108A, 108B, and 108C. These functions may include managing the utilization (usage) of each energy source 206, protecting the energy buffer 204 from overcurrent, overvoltage, and high temperature conditions, and controlling and protecting the converter 202.

[0131] For example, in order to manage the utilization of each energy source 206 (e.g., by adjusting by increasing, decreasing, or maintaining), the LCD 114 can receive one or more monitored voltages, temperatures, and currents from each energy source 206 (or monitor circuitry). The monitored voltage can be at least one of, preferably all, the voltage of each elementary component (e.g., each individual battery cell, HED capacitor, and / or fuel cell cell) or the voltage of the entire group of elementary components (e.g., the voltage of the battery array, HED capacitor array, and / or fuel cell cell array) independent of the other components of the source 206. Similarly, the monitored temperature and current can be at least one of, preferably all of: the temperature and current of each elementary component, or the temperature and current of the entire group of elementary components, or any combination thereof, independent of the other components of the source 206. The monitored signal may be condition information that the LCD 114 may utilize to perform one or more of: calculating or determining an actual capacity, an actual state of charge (SOC), and / or a state of health (SOH) of an elementary component or group of elementary components; setting or outputting a warning or alarm indication based on the monitored and / or calculated condition information; and / or transmitting the condition information to the MCD 112. The LCD 114 may receive control information (e.g., modulation index, synchronization signal) from the MCD 112 and use the control information to generate switching signals for the converter 202 that manages utilization of the source 206.

[0132] To protect the energy buffer 204, the LCD 114 may receive one or more monitored voltages, temperatures, and currents from the energy buffer 204 (or monitor circuitry). The monitored voltages may be independent of each basic component of the buffer 204 (e.g., C EB , C EB1 , C EB2 , L EB1 , L EB2 , D EB ) or at least one, preferably all, of the voltages of a group of basic components or the entire buffer 204 (e.g., between IO1 and IO2 or between IO3 and IO4). Similarly, the monitored temperature and current may be at least one, preferably all, of the following: the temperature and current of each basic component of the buffer 204 independent of other components, or the temperature and current of a group of basic components or the entire buffer 204, or any combination thereof. The monitored signal may be status information, which the LCD 114 may utilize to perform one or more of the following: set or output a warning or alarm indication; transmit the status information to the MCD 112; or control the converter 202 to adjust (increase or decrease) the utilization of the source 206 and the module 108 as a whole for buffer protection.

[0133] To control and protect the converter 202, the LCD 114 may receive control information (e.g., a modulated reference signal or a reference signal and a modulation index) from the MCD 112, which may be used in conjunction with a PWM technique in the LCD 114 to generate control signals for each switch (e.g., S1 to S6). The LCD 114 may receive a current feedback signal from a current sensor of the converter 202, which may be used for overcurrent protection along with one or more fault condition signals from a driver circuit (not shown) of the converter switches, which may carry information about the fault conditions (e.g., short circuit or open circuit fault mode) of all switches of the converter 202. Based on this data, the LCD 114 may decide which combination of switch signals to apply to manage the utilization of the module 108, and may bypass or disconnect the converter 202 (and the entire module 108) from the system 100.

[0134] If the module 108C is controlled to supply power to the second auxiliary load 302, the LCD 114 may receive one or more monitored voltages (e.g., the voltage between IO ports 5 and 6) and one or more monitored currents (e.g., the coupled inductor L1) in the module 108C. C Based on these signals, LCD 114 can adjust the switching cycles of S1 and S2 (e.g., by adjusting the modulation index or reference waveform) to control (and stabilize) the voltage of load 302.

[0135] Cascade Energy System Topology Example

[0136] Two or more modules 108 may be coupled together in a cascaded array that outputs a voltage signal formed by the superposition of discrete voltages generated by each module 108 within the array. Fig. 7A 1 is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of the topology of the system 100, wherein N modules 108-1, 108-2 ... 108-N are coupled together in series to form a serial array 700. In this and all embodiments described herein, N may be any integer greater than one. The array 700 includes a first system IO port SIO1 and a second system IO port SIO2 across which an array output voltage is generated. The array 700 may be used as a DC or single-phase AC energy source for a DC or AC single-phase load, which may be connected to SIO1 and SIO2 of the array 700. Fig. 8A is a graph depicting voltage versus time of an example output signal produced by a single module 108 having a 48 volt energy source. Figure 8B is a graph depicting voltage versus time of an example single-phase AC output signal generated by an array 700 having six 48V modules 108 coupled in series.

[0137] The system 100 can be arranged in a wide variety of different topologies to meet the different needs of the application. The system 100 can provide multi-phase power (e.g., two-phase, three-phase, four-phase, five-phase, six-phase, etc.) to the load by using multiple arrays 700, where each array can generate an AC output signal with a different phase angle.

[0138] Figure 7B is a block diagram depicting a system 100 having two arrays 700-PA and 700-PB coupled together. Each array 700 is one-dimensional, formed by a series connection of N modules 108. The two arrays 700-PA and 700-PB can each generate a single-phase AC signal, where the two AC signals have different phase angles PA and PB (e.g., 180 degrees apart). The IO port 1 of the module 108-1 of each array 700-PA and 700-PB can form or be connected to the system IO ports SIO1 and SIO2, respectively, which in turn can serve as the first output of each array, which can provide two-phase power to a load (not shown). Or alternatively, ports SIO1 and SIO2 can be connected to provide single-phase power from two parallel arrays. The IO ports 2 of the modules 108-N of each array 700-PA and 700-PB can serve as the second output of each array 700-PA and 700-PB on the opposite end of the array from the system IO ports SIO1 and SIO2, and can be coupled together at a common node and optionally used for an additional system IO port SIO3 as needed, which can serve as a neutral point. This common node can be referred to as a rail, and the IO ports 2 of the modules 108-N of each array 700 can be referred to as being on the rail side of the array.

[0139] Figure 7C is a block diagram depicting a system 100 having three arrays 700-PA, 700-PB, and 700-PC coupled together. Each array 700 is one-dimensional, formed by a series connection of N modules 108. The three arrays 700-1 and 700-2 can each generate a single-phase AC signal, wherein the three AC signals have different phase angles PA, PB, PC (e.g., 120 degrees apart). The IO port 1 of the module 108-1 of each array 700-PA, 700-PB, and 700-PC can form or be connected to the system IO ports SIO1, SIO2, and SIO3, respectively, which can in turn provide three-phase power to the load (not shown). The IO port 2 of the module 108-N of each array 700-PA, 700-PB, and 700-PC can be coupled together at a common node, and optionally used for an additional system IO port SIO4 as needed, which can act as a neutral point.

[0140] about Figure 7B and 7C The concepts described with respect to the two-phase and three-phase embodiments can be extended to systems 100 that generate still more phases of power. For example, a non-exhaustive list of additional examples includes: a system 100 having four arrays 700, each of which is configured to generate a single-phase AC signal having a different phase angle (e.g., 90 degrees apart); a system 100 having five arrays 700, each of which is configured to generate a single-phase AC signal having a different phase angle (e.g., 72 degrees apart); and a system 100 having six arrays 700, each of which is configured to generate a single-phase AC signal having a different phase angle (e.g., 60 degrees apart).

[0141] The system 100 may be configured such that the arrays 700 are interconnected at electrical nodes between the modules 108 within each array. Fig.7D 1 is a block diagram depicting a system 100 having three arrays 700-PA, 700-PB, and 700-PC coupled together in a combined series and delta arrangement. Each array 700 includes a first series connection of M modules 108, where M is two or greater, coupled to a second series connection of N modules 108, where N is two or greater. The delta configuration is formed by interconnections between the arrays, which can be placed in any desired location. In this embodiment, IO port 2 of module 108-(M+N) of array 700-PC is coupled to IO interface 2 of module 108-M of array 700-PA and IO interface 1 of module 108-(M+1), IO port 2 of module 108-(M+N) of array 700-PB is coupled to IO port 2 of module 108-M of array 700-PC and IO interface 1 of module 108-(M+1), and IO port 2 of module 108-(M+N) of array 700-PA is coupled to IO port 2 of module 108-M of array 700-PB and IO port 1 of module 108-(M+1).

[0142] Fig. 7E is a block diagram depicting a system 100 having three arrays 700-PA, 700-PB, and 700-PC coupled together in a combined series and delta arrangement. This embodiment is similar to except for the different cross-connections. Fig.7D In this embodiment, IO port 2 of module 108-M of array 700-PC is coupled to IO port 1 of module 108-1 of array 700-PA, IO port 2 of module 108-M of array 700-PB is coupled to IO port 1 of module 108-1 of array 700-PC, and IO port 2 of module 108-M of array 700-PA is coupled to IO port 1 of module 108-1 of array 700-PB. Fig.7D and7E The arrangement can be implemented with as few as two modules in each array 700. The combined delta and series configuration enables efficient exchange of energy between all modules 108 of the system (phase-balanced) and the phases of the grid or load, and also allows the total number of modules 108 in the array 700 to be reduced to obtain the desired output voltage.

[0143] In the embodiments described herein, while it is advantageous that the number of modules 108 in each array 700 within the system 100 is the same, this is not required, and different arrays 700 may have different numbers of modules 108. Furthermore, each array 700 may have modules 108 that all have the same configuration (e.g., all modules are 108A, all modules are 108B, all modules are 108C, or other) or different configurations (e.g., one or more modules are 108A, one or more are 108B, and one or more are 108C, or other). Thus, the range of topologies of the system 100 contemplated herein is broad.

[0144] Control Method Examples

[0145] As mentioned, control of the system 100 may be performed according to various methods such as hysteresis or PWM. Several examples of PWM include space vector modulation and sinusoidal pulse width modulation, where the switching signals for the converter 202 are generated using a phase-shifted carrier technique that sequentially rotates each module 108 to distribute power equally therebetween.

[0146] Figures 8C-8F is a diagram depicting an example embodiment of a phase-shifted PWM control method that can generate a multi-level output PWM waveform using an incrementally offset dual-level waveform. The X-level PWM waveform can be generated by summing (X-1) / 2 dual-level PWM waveforms. These dual-level waveforms can be generated by comparing a reference waveform Vref with a carrier that is incrementally offset by 360° / (X-1). The carrier is triangular, but embodiments are not limited thereto. Figure 8C A nine-level example is shown in FIG. 1 (using four modules 108). The carrier increment is shifted by 360° / (9-1)=45° and compared to Vref. The resulting two-level PWM waveform is Fig. 8E These two-level waveforms can be used as switching signals for the semiconductor switches (e.g., S1 to S6) of the converter 202. Fig. 8EFor an example, for a one-dimensional array 700 including four modules 108, each module having a converter 202, a 0° signal is used to control S3 of a first module 108-1 and a 180° signal is used for S6 of the first module, a 45° signal is used for S3 of a second module 108-2 and a 225° signal is used for S6 of the second module, a 90° signal is used for S3 of a third module 108-3 and a 270° signal is used for S6 of the third module, and a 135° signal is used for S3 of a fourth module 108-4 and a 315° signal is used for S6 of the fourth module. The signal for S3 is complementary to S4, and the signal for S5 is complementary to S6, with sufficient dead time to avoid shoot through of each half bridge. Fig.8F An example single-phase AC waveform resulting from the superposition (summing) of the output voltages of four modules 108 is depicted.

[0147] An alternative is to use a positive reference signal and a negative reference signal in conjunction with the first (N-1) / 2 carriers. A nine-level example is shown in Fig.8D In this example, the 0° to 135° switching signal ( Fig. 8E ) is achieved by connecting +Vref to Fig.8D The 0° to 135° carrier is compared and the 180° to 315° switching signal is generated by comparing -Vref with Fig.8D The 0° to 135° carrier is compared with the 0° to 135° carrier. However, in the latter case, the logic of the comparison is reversed. Other techniques such as a state machine decoder can also be used to generate the gate signal of the switch of the converter 202.

[0148] In a multi-phase system embodiment, the same carrier may be used for each phase, or the carrier set may be offset overall for each phase. For example, in a three-phase system with a single reference voltage (Vref), such as Figure 8C and 8D As shown, each array 700 may use the same number of carriers with the same relative offset, but the carrier of the second phase is offset by 120 degrees compared to the carrier of the first phase, and the carrier of the third phase is offset by 240 degrees compared to the carrier of the second phase. If a different reference voltage is available for each phase, the phase information can be carried in the reference voltage and the same carrier can be used for each phase. In many cases, the carrier frequency will be fixed, but in some example embodiments, the carrier frequency can be adjusted, which can help reduce losses in the EV motor under high current conditions.

[0149] Appropriate switching signals may be provided to each module by the control system 102. For example, the MCD 112 may provide Vref and an appropriate carrier signal to each LCD 114 according to one or more modules 108 controlled by the LCD 114, and the LCD 114 may then generate the switching signals. Alternatively, all LCDs 114 in the array may be provided with all carrier signals, and the LCD may select the appropriate carrier signal.

[0150] The relative utilization of each module 108 can be adjusted based on the status information to perform balancing or one or more parameters as described herein. Balancing the parameters can involve adjusting the utilization to minimize parameter differences over time compared to a system that does not perform individual module utilization adjustments. The utilization can be the relative amount of time that the module 108 is discharging when the system 100 is in a discharging state, or the relative amount of time that the module 108 is charging when the system 100 is in a charging state.

[0151] As described herein, the modules 108 can be balanced relative to other modules in the array 700, which can be referred to as intra-array or intra-phase balancing, and different arrays 700 can be balanced relative to each other, which can be referred to as inter-array or inter-phase balancing. Arrays 700 of different subsystems can also be balanced relative to each other. The control system 102 can simultaneously perform any combination of intra-phase balancing, inter-phase balancing, utilization of multiple energy sources within a module, active filtering, and auxiliary load powering.

[0152] Fig.9A is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of an array controller 900 of a control system 102 for a single-phase AC or DC array. The array controller 900 may include a peak detector 902, a divider 904, and an intra-phase (or intra-array) balancing controller 906. The array controller 900 may receive a reference voltage waveform (Vr) and condition information about each of the N modules 108 in the array (e.g., state of charge (SOCi), temperature (Ti), capacity (Qi), and voltage (Vi)) as inputs, and generate a normalized reference voltage waveform (Vrn) and a modulation index (Mi) as outputs. The peak detector 902 detects a peak value (Vpk) of Vr, which may be specific to the phase in which the controller 900 is operating with and / or without balancing. The divider 904 generates Vrn by dividing Vr by its detected Vpk. The intra-phase balance controller 906 uses Vpk and condition information (eg, SOCi, Ti, Qi, Vi, etc.) to generate a modulation index Mi for each module 108 within the array 700 being controlled.

[0153] The modulation index and Vrn can be used to generate a switching signal for each converter 202. The modulation index can be a number between zero and one (including zero and one). For a particular module 108, the normalized reference Vrn can be modulated or scaled by Mi and according to the Figures 8C-8F This modulated reference signal (Vrnm) can be used as Vref (or -Vref) according to the described PWM technique or according to other techniques. In this way, the modulation index can be used to control the PWM switching signal provided to the converter switching circuit system (e.g., S3-S6 or S1-S6), and thereby adjust the operation of each module 108. For example, a module 108 controlled to maintain normal or full operation can receive Mi of one, while a module 108 controlled to be less than normal or full operation can receive Mi less than one, and a module 108 controlled to stop power output can receive Mi of zero. This operation can be performed by the control system 102 in various ways, such as by outputting Vrn and Mi to an appropriate LCD 114 for modulation and generation of switching signals by the MCD 112, performing modulation by the MCD 112 and outputting the modulated Vrnm to an appropriate LCD 114 for generation of switching signals, or performing modulation and generation of switching signals by the MCD 112 and outputting the switching signals directly to the LCD of each module 108 or the converter 202. Vrn may be sent continuously, while Mi may be sent at regular intervals, such as once per cycle of Vrn, once per minute, and so on.

[0154] The controller 906 may generate Mi for each module 108 using any type or combination of the condition information described herein (e.g., SOC, temperature (T), Q, SOH, voltage, current). For example, when using SOC and T, if the SOC is relatively high and the temperature is relatively low compared to other modules 108 in the array 700, the module 108 may have a relatively high Mi. If the SOC is relatively low or the T is relatively high, this module 108 may have a relatively low Mi, resulting in its utilization being lower than that of other modules 108 in the array 700. The controller 906 may determine Mi so that the sum of the module voltages does not exceed Vpk. For example, Vpk may be the sum of the product of the voltage of the source 206 of each module and the Mi of this module (e.g., Vpk=M1V1+M2V2+M3V3...+M N V N etc.) Different combinations of modulation indices, and therefore respective voltage contributions of the modules, may be used, but the total voltage produced should remain the same.

[0155] The controller 900 can control the operation so that the SOC of the energy sources in each module 108 remain balanced or converge to a balanced condition if they are unbalanced, and / or so that the temperature of the energy sources or other components (e.g., energy buffers) in each module remain balanced or converge to a balanced condition if they are unbalanced, within a range that does not hinder the achievement of the power output requirements of the system at any one time (e.g., during maximum acceleration of the EV). The power flow into and out of the modules can be adjusted so that the capacity differences between the sources do not cause SOC deviations. The balance of SOC and temperature can indirectly cause a certain balance of SOH. Voltage and current can be directly balanced as needed, but in many embodiments, the primary goal of the system is to balance SOC and temperature, and the balance of SOC can cause a balance of voltage and current in a highly symmetrical system in which the modules have similar capacities and impedances.

[0156] Since it is not possible to balance all parameters simultaneously (e.g., balancing one parameter may also unbalance another parameter), a combination of balancing any two or more parameters (SOC, T, Q, SOH, V, I) may be applied, with any one parameter being prioritized depending on the requirements of the application. Balancing SOC may be prioritized over the other parameters (T, Q, SOH, V, I), except when one of the other parameters (T, Q, SOH, V, I) reaches a severe imbalance condition beyond a threshold.

[0157] Balancing between arrays 700 of different phases (or arrays of the same phase, for example, if parallel arrays are used) can be performed simultaneously with intra-phase balancing. Fig. 9B An example embodiment of an Ω phase (or Ω array) controller 950 configured to operate in an Ω phase system 100 having at least an Ω array 700, where Ω is any integer greater than one, is depicted. The controller 950 may include an interphase (or interarray) controller 910 and an Ω intraphase balancing controller 906-PA ... 906-PΩ for phases PA to PΩ, as well as a peak detector 902 and a divider 904 ( Fig.9A ), for generating normalized references VrnPA to VrnPΩ from each phase-specific reference VrPA to VrPΩ. The intra-phase controller 906 may generate Mi for each module 108 of each array 700, as described with respect to Fig.9AThe interphase balance controller 910 is configured or programmed to balance aspects of the modules 108 across the entire multi-dimensional system, for example, between arrays of different phases. This can be achieved by injecting a common mode (e.g., a neutral point shift) into the phases or by using an interconnect module (described herein) or by both. Common mode injection involves introducing a phase and amplitude offset to the reference signals VrPA to VrPΩ to generate a normalized waveform VrnPA to VrnPΩ to compensate for imbalances in one or more arrays, and is further described in International Application No. PCT / US20 / 25366, incorporated herein.

[0158] Controllers 900 and 950 (as well as balancing controllers 906 and 910) may be implemented in hardware, software, or a combination thereof within control system 102. Controllers 900 and 950 may be implemented within MCD 112, partially or completely distributed between LCD 114, or may be implemented as separate controllers independent of MCD 112 and LCD 114.

[0159] Interconnect (IC) Module Examples

[0160] For the purpose of exchanging energy between arrays, acting as a source of auxiliary loads, or both, the module 108 can be connected between modules of different arrays 700. Such modules are referred to herein as interconnect (IC) modules 108IC. The IC module 108IC can be implemented in any of the module configurations (108A, 108B, 108C) already described and other configurations to be described herein. The IC module 108IC can include any number of one or more energy sources, optional energy buffers, switch circuit systems for powering one or more arrays and / or for powering one or more auxiliary loads, control circuit systems (e.g., local control devices), and monitor circuit systems for collecting status information about the IC module itself or its various loads (e.g., SOC of the energy source, temperature of the energy source or energy buffer, capacity of the energy source, SOH of the energy source, voltage and / or current measurements associated with the IC module, voltage and / or current measurements associated with the auxiliary load, etc.).

[0161] Fig. 10Ais a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of a system 100 capable of generating Ω phase power with an Ω array 700-PA to 700-PΩ, where Ω can be any integer greater than one. In this and other embodiments, the IC module 108IC can be positioned on the track side of the array 700 such that the array 700 to which the module 108IC is connected (in this embodiment, the array 700-PA to 700-PΩ) is electrically connected to the load between the module 108IC and the output (e.g., SIO1 to SIOΩ). Here, the module 108IC has an ΩIO port for connecting to the IO port 2 of each module 108-N of the array 700-PA to 700-PΩ. In the configuration depicted herein, the module 108IC can perform phase balancing by selectively connecting one or more energy sources of the module 108IC to one or more of the arrays 700-PA to 700-PΩ (or not connected to the output if phase balancing is not required, or equivalently connected to all outputs). The system 100 can be controlled by a control system 102 (not shown, see Figure 1A )control.

[0162] Fig. 10B 1 is a schematic diagram depicting an example embodiment of module 108IC. In this embodiment, module 108IC includes an energy source 206 connected to an energy buffer 204, which in turn is connected to a switching circuit system 603. The switching circuit system 603 may include switching circuit system cells 604-PA to 604-PΩ for independently connecting the energy source 206 to each of the arrays 700-PA to 700-PΩ, respectively. Various switch configurations may be used for each cell 604, which in this embodiment is configured as a half-bridge having two semiconductor switches S7 and S8. Each half-bridge is controlled by a control line 118-3 from LCD 114. This configuration is similar to that described with respect to Figure 3A As described with respect to converter 202, switching circuitry 603 may be configured in any arrangement and any switch type (eg, MOSFET, IGBT, Silicon, GaN, etc.) suitable for application requirements.

[0163] Switching circuitry unit 604 is coupled between the positive and negative terminals of energy source 206 and has an output connected to an IO port of module 108 IC. Units 604-PA to 604-PΩ can be controlled by control system 102 to selectively switch voltage +V IC or -V ICCoupled to the corresponding module I / O ports 1 to Ω. The control system 102 can control the switching circuit system 603 according to any desired control technique, including the PWM and hysteresis techniques mentioned in this article. Here, the control circuit system 102 is implemented as an LCD 114 and an MCD 112 (not shown). The LCD 114 can receive monitoring data or status information from the monitor circuit system of the module 108 IC. This monitoring data and / or other status information derived from this monitoring data can be output to the MCD 112 for system control described herein. For the purpose of synchronizing the modules 108 of the system 100 with one or more carrier signals (not shown) such as a sawtooth signal used in PWM, the LCD 114 can also receive timing information (not shown) ( Figure 8C-8D ).

[0164] For inter-phase balancing, proportionally more energy from source 206 may be supplied to any one or more of arrays 700-PA through 700-PΩ that are relatively less charged than other arrays 700. Supplying such supplemental energy to a particular array 700 allows the energy output of those cascaded modules 108-1 through 108-N in that array 700 to be reduced relative to the unsupplied phase arrays.

[0165] For example, in some example embodiments where PWM is applied, the LCD 114 may be configured to receive a normalized voltage reference signal (Vrn) (from the MCD 112), e.g., VrnPA to VrnPΩ, for each of the one or more arrays 700 to which the module 108IC is coupled. The LCD 114 may also receive modulation indices MiPA to MiPΩ for the switch cells 604-PA to 604-PΩ of each array 700, respectively, from the MCD 112. The LCD 114 may modulate (e.g., multiply) each corresponding Vrn with a modulation index (e.g., VrnA multiplied by MiA) directly coupled to the switch portion of the array, and then generate a control signal for each switch cell 604 using a carrier signal. In other embodiments, the MCD 112 may perform the modulation and output the modulated voltage reference waveform for each cell 604 directly to the LCD 114 of the module 108IC. In still other embodiments, all processing and modulation may be performed by a single control entity, which may output a control signal directly to each cell 604.

[0166] This switching may be modulated so that power from energy source 206 is supplied to array 700 at appropriate intervals and durations. Such methods may be implemented in a variety of ways.

[0167] Based on the collected status information of the system 100, such as the current capacity (Q) and SOC of each energy source in each array, the MCD 112 can determine the total charge for each array 700 (e.g., the total charge of the array can be determined as the sum of the capacity of each module of the array multiplied by the SOC). The MCD 112 can determine whether there is a balanced or unbalanced state (e.g., by using the relative difference thresholds and other metrics described herein), and generate the modulation index MiPA to MiPΩ for each switch unit 604-PA to 604-PΩ accordingly.

[0168] During balancing operation, Mi of each switch unit 604 may be set to a value that causes the energy source 206 and / or energy buffer 204 to provide the same or similar amount of net energy to each array 700 over time. For example, Mi of each switch unit 604 may be the same or similar and may be set to a level or value that causes the module 108 IC to perform a net or time-averaged energy release to one or more arrays 700-PA to 700-PΩ during balancing operation so as to discharge the module 108 IC at the same rate as the other modules 108 in the system 100. In some embodiments, Mi of each unit 604 may be set to a level or value that does not cause a net or time-averaged energy release (causing a net energy release of zero) during balancing operation. This may be useful if the total charge of the module 108 IC is lower than the total charge of the other modules in the system.

[0169] When an unbalanced condition occurs between the arrays 700, the modulation index of the system 100 may be adjusted to converge toward a balanced condition or minimize further differences. For example, the control system 102 may cause the module 108IC to discharge more to the array 700 with a lower charge than other modules, and may also cause the modules 108-1 to 108-N of this lower array 700 to discharge relatively less (e.g., on a time average basis). The relative net energy contributed by the module 108IC is increased compared to the modules 108-1 to 108-N of the assisted array 700, and compared to the amount of net energy contributed by the module 108IC to the other arrays. This may be achieved by increasing the Mi of the switch cells 604 that are powered to the lower array 700 and by reducing the modulation index of the modules 108-1 to 108-N of the lower array 700 in a manner that maintains the Vout of the lower array at an appropriate or desired level and maintaining the modulation index of the other switch cells 604 that are powered to the other higher arrays relatively unchanged (or causing it to decrease).

[0170] Figures 10A-10BThe configuration of the module 108IC in can be used alone to provide inter-phase or inter-array balancing to a single system, or can be used in combination with one or more other modules 108IC, each of which has an energy source and one or more switch sections 604 coupled to one or more arrays. For example, a module 108IC having an Ω switch section 604 coupled to an Ω different array 700 can be combined with a second module 108IC having a switch section 604 coupled to one array 700, so that the two modules are combined to serve a system 100 having an Ω+1 array 700. Any number of modules 108IC can be combined in this manner, each module coupled to one or more arrays 700 of the system 100.

[0171] Furthermore, the IC modules may be configured to exchange energy between two or more subsystems of the system 100 . Fig. 10C 1 is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of a system 100 having a first subsystem 1000-1 and a second subsystem 1000-2 interconnected by an IC module. Specifically, the subsystem 1000-1 is configured to supply three-phase power PA, PB, and PC to a first load (not shown) by means of system I / O ports SIO1, SIO2, and SIO3, and the subsystem 1000-2 is configured to supply three-phase power PD, PE, and PF to a second load (not shown) by means of system I / O ports SIO4, SIO5, and SIO06, respectively. For example, the subsystems 1000-1 and 1000-2 may be configured to supply different packages of power to different motors of an EV or may be configured to supply different racks of power to different microgrids.

[0172] In this embodiment, each module 108IC is coupled to the first subsystem 1000-1 array (via IO port 1) and the first subsystem 1000-2 array (via IO port 2), and each module 108IC can be electrically connected to each other's modules 108IC via I / O ports 3 and 4, as described with respect to Figure 3C As described with reference to module 108C of FIG. 1000, these ports are coupled to the energy source 206 of each module 108IC. This connection places the sources 206 of modules 108IC-1, 108IC-2, and 108IC-3 in parallel, and thus the energy stored and supplied by modules 108IC is brought together through this parallel arrangement. Other arrangements, such as rigid connections, may also be used. Module 108IC is housed within the common housing of subsystem 1000-1, however the interconnect module may be external to the common housing and physically positioned as an independent entity between the common housings of the two subsystems 1000.

[0173] As about Fig. 10BAs depicted, each module 108IC has a switch unit 604-1 coupled to IO port 1 and a switch unit 604-2 coupled to I / O port 2. Thus, in order to balance between subsystems 1000 (e.g., inter-pack or inter-rack balancing), a particular module 108IC may provide relatively more energy to either or both of the two arrays to which it is connected (e.g., module 108IC-1 may provide power to array 700-PA and / or array 700-PD). The control circuitry may monitor relative parameters (e.g., SOC and temperature) of the arrays of the different subsystems and adjust the energy output of the IC modules to compensate for imbalances between arrays or phases of the different subsystems in the same manner as described herein for compensating for imbalances between two arrays of the same rack or pack. Because all three modules 108IC are in parallel, energy may be efficiently exchanged between any and all arrays of system 100. In this embodiment, each module 108 IC provides power to two arrays 700, but other configurations may be used, including a single IC module for all arrays of the system 100 and a configuration with one dedicated IC module for each array 700 (e.g., six IC modules for six arrays, each with one switch unit 604). In all cases of multiple IC modules, energy sources may be coupled together in parallel to share energy as described herein.

[0174] In systems with IC modules between phases, phase-to-phase balancing can also be performed by neutral point shifting (or common mode injection) as described above. Such a combination allows for more robust and flexible balancing under a wider range of operating conditions. The system 100 can determine appropriate situations in which to perform phase-to-phase balancing using only neutral point shifting, only phase-to-phase energy injection, or a combination of both.

[0175] The IC module may also be configured to supply power to one or more auxiliary loads 301 (at the same voltage as source 206 ) and / or one or more auxiliary loads 302 (at a voltage stepped down from source 302 ). Fig. 10D is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of a three-phase system 100A having two modules 108IC connected for phase balancing and powering auxiliary loads 301 and 302 . Fig. 10E1 is a schematic diagram depicting this example embodiment of system 100, with emphasis on modules 108IC-1 and 108IC-2. Here, control circuitry 102 is again implemented as LCD 114 and MCD 112 (not shown). LCD 114 may receive monitoring data (e.g., SOC of ES1, temperature of ES1, Q of ES1, voltage of auxiliary loads 301 and 302, etc.) from modules 108IC, and may output this and / or other monitoring data to MCD 112 for system control as described herein. Each module 108IC may include a switch portion 602A (or a switch portion 602A for each load 302 powered by such module) Figure 6C 602B) and each switch section 602 can be controlled by LCD 114 independently or based on control input from MCD 112 to maintain the voltage level required by load 302. In this embodiment, each module 108IC includes switch sections 602A connected together to power one load 302, although this is not required.

[0176] Fig.10F 1 is a block diagram depicting another example embodiment of a three-phase system configured to supply power to one or more auxiliary loads 301 and 302 using modules 108IC-1, 108IC-2, and 108IC-3. In this embodiment, modules 108IC-1 and 108IC-2 are configured in the same manner as described with respect to FIG. Figures 10D-10E Module 108IC-3 is configured in a purely auxiliary role and does not actively inject voltage or current into any array 700 of system 100. In this embodiment, module 108IC-3 can be like Figure 3B The module 108C is configured as above, with converters 202B, C ( Figure 6B-6C ) and one or more auxiliary switch sections 602A, but the switch section 601 is omitted. Thus, the one or more energy sources 206 of the module 108IC-3 are interconnected in parallel with the energy sources of the modules 108IC-1 and 108IC-2, and thus this embodiment of the system 100 is configured with additional energy for powering the auxiliary loads 301 and 302 and for maintaining the charge on the sources 206A of the modules 108IC-1 and 108IC-2 through the parallel connection with the source 206 of the module 108IC-3.

[0177] The voltage and capacity of the energy source 206 of each IC module can be the same as the source 206 of the other modules 108-1 to 108-N of the system, but this is not required. For example, in one module 108IC applies energy to multiple arrays 700 ( Fig. 10A) to allow the IC module to discharge at the same rate as the modules of the phase array themselves, a relatively higher capacity may be desired. If the module 108IC also powers an auxiliary load, an even greater capacity may be desired to permit the IC module to power and discharge the auxiliary load at relatively the same rate as the other modules.

[0178] Second life energy source example

[0179] The energy sources 206 described herein can be used in the systems 100 described herein for first life and second life applications. The first life of the source 206 is the original application in which the source 206 is used. For example, the first life application is the first embodiment in which the source 206 is used by the first customer of the source 206 after its original manufacture (and not refurbishment). The user of the source 206 in its first life will typically receive the source 206 from the manufacturer, distributor, or original equipment manufacturer (OEM). The batteries 206 used in the first life application will typically have the same electrochemistry (e.g., will have a variant of the same lithium-ion electrochemistry (e.g., LFP, NMC)), and will have the same nominal voltage, and the capacity variation across the battery pack or system will be minimal (e.g., 5% or less). Using an energy storage system with the batteries 206 in the first life application will enable the batteries 206 to have a longer life in this first life application, and when removed from this first life application, the batteries 206 will be more similar in capacity degradation than batteries from the first life application that do not use the energy storage system.

[0180] As used herein, a "second life" application refers to any application or implementation (e.g., a second implementation, a third implementation, a fourth implementation, etc.) subsequent to the first life application of source 206. A second life energy source refers to any energy source (e.g., a battery or HED capacitor) implemented in the second life application of this source.

[0181] An example of a first life application for battery 206 is within an energy storage system of an EV. Then, at the end of this life (e.g., after 100,000 miles of driving, or after a threshold amount of battery degradation within this battery pack), battery 206 can be removed from the battery pack, optionally refurbished and tested, and then implemented in a second life application, which can be, for example, within a stationary energy storage system (e.g., residential, commercial, or industrial energy buffering, EV charging station energy buffering, renewable source (e.g., wind, solar, hydroelectric) energy buffering, etc.) or another mobile energy storage system (e.g., a battery pack for an electric vehicle, bus, train, or truck). Similarly, the first life application can be a first stationary application, and the second life application can also be a stationary or mobile application.

[0182] For the second life application, the system 100 can select and / or utilize the sources 206 to minimize (or at least reduce) any differences in initial capacity and nominal voltage. For example, sources 206 having a capacity difference of 5% or greater can be included in the system 100 and operated to provide energy to the load. In another example, an operator or an automated system can select sources 206 for the system 100 whose capacity differences are within a threshold amount, for example, to reduce the initial capacity difference between the sources of the system 206. If the module 108 is compatible with the first and second life applications (e.g., with or without reconfiguration), the module 108 can be selected for the second life application based on the capacity difference of the sources 206 of the module 108.

[0183] The system 100 can adjust the utilization of each source 206 individually so that when the battery pack or system 100 is discharged, the sources 206 within the system 100 or the battery pack of the system 100 are relatively balanced in terms of SOC or total charge (SOC multiplied by capacity), even though the sources 206 in the system 100 can have widely varying capacities. Similarly, the system 100 can maintain balance when the battery pack or system 100 is charged. The sources 206 can vary not only in capacity, but also in nominal voltage, power rating, electrochemical type (e.g., a combination of LFP and NMC batteries), etc. Therefore, the system 100 can be used so that all modules 206 within the system 100 or each pack of the system 100 are second life energy sources with various combinations of different characteristics (or so that a combination of first life and second life energy sources are used).

[0184] In one instance, the system 100 may include a second life energy source 206 (and optionally one or more first life energy sources 206) with an energy capacity variation of 2% or more, 5% or more, 10% or more, 15% or more, 20% or more, 25% or more, 30% or more, 5%-30%, 10%-30% and / or 20%-30%.

[0185] In another instance, the system 100 may include a second energy life source 206 (and optionally one or more first life energy sources 206) having an energy capacity / mass density variation of 2% or more, 5% or more, 10% or more, 15% or more, 20% or more, 25% or more, 30% or more, 5%-30%, 10%-30% and / or 20%-30%.

[0186] In another instance, the system 100 may include a second life energy source 206 (and optionally one or more first life energy sources 206) having a peak power / mass density variation of 2% or more, 5% or more, 10% or more, 15% or more, 20% or more, 25% or more, 30% or more, 5%-30%, 10%-30% and / or 20%-30%.

[0187] In another instance, the system 100 may include a second life energy source 206 (and optionally one or more first life energy sources 206) having a nominal voltage variation of 2% or more, 5% or more, 10% or more, 15% or more, 20% or more, 25% or more, 30% or more, 5%-30%, 10%-30% and / or 20%-30%.

[0188] In another instance, the system 100 may include a second life energy source 206 (and optionally one or more first life energy sources 206) having an operating voltage range varying by 2% or more, 5% or more, 10% or more, 15% or more, 20% or more, 25% or more, 30% or more, 5%-30%, 10%-30% and / or 20%-30%.

[0189] In another instance, the system 100 may include a second life energy source 206 (and optionally one or more first life energy sources 206) having a maximum specified current rise time variation of 2% or more, 5% or more, 10% or more, 15% or more, 20% or more, 25% or more, 30% or more, 5%-30%, 10%-30% and / or 20%-30%.

[0190] In another instance, the system 100 may include a second life energy source 206 (and optionally one or more first life energy sources 206) having a specified peak current variation of 2% or more, 5% or more, 10% or more, 15% or more, 20% or more, 25% or more, 30% or more, 5%-30%, 10%-30% and / or 20%-30%.

[0191] A change of X% (e.g., 5% or more, or 5% to 30%) may be satisfied by a change between a module 108 having the highest value of the parameter and a module 108 having the lowest value of the parameter within the system 100. For example, a capacity change of 5% or more may be satisfied by a system 100 in which the capacity of the module 108 having the lowest capacity source 206 is 95% or less than the capacity of the module 108 having the highest capacity source 206. For each of the embodiments and parameters disclosed herein, the time at which a system 100 having one or more second life sources satisfies the X% change condition in a parameter may be at installation of the system 100, at commissioning of the system 100, after replacing one source 206 with another source 206, after the system 100 has been in operation for 10 hours or more, after the system 100 has been in operation for 100 hours or more, after the system 100 has been in operation for 1000 hours or more, and / or after the system 100 has been in operation for 10,000 hours or more. For example, even if there is no capacity variation at commissioning, a capacity variation of 5% or more may occur after 1000 hours of operation of system 100. This reflects the ability of embodiments of system 100 to continue to operate with and handle capacity differences between sources 206 that increase over time.

[0192] In another example, the system 100 can include a second life energy source 206 (and optionally one or more first life energy sources 206) having a variation of electrochemical types (e.g., a lithium-ion battery and a non-lithium-ion battery, or different lithium-ion batteries (e.g., any combination of NMC, LFP, LTO, or other lithium-ion battery types)).

[0193] The system 100 may include a second life energy source 206 (and optionally one or more first life energy sources 206) having any combination of the characteristics provided in the foregoing examples.

[0194] Fast charging

[0195] Example embodiments related to rapid charging techniques for energy sources using pulse heating and / or pulse charging techniques will now be described herein. The embodiments will be described primarily in the context of energy source 206 being a battery, although the embodiments are also applicable to other energy source types (e.g., high energy density capacitors and fuel cell units). The embodiments can be applied to charging a battery having a single cell, a battery having a plurality of cells (e.g., connected in series, connected in parallel, or a combination thereof, sometimes referred to as a battery module), and a system (e.g., a battery pack) having a plurality of battery modules (e.g., connected in series, connected in parallel, or a combination thereof).

[0196] Examples of battery types suitable for the present subject matter include solid-state batteries, liquid electroform-based batteries, liquid-phase batteries, and flow batteries, such as lithium (Li) metal batteries, lithium-ion batteries, lithium-air batteries, sodium-ion batteries, potassium-ion batteries, magnesium-ion batteries, alkaline batteries, nickel-metal hydride batteries, nickel-sulfate batteries, lead-acid batteries, zinc-air batteries, etc. Some examples of Li-ion battery types include Li cobalt oxide (LCO), Li manganese oxide (LMO), Li nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC), lithium iron phosphate (LFP), Li nickel cobalt aluminum oxide (NCA), and Li titanate (LTO).

[0197] Although not required for use with any particular configuration of the energy storage system, the embodiments of the system 100 described herein may benefit in particular from use with the fast charging embodiments of the present invention. When used with an embodiment of the system 100 to charge the energy source 206 therein, the converter 202 of each module 108 is independently controlled to apply positive, zero, or negative pulses from the power connection 110 to the source 206. The AC or DC signal applied to the power connection 110 may be fed back into the source 206 in a manner opposite to the process described herein for generating a superposition of all output pulses from all modules 108. Each converter 202 may be switched at a frequency greater than 100 Hz to apply pulses of, for example, five milliseconds (ms) or less at a duty cycle of 50%. Longer or shorter pulse durations with different duty cycles may also be used. This pulse capability allows the energy source to be charged and / or heated, as will be described herein.

[0198] The converter 202 may be controlled using a control system that applies pulse width modulation techniques, hysteresis techniques, or another technique that seeks to utilize all modules equally over time. Each module 108 may monitor the condition of the energy source 206 of this module 108 (e.g., state of charge (SOC), temperature, voltage, current, etc.), and feed this monitored information back to the control system 102, which may individually adjust the charge utilization of each module 108 to maintain a balance of a selected parameter or parameters to be balanced (e.g., SOC and / or temperature) or converge toward a balanced state.

[0199] The cascade topology of the system 100 permits the charging voltage or charging current from the charge source to be distributed between the energy sources as needed to implement charging schemes of varying complexity. For example, the voltage (or current) may be applied in a pulsed manner, with some sources 206 charging at certain times and others not charging, generally provided that the total voltage applied to the source 206 (and other charge sinks of the system) is equal to the DC or AC voltage supplied to the system 100 by the charge source at that moment. The voltage and duration of the applied pulses (as well as the duration of the rest time between pulses) may be varied and timed based on the state of those sources 206 as monitored by each module 108 (e.g., monitor circuitry 208 and LCD 114). Thus, the voltage division between the modules 108 allows the sources 206 of the modules 108 to be charged and rested as needed.

[0200] The embodiments described may be used to charge the source 206 with varying degrees of granularity. For example, a battery module may be pulsed as a whole, e.g., a pulse may be applied to all of the battery cells that make up the battery module. Alternatively, additional switching circuitry may be included for each individual battery cell (e.g., in addition to the configuration shown for the converter 202) such that each battery cell of the battery module may be pulsed independently. For example, a system 100 having N battery modules each having M battery cells may be configured with NM (N times M) converters or switching circuits. Other levels of granularity are also possible, such as the ability to pulse charge groups of battery cells within each battery module (e.g., the battery cells are divided into two groups, each of which may be charged independently, such that the system has 2N converters or switching circuits). Control of the switching circuitry of the various battery modules and / or battery cells may be performed by a control system 102 communicatively coupled to the system module 108 (e.g., an MCD 112 communicatively coupled to the LCD 114).

[0201] Example Embodiments of Pulse Charging and Heating Techniques

[0202] Example embodiments related to pulse charging an energy source at an increased rate to achieve fast or rapid charging are provided herein. The example embodiments relate to applying voltage or current pulses to a battery to increase the temperature of the battery by local heating, applying voltage or current pulses to a battery to charge the battery, applying a constant (non-pulsed) voltage or constant current to a battery to charge the battery at a higher temperature, monitoring the degradation of the battery while charging, and any combination thereof. The embodiments described herein can enable fixed and mobile energy storage systems to be charged at a wide range of C rates, provided that the battery cells do not exceed certain voltage and temperature limits. For example, an embodiment can allow an EV with a 100 kilowatt-hour (kWh) storage capacity to charge from zero to 80% of capacity in 10 minutes (or less) without substantially reducing the capacity over the rated life of the battery pack.

[0203] Fig.11A is a diagram depicting a framework for describing multiple example embodiments of a charging scheme 1100 for charging a battery source 206 from a relatively low state of charge (SOC) to substantially SOC in a short time frame of less than 15 minutes. Fig. 11B is a diagram of an embodiment of a scheme 1100 to which example values ​​are applied. Figures 11A-11B The charging scheme 1100 described (and elsewhere herein) can be applied to a battery having only a single cell or a battery module having two or more cells (e.g., 2 to 100 cells), and can be implemented by a charging and switching circuit system that is local to an external charge source. For example, the charger can sense the temperature (e.g., surface) and voltage response of the battery device as a whole and adjust the application of preheating and charging signals accordingly. Although this approach can be used to charge a single cell, a battery module having multiple cells, or even a system as a whole (e.g., a battery pack), this approach does not allow for fine-grained control of the preheating and charging processes applied to individual cells within a battery module and / or individual battery modules within a system.

[0204] To provide more fine-grained control, the scheme 1100 may also be applied within a cascaded modular energy storage system 100, as described herein, where each module 108 includes a battery 206, which may be only a single battery cell or may include two or more battery cells (e.g., 2 to 100 battery cells), and the number of modules 108 may be two or more (e.g., 2 to 100 modules 108). The converter 202 of each module 108 may be independently controlled as described herein, such that the scheme 1100 may be independently executed by each module 108 of the system 100. For example, considering a battery pack having 12 modules 108, each of which has a battery 206 including 12 battery cells, the scheme 1100 may be independently applied by each module 108 to charge each battery 206 having 12 battery cells in 15 minutes or less, and thereby charge the entire battery pack in the same or similar time. Because the condition of the batteries 206 within the system 100 will vary, and because embodiments may adjust the charging rate based on feedback from each battery 206, the charging time for each battery 206 may vary. At the beginning of a charging cycle, some batteries 206 may be at 2%-3% SOC, while others are at or near 0% SOC or some percentage in between. Some batteries 206 may have a higher capacity than others and will take longer to reach the desired SOC. Some batteries 206 may show signs of degradation while charging or other characteristics that require slowing down the charging process.

[0205] To enable a more detailed discussion of the scheme 1100, the following will be discussed. Figures 12A-12F To provide context for battery cell characteristics and structure. Fig. 12A 1 is a cross-sectional view of a generalized lithium-ion battery cell 1200. The battery cell 1200 includes a repeated layered structure, wherein each layer includes an anode 1201 and a cathode 1202 and a separator 1203 therebetween. Each anode 1201 includes an anode material 1204 interspersed with an electrolyte 1208 and has a current collector 1205 positioned therein. Similarly, each cathode 1202 includes a cathode material 1206 interspersed with an electrolyte 1209 and has a current collector 1207 positioned therein.

[0206] Fig. 12B 12 is an illustrative diagram depicting an enlarged anode 1201 and cathode 1202 and listing examples of degradation modes that may occur within a typical lithium-ion battery cell. Each of the degradation modes listed here may be caused directly or indirectly by applying overvoltage to the anode and cathode and charging at excessively high temperatures. The example embodiments described herein attempt to limit the application of overvoltage and operation at excessively high temperatures, and thereby limit these degradation modes.

[0207] Applying a high current pulse to a battery cell may cause the battery cell to exhibit an overvoltage distributed between the cathode, anode, and the battery cell itself. Fig. 12C It is a diagram depicting example voltages of a lithium-ion battery cell over a range of SOCs, and indicates the voltage components attributed to the cathode, anode, and battery cell. The permissible or available overvoltage range of the anode and cathode decreases as the state of charge of the battery cell increases. Graphite anodes typically exhibit a smaller permissible overvoltage range than the permissible overvoltage range of the cathode at all states of charge, and therefore the anode overvoltage may be the main limiting factor when a relatively large charging current is applied. Voltage response analysis can be used to determine the magnitude of the overvoltage on the anode and cathode, and the magnitude and frequency of the charging pulses can be maintained, increased, or decreased accordingly to remain within acceptable limits. The embodiments of the present invention can be applied so that the current is reduced when the battery cell is charged in any stage 1110, 1120, 1130.

[0208] Fig.12D is an electrical schematic model of the battery cell 1200. The anode exhibits an ohmic component and electrochemical interface components (V EC界面 ) voltage drop. The ohmic resistance of the anode (R 欧姆 ) is determined by the magnitude of V EC界面 The activation impedance (or charge transfer impedance) (R CT ) and diffusion-based increase in charge transfer resistance (R 瓦尔堡 ) (when unbalanced), the impedance is modeled as a series component in parallel with the anode double layer capacitance (CDL). It is cross-R CT and R 瓦尔堡 The cathode is modeled similarly but has its own characteristic value. The electrolyte also exhibits an ohmic impedance (R 欧姆电解质 ) determines the voltage (V 欧姆电解质 ) drop. Both the anode and cathode exhibit a frequency-dependent inductance L elec .

[0209] The voltage drop across the anode is the voltage due to ohmic impedance when the battery is unbalanced and the voltage due to the electrochemical interface and the voltage due to the change in open circuit voltage relative to diffusion when the cell is unbalanced accumulation.

[0210] Fig.12E1 is a Nyquist plot depicting an example impedance spectral response 1210 of a lithium-ion battery cell. The impedance response 1210 depends on the charge level of the lithium-ion battery cell and will become more compact as the charge level increases. The increase in real impedance is mainly due to R CT and R 瓦尔堡 , and the imaginary component is given by C DL In the case of a small or zero frequency charging signal, the impedance response is close to the upper right corner of this figure, and the battery cell exhibits relatively high real and imaginary impedances, and therefore the voltage dissipation across the anode is relatively high, which in turn makes it difficult to stay within the permitted anode overvoltage region because higher currents pass through the battery to reduce the charging time. As the charging pulse frequency increases, the impedance response moves toward a pure R of real impedance. 欧姆 The imaginary component is low and the voltage drop across the anode is relatively low. T ), the inductance of the battery cells, battery modules (if present), battery pack (if present), and other circuitry downstream of the charger will begin to substantially block current flow. T At frequencies at and below but within region 1215, relatively high currents can pass through the battery without exceeding the permissible anode overvoltage range, which allows for reduced charging times.

[0211] Fig.12F 1 is a voltage and current versus time graph depicting an example voltage response 1212 to a stimulus signal in the form of a current pulse 1214 applied to a lithium-ion battery cell. Here, the lithium-ion battery cell is balanced prior to the application of the pulse 1214 and has a resting voltage E at iteration n. 0 能斯特 The application of pulse 1214 will cause the ohmic impedance And due to the cell activation that occurs during the time period T_rise (e.g., about 50-100 milliseconds in total) The voltage rises. The voltage rise continues until the pulse 1214 is stopped. Applying the charging pulse drives the electrochemical reaction over time, causing the concentration in the battery cell to change due to diffusion, and the battery cell concentration changes from the equilibrium concentration c 0 R changes to the new concentration c* induced by diffusion R ,like Figure 12G Return to reference Fig.12F During the time period T_fall (eg, less than 150 milliseconds, such as about 50-100 milliseconds), the voltage response is due to the ohmic component and then decreases relatively quickly due to the activation component And it decreases relatively slowly, and assuming that the static voltage E* 能斯特 After T_ decreases, the cell concentration moves back toward E_ in one or more hours. 0 能斯特 slowly equilibrates, and this change in voltage is indicated by Not due to instant The voltage drop due to the EC interface is indicated as V EC界面 , it is and the sum of the voltage changes due to concentration shift.

[0212] Return to reference Figures 11A-11B , scheme 1100 may have three phases: a preheating phase 1110, a first charging phase 1120, and a second charging phase 1130. The energy for the preheating and charging signals applied to battery 206 may come from a charge source external to the system (e.g., a power grid or charging station), and in some cases may come from internally, such as through second source 206B. Here, pulsed preheating phase 1110 may last for a set duration (time_0 to time_1), or until a first temperature threshold (temperature_1) is reached. Fig. 11B In , a preheating phase 1110 is applied until the battery reaches 30° C., which occurs after approximately one minute.

[0213] The preheating stage 1110 involves applying a preheating pulse signal 1112 as a pulse train or pulse trains, wherein each pulse alternates from a charging pulse (negative current) to a discharging pulse (positive current) of equal or substantially equal duration, optionally with a time interval between the application of the charging and discharging pulse pairs. Figures 11C-11D is a current versus time graph depicting an example embodiment of a preheat pulse train 1112 with and without a time gap, respectively, and oscillating between a positive preheat current (+Iph) and an equal but opposite negative preheat current (-Iph).

[0214] The preheating stage 1110 can achieve local heating by increasing the temperature of the anode current collector 1205, the cathode current collector 1207 and the electrolyte 1209 ( Fig. 12A ) without activating the electrochemical reaction. In many embodiments, the frequency (f 预加热 ) conforms to equation (1):

[0215] (1) f AL , f CL > f 预加热 > f A主 , f A副 , f C主 , f C副 ,

[0216] where f AL is the characteristic frequency at which the inductance on the anode begins to significantly affect the current for a particular application, f CL is the characteristic frequency at which the inductance on the cathode begins to significantly affect the current for a particular application, f A主 is the characteristic frequency of the main reaction of lithium ion insertion reaction on the anode given by (4), f A副 is the characteristic frequency of the side reaction at the anode given by (5), f C主 is the characteristic frequency of the main reaction as the insertion reaction of lithium ions on the cathode given by (6), and f C副 is the characteristic frequency of the side reaction at the cathode given by (7).

[0217] (2) f AL < (R 欧姆A ) / 2πL A

[0218] (3) f CL < (R 欧姆C ) / 2πL C

[0219] (4) f A主 > 1 / [2π (R CT主 + R 瓦尔堡主 ) C DL ]

[0220] (5) f A副 > 1 / [2π (R CT副 + R 瓦尔堡副 ) C DL ]

[0221] (6) f C主 > 1 / [2π (R CT主 + R 瓦尔堡主 ) C DL ]

[0222] (7) f C副 > 1 / [2π (R CT副 + R 瓦尔堡副 ) C DL ]

[0223] In each of (1)-(7), selecting frequencies that are farther from the constraint can provide increased benefit. For example, 预加热 Choose a value much lower than f AL , then f CL This will allow suppressing the induced voltage component to avoid voltage spikes.

[0224] The preheating signal 1112 can be at a single frequency, where each pulse has a rectangular or substantially rectangular form (as visualized in the time domain). In other embodiments, the preheating signal 1112 can be implemented in a frequency domain of one Hertz (Hz) to at most one Megahertz (Mhz) in a more complex manner with multiple frequency components (such as a main pulse train and a secondary pulse). The frequency of the preheating signal 1112 is selected so that it causes the voltage drop to occur primarily through the electrolyte impedance and the collector impedance rather than through the charge transfer impedance. In various embodiments, the frequency range of the preheating signal 1112 is between 100 Hz and 100 kilohertz (kHz).

[0225] The preheating stage 1110 heats the active material by generating heat by means of ohmic impedance, while bypassing the activation of electrochemical reactions such as side reactions (e.g., decomposition of the electrolyte, decomposition of the active material, lithium precipitation) or the main electrochemical reaction (e.g., lithiation), thereby causing the temperature of the local area within the battery cell to rise. These reactions are preferably bypassed so that they do not substantially occur (within reasonable tolerances identified by ordinary technicians in the field, allowing for extended functional operation in corresponding commercial, research or industrial applications). Stage 1110 can be performed to warm the battery cell until the activation impedance and the total impedance are small enough so that the overvoltage on the anode drives the electrochemical reaction instead of lithium precipitation. Therefore, stage 1110 allows rapid heating of the electrochemical interface and bulk material temperature control to allow subsequent charging without damage caused by material stress caused by side reactions or rapid degradation of the anode and cathode materials (e.g., lithiation or delithiation).

[0226] The preheating stage 1110 may be applied until all cells of the source 206 reach a minimum temperature threshold, provided that no cell exceeds a maximum temperature threshold. If the cell reaches the maximum threshold, the preheating stage 1110 may be slowed or stopped, or the scheme 1100 may transition to the next stage (a first charging stage 1120 or a second charging stage 1130), as described herein. The cell temperature may be measured directly or indirectly (e.g., the temperature in a cell subgroup or near a cell) with a temperature sensor (e.g., infrared). As an alternative, or in combination with direct sensing, the temperature of one or more cells (including all cells) may be measured with a sensor (e.g., an infrared image of a plurality of cells). The temperature may also be inferred using a model or lookup table, optionally based on data collected from previously characterized cells, by reference to other indirect indicators (e.g., voltage, current, impedance). The temperature thresholds for this stage and other stages are preferably related to the internal temperature of the cell where the electrolyte and active materials are located. Thus, if the cell surface temperature is measured (eg, with a thermistor or optical device), a threshold value is set for the surface temperature relative to the expected internal cell temperature based on an estimate, a lookup table, or a model.

[0227] The preheating stage 1110 raises the temperature of the battery 206 to a first temperature threshold. Fig. 11B In the example of , the threshold is 30 degrees Celsius (C) measured on the surface of the battery cell. The temperature threshold may depend on the battery type, and for lithium-ion batteries, the temperature threshold may be, for example, between 25 and 70 degrees Celsius (including the end value). In other embodiments, the preheating stage 1110 may last for a predetermined duration (time_0 to time_1), such as less than one minute, one minute, two minutes, three minutes, five minutes or other time. The duration of stage 1110 may vary based on the starting temperature, with a relatively longer time required for a lower starting temperature. When the preheating signal 1112 includes charging pulses and discharging pulses of equal or substantially equal duration, the net charge of the battery 206 remains substantially unchanged during this stage and remains at or near the initial SOC. In addition, the frequency scheme of the applied pulse sequence is preferably selected so as not to induce an electrochemical reaction or side reaction of the storage reaction. The preferred frequency range of the preheating pulse signal 1112 is 100 Hz to 100 kHz.

[0228] The C-rate of the pulse applied during the preheating stage 1110 can vary widely and depends primarily on the ohmic characteristics of the battery cell, the applied voltage, and the thermal behavior during this stage. C-rates of up to 30C and higher can be applied in stage 1110. In addition, while stage 1110 can be applied so that no net charging or discharging occurs, in other embodiments, the length of the charging pulse can be slightly longer (e.g., 1%-15%) than the length of the discharging pulse to begin charging the battery cell at a relatively low rate compared to subsequent stages. For example, a transition from the preheating stage 1110 to the first charging stage 1120 may occur as the battery 206 heats toward a transition threshold temperature or time. Thus, stage 1110 can be divided into a first sub-stage 1114 in which no charging occurs, and a second subsequent sub-stage 1116 after reaching a higher temperature, in which the charging pulse length is longer than the discharging pulse length to begin charging, but at a slower rate than the pulse charging second stage described below. Fig.11E 1 and 11. An example embodiment of a preheat signal 1112 applied during two sub-phases 1114 and 1116 is depicted in FIG. The second sub-phase 1116 may introduce charging at a fixed rate (e.g., a 5% longer charging pulse), or may gradually begin charging in increments over a duration (e.g., a 1% longer charging pulse for 30 seconds, followed by a 2% longer charging pulse for 30 seconds, etc.) until transitioning to the first charging phase 1120.

[0229] The transition from stage 1110 to first charging stage 1120, or alternatively the transition from first sub-stage 1114 to second sub-stage 1116, can occur under conditions where pulse charging can occur at a high C-rate to achieve faster charging without causing significant side reactions such as plating. In some embodiments, this condition can be the average current of the expected pulse charging rate multiplied by the Warburg impedance (R 瓦尔堡 ) will not cause the voltage of any electrode to exceed the overvoltage range. In other embodiments, the condition that can control the transition to pulse charging can be when R 瓦尔堡 When the activation impedance decreases to 50% or less, 40% or less, 30% or less, 20% or less, or 10% or less of the total impedance of each electrode. For embodiments in which the preheating phase 1110 transitions directly to the constant current charging phase 1130 (without the pulse charging phase 1120), in some examples, the transition condition can be when the activation impedance decreases to 50% or less, 40% or less, 30% or less, 20% or less, or 10% or less of the total impedance of each electrode.

[0230] In some embodiments, the preheat signal 1112 is applied while monitoring the temperature of the subject source 206 and monitoring the temperature of the external ambient environment around the subject source 206 (e.g., the environment to which the subject source 206 loses heat). The difference between the source temperature and the temperature of the ambient environment can be monitored and compared to a threshold absolute difference (e.g., 20 or 30 degrees Celsius) or alternatively a gradient (e.g., a threshold rate at which the source temperature rises above the ambient temperature). This is to ensure that the temperature difference between the source and the ambient environment does not become so severe that the source is subjected to thermally induced mechanical stress sufficient to cause damage. If the threshold is approached, reached, or exceeded, the preheat signal amplitude can be reduced, or the interval time between adjacent charge-discharge pulse pairs can be increased, or a waiting period can be introduced without applying the signal, depending on the specific embodiment. In some embodiments, the preheat phase 1110 can be performed when all external cooling devices (e.g., fans, liquid coolant circulation) are not running at the same time, so as to minimize the temperature difference between the ambient environment and the source 206.

[0231] The first charging stage 1120 is a pulse charging stage in which a pulse charging signal is applied to the battery 206. Stage 1120 allows for faster charging at a high C-rate while reducing activation overvoltage and reducing the occurrence of side reactions, as explained in more detail herein. Fig.11F 1 is a current versus time graph depicting an example embodiment of a pulse charging signal 1122 for stage 1120. Signal 1122 oscillates between zero and +Ipc and is in the form of a square wave in this embodiment, with a +Ipc pulse having a duration 1124 and a 50% duty cycle. During stage 1120, the magnitude of signal 1122 may be controlled to maintain a constant temperature of battery 206, or may be further increased to accelerate the kinetics of the storage reaction, thereby further reducing the overvoltage on the electrochemical interface. Current controlled pulses are described with respect to preheat signal 1112 and pulse charging signal 1122, but voltage controlled pulses may be used as well.

[0232] The pulses applied in stage 1110 may have voltages that exceed the cut-off voltage (upper and lower) of the Energy Source 206. In some embodiments, the amount by which the stage 1110 pulses may exceed the cut-off voltage is limited by the breakdown voltage of the electrolyte. The pulses applied in stage 1120 may also have voltages that exceed the recommended cut-off voltage (upper and lower) of the Energy Source 206. In some embodiments, the stage 1120 pulses may exceed the cut-off voltage by an amount equal to or less than the pulse charging current multiplied by the residual impedance of the electrode (the portion of the impedance not avoided by pulse charging, i.e., the ohmic impedance plus any remaining activation impedance).

[0233] The optimum frequency and duration of the applied pulses 1124 depend on the battery type. In many embodiments, the frequency (F) of the pulse charging signal 1122 is 脉冲 ) conforms to equation (8):

[0234] (8) f 脉冲 > 1 / (R CT · C DL ).

[0235] f 脉冲 Values ​​greater than twice that of equation (8) substantially eliminate activation impedance and activation overvoltage (e.g., eliminate Fig.12D R CT and Component), thereby allowing faster charging without exceeding the maximum overvoltage of the EC interface. It has been discovered that for certain embodiments of lithium-ion batteries having graphite anode and nickel-cobalt cathode chemistries, a two millisecond (ms) charge pulse duration 1124 (e.g., 250 Hz, 50% duty cycle) can be utilized in scheme 1100 to charge the battery 206 at a rapid rate (e.g., 0%-75% charge in less than 15 minutes) without substantial capacity degradation over time (e.g., over many charge cycles of the battery 206 from low or no charge to a nominal SOC level). A charge pulse duration 1124 of 5 milliseconds or less can charge the battery 206 at a rapid rate with significantly improved capacity retention over time, as compared to a constant current charge signal of similar amperage. The example embodiments described herein can be applied at any charge pulse duration 1124 operable for the battery type. Embodiments include charging pulse durations for lithium-ion batteries of 5 milliseconds or less, 4 milliseconds or less, 3 milliseconds or less, 2 milliseconds or less, and 1 millisecond or less. The duration can be as short as 0.05 milliseconds or 0.1 milliseconds. The data was collected at a 50% duty cycle, but the pulses can be applied at a variety of different duty cycles, such as 25%-75%, 40%-60%, and 45%-55%. In an embodiment, pulses are applied at a pulse C-rate of 10.67C to charge 80% in nine minutes, which results in a time-averaged C-rate of 5.33C in the second phase at a 50% duty cycle (10.67C / 2).

[0236] Pulse charging can allow the charging current to be greatly increased because the voltage drop across the non-ohmic impedance is eliminated or minimized. In some embodiments, the non-ohmic Warburg impedance (R Warburg ) and non-ohmic activation impedance (R CT ), and select f 脉冲The sum of the Warburg impedance and the activation impedance exceeds a threshold proportion of the total impedance. For example, in a pulse charge where the applied current is twice the current applied in a constant current charge and the duty cycle is 50%, the sum of the non-ohmic impedances avoided preferably exceeds 50% of the total impedance. In other words, the ohmic impedance is preferably less than 50% of the total impedance. The total impedance can be measured, or can be based on pre-programmed estimates corresponding to different charging states. The threshold proportion can be 50% of the total impedance, 60% of the total impedance, 70% of the total impedance, or other. Alternatively, f can be selected 脉冲 The Warburg impedance is higher than a certain percentage of the total impedance (e.g., 60%, 50%, 40% or 30%), and / or f can be selected 脉冲 The activation impedance is made higher than a certain percentage (eg, 60%, 50%, 40% or 30%) of the total impedance.

[0237] Depending on the duty cycle, the time-averaged C-rate can be larger or smaller to meet the desired target (e.g., 80% SOC in approximately nine minutes). The magnitude of the C-rate itself is not a constraint, as the applied C-rate does not exceed the voltage and temperature constraints described herein, nor does it exceed the chemical and physical constraints of the battery cells, and the electrical and physical constraints of the charged system and charger. Therefore, the time-averaged C-rate of the second phase can vary significantly across embodiments. In one example, the time-averaged C-rate of the pulse charging phase 1120 is 4C-8C, but the present subject matter is not limited to this. For scheme 1100, time-averaged C-rates of 30C and higher are within the scope of the present subject matter.

[0238] The pulse signal 1122 may be applied at a current level such that each battery cell exhibits a voltage response greater than the open circuit voltage of the battery cell, but less than the upper cutoff voltage of the electrochemical interface voltage on the anode and cathode electrodes (excluding ohmic overvoltage). In various embodiments, the pulse is applied so that each battery cell does not exceed the overvoltage range of the anode alone, the overvoltage range of the cathode alone, or the overvoltage range of the anode and cathode together. As a result of reducing the activation overvoltage, pulse charging can drive the battery cell voltage to a higher voltage than that of constant current charging within the same (lower) temperature range.

[0239] The optimal duration of stage 1120 depends on the battery type, and longer pulse charging stages may be used for chemistries with more activation or activation that lasts at higher temperatures. Pulse charging stage 1120 may continue until the activation impedance decreases to 50% or less of the total initial impedance (e.g., from the beginning of stage 1120). In other embodiments, stage 1120 may continue until the activation impedance decreases to 40% or less, 30% or less, 20% or less, or 10% or less of the total impedance. Other constraints may also be determining factors in when stage 1120 ends, such as battery cell temperature and cutoff voltage.

[0240] Return to reference Fig.11A and 11B , the first charging stage 1120 may continue for a predetermined duration (e.g., time_1 to time_2), until an SOC or capacity threshold (e.g., SOC_1) is reached, until a temperature threshold (e.g., temperature_2) is reached, or any combination thereof (e.g., ends when any of the time, SOC, or temperature thresholds are reached). Stage 1120 is intended to charge at relatively low temperatures, where the benefits of pulsing dominate, but is not limited thereto. For example, stage 1120 may also be designed to further increase the temperature to a temperature suitable for transitioning to the second charging stage 1130 to apply constant current charging to charge to a higher state of charge.

[0241] exist Fig. 11B In the embodiment of the present invention, when the temperature of the battery 206 is about 50° C., stage 1120 ends. In other embodiments, for example, the temperature threshold (Temperature_2) can be greater than 30° C., such as between 30 and 60° C., or between 40 and 55° C. Thresholds outside of these ranges are possible based on the battery chemistry. Fig. 11B In an embodiment of the present invention, the temperature threshold for ending phase 1120 is reached when the battery SOC reaches approximately 55%. In an embodiment using an SOC threshold, the threshold may be between 30% and 80%, between 40% and 70%, or between 50% and 60%. Fig. 11B In the embodiment of the present invention, the second stage ends after a duration of about five minutes. In other embodiments, for example, the duration can be greater than one minute, such as between one minute and nine minutes, between two minutes and eight minutes, between three minutes and seven minutes, or between five minutes and seven minutes.

[0242] The second charging stage 1130 is a constant current charging stage in which a constant current signal without pulses is applied to the battery 206. Stage 1130 is intended for relatively high temperatures at the electrochemical interface where activation impedance and diffusion-based impedance decrease (e.g., Fig.12D R CT and R 瓦尔堡Components), and thus reduce the benefits of pulse charging. The reduced activation and diffusion impedances enable constant current charging at higher rates and higher SOCs without exceeding the maximum overvoltage. Stage 1130 may begin after the first charging stage 1120 is completed, and may continue until the battery 206 is fully charged or significantly charged (>50%). As the open circuit voltage of each battery cell increases, the magnitude of the charging pulse is preferably controlled so that it does not exceed the upper cutoff voltage of each battery cell.

[0243] Constant current can be applied at a relatively high time-averaged C-rate, such as 4C-8C (or higher). In the case of constant current, there is usually no difference between the time-averaged C-rate and the actual C-rate when the current is applied, but in some cases, small changes in current may make the time-averaged C-rate a more relevant metric.

[0244] In some embodiments, during the second charging stage 1130, the magnitude of the constant current charging signal may vary as the charging process proceeds. For example, in some embodiments, the magnitude of the constant current charging signal 1132 may begin stage 1130 at a relatively high C-rate and then gradually transition to a lower C-rate value as the charging process proceeds to avoid exceeding an overvoltage range as the SOC increases (see Fig. 12C ). Relatively brief pauses or rest periods may occur between constant current charges to allow the battery voltage to stabilize. Fig.13A1 is a graph depicting example levels of a constant current charging signal 1132 in phase 1130, wherein during a first sub-phase 1133, the signal 1132 is applied at a first C-rate (e.g., 6C-8C) for a first duration T1 (e.g., 60-120 seconds), followed by a relatively short pause period (e.g., 5-15 seconds) in which no signal is applied, and then during a second sub-phase 1134, the signal 1132 is applied at a second relatively lower C-rate (e.g., 4C-6C) for a second duration T2 (e.g., 90-150 seconds), followed again by a relatively short pause period (e.g., 5-15 seconds) in which no signal is applied. A short pause period (e.g., 5-15 seconds) in which no signal is applied, then during a third sub-stage 1135, the signal 1132 is applied at a third still lower C-rate (e.g., 2C-4C) for a third duration T3 (e.g., 90-150 seconds), followed again by a relatively short pause period (e.g., 5-15 seconds) in which no signal is applied, then during a fourth sub-stage 1136, the signal 1132 is applied at a fourth still lower C-rate (e.g., 1C-2C) for a fourth duration T4 (e.g., 4-8 minutes) to complete the protocol 1100. The duration T1-T4 for which the signal 1132 is applied during each sub-stage 1133-1136 may be constant, or may be variable, wherein the signal 1132 ceases once the battery (or cell) voltage reaches a threshold selected to avoid entering an overvoltage condition. The example C-rates and durations demonstrated here are merely examples and are not limiting, as embodiments are useful outside of these ranges. Phase 1130 may be performed with a single constant current rate or any number of two or more sub-phases (eg, 1133 - 1136 ) in which the constant current rate is iteratively reduced.

[0245] Fig. 13B is a diagram of another example embodiment of scheme 1100, wherein the second charging stage 1130 applies a constant current signal at a gradually decreasing magnitude, as described with respect to Fig.13A Each of the sub-stages 1133 - 1136 may terminate and transition to the next sub-stage upon occurrence of a time threshold, a temperature threshold, an SOC threshold, a voltage threshold, and / or any combination thereof.

[0246] The scheme 1100 need not perform all three phases 1110, 1120, and 1130. In some embodiments, the first charging phase 1120 may be omitted, and the scheme 1100 may proceed immediately from the pulse preheating phase 1110 to the constant current charging phase 1130. In other embodiments, the second charging phase 1130 may be omitted, and the scheme 1100 may proceed immediately from the pulse preheating phase 1110 to the first charging phase 1120 and then end. In still other embodiments, for example, where the battery 206 has been sufficiently heated, the pulse preheating phase 1110 may be omitted. Figures 19B-19G Example embodiments having these and other variations of scheme 1100 are described.

[0247] The scheme 1100 also includes monitoring each cell 206 for indications of potential degradation conditions. This monitoring, which may be performed during any and all of stages 1110, 1120, and 1130, may include voltage and / or impedance response analysis and / or monitoring for indications that lithium precipitation has occurred. For example, the voltage and impedance of each cell 206 may be monitored using voltage and impedance response analysis to detect indications of accelerated or decelerated side reactions (e.g., see Fig.12E ). Detection of the side reaction can be used to modify the characteristics of the charging signal, for example, the voltage of the charging signal can be reduced to slow down the side reaction, the duration of the charging pulse can be shortened to slow down the side reaction, and the frequency of applying the charging pulse can be reduced to slow down the side reaction, or the opposite operation can be performed if it is determined that the rate of the side reaction is low enough to permit faster charging. The voltage and impedance analysis can be performed during all three stages (1110, 1120, 1130), only during the preheating stage 1110, only during the first charging stage 1120, only during the second charging stage 1130, or any combination thereof.

[0248] Fig.14 1400 is a series of diagrams depicting an example embodiment 1400 of monitoring for an indication that lithium precipitation has occurred. In this embodiment, a signal 1402 is applied to a battery 206, wherein the signal 1402 includes a charging pulse followed by a discharge pulse of equal or substantially equal duration, as shown in the top diagram 1401. There may be a small time interval between the applied pulses. Here, a first charging pulse 1404 and a subsequent discharge pulse 1405 are shown for an example 1408 in which lithium precipitation has not occurred, and a second charging pulse 1406 and a second discharge pulse 1407 are shown for an example 1409 in which lithium precipitation has occurred.

[0249] The voltage response of the battery 206 to the signal 1402 can be monitored, as shown in the middle figure 1410. For an instance in which lithium precipitation has not occurred, a normal voltage response 1412 is shown on the left, and a voltage response 1414 indicating that lithium precipitation has occurred, specifically indicating that the precipitated lithium has been stripped, is shown on the right. If a lithium precipitation event has occurred, this becomes apparent in the portion of the voltage response 1414 of the discharge pulse 1406, which is typically a relatively rapid transition from one voltage to another when the discharge pulse is applied at a substantially constant magnitude. This rapid transition of the voltage response 1414 indicates that the precipitated lithium is subsequently stripped. Therefore, the response is generated by stripping lithium, and therefore indicates that lithium precipitation has occurred before the discharge pulse 1407 is applied.

[0250] Precipitation can be detected directly from the voltage response, or from the derivation 1422 of the voltage response, as shown in the bottom figure 1420. The derivation of the voltage response produces a transition (e.g., a positive or negative peak or spike) when the voltage response undergoes a relatively significant nonlinear transition, such as when the current pulse starts and terminates 1424, and when a lithium stripping event occurs, as shown in 1426. In some embodiments, only the voltage response or its derivation about the discharge pulse is monitored. If lithium precipitation is detected, the characteristics of the charging signal can be modified as described above for impedance monitoring. Lithium precipitation detection 1400 can be performed intermittently during all three stages, only during the preheating stage 1110, only during the first charging stage 1120, only during the second charging stage 1130, or any combination thereof. For example, the monitoring routine 1400 can be performed once every 5 seconds, 10 seconds, 20 seconds, or any other desired interval. Routine 1400 can include applying a pair of pulses (e.g., 1404 and 1405) or multiple pairs of pulses. The pulse length may be in the range of 0.1 milliseconds to 10 seconds, preferably on the order of 100 milliseconds or less, to minimize impact on the charging time of routine 1400 .

[0251] Fig.15A 15 is a graph of experimental data comparing the effects of pulse charging and constant current charging on a pair of lithium-ion battery cells rated for electric power applications (such as a conventional EV battery pack). Data 1502 indicates the results of the battery cell charged with a constant current at a 1C rate, and data 1504 indicates the results of the battery cell pulse charged in a manner similar to that described for pulse charging stage 1120. Fig.15AThe capacity in milliampere hours (mAh) is compared to the cycle time, which is a measure of the cumulative time that a battery cell is tested in repeated cycles. A constant current charge cycle is formed by applying a 1C constant current o charging to approximately 2.5Ah of the full rated capacity of 2.95Ah, followed by discharging to zero at a 1C rate, and then repeating this cycle. A pulse cycle is formed by applying a 1C pulse with a duration of 2 milliseconds for one hour at a 50% duty cycle, followed by discharging at a 1C rate for one hour, and then repeating this cycle. The experimental data was collected at 25°C and the cycle run was allowed to last for approximately 280 hours. Fig.15A It is shown that the capacity of the pulse charged cell in each cycle is on average 10% greater than the capacity of the constant current charged cell, and the cycle life of both degrades at approximately the same rate.

[0252] Fig. 15B Shown with Fig.15A Same data, but in normalized form, where capacity is shown as a percentage of initial capacity. This again shows that the reduction in cycle life for the pulse charged cell data 1514 is almost identical compared to the constant current data 1512. Therefore, Figures 15A-15B The data indicate that pulse charging does not cause cycle life degradation compared to constant current cells. Pulse charging reduces activation impedance and can improve capacity. If the conditions are adjusted to pulse charge the cell to the same lower capacity achieved with constant current cells, the cycle life of the pulse charged cell will be improved compared to the constant current charged cell.

[0253] Fig.16A is a graph of experimental data comparing the effects of a charging scheme 1100 and constant current charging on a pair of lithium-ion battery cells rated for power applications (such as conventional EV battery packs). The scheme 1100 is performed through a preheating phase 1110, a first pulse charging phase 1120, and a second charging phase 1130, and then cooling and discharging to form one cycle. This cycle is repeated continuously and independently on the two battery cells. Fig. 16C is a graph of capacity versus time, and Fig.16D1100 , which is a graph of voltage versus time, both showing data collected from one example cycle of performing the scheme 1100 on a battery cell. This exemplary embodiment of the scheme 1100 includes a net zero charge pulse preheat phase 1110 that raises the battery cell temperature from about 20°C to about 35°C. This is followed by a pulse charging phase 1120 lasting 3 minutes, in which 2 millisecond pulses are applied at 5C and 50% duty cycle. This in turn is followed by a constant current charging phase 1130 having a first sub-phase 1133 with a 7C rate for 90 seconds, followed by a 10 second rest period, a second sub-phase 1134 with a 5C rate for 120 seconds, followed by a 10 second rest period, a third sub-phase 1135 with a 3.3C rate for 120 seconds, followed by a 10 second rest period, and a fourth sub-phase 1136 with a 1.8C rate for 6 minutes. The pulse charging phase 1120 and sub-phases 1133-1136 are also limited by the battery cell voltage (4.25V for phase 1120 and 4.2V for sub-phases 1133-1136). This example of protocol 1100 achieves greater than 75% nominal capacity in less than 13 minutes. After charging, a relatively long rest period of about 60 seconds is performed to allow the battery cells to cool, after which the battery cells are discharged at a rate that reaches zero capacity at the end of one hour after the start of protocol 1100.

[0254] Return to reference Fig.16A , data 1602 indicates the results of a battery cell charged with a constant current at a 3.2C rate, and data 1604 ... Figures 16B-16C Results for a battery cell charged using scheme 1100 are described. Fig.16A Comparison of capacity (mAh) and cycle time, which is a measure of the cumulative time that a battery cell is tested in repeated cycles. The constant current charge cycle of data 1602 was formed by applying a 3.2C constant current for 13 minutes, followed by a discharge at a rate to achieve full discharge one hour after the start, so that the entire constant current cycle lasted one hour, and then this cycle was repeated continuously. The cycle ran for approximately 200 hours. Fig. 16B Shown with Fig.16A Same data but in normalized form where capacity is shown as a percentage of initial capacity.

[0255] Figures 16A-16B The standard constant current fast charging data 1602 shows that rapid capacity decay occurs. This rapid capacity decay is caused by the high impedance growth caused by constant current charging in the battery cell. In contrast, the charging scheme 1100 avoids this impedance growth and enables a significant improvement in capacity retention (similar to Figures 15A-15B1C baseline rate) while achieving 75% of the nominal capacity in less than 13 minutes. Still further refinement of the parameters of scheme 1100 can result in even faster charging times of 10 minutes or less to achieve the same or similar capacity.

[0256] Figures 15A-15B The battery cells used to collect the data were subjected to slow charge cycle characterization and the results are presented in Figures 17A-17B The voltage versus capacity diagram. Fig.17A Depicts data for a 1C constant current charging battery cell, where characterization curve 1702 is plotted at about Figures 15A-15B The characterization curve 1704 is plotted at the beginning of life (BOL) prior to the described test, and the characterization curve 1702 is plotted at the end of life (EOL) after this test is completed. Comparison of curves 1702 and 1704 indicates that the constant current cell experienced an irreversible capacity loss of approximately 15%. Fig. 17B Depicts data for a 1C pulse charged battery cell, where characterization curve 1712 is plotted at about Figures 15A-15B 1714 is plotted at the beginning of life (BOL) prior to the test described, and characterization curve 1714 is plotted at the end of life (EOL) after this test is completed. Comparison of curves 1712 and 1714 indicates that the pulse charged cell also experienced an irreversible capacity loss of approximately 15%. Therefore, at EOL, the irreversible capacity loss of the pulse charged battery is similar to that of the constant current cell compared to (BOL). The cycle life is also comparable. Therefore, pulse charging does not significantly degrade the performance of the battery cell nor does it cause rapid impedance growth.

[0257] Fig.18A 18 is a graph of imaginary and real impedance components for a constant current charged cell and a pulse charged cell at EOL. Data 1802 corresponds to a constant current charged cell and data 1804 corresponds to a pulse charged cell. Both pairs of cells exhibit substantially identical impedance characteristics, with the pulse charged cell showing only slightly higher ohmic and activation components relative to its impedance. This may be due to the buildup of the SEI layer and the impedance growth due to above-optimal temperatures, which may be mitigated by further refining the parameters of protocol 1100, allowing for better temperature control.

[0258] Fig.18B1814, 1815, 1816. The results of the measurements are summarized in Table 1 below. These findings indicate that pulse charging 1816 reduces the activation impedance and activation overvoltage while maintaining similar diffusion overpotentials.

[0259]

[0260] Table 1

[0261] Fig.19A -G are block diagrams depicting example embodiments of implementations of charging schemes 1100 for various battery types. In these figures, battery cell temperatures generally increase over time. Fig.19A Describes the basis Figures 11A-11B The embodiment of the present invention implements the scheme 1100-1, wherein the pulse preheating phase 1110 is first performed, followed by the pulse charging phase 1120, and finally the relatively high temperature constant current (CC) charging phase 1130. The scheme 1100-1 can be used for NMC or NCA battery cells, for example.

[0262] Fig.19B Scheme 1100-2 is depicted having a pulse preheating phase 1110 performed first, followed by a pulse charging phase 1120, with the constant current charging phase 1130 omitted. For example, this embodiment may be suitable for battery types having relatively high activation but relatively low diffusion chemistries at acceptable charging temperatures compared to NMC or NCA cells.

[0263] Fig.19C Scheme 1100-3 is depicted having only a pulse charging phase 1120, with preheat phase 1110 and constant current charging phase 1130 omitted. For example, this embodiment may be suitable for battery types having relatively high activation chemistries at acceptable charging temperatures compared to NMC or NCA cells.

[0264] Fig.19D Scheme 1100-4 is depicted having a pulse charging phase 1120 followed by a constant current charging phase 1130, but wherein the preheat phase 1110 is omitted. For example, this embodiment may be suitable for battery types having chemistries that are relatively less activated at high states of charge than NMC or NCA cells, which chemistries enable constant current charging at these high states of charge.

[0265] Fig.19E Scheme 1100-5 is depicted having a pulse preheating phase 1110 followed by a constant current charging phase 1130. Pulse charging phase 1120 is omitted. For example, this embodiment may be suitable for battery types having relatively less activated chemistries at acceptable charging temperatures than NMC or NCA cells.

[0266] Fig.19F A scheme 1100-6 is depicted that is similar to 1100-5 with a first preheating phase 1110-1 and a constant current phase 1130-1, but the scheme 1100-6 repeats this scheme with a second pulsed preheating phase 1110-2 and a second constant current charging phase 1130-2. For example, this embodiment may be suitable for battery types that have relatively low activation chemistries at acceptable charging temperatures compared to NMC or NCA cells, and operates across two separate temperature schemes.

[0267] Figure 19G A scheme 1100-7 is depicted having a pulse preheating phase 1110, followed by a first constant current charging phase 1130-1, then a pulse charging phase 1120 and a second constant current charging phase 1130-2. For example, this embodiment may be suitable for battery types having relatively high activation chemistries at intermediate states of charge compared to NMC or NCA cells.

[0268] about Figures 19A-19G Embodiments of the schemes described elsewhere herein may be performed independently for each energy source in the system being charged. Information regarding the condition of each source (e.g., SOC, temperature, voltage response, impedance response, indication of lithium precipitation, etc.) may be collected for each source and communicated to a control system (e.g., 102) to enable application of the scheme 1100 and coordinated system-wide management of power distribution in the power connections (e.g., 110) of each module or source. For example, a modular energy system 100 having an array of N different modules 108 each having an energy source 206 may independently perform at each of the N modules 108 Fig.19AScheme 1100-1. The control system 102 (e.g., MCD 112) can determine when each source 206 reaches a transition condition (e.g., from stage 1110, 1120 to stage 1120, 1130, or between sub-stages 1114, 1116, 1133-1136), and appropriate instructions can be issued to cause this module 108 to transition to the next stage for each source 206 therein (e.g., instructing LCD 114 via MCD 112 to modify the switching signal to converter 202 to generate a charging pulse (or constant current) instead of a preheating pulse train). A first group of one or more modules 108 may have met the conditions for transitioning from the pulse preheating stage 1110 to the pulse charging stage 1120 (e.g., at a minimum temperature, etc.), while a second group of one or more different modules 108 may not have met this condition. Thus, the system 100 can control and distribute the application of power with the control system 102 (e.g., under the direction of the MCD 112) so that a first group of one or more modules 108 are in the pulse charging stage 1120 while a second group of one or more different modules 108 remain in the pulse preheating stage 1110. When each module 108 of the second group independently reaches the transition condition, this module 108 can enter the pulse preheating stage with the first group of modules 108. Similarly, when each module 108 in the pulse charging stage 1120 independently reaches the condition to transition to the constant current charging stage 1130, this module 108 can transition from stage 1120 to stage 1130. In some examples, all of the different stages 1110, 1120, and 1130 can be performed simultaneously on different energy sources within the same system. The same applies to executing the scheme sub-stages (e.g., 1114, 1116, and 1133-1136) on the sources within the system, so that different sub-stages can be performed simultaneously on different sources.

[0269] Example System Configuration for Charging and Heating Embodiments

[0270] Figures 20A-20F is a block diagram depicting an example embodiment of a system to which the embodiments previously and subsequently described herein may be applied. These examples are described in the context of mobile applications (i.e., charging of EVs); however, these examples may also be implemented in stationary applications (e.g., charging of energy buffers) and portable power applications (e.g., charging of power tool batteries) described herein.

[0271] exist Fig. 20AIn the example system configuration 2010 of , the charge source 150-1 includes a DC charge source 2002, which outputs a DC charging voltage or current to a switching circuit system 2004 (e.g., an H-bridge), which can output a positive, negative, or zero DC charging voltage and current for pulse heating and / or charging. The pulse train is provided to an EV 2006-1 having an electric powertrain 2012 through terminals (or nodes) 2015-1 and 2015-2, and the electric powertrain includes N batteries 206-1 to 206-N connected in series, which are in a conventional non-switchable configuration. When charging, the powertrain 2012-1 can provide DC power to an inverter 2111, which converts it into 3-phase power and then outputs it to the EV motor 2112.

[0272] Fig. 20B Example system configuration 2020 is similar to configuration 2010, except that switching circuitry 2004 is included within EV 2006-2. DC power from charge source 150-2 is received by EV 2006-2, where it is pulsed by circuitry 2004 under control of EV 2006-2 to provide a pulse train for charging or heating sources 206-1 through 206-N.

[0273] exist Fig. 20C In the example configuration 2030, the charge source 150-3 is configured according to Figure 1A-10F The embodiment of the system 100 is configured as described above. The charge source 150-3 receives AC power from the grid 2008 and supplies it as a single-phase pulse train to the electric powertrain 2012-1 of the EV 2006-1.

[0274] exist Fig.20D In the example configuration 2040, the DC charge source 150-2 supplies DC power to the EV 2006-4, which has a DC power supply according to the embodiment of the present invention. Figure 1A-10FAn electric powertrain 212-2 is configured in an embodiment of the described system 100. In this example, the powertrain 212-2 has an array of three modules 108-1 to 108-N configured to generate three-phase signals PA, PB, and PC. EV 2006-4 includes a routing circuit system 2110 that reroutes DC power from two lines to three lines to charge three arrays (e.g., PA and PB, PB and PC, PA and PC). The operation of the routing circuit system is described in U.S. Patent Publication No. US2021 / 0316621A1 and co-pending U.S. Patent Application Serial No. 17 / 574,508 entitled "SYSTEMS, DEVICES, AND METHODS FOR MODULE-BASED CASCADED ENERGY SYSTEMS", both of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety for all purposes. Other configurations may also be used to route DC power to each array for charging. Each module 108 may then operate its converter 202 independently of the other modules to apply DC power to its energy source 206 in a pulsed manner for heating and / or charging (e.g., in coordination with the MCD 112). Once charged, the powertrain 2012-2 may provide three-phase power to the motor 2012.

[0275] exist Fig.20E In the example configuration 2050 of , the charge source 150-4 is an AC charge source and supplies three-phase AC power. The pulse train is provided to the EV 2006-4 having an electric powertrain 2012-2 similar to the configuration 2040 through terminals (or nodes) 2015-1, 2015-2 and 2015-3. Because the three-phase power is directly supplied to the powertrain 2012-2, the routing circuit system 2110 can be omitted. Similar to the configuration of 2040, each module 108 can then operate its converter 202 independently of the other modules to apply DC power to its energy source 206 in a pulsed manner for heating and / or charging (e.g., under the coordination of the MCD 112). Once charged, the powertrain 2012-2 can provide three-phase power to the motor 2012.

[0276] exist Fig.20FIn the example configuration 2060 of FIG. 2060 , the charge source 150-3 is similar to the charge source of configuration 2030 , except that it is configured to supply three-phase power directly to the EV 2006-5 , which is similar to configuration 2050 . Here, because both the charge source 150-3 and the powertrain 2012-2 include the energy storage system 100 , either the charge source 150-3 or the powertrain 2012-2 can be responsible for creating the pulse train for charging each energy source. Performing the pulse function in the powertrain 2012-2 with a specific converter 202 for each module 108 thereof is advantageous because it allows the pulse train for each energy source to be independently created and applied, thereby providing customized charging and / or heating functions for a specific source.

[0277] Although not limited to this, configurations 2010, 2020, and 2030 may be particularly suitable for relatively low voltage applications (e.g., 10 watt-hours to 20 kilowatt-hours (kWh)), while configurations 2040 and 2050 may be particularly suitable for relatively high (medium) voltage applications (e.g., 20 kWh to 100 kWh), and configuration 2060 may be particularly suitable for relatively high voltage applications (e.g., 100 kWh and above).

[0278] The embodiments described herein may also be used to charge an EV powertrain with energy generated by a regenerative braking system of the EV. For example, during braking, the generated power may be applied to the powertrain as a pulse train through a switching circuit system located between the regenerative braking system and the electric powertrain (e.g., in the case of a conventional non-switchable series-connected battery pack), or through a converter 202 integrated within module 108 (as in the case of a cascade converter system 100). Management of the switches used to generate the appropriate pulse train may be under the control of the EV's control system, such as control system 102 (e.g., MCD 112).

[0279] Example Charging and Heating Embodiments Based on Impedance, Inductance and / or Thermal Characteristics Information

[0280] The following example embodiments describe performance of a preheating phase 1110 and / or a pulse charging phase 1120 of a scheme 1100 based on assessed impedance and / or inductance information of one or more energy sources 206 of a subject. Additionally or alternatively, the preheating phase 1110 may be performed based on assessed thermal characteristics, such as thermal impedance and / or thermal capacitance of one or more energy sources 206 of a subject. These embodiments may be performed by or under the direction of a controller 2101, which may include processing circuitry and memory, and may be configured as a single device or as a plurality of devices. The controller 2101 may be associated with any of the systems described herein, including those based on the modular cascade system 100 and systems not based on the modular cascade system, such as with respect to Figures 20A-20F Various configurations 2010-2060 are described. Controller 2101 may be located exclusively within one device or system, such as within a device charger, within a charge source 150, or within an energy storage system or EV, etc. Controller 2101 may alternatively be distributed across multiple devices or systems, for example, relying on coordination between separate control devices within both the charge source 150 and the EV. In embodiments where charging is at least partially controlled by system 100, controller 2101 may be or include control system 102.

[0281] Fig.21 A is a flow chart depicting an example embodiment of a method 2100 for performing at least one of stages 1110 and 1120 based on evaluated impedance and / or inductance information. At step 2102, a controller 2101 evaluates the charge level (e.g., SOC) of one or more sources 206 ("subject sources 206") subject to the scheme 1100. The charge level can be used to determine how much charge to apply throughout the scheme 1100, and can be repeated as needed during any stage of the scheme 1100. An increase in the charge level reduces the available overvoltage at both the anode and cathode, and thus can be used to reduce the applied current as the charge level increases. The frequency response of the subject source 206 also depends on the charge level, and thus can be used to provide a frequency response for f 预加热 and f 脉冲 Both select a target frequency. The charge level of the target source 206 may be determined according to techniques known to those of ordinary skill in the art.

[0282] At step 2104, the controller 2101 may evaluate one or more impedances of the subject source 206, including a total impedance, an ohmic impedance, and / or an activation impedance. Impedance may generally be measured using one or more stimulation signals in any manner known to one of ordinary skill in the art. In some examples, impedance is measured by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) using a voltage or current frequency stimulation pulse generator, data capture circuitry, and impedance estimation processing circuitry included in the controller 2101. The total impedance, as well as the activation impedance and the ohmic impedance, may also be measured by applying a stimulation signal (e.g., a current pulse) and measuring the resulting voltage response, including a total voltage drop and a voltage drop that is proportional to the ohmic impedance (R 欧姆 ) and activation impedance (R CT +R 瓦尔堡 ) corresponding to the voltage drop component and (See Fig.12F ). This can alternatively be performed by applying a voltage pulse and evaluating the current response.

[0283] At step 2106, the controller 2101 can evaluate the inductance of the charging path between the charge source and the object source 206. As with impedance, inductance can be measured in any manner known to those of ordinary skill in the art. In some examples, the inductance is measured by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) using a voltage or current frequency sweep pulse generator, response data capture circuitry, and inductance estimation processing circuitry included in the controller 2101. The total inductance can also be measured by applying a current pulse and measuring the resulting voltage response, or alternatively by applying a voltage pulse and evaluating the current response. The inductance can be measured at the terminals (e.g., the first node and the second node) where the charging signal is output from the charge source 150 to the system containing the object source 206.

[0284] At step 2108, the controller 2101 may evaluate one or more thermal aspects of the object source 206. This may include measuring the temperature of the object source 206, such as by using a temperature sensing device on, in, or near the object source 206. This measured temperature may indicate the internal temperature of the object source 206. An external or ambient temperature may also or alternatively be measured, which indicates the temperature of the environment surrounding the controller 2101. In addition, the thermal resistance and / or thermal capacitance of the object source 206 may be measured. The thermal resistance may be measured by applying one or more preheating pulses to the object source 206 to generate a certain amount of local heating and then measuring the temperature response of the object source 206. Based on the temperature rise response and the time constant of the increase, the capacity may be estimated. The thermal resistivity may be determined based on a thermal loop model known in the art or a model based on thermal finite element simulation.

[0285] Steps 2102-2108 may be performed in any desired order and are not limited to Fig.21 A. In addition, in some embodiments, the controller 2101 may not need to evaluate all of the information described in steps 2104-2108, and thus any one, two, or all three of these steps may be omitted, as may any aspect of the information collected in a particular step. For example, in embodiments where the inductance of the charging path within the system 2101 is known and considered, the controller 2101 need not perform step 2106. Similarly, in embodiments where the preheating phase 1110 is not performed, the evaluation of thermal resistance and / or capacitance within step 2108 may be omitted, and in some cases step 2108 may be omitted entirely. These examples are not exhaustive and other variations exist.

[0286] In some embodiments, one or more of the impedance, inductance, thermal resistance, and thermal capacitance of the subject source 206 may be characterized at development or after manufacturing, and these characterized parameters may be used to select or program (to the extent applicable) appropriate frequencies, currents (e.g., C-rates), current limits, temperature limits, voltages, and / or voltage limits for the preheating phase 1110, the pulse charging phase 1120, and / or the charging phase 1130. In such embodiments, evaluation of these parameters in one or more of steps 2104-2108 may be omitted.

[0287] In some embodiments, the controller 2101 may be configured to identify the object source 206 as a model type, product category, or chemical property based on an identifier (e.g., a bit string), and reference a data structure (e.g., a data array or a lookup table) containing relevant characteristics (e.g., impedance, inductance, thermal characteristics) of the object source 206 based on the model type or category, thereby avoiding the need for on-site evaluation of these parameters as in steps 2104-2108. In some cases, the data structure may include parameters for the performance of the scheme 1100 (e.g., heating signal frequency, pulse charging signal frequency, current (e.g., C-rate), current limit, temperature limit, voltage, and / or voltage limit (to the extent applicable) for the preheating phase 1110, the pulse charging phase 1120, and / or the charging phase 1130). The identification of the model type, category, or chemical property may be performed by reading an identifier or other indication from a local memory associated with the source 206 (e.g., a battery management system), or by retrieving from a cloud-based server (via a wired or wireless Internet connection). Alternatively, the source 206 may have an identifier tag antenna that can be read by a local reader of the controller 2101, such as using near field communication (NFC) or RFID. In another example, the type, category, or chemical property may be manually uploaded or entered into the controller 2101.

[0288] Instead of relying on model type or class, the subject source may be characterized prior to field deployment, such as during manufacturing or testing prior to commercial distribution, and the characterized information (e.g., impedance, inductance, thermal characteristics) may be digitally stored and associated with the subject source 206, such as in a local memory of a battery management system associated with the subject source 206, or in a server located in a cloud network. The characterized information may be retrieved locally from the local memory (e.g., via a communication bus) or from a cloud-based server (e.g., via a wireless or wired Internet connection) and used to determine appropriate parameters for the performance of the protocol 1100 (e.g., frequency, current (e.g., C-rate), current limit, temperature limit, voltage, and / or voltage limit (to the extent applicable) for the preheating phase 1110, the pulse charging phase 1120, and / or the charging phase 1130). Retrieval from the cloud-based server may involve the controller 2101 reading or receiving one or more serial numbers or other unique identifiers (or data location identifiers) of the subject source 206, and transmitting this identification information to the cloud-based server, which may respond with the characterized information and / or protocol performance parameters. In lieu of or in addition to communication of characterized parameters, scheme performance parameters (e.g., frequency, current (e.g., C-rate), current limit, temperature limit, voltage, and / or voltage limit (to the extent applicable) of the preheating phase 1110, pulse charging phase 1120, and / or charging phase 1130) may be communicated to the controller 2101 via a local communication connection or a wireless or wired Internet connection.

[0289] At step 2110, the controller 2101 may perform a verification or validation to determine whether the subject source 206 is in a state suitable for executing the scheme 1100. Any one or more of the evaluated parameters (total impedance, activation impedance, ohmic impedance, inductance, source temperature, external temperature, thermal resistance, thermal capacitance) may be compared to a validation condition, such as a minimum and / or maximum threshold limit (e.g., a threshold range) for acceptable values ​​of such parameters. For example, it may be determined whether the activation impedance falls within a threshold range of acceptable or allowed activation impedances, and if it does fall within this range, the condition is satisfied, and the controller 2101 may proceed to evaluate the next parameter. This process may continue until all parameters are verified. If any one or more parameters violate the validation condition, the controller 2101 may determine not to execute the corresponding phase of the scheme 1100. For example, if the thermal resistance is too high, the controller 2101 may determine not to execute the preheating phase 1110, or if the activation impedance is too high, the controller 2101 may determine not to execute the pulse charging phase 1120, but to perform constant current charging at a relatively low current.

[0290] At step 2112, controller 2101 may then select regimen settings (eg, values, ranges, or limits) for executing regimen 1100 based on the evaluated parameters. Regimen settings may include: 预加热 、f 脉冲 The protocol settings may also include acceptable values ​​or ranges of acceptable values ​​(upper and lower limits) for the current amplitudes applied in the positive and negative preheat pulses 1112, the current applied in the charging pulses 1122, the voltages applied in the positive and negative preheat pulses 1112, the voltage amplitudes applied in the charging pulses 1122, and / or the duty cycles of the preheat or pulse signals 1112 and 1122. The protocol settings may also include acceptable values ​​or ranges for monitored responses from the source 206 during execution of the protocol 1100, such as acceptable voltage levels in the voltage response 1212 (e.g., peak total voltage, anodic overvoltage, cathodic overvoltage), acceptable impedances (e.g., total impedance, activation impedance, ohmic impedance), maximum source temperature, maximum rate of rise of source temperature, and acceptable concentration gradients (e.g., concentration overvoltage). Each stage 1110, 1120, and 1130 of scheme 1100 can have multiple different values ​​or ranges for a particular setting and can cycle through these values ​​or ranges as controller 2101 progresses through a particular stage (e.g., iteratively increasing or decreasing the current applied in pulse 1122 as controller 2101 progresses through stage 1120).

[0291] In one embodiment, the controller 2101 causes an impedance of the subject source 206 to be evaluated before or during the preheating phase 1110, which is then used to determine the voltage or current amplitude of the heating signal 1112. If the evaluated impedance is greater than an impedance threshold, a relatively lower amplitude may be selected, or if the preheating phase 1110 has already begun, the amplitude of the heating signal may be reduced to slow the heating rate. If the evaluated impedance is less than the impedance threshold, a relatively higher amplitude may be selected, or if the preheating phase 1110 has already begun, the amplitude of the heating signal may be increased to speed up heating.

[0292] At step 2114, the controller 2101 may use the selected scheme settings to implement one or more verified stages 1110, 1120, 1130 of the scheme 1100. Each stage of the scheme 1100 may be executed in its entirety with these settings, or the settings may be adjusted periodically as the stages progress, such as for increased SOC. The controller 2101 may periodically perform evaluation steps 2102, 2104, 2106, and / or 2108 throughout each stage of the scheme 1100. The evaluated parameters may be used to repeat the verification step 2110 and / or modify the scheme settings. For example, while applying the preheating pulse train 1112, the controller 2101 may periodically cause the application of current pulses 1214 and instruct the measurement of voltage responses 1212 to evaluate the balanced activation and ohmic overvoltages (or impedances) to evaluate whether pulse charging is appropriate, and / or update the stored values ​​of activation impedance and / or ohmic impedance. Likewise, while applying the charging pulses 1122, the controller 2101 may periodically cause a current pulse 1214 (of the same or similar amperage) to be applied and instruct a voltage response 1212 to be measured to assess the activation voltage drop. and ohmic voltage drop The controller 2101 may then adjust the applied current or voltage signal amplitude and / or frequency based on the feedback evaluated during the particular phase.The method 2100 may continue until the subject source 206 is sufficiently heated and / or charged.

[0293] Example Embodiments of Detecting Charge of Voltage Shifts Due to Concentration Changes

[0294] The embodiments described herein may be performed to charge the subject source 206 while accounting for voltage excursions due to concentration changes. These voltage excursions are due to increases in open circuit cell voltages due to lower concentrations at the electrodes (e.g., Nernst overvoltage) and increased reaction rate losses due to lower concentrations at the interfaces (e.g., activation overvoltage). Mitigating the Nernst overvoltage requires back diffusion toward equilibrium and typically requires longer time than mitigating the activation overvoltage. Fig. 22 Depicts a lithium-ion battery cell in equilibrium (C R = 1, solid line) and after diffusion-induced concentration changes (e.g., C R = 0.1, dashed line). When in equilibrium, when zero current is applied, the battery cell exhibits an open circuit voltage E 0 能斯特 To drive a high charging current i_cell, apply E 0 能斯特 The voltage plus the balanced activation overvoltage If the total applied voltage is too large, the permissible anodic overvoltage range may be exceeded and lithium precipitation may occur. After the concentration change, the open circuit voltage shifts to E* 能斯特 , and driving the same current i_cell requires an increase in the applied voltage This corresponds to the degree of battery cell imbalance.

[0295] Nernst overvoltage due to concentration shift can be derived from the Nernst equation for a single reactant species (neglecting product accumulation) and is given by (9), where R is the universal gas constant (8.314 JK -1 mol -1 ), T is the temperature in Kelvin, n is the number of electrons involved in the electrochemical reaction (e.g., the lithium main reaction is a simple single electron transfer reaction), and F is the Faraday constant (coulombs per mole of electrons, 96485.33 C mol -1 ):

[0296] (9)

[0297] And the activation overvoltage caused by concentration shift It can be derived from the Butler-Volmer equation and can be simplified to (10) at high current density:

[0298] (10)

[0299] The two components of the concentration-induced overvoltage are related by the inverse of the term α, which is the charge transfer coefficient, dimensionless, and has a typical value of 0.3-0.7, depending on the reversibility of the reaction. From (11) we get:

[0300] (11)

[0301] If known It can then be used to verify that the overvoltage applied during pulse charging does not exceed the permitted anode and cathode overvoltage ranges. 0 能斯特 and The value of can be determined by characterization (as described below), or can be estimated in the field (e.g., measured while in use in an EV), during manufacturing or testing prior to distribution, by software modeling, or based on standard values ​​for the source type or category. These values ​​can then be stored or programmed into the controller 2101.

[0302] The value of can be measured in the voltage response 1212 (see Fig.12F ), for example, by evaluating the value of the voltage response 1212 after T_fall and subtracting Because the concentration shift caused by The change in is small, so if desired, one can estimate or alternatively Slightly higher For example, 5 to 10 percent higher. Alternatively, This can be measured directly by measuring the voltage of response 1212 after a very short interval (e.g., less than one to two milliseconds), or by monitoring the voltage response 1212 during T_Fall and only evaluating The magnitude of the portion is measured based on the change in the rate of voltage reduction, which indicates that the voltage has decreased from the voltage during T_fall. arrive transformation.

[0303] Although possible, it is difficult to perform the E* test during the charging phase due to the relatively long durations involved. 能斯特 However, since it can be determined And it is equivalent to (1 / α) and The product of , so we can use the estimate of α to calculate In addition, c 0 is usually known (e.g., 1.0-1.5 mol for lithium-ion batteries), which permits calculation of the concentration gradient (c 0 / c*), which in turn allows tuning of the charging process based on the concentration gradient if desired.

[0304] The balanced impedance data structure (e.g., a data array or a lookup table) can be used to calculate the impedance of the balanced R 0 欧姆 and R 0 CT The value of R is constructed as a function of SOC (e.g., 0-90%) and temperature (e.g., -20 to 50 degrees Celsius). Table 2 below shows a visual representation of an example lookup table. Each cross-referenced grid position (x1 to x80) can be populated with the corresponding R at a specific SOC and temperature. 0 欧姆 and / or R 0 CT Here, SOC and temperature are described in increments of 10, but in other embodiments, finer (or coarser) SOC and temperature increments may be used to provide the level of granularity desired by the embodiment.0 欧姆 and R 0 CT The value of can be characterized by using the current pulse and voltage response technique for the target source (or representative source) (see Fig.12F , where the applied current during T_rise and the measured magnitude of the voltage response can be used to calculate R 0 欧姆 and R 0 CT ) or using impedance response techniques (see Fig.12E , where R 0 欧姆 and R 0 CT It can be determined by extrapolating from the x-axis as shown).

[0305]

[0306] Table 2

[0307] The value of R can be determined by selecting R at the current (or closest) value of the SOC and temperature of the target source 206. 0 欧姆 and multiplying it by the possibly varying current of the applied pulse 1214 to calculate The amperage of the applied current pulse 1214 may be the same or similar to the amperage of the charging current used during the corresponding phase (e.g., pulse 1122). The value of R can be determined by selecting R at the current (or closest) value of the SOC and temperature of the target source 206. 0 激活 The value is calculated by multiplying it by the current of the applied pulse 1214

[0308] The balanced impedance data structures can be stored as data or program instructions in a memory local to the target source (e.g., BMS), or retrieved from a cloud server using the techniques described herein. In some embodiments, a system with source 206 can perform an evaluation or characterization of source 206 on-site and use the data to build or modify these data structures.

[0309] Fig.23is a graph of an example of the anode potential at equilibrium versus SOC, and in particular the maximum permissible potential before adverse degradation (e.g., lithium precipitation) occurs. This anode potential can be used to derive a threshold for deciding whether the current applied during charging stages 1120 and 1130 is too large or too small. Here, the SOC values ​​are divided into three ranges (10%-30%, 31%-60%, and 61%-90%), each with a maximum anode overvoltage value associated with it (V1, V2, V3, respectively). This is a relatively simple description of the ranges, but more complex descriptions can be used, such as four or more ranges, maximum values ​​for each individual SOC, linear or nonlinear models of the maximum potential, etc. The threshold function f(SOC) can be derived from (12)-(15):

[0310] (12)

[0311] (13)

[0312] (14) n 浓度 (SOC) < [1+(1 / α)] f(SOC)

[0313] (15)

[0314] Where R' is a ratio factor that depends on the total active impedance distribution between the anode and cathode. For example, an R' value of two equals the impedance uniformly distributed between the anode and cathode. The value of R' can be selected based on testing or modeling of the actual chemistry of the source and its electrodes. Because f(SOC) scales by the term [1+(1 / α)], the charging process can be performed using only to adjust, and no need to use Although it may be used in certain embodiments if desired. Table 3 includes example values ​​for f(SOC) based on R' being two, an alpha value of 0.5, and V1, V2, and V3 values ​​of 210 mV, 180 mV, and 85 mV.

[0315]

[0316] Table 3

[0317] The values ​​can be selected based on the implementation needs. For example, these values ​​can be the central trend values ​​(e.g., the mean or median) across each discrete SOC range, or can be the minimum value within this range to reduce the possibility of excessive anode overvoltage. Of course, these values ​​are only examples and will vary with source chemistry, type, and age, etc.

[0318] In other embodiments, f(SOC) can be based on the concentration gradient (c 0 / c*), for example, as determined using (9) or (10). Charging phase 1120 or 1130 may be performed, and the concentration gradient may be periodically evaluated and charging parameters adjusted to ensure that the gradient does not become too large.

[0319] Fig.24A is a flow chart depicting an example embodiment of a charging method 2400 that can be used in aspects of scheme 1100 with additional concentration gradient control (e.g., to adapt to feedback of voltage excursions caused by concentration changes). Method 2400 can be performed by controller 2101 and performed under the direction of the controller. At step 2402, the subject source 206 is charged using pulse charging or constant current charging (e.g., stage 1120 or 1130, respectively). The charging current is preferably at a high level (for fast charging), such as greater than one C (1C) or 2C for source 206. Normal charging is typically performed within the manufacturer's recommended current, cutoff voltage, and time limits, and the actual C limits associated with normal charging will vary based on these recommendations.

[0320] During the charging step 2402, the controller 2101 may intermittently start a In the evaluation step 2404, according to (10), the value is minus The intermittent intervals can be based on the elapsed time (e.g., every 10 seconds, 20 seconds, 30 seconds, etc.), based on the occurrence of charging or temperature conditions (e.g., every 1% change in SOC level, every degree increase in temperature), based on the change in applied voltage required to drive the desired current, or based on the change in applied current for a constant applied voltage (e.g., indicative of a change in concentration).

[0321] In an example embodiment, to determine The SOC and temperature values ​​of the object source 206 at (or closest to) the object source 206 may be first used to identify R according to the corresponding data structure (eg, Table 2). 0 激活 (SOC, T) values, which may be evaluated simultaneously with step 2404 or estimated based on earlier evaluations of SOC and temperature. By taking this identified R 0 激活 The (SOC, T) value is determined by multiplying the current of the applied current pulse 1214 . It can be determined in any of the ways described herein. For example, R 0 欧姆 The (SOC, T) value may be identified using the SOC and temperature values ​​at which (or closest to) the subject source 206 is located according to a corresponding data structure (eg, Table 2). By taking this identified R0 欧姆 The (SOC, T) value is determined by multiplying the current of the applied current pulse 1214. Considering that the change in ohmic voltage drop due to concentration change is small, it can be assumed that and This can then be subtracted from the voltage drop measured during T_Fall The difference is Then from Minus Can get

[0322] At step 2406, the controller 2101 may determine Whether it indicates that the charging current should be adjusted. The controller 2101 can select an appropriate f(SOC) threshold from the corresponding data structure (e.g., Table 3) based on the current SOC of the object source 206, and compare this f(SOC) threshold with For comparison. If the applied charging current exceeds the threshold, this may indicate that the applied charging current is too high (e.g., a current that produces an overvoltage on the anode that exceeds the permitted range), and the controller 2101 may determine to adjust one or more charging parameters, such as reducing the charging current, adjusting f 脉冲 (if during stage 1120) or adjust the duty cycle or pulse width of charging pulse 1122 (if during stage 1120) to reduce the overvoltage generated at the anode and cathode. is the same as or slightly below the threshold, this may indicate an appropriate amount of charging current to be applied, and the controller 2101 may determine to maintain the charging parameters without making adjustments. If the voltage is significantly lower than the threshold, this may indicate that the applied charging current is too small (e.g., there is additional overvoltage available on the anode, but it does not exceed the permitted range), and the controller 2101 may determine to adjust one or more charging parameters, such as increasing the charging current, adjusting f 脉冲 (if during phase 1120) or adjust the duty cycle or pulse width of charging pulse 1122 (if during phase 1120) to increase the overvoltage generated at the anode and cathode.

[0323] At 2408, the controller may determine the amount of adjustment and proceed back to the charging step 2402. The amount of adjustment may be set to a fixed value. The fixed value may be a relatively small value in order to conservatively adjust the current during the charging process. Alternatively, the controller 2101 may select a value that is consistent with the charging step 2402. The amount of adjustment is proportional to the difference between the threshold f(SOC) values, eg, the adjusted parameter is scaled by the amount of the difference.

[0324] Method 2400 may iteratively perform pulse charging and The SOC level is evaluated and adjusted until the target SOC level is reached (step 2410), or until the appropriate transition conditions are reached for the transition from the pulse charging phase 1120 to the constant current charging phase 1130, as described herein with respect to scheme 1100. The constant current charging 1130 may be intermittently evaluated as described in steps 2404, 2406, and 2408. and charging parameter adjustments (eg, charging current). In this manner, method 2400 may continue with either or both of charging phases 1120 and 1130 at a high current until the target source reaches the target SOC level.

[0325] Fig. 24B is a flow chart depicting an example embodiment of a preheating and charging method 2420 that may be used in aspects of scheme 1100 with additional concentration gradient control. Method 2420 may be performed by and under the direction of controller 2101 .

[0326] Steps 2422, 2424, and 2426 are used to verify that the subject source 206 in a balanced state is in a suitable state for the high current fast pulse charging phase 1120, and these steps may be omitted in certain embodiments if they are not necessary or desired. At step 2422, the temperature of the subject source 206 may be measured, and a preheating phase 1110 may be performed to raise the source 206 temperature, for example, to a temperature where R is present in the balanced impedance data structure. 0 欧姆 and R 0 激活 At step 2424, the voltage response 1212 may be measured by applying a current pulse 1214 and measuring the voltage response 1212 during the T_rise period (e.g., 50-100 milliseconds). and At step 2426, based on the measured and and the applied current to determine R 0 欧姆 ' and R 0 激活 ' and compare it to the pre-existing R in the balanced impedance data structure 0 欧姆 and R 0 激活 The values ​​are compared (or alternatively, the corresponding ohmic voltage and activation voltage can be compared). Based on the comparison, the condition for continuing fast charging is valid or invalid. If the values ​​are proportional, method 2420 can continue with high current fast charging at step 2430. If the newly measured R0 欧姆 ' and R 0 激活 ' value (or voltage) is significantly higher (eg, above a threshold), this may indicate that the subject source 206 is severely aged and a normal current slower charging procedure may be performed at 2428.

[0327] At step 2430, the subject source 206 temperature may be measured (again, if desired), and the preheating phase 1110 may be performed to raise the source 206 temperature to the desired starting temperature for the pulse charging phase 1120 (or phase 1130). At step 2432, the pulse charging phase 1120 may be initiated or otherwise performed, and the pulse charging phase 1120 may continue at 2434. At step 2436, controller 2101 may determine whether a charging parameter should be adjusted, and at step 2438, the magnitude of the adjustment may be determined, at which point method 2420 may revert to pulse charging at step 2432. Steps 2432, 2434, 2436, and 2438 are similar to those described with respect to Fig.24A Steps 2402, 2404, 2406, and 2408 are described in detail as described above. In this manner, method 2420 may continue with either or both of charging phases 1120 and 1130 at a high current until the subject source reaches the target SOC level.

[0328] Method 2420 can iteratively perform pulse charging and Concentration_activation evaluation and adjustment are performed until the target SOC level is reached, or until appropriate transition conditions are reached for transitioning from the pulse charging phase 1120 to the constant current charging phase 1130. Constant current charging 1130 may also be performed with intermittent evaluation as described in steps 2404, 2406, and 2408. In this manner, method 2420 may continue with either or both of charging phases 1120 and 1130 at high current until the target source reaches a target SOC level, e.g., 80%, as shown in step 2440.

[0329] Referring back to step 2426, in some embodiments, the balanced impedance data structure may be updated based on the newly collected data. 0 欧姆 ' and R 0 激活 The re-evaluated value of ' is compared with the corresponding two values ​​in the balanced impedance data structure. Scaling factor SF 欧姆 Based on the data structure in R 0 欧姆 'R0 欧姆 The proportional difference between the values ​​is calculated, and this scaling factor can be used to scale all R values ​​in the data structure across SOC and temperature. 0 欧姆 value, so that R 0 欧姆 '(SOC,T)=SF 欧姆 x R 0 欧姆 (SOC,T). Similarly, the scaling factor SF 激活 Based on the data structure in R 0 激活 'R 0 激活 The proportional difference between the values ​​is calculated, and this scaling factor can be used to scale all R values ​​in the data structure across SOC and temperature. 0 激活 value, so that R 0 激活 '(SOC,T)=SF 激活 x R 0 激活 (SOC, T). In this manner, the ohmic impedance and activation impedance may be updated periodically during the life of the subject source 206 to ensure accuracy remains within the anode and cathode permissible overvoltage ranges.

[0330] Methods 2100, 2400, and 2420 may be performed on the modular cascade system 100. The execution of these methods in the cascade system 100 may require that the methods be performed individually and discretely for each energy source within the system. Therefore, for a system with N modules, methods 2100, 2400, and 2420 may be performed N times to customize the method for each specific energy source (e.g., based on the SOC, temperature, impedance, inductance, and / or thermal characteristics of a single source of the object). N instances of the method may be executed simultaneously with each other under the control of the control system 102 (alone or in combination with the control unit of the accompanying charge source 150).

[0331] When implemented within the modular cascade system 100, the embodiments described herein may be used to charge all such modules of the system, including modules 108-1 through 108-N of each array and interconnect module 108IC, for all such modules having one, two, or more energy sources therein.

[0332] Although many embodiments are described herein in the context of current-controlled charging signals (eg, applied current pulses), all such embodiments may be equally implemented with voltage-controlled charging signals (eg, applied voltage pulses).

[0333] All of the above-described embodiments related to pulse charging may be implemented according to the pulse width modulation control scheme or the hysteresis-based control scheme described herein, with additional constraints on the pulse length where applicable to avoid violating the pulse duration conditions of certain embodiments described herein.

[0334] All of the above embodiments related to rapid charging can also be used to discharge the system in a rapid manner.

[0335] In all embodiments described herein, the primary energy source of each module of a particular system can have the same voltage (standard operating voltage or nominal voltage). This configuration simplifies the management and construction of the system. The primary energy source and the secondary energy source can also have the same voltage (standard or nominal). Other configurations can be implemented, such as configurations in which the primary energy sources of different modules of the same system have different voltages (standard or nominal), and configurations in which the primary energy source and the secondary energy source of the module have different voltages (standard or nominal). Still other configurations can be implemented in which the primary energy sources of the modules of the system have primary energy source batteries with different chemical properties, or in which the modules of the system have primary energy source batteries of a first chemical property and secondary energy source batteries of a second chemical property. Modules that are different from each other can be based on placement in the system (for example, modules within a phase array are different from IC modules).

[0336] In the following, various aspects of the subject matter of the present invention are described to review and / or supplement the embodiments described so far, with emphasis on the interrelationship and interchangeability of the following embodiments. In other words, unless otherwise explicitly stated or taught, emphasis is placed on the fact that each feature of an embodiment can be combined with each other feature.

[0337] In a first group of embodiments, a method for charging an energy source is provided, the method comprising: applying a charging signal to the energy source so that a concentration offset occurs within the energy source; measuring a voltage response to a current pulse applied to the energy source; determining an activation overvoltage caused by the concentration offset based on the voltage response; and determining whether to adjust parameters of the charging signal based at least in part on the activation overvoltage caused by the concentration offset.

[0338] In some embodiments of the first group, the measured voltage response is a voltage drop (T_drop) that occurs within a certain period of time after the termination of the current pulse. The measured voltage response may include the voltage drop due to ohmic losses. The first voltage drop and the activation loss The activation overvoltage caused by the concentration offset is The voltage response may be determined by: subtracting the first voltage drop due to ohmic loss from the measured voltage response to generate the second voltage drop due to activation loss; and subtracting the balancing voltage loss due to activation loss from the second voltage drop due to activation loss. The method may include generating an activation overvoltage due to concentration offset based on a balanced voltage loss due to ohmic loss. The method may include determining the first voltage drop caused by the ohmic loss according to the balanced ohmic impedance (R 0 欧姆 ) Determine the balancing voltage loss due to ohmic losses. A plurality of balancing ohmic impedances may be stored in a memory together with associated state of charge values ​​and / or temperature values.

[0339] In some embodiments of the first group, the method may include storing a balanced activation impedance (R 0 CT ) determine the balancing voltage loss due to activation loss. A plurality of balancing activation impedances may be stored in a memory together with associated state of charge values ​​and / or temperature values. The balancing ohmic impedance and the balancing activation impedance are stored in at least one data structure. The at least one data structure may be a data array or a lookup table. The method may include evaluating at least one of a state of charge and a temperature of the energy source, and referencing the memory with the evaluated at least one state of charge and / or temperature to determine the balancing ohmic impedance and the balancing activation impedance. Both the state of charge and the temperature may be evaluated and used when referencing the memory.

[0340] In some embodiments of the first group, the method includes adjusting the parameter of the charging signal. The parameter may be at least one of: charging current amperage, frequency of pulses of the charging signal, duty cycle of pulses of the charging signal, or duration of pulses of the charging signal.

[0341] In some embodiments of the first group, determining whether to adjust a parameter of the charging signal based at least in part on the activation overvoltage caused by the concentration offset comprises: adjusting the activation overvoltage caused by the concentration offset to compared to a threshold value (f(SOC)). The method may include increasing the charging current amperage if the activation overvoltage is less than the threshold. The method may include decreasing the charging current amperage if the activation overvoltage exceeds the threshold. The method may include maintaining the charging current amperage unadjusted if the activation overvoltage is commensurate with the threshold. The method may include determining the threshold. Determining the threshold may include selecting a threshold based on a current state of charge of the energy source. The method may include referencing a data structure having a plurality of thresholds, each of the plurality of thresholds being associated with one or more state of charge levels. The threshold takes into account activation losses due to concentration excursions and Nernstian loss due to concentration shift Both. The threshold value may be based on an allowable range of anode overvoltage or a maximum anode overvoltage. The threshold value may be a voltage value.

[0342] In some embodiments of the first group, the method may include: determining at least one of an updated balanced ohmic impedance and an updated balanced activation impedance; comparing the at least one of the updated balanced ohmic impedance and the updated balanced activation impedance to a corresponding at least one pre-existing balanced ohmic impedance and a pre-existing balanced activation impedance; and determining whether to apply the charging signal. If the at least one of the updated balanced ohmic impedance and the updated balanced activation impedance is within the range of the corresponding at least one pre-existing balanced ohmic impedance and the pre-existing balanced activation impedance, the method may include determining to apply the charging signal. The method may include: evaluating a temperature of the energy source; and pre-heating the energy source to a target temperature before determining the at least one of the updated balanced ohmic impedance and the updated balanced activation impedance.

[0343] In some embodiments of the first group, the method includes: evaluating a temperature of the energy source; preheating the energy source to a target temperature; performing a verification evaluation to determine whether to continue charging. The verification evaluation may include: measuring a parameter of the energy source at the target temperature; comparing the measured parameter to a pre-existing version of the parameter; and determining whether to continue charging.

[0344] In some embodiments of the first group, the applied charging signal is a plurality of charging pulses or a constant current charging signal.

[0345] In some embodiments of the first group, the energy source is a lithium-ion battery cell.

[0346] In some embodiments of the first group, the energy source is a battery module comprising a plurality of lithium-ion battery cells connected together in series and / or parallel.

[0347] In some embodiments of the first group, the energy source is a battery of an electric vehicle.

[0348] In a second group of embodiments, a system is provided, which is configured to charge an energy source, the system comprising: the energy source; and a controller, the controller being configured to: control application of a charging signal to the energy source so that a concentration offset occurs within the energy source; control measurement of a voltage response to a current pulse applied to the energy source; determine an activation overvoltage in the energy source caused by the concentration offset based on the voltage response; and determine whether to adjust parameters of the charging signal based at least in part on the activation overvoltage caused by the concentration offset.

[0349] In some embodiments of the second group, the controller may be configured to determine the activation overvoltage by: subtracting a first voltage drop due to ohmic losses from the measured voltage response to produce a second voltage drop due to activation losses; and subtracting a balancing voltage loss due to activation losses from the second voltage drop due to activation losses to produce the activation overvoltage due to concentration shift. The controller may be configured to determine the first voltage drop due to ohmic losses based on the balancing voltage loss due to ohmic losses. The controller may be configured to determine the balancing voltage loss due to ohmic losses based on balancing ohmic impedances stored in a memory of the controller. Multiple balancing ohmic impedances may be stored in the memory together with associated state of charge values ​​and / or temperature values.

[0350] In some embodiments of the second group, the controller may be configured to determine the balancing voltage loss due to activation loss based on a balancing activation impedance stored in the memory.

[0351] In some embodiments of the second group, the controller can be configured to control the evaluation of at least one of the charge state and the temperature of the battery module, and reference the memory with at least one of the evaluated charge state and / or temperature to determine the balancing ohmic impedance and the balancing activation impedance.

[0352] In some embodiments of the second group, the controller can be configured to adjust the parameter of the charging signal.

[0353] In some embodiments of the second group, the controller can be configured to compare the activation overvoltage due to concentration offset with a threshold value to determine whether to adjust a parameter of the charging signal. The controller can be configured to determine the threshold value. The controller can be configured to select the threshold value based on a current charging state of the energy source.

[0354] In some embodiments of the second group, the controller can be configured to: determine at least one of an updated balancing ohmic impedance and an updated balancing activation impedance; compare the updated balancing ohmic impedance and the at least one of the updated balancing activation impedance with a corresponding at least one pre-existing balancing ohmic impedance and a pre-existing balancing activation impedance; and determine whether to apply the charging signal.

[0355] In some embodiments of the second group, the controller may be configured to: evaluate the temperature of the battery module; control the application of a preheating signal to the battery module to raise the battery module to a target temperature; and perform a verification evaluation to determine whether to charge the battery module. To perform the verification evaluation, the controller may be configured to: control the measurement of a parameter of the energy source at the target temperature; compare the measured parameter with a pre-existing version of the parameter; and determine whether to charge the energy source based on the comparison.

[0356] In some embodiments of the second group, the charging signal is a plurality of charging pulses or a constant current charging signal.

[0357] In some embodiments of the second group, the energy source includes a lithium-ion battery cell.

[0358] In some embodiments of the second group, the controller includes a processing circuit system and a memory having a plurality of instructions, which, when executed by the processing circuit system, cause the processing circuit system to perform the steps of the method, or cause the steps of the method to be performed.

[0359] In a third group of embodiments, a system is provided, which is configured to charge an energy source, the system comprising: a plurality of converter modules, each converter module comprising a converter and a battery module coupled to the converter, the battery module having a plurality of battery cells connected in series and / or in parallel, wherein the plurality of converter modules are coupled together in at least one array, the at least one array being configured to generate a voltage comprising a superposition of output signals from each of the converter modules; and a control system, the control system being configured to: control application of a charging signal to each battery module so that a concentration offset occurs within the battery cells of the battery module; control measurement of a voltage response to a current pulse applied to each battery module; determine an activation overvoltage in the battery cells of the battery module due to the concentration offset based on the voltage response; and determine whether to adjust parameters of the charging signal based at least in part on the activation overvoltage caused by the concentration offset.

[0360] In some embodiments of the third group, the measured voltage response is a voltage drop that occurs within a certain time period after the termination of the current pulse. The measured voltage response may include a first voltage drop due to ohmic losses and a second voltage drop due to activation losses. The time period may be 150 milliseconds or less. The control system may be configured to determine the activation overvoltage by: subtracting the first voltage drop due to ohmic losses from the measured voltage response to generate the second voltage drop due to activation losses; and subtracting the balancing voltage loss due to activation losses from the second voltage drop due to activation losses to generate the activation overvoltage due to concentration shift. The control system may be configured to determine the first voltage drop due to ohmic losses based on the balancing voltage loss due to ohmic losses. The control system may be configured to determine the balancing voltage loss due to ohmic losses based on the balancing ohmic impedance stored in the memory of the control system. Multiple balancing ohmic impedances are stored in the memory together with associated state of charge values ​​and / or temperature values. The control system may be configured to determine the balancing voltage loss due to activation loss based on the balancing activation impedance stored in the memory. The memory stores a plurality of balancing activation impedances and associated state of charge values ​​and / or temperature values. The memory stores at least one data structure having the balancing ohmic impedance and the balancing activation impedance. The at least one data structure may be a data array or a lookup table. The control system may be configured to control the evaluation of at least one of the state of charge and temperature of the battery module, and reference the memory with the evaluated at least one state of charge and / or temperature to determine the balancing ohmic impedance and the balancing activation impedance. The control system may be configured to evaluate both the state of charge and the temperature.

[0361] In some embodiments of the third group, the control system may be configured to adjust the parameter of the charging signal. The parameter may be at least one of the following: charging current amperage, frequency of the pulses of the charging signal, duty cycle of the pulses of the charging signal, or duration of the pulses of the charging signal.

[0362] In some embodiments of the third group, the control system may be configured to compare the activation overvoltage due to concentration offset with a threshold value to determine whether to adjust the parameters of the charging signal. The control system may be configured to indicate an increase in the charging current amperage if the activation overvoltage is less than the threshold value. The control system may be configured to indicate a decrease in the charging current amperage if the activation overvoltage exceeds the threshold value. The control system may be configured to indicate maintaining the charging current amperage if the activation overvoltage is commensurate with the threshold value. The control system may be configured to determine the threshold value. The control system may be configured to select a threshold value based on the current state of charge of the energy source. The control system may be configured to reference a data structure including a plurality of threshold values, each of which is associated with one or more state of charge levels. The threshold value may take into account both activation losses due to concentration offset and Nernst losses due to concentration offset. The threshold value may be based on an allowable range of anode overvoltage. The threshold value may be a voltage value.

[0363] In some embodiments of the third group, the control system may be configured to: determine at least one of an updated balancing ohmic impedance and an updated balancing activation impedance; compare the updated balancing ohmic impedance and the updated balancing activation impedance with a corresponding at least one pre-existing balancing ohmic impedance and a pre-existing balancing activation impedance; and determine whether to apply the charging signal. The control system may be configured to determine to apply the charging signal if the updated balancing ohmic impedance and the updated balancing activation impedance are within the range of the corresponding at least one pre-existing balancing ohmic impedance and the pre-existing balancing activation impedance. The control system may be configured to: measure the temperature of the battery module; and control the application of a preheating signal to the battery module to raise the battery module to a target temperature.

[0364] In some embodiments of the third group, the control system may be configured to: evaluate the temperature of the battery module; control the application of a preheating signal to the battery module to raise the battery module to a target temperature; perform a verification evaluation to determine whether to charge the battery module. To perform the verification evaluation, the control system may be configured to: control the measurement of a parameter of the energy source at the target temperature; compare the measured parameter with a pre-existing version of the parameter; and determine whether to charge the energy source based on the comparison.

[0365] In some embodiments of the third group, the charging signal may be a plurality of charging pulses or a constant current charging signal.

[0366] In some embodiments of the third group, the battery cells are lithium-ion battery cells.

[0367] In some embodiments of the third group, the plurality of converter modules are configured to supply power to an electric motor of an electric vehicle.

[0368] In a fourth group of embodiments, a method for heating an energy source is provided, the method comprising: determining the inductance and / or impedance of the energy source by applying at least one stimulation signal to the energy source; determining the frequency of the heating signal based on the determined inductance and / or impedance of the energy source; and applying the heating signal to the energy source at the frequency.

[0369] In some embodiments of the fourth group, the heating signal can be configured to heat the energy source without substantially charging the energy source.

[0370] In some embodiments of the fourth group, the heating signal comprises a series of pulses of alternating polarity.

[0371] In some embodiments of the fourth group, the heating signal does not apply a net charge to the energy source.

[0372] In some embodiments of the fourth group, the inductance is determined and is based on measurements across at least a first node and a second node, and the inductance includes the inductance of the energy source and a conductive path between the first node and the second node. The inductance may be determined spectroscopically or by applying a current pulse and measuring a voltage response.

[0373] In some embodiments of the fourth group, the energy source may be a battery pack comprising a plurality of battery cells, and the inductance comprises the inductance of the battery cells, the conductive paths between the battery cells, and the conductive paths between the measurement node and one or more of the battery cells.

[0374] In some embodiments of the fourth group, the method can be performed for a system having a plurality of converter modules, each converter module including a converter and the energy source coupled to the converter, the energy source being a battery module having a plurality of battery cells connected in series and / or in parallel, wherein the plurality of converter modules are coupled together in at least one array, the at least one array being configured to generate a voltage comprising a superposition of output signals from each of the converter modules. The method can include: determining the inductance and / or impedance of each energy source of the system by applying at least one stimulation signal to each energy source; for each energy source, determining the frequency of a heating signal based on the determined inductance and / or impedance of each energy source; and for each energy source, applying the heating signal to the energy source at a frequency determined for each energy source.

[0375] In some embodiments of the fourth group, the impedance can be determined and the impedance can be a total impedance of the energy source.

[0376] In some embodiments of the fourth group, the method includes determining an activation impedance and a total impedance of the energy source.

[0377] In some embodiments of the fourth group, the frequency may be determined such that based on the impedance, the frequency exceeds a minimum frequency and such that based on the inductance, the frequency does not exceed a maximum frequency. Both the inductance and the impedance are determined, and the frequency is selected using both the inductance and the impedance. The frequency may be selected from a data structure based on the determined inductance and impedance. The data structure may be a lookup table.

[0378] In a fifth group of embodiments, a method for charging an energy source is provided, the method comprising: determining the inductance and / or impedance of the energy source by applying at least one stimulation signal to the energy source; determining the frequency of the charging signal based on the determined inductance and / or impedance of the energy source; and applying the charging signal to the energy source at the frequency.

[0379] In some embodiments of the fifth group, the charging signal includes a plurality of charging pulses.

[0380] In some embodiments of the fifth group, the inductance is determined and is based on a measurement across a first node and a second node, and the inductance includes the inductance of the energy source and a conductive path between the first node and the second node. The inductance can be determined spectroscopically or by applying a current pulse and measuring a voltage response.

[0381] In some embodiments of the fifth group, the energy source may be a battery pack having a plurality of battery cells, and the inductance includes the inductance of the battery cells, the conductive paths between the battery cells, and the conductive paths between the measurement node and one or more of the battery cells.

[0382] In some embodiments of the fifth group, the method can be performed for a system, the system comprising a plurality of converter modules, each converter module having a converter and the energy source coupled to the converter, the energy source being a battery module having a plurality of battery cells connected in series and / or in parallel, wherein the plurality of converter modules are coupled together in at least one array, the at least one array being configured to generate a voltage comprising a superposition of output signals from each of the converter modules. The method may include: determining the inductance and / or impedance of each energy source of the system by applying at least one stimulation signal to each energy source; for each energy source, determining the frequency of a charging signal based on the determined inductance and / or impedance of each energy source; and for each energy source, applying the charging signal to the energy source at a frequency determined for each energy source.

[0383] In some embodiments of the fifth group, the impedance is determined and the impedance is a total impedance of the energy source.

[0384] In some embodiments of the fifth group, the method includes determining an activation impedance and a total impedance of the energy source.

[0385] In some embodiments of the fifth group, the frequency may be determined such that based on the impedance, the frequency exceeds a minimum frequency and such that based on the inductance, the frequency does not exceed a maximum frequency. Both the inductance and the impedance are determined, and the frequency is selected using both the inductance and the impedance. The frequency may be selected from a data structure based on the determined inductance and impedance. The data structure may be a lookup table.

[0386] In a sixth group of embodiments, a method for charging an energy source is provided, the method comprising: evaluating multiple impedances of the energy source, wherein the multiple impedances include a total impedance and a non-ohmic impedance; and applying a charging signal to the energy source, wherein the charging signal includes pulses at a certain frequency, and the frequency maintains the non-ohmic impedance at a threshold ratio above the total impedance.

[0387] In some embodiments of the sixth group, the threshold ratio may be 50%.

[0388] In some embodiments of the sixth group, the threshold ratio may be 60%.

[0389] In some embodiments of the sixth group, the non-ohmic impedance includes activation impedance and Warburg impedance.

[0390] In some embodiments of the sixth group, the charging signal can be applied at a time-averaged C-rate of two or greater.

[0391] In some embodiments of the sixth group, the charging signal can be applied with a 50% duty cycle.

[0392] In some embodiments of the sixth group, the charging signal can be applied with a duty cycle of 40%-60%.

[0393] In a seventh group of embodiments, a method for heating an energy source is provided, the method comprising: evaluating the impedance of the energy source during a preheating phase of the energy source, wherein the preheating phase comprises applying a heating signal to the energy source at a first frequency; determining a second frequency for the heating signal based on the evaluated impedance; and applying the heating signal to the energy source at the second frequency.

[0394] In some embodiments of the seventh group, the heating signal can be configured to heat the energy source without substantially charging the energy source.

[0395] In some embodiments of the seventh group, the heating signal comprises a series of pulses of alternating polarity.

[0396] In some embodiments of the seventh group, the heating signal does not apply a net charge to the energy source.

[0397] In an eighth group of embodiments, a method for charging in a system is provided, wherein the system includes a plurality of converter modules, each converter module including a converter and an energy source coupled to the converter, the energy source being a battery module having a plurality of battery cells connected in series and / or in parallel, wherein the plurality of converter modules are coupled together in at least one array, the at least one array being configured to generate a voltage comprising a superposition of output signals from each of the converter modules, the method comprising: during a pulse charging phase of the system, individually evaluating the impedance of the energy source for each energy source, wherein the pulse charging phase comprises applying a pulse charging signal to the energy source; determining an adjusted frequency of the pulse charging signal of the energy source based on the evaluated impedance of at least one energy source; and applying the pulse charging signal to the at least one energy source at the adjusted frequency.

[0398] In some embodiments of the eighth group, the impedance can be the total impedance of the energy source.

[0399] In some embodiments of the eighth group, evaluating the impedance of the energy source individually for each energy source includes evaluating an activation impedance and a total impedance of each energy source. The method may include determining the adjusted frequency of the pulse charging signal of the energy source based on the evaluated activation impedance and the total impedance of at least one energy source.

[0400] In a ninth group of embodiments, a method related to charging an energy source is provided, the method comprising: evaluating parameters of the energy source; identifying a frequency corresponding to the evaluated parameter by referencing a data structure; and applying a signal to the energy source at the identified frequency, wherein the signal can be configured to: charge the energy source; or heat the energy source without substantially charging the energy source.

[0401] In some embodiments of the ninth group, the parameter may be the impedance of the energy source.

[0402] In some embodiments of the ninth group, the parameter may be an identifier of the energy source.

[0403] In a tenth group of embodiments, a method related to charging an energy source is provided, the method comprising: evaluating parameters, wherein the parameters are a charging state of the energy source, an impedance of the energy source, a temperature of the energy source, or a temperature outside the energy source; determining an amplitude of a heating signal based at least on the evaluated parameters; and applying the heating signal to the energy source with the amplitude.

[0404] In some embodiments of the tenth group, the parameter may be an impedance of the energy source, and determining the amplitude of the heating signal based at least on the assessed impedance includes reducing the amplitude if the assessed impedance is greater than an impedance threshold.

[0405] In some embodiments of the tenth group, the parameter may be an impedance of the energy source, and determining the amplitude of the heating signal based at least on the assessed impedance includes increasing the amplitude if the assessed impedance is less than an impedance threshold.

[0406] In some embodiments of the tenth group, the energy source includes a lithium-ion battery cell.

[0407] In some embodiments of the tenth group, the energy source may be a battery module comprising a plurality of battery cells connected in series and / or in parallel.

[0408] In some embodiments of the tenth group, the method can be performed in a system including a control system and multiple cascaded converter modules and energy sources, wherein the method can be performed independently for each energy source and simultaneously by the multiple converter modules.

[0409] In an eleventh group of embodiments, a method for heating an energy source is provided, the method comprising applying an electric heating signal to the energy source, wherein the electric heating signal comprises a series of alternating charging pulses and discharging pulses at a certain frequency, and the frequency heats the ohmic portion of the energy source without substantially heating the non-ohmic portion of the energy source.

[0410] In some embodiments of the eleventh group, the energy source includes a lithium-ion battery cell.

[0411] In some embodiments of the eleventh group, the electrical heating signal can be applied while monitoring the temperature of the energy source and the temperature of the environment external to the energy source. The electrical heating signal can be applied so that the gradient between the temperature of the energy source and the temperature of the environment external to the energy source is maintained within a threshold limit. The threshold limit can be 30 degrees Celsius, or the threshold limit can be 20 degrees Celsius.

[0412] In some embodiments of the eleventh group, the method can be performed without using a cooling device while cooling the energy source.

[0413] In a twelfth group of embodiments, a method related to charging an energy source is provided, the method comprising: evaluating a charging level of an object energy source to be charged; evaluating at least one of an impedance of the energy source or an inductance of a charging path including the energy source; based on the evaluated impedance and / or inductance, selecting a scheme setting for performing a heating and / or charging scheme on the object source; and executing the scheme on the object source.

[0414] In some embodiments of the twelfth group, the impedance is evaluated, and the method includes evaluating at least one of a total impedance, an activation impedance, or an ohmic impedance of the subject source. The impedance may be measured using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. The impedance may be measured by applying a stimulation signal and measuring a voltage response.

[0415] In some embodiments of the twelfth group, the inductance is evaluated.

[0416] In some embodiments of the twelfth group, the method may include evaluating at least one thermal aspect of the object source. The at least one thermal aspect may be a temperature of the object source or a temperature of an ambient environment external to the object source. The at least one thermal aspect may be a thermal resistance or a thermal capacitance of the object source. The thermal resistance is evaluated and the thermal resistance is evaluated by applying one or more preheating pulses to the object source to generate a certain amount of local heating, and the thermal resistance is determined based on the certain amount of local heating.

[0417] In some embodiments of the twelfth group, the method may include identifying an identifier of a model type, product category, or chemical property of the object source. The method may include: referencing a data structure, the data structure including parameters of the identified model type, product category, or chemical property of the object source; and selecting the scheme setting based on the parameters. The method may include selecting the scheme setting by referencing a data structure, the data structure including the scheme setting of the identifier of the model type, product category, or chemical property of the object source. The method may include sending the identifier of the identified model type, product category, or chemical property of the object source to a cloud-based server, and receiving the parameters or scheme setting of the object source from the cloud-based server.

[0418] In some embodiments of the twelfth group, the method may include: reading an identifier of the object source; sending the identifier to a cloud-based server; and receiving parameters or scheme settings of the object source from the cloud-based server.

[0419] In some embodiments of the twelfth group, the method may include reading parameters or scheme settings of the object source from a local memory of the object source.

[0420] In some embodiments of the twelfth group, the method may include verifying whether a preheating phase and / or a charging phase can be performed on the object source. The verification may include comparing a parameter of the object source with a verification condition. The parameter may be an activation impedance.

[0421] In some embodiments of the twelfth group, selecting the scheme setting includes selecting at least one of: a value or range of the frequency of the heating signal, a value or range of the frequency of the pulse charging signal, a value or range of the current or voltage amplitude of the heating signal, a value or range of the current or voltage amplitude of the pulse charging signal, a duty cycle of the heating signal, a duty cycle of the pulse charging signal, a pulse width of the heating signal, or a pulse width of the pulse charging signal.

[0422] In some embodiments of the twelfth group, the method may include performing a preheating phase of the regimen on the object source.

[0423] In some embodiments of the twelfth group, the method may include performing a pulse charging phase of the scheme on the subject source.

[0424] In some embodiments of the twelfth group, the method may include performing a constant current charging phase of the scheme on the subject source.

[0425] In some embodiments of the twelfth group, the scheme includes preheating the object source, pulse charging the object source, and constant current charging the object source.

[0426] In some embodiments of the twelfth group, the object source may be a battery module within an electric vehicle.

[0427] In some embodiments of the twelfth group, the method can be executed by a controller or a control system or under the guidance of the controller or the control system.

[0428] In some embodiments of the twelfth group, the object source includes a lithium-ion battery cell.

[0429] In some embodiments of the twelfth group, the object source may be a battery module having a plurality of lithium-ion battery cells connected in series and / or in parallel.

[0430] As used herein, the term "module" refers to one of two or more devices or subsystems within a larger system. The module can be configured to work in conjunction with other modules with similar size, function and physical arrangement (e.g., the position of electrical terminals, connectors, etc.). Modules with the same function and energy source can be configured to be the same as all other modules in the same system (e.g., rack or package) (e.g., size and physical arrangement), while modules with different functions or energy sources can be different in size and physical arrangement. Although each module can be physically removable and replaceable relative to other modules of the system (e.g., wheels on a car, or blades in an information technology (IT) blade server), this is not necessary. For example, the system can be packaged in a common housing that does not allow any module to be removed and replaced without disassembling the entire system. However, any and all embodiments herein can be configured so that each module can be removed and replaced in a convenient manner relative to other modules, such as without disassembling the system.

[0431] The term "master control device" is used herein in a broad sense and does not require implementation of any particular scheme, such as a master-slave relationship with any other device (eg, a local control device).

[0432] The term "output" is used in this document in a broad sense, and does not exclude acting as both an output and an input in a bidirectional manner. Similarly, the term "input" is used in this document in a broad sense, and does not exclude acting as both an input and an output in a bidirectional manner.

[0433] The terms "terminal" and "port" are used herein in a broad sense and may be unidirectional or bidirectional, may be input or output, and do not require a specific physical or mechanical structure, such as a female or male configuration.

[0434] The processing circuit system may include one or more processors, microprocessors, controllers and / or microcontrollers, each of which may be discrete or independent chips or distributed among several different chips (and portions thereof). Any type of processing circuit system may be implemented, such as but not limited to a personal computing architecture (e.g., such as for a desktop PC, laptop computer, tablet computer, etc.), a programmable gate array architecture, a proprietary architecture, a custom architecture, etc. The processing circuit system may include a digital signal processor that may be implemented in hardware and / or software. The processing circuit system may execute software instructions stored on a memory that cause the processing circuit system to take many different actions and control other components.

[0435] The processing circuitry may also execute other software and / or hardware routines. For example, the processing circuitry may interface with the communication circuitry and perform analog / digital conversion, encoding and decoding, other digital signal processing, multimedia functions, convert data to a format suitable for providing to the communication circuitry (e.g., in-phase and quadrature), and / or may cause the communication circuitry to transmit data (wired or wirelessly).

[0436] The processing circuitry may also be adapted to execute an operating system and any software applications, and to perform those other functions not related to the processing of sent and received communications.

[0437] Computer program instructions for performing operations according to the described subject matter may be written in any combination of one or more languages, including computer and programming languages. A non-exhaustive list of examples includes hardware description languages ​​(HDL), SystemC, C, C++, C#, Objective-C, Matlab, Simulink, SystemVerilog, SystemVHDL, Handel-C, Python, Java, JavaScript, Ruby, HTML, Smalltalk, Transact-SQL, XML, PHP, Golang (Go), "R" language, and Swift, among others.

[0438] The memory, storage device and / or computer readable medium may be shared by one or more of the various functional units present, or may be distributed among two or more thereof (e.g., as separate memories present in different chips). The memory may also reside in its own separate chip.

[0439] If the embodiments disclosed herein include or operate in association with memory, storage, and / or computer-readable media, the memory, storage, and / or computer-readable media are non-transitory. Therefore, if the memory, storage, and / or computer-readable media are covered by one or more of the claims, the memory, storage, and / or computer-readable media are only non-transitory. The terms "non-transitory" and "tangible" as used herein are intended to describe memory, storage, and / or computer-readable media, excluding propagating electromagnetic signals, but are not intended to limit the types of memory, storage, and / or computer-readable media in terms of storage persistence or otherwise. For example, "non-transitory" and / or "tangible" memory, storage, and / or computer-readable media cover volatile and non-volatile media, such as random access media (e.g., RAM, SRAM, DRAM, FRAM, etc.), read-only media (e.g., ROM, PROM, EPROM, EEPROM, flash memory, etc.) and combinations thereof (e.g., hybrid RAM and ROM, NVRAM, etc.) and variants thereof.

[0440] It should be noted that all features, elements, components, functions and steps described with respect to any embodiment provided herein are intended to be combined and replaced with features, elements, components, functions and steps from any other embodiment. If a feature, element, component, function or step is described only with respect to one embodiment, it should be understood that the feature, element, component, function or step can be used with each other embodiment described herein unless otherwise explicitly stated. Therefore, this paragraph serves as a prior basis and written support for the introduction of claims at any time, which combine features, elements, components, functions and steps from different embodiments, or replace features, elements, components, functions and steps in another embodiment with features, elements, components, functions and steps from one embodiment, even if the following description does not explicitly state such combinations in a particular case, or replacement is possible. It is explicitly acknowledged that it is too cumbersome to explicitly list each possible combination and replacement, especially considering that the permissibility of each and every such combination and replacement will be easily recognized by a person of ordinary skill in the art.

[0441] As used herein and in the appended claims, the singular forms "a," "an," and "the" include plural referents unless the context clearly dictates otherwise.

[0442] Although the embodiments are susceptible to various modifications and alternative forms, specific examples thereof have been shown in the drawings and described in detail herein. However, it should be understood that the embodiments are not limited to the specific forms disclosed, but rather, the embodiments will cover all modifications, equivalents, and alternatives that fall within the spirit of the present disclosure. In addition, any features, functions, steps, or elements of the embodiments may be recited in or added to the claims, as well as negative limitations on the scope of the invention of the claims by not including features, functions, steps, or elements within the scope.

Claims

1. A method for charging an energy source, the method comprising: applying a charging signal to an energy source so that a concentration shift occurs within the energy source; measuring a voltage response to a current pulse applied to the energy source; determining an activation overvoltage due to the concentration shift based on the voltage response; and A determination is made whether to adjust a parameter of the charging signal based at least in part on the activation overvoltage due to the concentration shift.

2. The method of claim 1, wherein the measured voltage response is a voltage drop (T_drop) occurring within a certain period of time after termination of the current pulse.

3. The method of claim 2, wherein the measured voltage response includes the voltage response due to ohmic losses (η* 欧姆 ) and the first voltage drop due to activation loss (η* 激活 ) caused by the second voltage drop.

4. The method according to any one of claims 2 to 3, wherein the time period is 150 milliseconds or less.

5. The method according to any one of claims 3 to 4, wherein the activation overvoltage (η) caused by the concentration shift is 浓度-激活 ) is determined by: subtracting the first voltage drop due to ohmic losses from the measured voltage response to produce the second voltage drop due to activation losses; and The balancing voltage loss (η) caused by the activation loss is subtracted from the second voltage drop caused by the activation loss. 0 激活 ) to generate the activation overvoltage caused by concentration offset.

6. The method of claim 5, further comprising: determining a balanced voltage loss (η) based on a voltage loss due to ohmic losses. 0 欧姆 ) to determine the first voltage drop due to ohmic loss.

7. The method of claim 6, further comprising storing the balanced ohmic impedance (R 0 欧姆 ) determines the balanced voltage loss due to ohmic losses.

8. The method of claim 7, wherein a plurality of balanced ohmic impedances are stored in a memory together with associated state of charge values ​​and / or temperature values.

9. The method according to any one of claims 5 to 8, further comprising: 0 CT ) determines the balancing voltage loss caused by activation loss.

10. The method of claim 9, wherein a plurality of balancing activation impedances are stored in a memory together with associated state of charge values ​​and / or temperature values.

11. The method of claim 10, wherein the balanced ohmic impedance and the balanced activation impedance are stored in at least one data structure.

12. The method of claim 11, wherein the at least one data structure is a data array or a lookup table.

13. The method of any one of claims 9 to 12, further comprising evaluating at least one of a state of charge and a temperature of the energy source, and referencing the memory with the evaluated at least one state of charge and / or temperature to determine the equilibrium ohmic impedance and the equilibrium activation impedance.

14. The method of claim 13, wherein both the state of charge and the temperature are evaluated and used when referencing the memory.

15. The method of any one of claims 1 to 14, further comprising adjusting the parameter of the charging signal.

16. The method of claim 15, wherein the parameter is at least one of: charging current amperage, frequency of pulses of the charging signal, duty cycle of pulses of the charging signal, or duration of pulses of the charging signal.

17. The method of any one of claims 1 to 16, wherein determining whether to adjust a parameter of the charging signal based at least in part on the activation overvoltage due to the concentration offset comprises: The activation overvoltage (η) caused by the concentration shift is 浓度-激活 ) is compared with the threshold value (f(SOC)).

18. The method of claim 17, further comprising increasing the charging current amperage if the activation overvoltage is less than the threshold.

19. The method of claim 17, further comprising reducing the charging current amperage if the activation overvoltage exceeds the threshold.

20. The method of claim 17, further comprising maintaining the charging current amperage unregulated if the activation overvoltage is commensurate with the threshold.

21. The method of any one of claims 17 to 20, further comprising determining the threshold.

22. The method of claim 21, wherein determining the threshold comprises selecting a threshold based on a current state of charge of the energy source.

23. The method of claim 22, further comprising referencing a data structure comprising a plurality of threshold values, the plurality of threshold values ​​each being associated with one or more state of charge levels.

24. The method according to any one of claims 17 to 23, wherein the threshold takes into account activation loss due to concentration shift (η* 激活 ) and the Nernst loss due to concentration shift (η* 能斯特 )Both.

25. The method according to any one of claims 17 to 24, wherein the threshold value is based on an allowable range of anode overvoltage or a maximum anode overvoltage.

26. The method of any one of claims 17 to 25, wherein the threshold value is a voltage value.

27. The method according to any one of claims 1 to 26, further comprising: determining at least one of an updated balanced ohmic impedance and an updated balanced active impedance; comparing the at least one of the updated balanced ohmic impedance and the updated balanced activated impedance to a corresponding at least one pre-existing balanced ohmic impedance and a pre-existing balanced activated impedance; and It is determined whether the charging signal is applied.

28. The method according to claim 27, wherein: Applying the charging signal is determined if the at least one of the updated balancing ohmic impedance and the updated balancing activation impedance is within a range of the corresponding at least one pre-existing balancing ohmic impedance and pre-existing balancing activation impedance.

29. The method of claim 27, further comprising: assessing a temperature of the energy source; and The energy source is preheated to a target temperature prior to determining the at least one of the updated balanced ohmic impedance and the updated balanced activation impedance.

30. The method according to any one of claims 1 to 26, further comprising: assessing a temperature of the energy source; preheating the energy source to a target temperature; A validation evaluation is performed to determine whether to continue charging.

31. The method of claim 30, wherein the validation assessment comprises: measuring a parameter of the energy source at the target temperature; comparing the measured parameter to a pre-existing version of the parameter; and Determine whether to continue charging.

32. The method of claims 1 to 31, wherein the applied charging signal is a plurality of charging pulses or a constant current charging signal.

33. The method of any one of claims 1 to 32, wherein the energy source is a lithium-ion battery cell.

34. The method of any one of claims 1 to 32, wherein the energy source is a battery module comprising a plurality of lithium-ion battery cells connected together in series and / or parallel.

35. The method of any one of claims 1 to 34, wherein the energy source is a battery of an electric vehicle.

36. A system configured to charge an energy source, the system comprising: a plurality of converter modules, each converter module comprising a converter and a battery module coupled to the converter, the battery module having a plurality of battery cells connected in series and / or in parallel, wherein the plurality of converter modules are coupled together in at least one array, the at least one array being configured to generate a voltage comprising a superposition of output signals from each of the converter modules; as well as A control system, the control system being configured to: controlling application of a charging signal to each battery module so that a concentration shift occurs within the battery cells of the battery module; controlling the measurement of a voltage response to a current pulse applied to each battery module; determining an activation overvoltage in the battery cell of the battery module due to the concentration offset based on the voltage response; and A determination is made whether to adjust a parameter of the charging signal based at least in part on the activation overvoltage due to the concentration shift.

37. The system of claim 36, wherein the measured voltage response is a voltage drop that occurs over a period of time after termination of the current pulse.

38. The system of claim 37, wherein the measured voltage response includes a first voltage drop due to ohmic losses and a second voltage drop due to activation losses.

39. The system of any one of claims 37 to 38, wherein the time period is 150 milliseconds or less.

40. The system of any one of claims 38 to 39, wherein the control system is configured to determine the activation overvoltage by: subtracting the first voltage drop due to ohmic losses from the measured voltage response to produce the second voltage drop due to activation losses; and The equilibrium voltage loss due to activation loss is subtracted from the second voltage drop due to activation loss to generate the activation overvoltage due to concentration shift.

41. The system of claim 40, wherein the control system is configured to determine the first voltage drop due to ohmic losses based on a balancing voltage loss due to ohmic losses.

42. The system of claim 41, wherein the control system is configured to determine the balanced voltage loss due to ohmic losses based on balanced ohmic impedances stored in a memory of the control system.

43. The system of claim 42, wherein a plurality of balanced ohmic impedances are stored in the memory along with associated state of charge values ​​and / or temperature values.

44. The system of any one of claims 40 to 43, wherein the control system is configured to determine the balancing voltage loss due to activation loss based on a balancing activation impedance stored in the memory.

45. The system of claim 44, wherein the memory stores a plurality of balancing activation impedances and associated state of charge values ​​and / or temperature values.

46. ​​The system of claim 45, wherein the memory stores at least one data structure having the balanced ohmic impedance and the balanced activation impedance.

47. The system of claim 46, wherein the at least one data structure is a data array or a lookup table.

48. A system according to any one of claims 44 to 47, wherein the control system is configured to control an evaluation of at least one of a state of charge and a temperature of the battery module, and reference the memory with the evaluated at least one state of charge and / or temperature to determine the balancing ohmic impedance and the balancing activation impedance.

49. The system of claim 48, wherein the control system is configured to evaluate both the state of charge and the temperature.

50. The system of any one of claims 36 to 49, wherein the control system is configured to adjust the parameter of the charging signal.

51. The system of claim 50, wherein the parameter is at least one of: charging current amperage, frequency of pulses of the charging signal, duty cycle of pulses of the charging signal, or duration of pulses of the charging signal.

52. The system of any one of claims 36 to 51, wherein the control system is configured to compare the activation overvoltage due to concentration excursion with a threshold value to determine whether to adjust a parameter of the charging signal.

53. The system of claim 52, wherein the control system is configured to instruct an increase in the charging current amperage if the activation overvoltage is less than the threshold.

54. The system of claim 52, wherein the control system is configured to instruct a reduction in the charging current amperage if the activation overvoltage exceeds the threshold.

55. The system of claim 52, wherein the control system is configured to instruct to maintain the charging current amperage if the activation overvoltage is commensurate with the threshold.

56. A system according to any one of claims 52 to 55, wherein the control system is configured to determine the threshold.

57. The system of claim 56, wherein the control system is configured to select a threshold value based on a current state of charge of the energy source.

58. The system of claim 57, wherein the control system is configured to reference a data structure containing a plurality of threshold values, each of the plurality of threshold values ​​being associated with one or more state of charge levels.

59. The system of any one of claims 52 to 58, wherein the threshold takes into account both activation losses due to concentration shifts and Nernst losses due to concentration shifts.

60. The system of any one of claims 52 to 59, wherein the threshold is based on an allowable range of anode overvoltage.

61. The system of any one of claims 52 to 60, wherein the threshold is a voltage value.

62. A system according to any one of claims 36 to 61, wherein the control system is configured to: determining at least one of an updated balanced ohmic impedance and an updated balanced active impedance; comparing the at least one of the updated balanced ohmic impedance and the updated balanced activated impedance to a corresponding at least one pre-existing balanced ohmic impedance and a pre-existing balanced activated impedance; and and It is determined whether the charging signal is applied.

63. The system of claim 62, wherein the control system is configured to determine to apply the charging signal if the at least one of the updated balancing ohmic impedance and the updated balancing activation impedance is within a range of the corresponding at least one pre-existing balancing ohmic impedance and pre-existing balancing activation impedance.

64. The system of claim 62, wherein the control system is configured to: enabling measurement of the temperature of the battery module; and Controlling applying a preheating signal to the battery module to raise the battery module to a target temperature.

65. The system of any one of claims 36 to 61, wherein the control system is configured to: enabling evaluation of the temperature of the battery module; controlling to apply a preheating signal to the battery module to raise the battery module to a target temperature; A validation evaluation is performed to determine whether to charge the battery module.

66. The system of claim 65, wherein: In order to perform the validation assessment, the control system is configured to: controlling to measure parameters of the energy source at the target temperature; comparing the measured parameter to a pre-existing version of the parameter; and A determination is made based on the comparison whether to charge the energy source.

67. The system of claims 36 to 66, wherein the charging signal is a plurality of charging pulses or a constant current charging signal.

68. The system of any one of claims 36 to 67, wherein the battery cell is a lithium-ion battery cell.

69. The system of any one of claims 36 to 68, wherein the plurality of converter modules are configured to provide power to an electric motor of an electric vehicle.

70. A system configured to charge an energy source, the system comprising: the energy source; as well as A controller, the controller being configured to: controlling application of a charging signal to the energy source so that a concentration shift occurs in the energy source; controlling a measurement of a voltage response to a current pulse applied to the energy source; determining an activation overvoltage in the energy source due to the concentration shift based on the voltage response; and and A determination is made whether to adjust a parameter of the charging signal based at least in part on the activation overvoltage due to the concentration shift.

71. The system of claim 70, wherein the controller is configured to determine the activation overvoltage by: subtracting a first voltage drop due to ohmic losses from the measured voltage response to produce a second voltage drop due to activation losses; and The equilibrium voltage loss due to activation loss is subtracted from the second voltage drop due to activation loss to generate the activation overvoltage due to concentration shift.

72. The system of claim 71, wherein the controller is configured to determine the first voltage drop due to ohmic losses based on a balancing voltage loss due to ohmic losses.

73. The system of claim 72, wherein the controller is configured to determine the balanced voltage loss due to ohmic losses based on a balanced ohmic impedance stored in a memory of the controller.

74. The system of claim 73, wherein a plurality of balanced ohmic impedances are stored in the memory along with associated state of charge values ​​and / or temperature values.

75. The system of any one of claims 71 to 74, wherein the controller is configured to determine the balancing voltage loss due to activation loss based on a balancing activation impedance stored in the memory.

76. A system according to any one of claims 71 to 75, wherein the controller is configured to control an evaluation of at least one of a state of charge and a temperature of the battery module, and reference the memory with at least one of the evaluated state of charge and / or temperature to determine the balancing ohmic impedance and the balancing activation impedance.

77. The system of any one of claims 70 to 76, wherein the controller is configured to adjust the parameter of the charging signal.

78. The system of any one of claims 70 to 76, wherein the controller is configured to compare the activation overvoltage due to concentration offset to a threshold value to determine whether to adjust a parameter of the charging signal.

79. The system of claim 78, wherein the controller is configured to determine the threshold.

80. The system of claim 78, wherein the controller is configured to select the threshold based on a current state of charge of the energy source.

81. The system of any one of claims 70 to 80, wherein the controller is configured to: determining at least one of an updated balanced ohmic impedance and an updated balanced active impedance; comparing the at least one of the updated balanced ohmic impedance and the updated balanced activated impedance to a corresponding at least one pre-existing balanced ohmic impedance and a pre-existing balanced activated impedance; and and It is determined whether the charging signal is applied.

82. The system of any one of claims 70 to 81, wherein the controller is configured to: enabling evaluation of the temperature of the battery module; controlling to apply a preheating signal to the battery module to raise the battery module to a target temperature; and A validation evaluation is performed to determine whether to charge the battery module.

83. The system of claim 82, wherein: To perform the verification evaluation, the controller is configured to: controlling to measure parameters of the energy source at the target temperature; comparing the measured parameter to a pre-existing version of the parameter; and A determination is made based on the comparison whether to charge the energy source.

84. The system of any one of claims 70 to 83, wherein the charging signal is a plurality of charging pulses or a constant current charging signal.

85. The system of any one of claims 70 to 84, wherein the energy source comprises a lithium-ion battery cell.

86. A method of heating an energy source, the method comprising: determining the inductance and / or impedance of the energy source by applying at least one stimulation signal to the energy source; determining a frequency of a heating signal based on the determined inductance and / or impedance of the energy source; and The heating signal is applied to the energy source at the frequency.

87. The method of claim 86, wherein the heating signal is configured to heat the energy source without substantially charging the energy source.

88. The method of claim 86, wherein the heating signal comprises a series of pulses of alternating polarity.

89. The method of claim 86, wherein the heating signal does not apply a net charge to the energy source.

90. The method of claim 86, wherein the inductance is determined, and wherein the inductance is based on measurements across at least a first node and a second node, and the inductance includes the inductance of the energy source and a conductive path between the first node and the second node.

91. The method of claim 90, wherein the inductance is determined spectrally or by applying a current pulse and measuring the voltage response.

92. The method of claim 86, wherein the energy source is a battery pack comprising a plurality of battery cells, and the inductance comprises the inductance of the battery cells, conductive paths between the battery cells, and conductive paths between a measurement node and one or more of the battery cells.

93. The method according to claim 86 is performed for a system, wherein the system comprises a plurality of converter modules, each converter module comprises a converter and the energy source coupled to the converter, the energy source being a battery module having a plurality of battery cells connected in series and / or in parallel, wherein the plurality of converter modules are coupled together in at least one array, the at least one array being configured to generate a voltage comprising a superposition of output signals from each converter module in the converter modules.

94. The method of claim 93, comprising: determining the inductance and / or impedance of each energy source of the system by applying at least one stimulation signal to each energy source; For each energy source, determining a frequency of the heating signal based on the determined inductance and / or impedance of each energy source; and For each energy source, the heating signal is applied to the energy source at a frequency determined for each energy source.

95. The method of claim 86, wherein the impedance is determined and the impedance is a total impedance of the energy source.

96. The method of claim 86, further comprising determining an activation impedance and a total impedance of the energy source.

97. The method of any one of claims 86 to 96, wherein the frequency is determined such that based on the impedance, the frequency exceeds a minimum frequency, and such that based on the inductance, the frequency does not exceed a maximum frequency.

98. The method of claim 97, wherein both the inductance and the impedance are determined and both the inductance and the impedance are used to select the frequency.

99. The method of claim 98, wherein the frequency is selected from a data structure based on the determined inductance and impedance.

100. The method of claim 99, wherein the data structure is a lookup table.

101. A method of charging an energy source, the method comprising: determining the inductance and / or impedance of the energy source by applying at least one stimulation signal to the energy source; determining a frequency of a charging signal based on the determined inductance and / or impedance of the energy source; and The charging signal is applied to the energy source at the frequency.

102. The method of claim 101, wherein the charging signal comprises a plurality of charging pulses.

103. The method of claim 101, wherein the inductance is determined, and wherein the inductance is based on a measurement across a first node and a second node, and the inductance includes the inductance of the energy source and a conductive path between the first node and the second node.

104. The method of claim 103, wherein the inductance is determined spectrally or by applying a current pulse and measuring the voltage response.

105. A method according to claim 101, wherein the energy source is a battery pack comprising a plurality of battery cells, and the inductance comprises the inductance of the battery cells, the conductive paths between the battery cells, and the conductive paths between the measurement node and one or more of the battery cells.

106. The method according to claim 101 is performed for a system, wherein the system comprises a plurality of converter modules, each converter module comprises a converter and the energy source coupled to the converter, the energy source being a battery module having a plurality of battery cells connected in series and / or in parallel, wherein the plurality of converter modules are coupled together in at least one array, the at least one array being configured to generate a voltage comprising a superposition of output signals from each converter module in the converter modules.

107. The method of claim 105, comprising: determining the inductance and / or impedance of each energy source of the system by applying at least one stimulation signal to each energy source; For each energy source, determining a frequency of the charging signal based on the determined inductance and / or impedance of each energy source; and For each energy source, the charging signal is applied to the energy source at a frequency determined for each energy source.

108. The method of claim 101, wherein the impedance is determined and the impedance is a total impedance of the energy source.

109. The method of claim 101, further comprising determining an activation impedance and a total impedance of the energy source.

110. The method of any one of claims 101 to 108, wherein the frequency is determined such that based on the impedance, the frequency exceeds a minimum frequency, and such that based on the inductance, the frequency does not exceed a maximum frequency.

111. The method of claim 109, wherein both the inductance and the impedance are determined and both the inductance and the impedance are used to select the frequency.

112. The method of claim 110, wherein the frequency is selected from a data structure based on the determined inductance and impedance.

113. The method of claim 111, wherein the data structure is a lookup table.

114. A method of charging an energy source, the method comprising: evaluating a plurality of impedances of the energy source, wherein the plurality of impedances comprises a total impedance and a non-ohmic impedance; and A charging signal is applied to the energy source, wherein the charging signal comprises pulses at a frequency that maintains the non-ohmic impedance above a threshold proportion of the total impedance.

115. The method of claim 113, wherein the threshold ratio is 50%.

116. The method of claim 113, wherein the threshold ratio is 60%.

117. The method of any one of claims 113 to 115, wherein the non-ohmic impedance comprises an activation impedance and a Warburg impedance.

118. The method of any one of claims 113 to 116, wherein the charging signal is applied at a time-averaged C-rate of two or greater.

119. The method of any one of claims 113 to 117, wherein the charging signal is applied at a 50% duty cycle.

120. The method of any one of claims 113 to 118, wherein the charging signal is applied at a 40%-60% duty cycle.

121. A method of heating an energy source, the method comprising: evaluating an impedance of the energy source during a preheating phase of the energy source, wherein the preheating phase comprises applying a heating signal to the energy source at a first frequency; determining a second frequency for the heating signal based on the estimated impedance; and The heating signal is applied to the energy source at the second frequency.

122. The method of claim 120, wherein the heating signal is configured to heat the energy source without substantially charging the energy source.

123. The method of claim 120, wherein the heating signal comprises a series of pulses of alternating polarity.

124. The method of claim 120, wherein the heating signal does not apply a net charge to the energy source.

125. A method of charging in a system, wherein the system comprises a plurality of converter modules, each converter module comprising a converter and an energy source coupled to the converter, the energy source being a battery module having a plurality of battery cells connected in series and / or in parallel, wherein the plurality of converter modules are coupled together in at least one array, the at least one array being configured to generate a voltage comprising a superposition of output signals from each of the converter modules, the method comprising: evaluating the impedance of the energy sources individually for each energy source during a pulse charging phase of the system, wherein the pulse charging phase comprises applying a pulse charging signal to the energy sources; determining an adjusted frequency of a pulsed charging signal of at least one energy source based on the assessed impedance of the energy source; as well as The pulsed charging signal is applied to the at least one energy source at the adjusted frequency.

126. The method of claim 124, wherein the impedance is a total impedance of the energy source.

127. The method of claim 124, wherein: Evaluating the impedance of each energy source individually includes evaluating an activation impedance and a total impedance of each energy source.

128. The method of claim 126, further comprising determining the adjusted frequency of the pulse charging signal of at least one energy source based on an assessed activation impedance and a total impedance of the energy source.

129. A method related to charging an energy source, the method comprising: Evaluate parameters of energy sources; identifying, by reference to the data structure, the frequency corresponding to the parameter being evaluated; and A signal is applied to the energy source at the identified frequency, wherein the signal is configured to: charge the energy source; or heat the energy source without substantially charging the energy source.

130. The method of claim 128, wherein the parameter is the impedance of the energy source.

131. The method of claim 128, wherein the parameter is an identifier of the energy source.

132. A method related to charging an energy source, the method comprising: evaluating a parameter, wherein the parameter is a state of charge of an energy source, an impedance of the energy source, a temperature of the energy source, or a temperature external to the energy source; determining an amplitude of the heating signal based at least on the evaluated parameter; as well as The heating signal is applied to the energy source at the amplitude.

133. The method of claim 131 , wherein the parameter is an impedance of the energy source, and determining the amplitude of the heating signal based at least on the assessed impedance comprises reducing the amplitude if the assessed impedance is greater than an impedance threshold.

134. The method of claim 131, wherein the parameter is an impedance of the energy source, and determining the amplitude of the heating signal based at least on the assessed impedance comprises increasing the amplitude if the assessed impedance is less than an impedance threshold.

135. The method of any one of claims 131 to 133, wherein the energy source comprises a lithium-ion battery cell.

136. The method of any one of claims 131 to 133, wherein the energy source is a battery module comprising a plurality of battery cells connected in series and / or in parallel.

137. The method of any one of claims 131 to 135, performed in a system comprising a control system and a plurality of cascaded converter modules and energy sources, wherein the method is performed independently for each energy source and simultaneously by the plurality of converter modules.

138. A method of heating an energy source, the method comprising: An electrical heating signal is applied to the energy source, wherein the electrical heating signal comprises a series of alternating charge pulses and discharge pulses at a frequency that heats an ohmic portion of the energy source while substantially not heating a non-ohmic portion of the energy source.

139. The method of claim 137, wherein the energy source comprises a lithium-ion battery cell.

140. The method of any one of claims 137 to 138, wherein the electrical heating signal is applied while monitoring the temperature of the energy source and the temperature of the environment external to the energy source.

141. The method of claim 139, wherein the electrical heating signal is applied such that a gradient between the temperature of the energy source and the temperature of an environment external to the energy source is maintained within a threshold limit.

142. The method of claim 140, wherein the threshold limit is 30 degrees Celsius.

143. The method of claim 140, wherein the threshold limit is 20 degrees Celsius.

144. The method of any one of claims 137 to 142, performed without using a cooling device while cooling the energy source.

145. A method related to charging an energy source, the method comprising: assessing a charge level of an energy source of an object to be charged; evaluating at least one of an impedance of the energy source or an inductance of a charging path including the energy source; selecting a regimen setting for performing a heating and / or charging regimen on the subject source based on the assessed impedance and / or inductance; and The scheme is executed on the object source.

146. The method of claim 144, wherein the impedance is assessed and the method comprises assessing at least one of a total impedance, an activation impedance, or an ohmic impedance of the subject source.

147. The method of claim 145, wherein the impedance is measured using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy.

148. The method of claim 146, wherein the impedance is measured by applying a stimulation signal and measuring a voltage response.

149. The method of any one of claims 144 to 147, wherein the inductance is evaluated.

150. The method of any one of claims 144 to 148, further comprising evaluating at least one thermal aspect of the object source.

151. The method of claim 149, wherein the at least one thermal aspect is a temperature of the object source or a temperature of an ambient environment external to the object source.

152. The method of claim 149, wherein the at least one thermal aspect is a thermal resistance or thermal capacitance of the object source.

153. The method of claim 151, wherein the thermal resistance is evaluated and the thermal resistance is evaluated by applying one or more pre-heating pulses to the object source to produce a certain amount of local heating, and the thermal resistance is determined based on the certain amount of local heating.

154. The method of any one of claims 144 to 152, further comprising identifying a model type, product category, or chemical nature of the source of the object.

155. The method of claim 153, further comprising: referencing a data structure comprising parameters of the identified model type, product category, or chemical nature of the object source; and The regimen setting is selected based on the parameters.

156. The method of claim 153, further comprising selecting the regimen setting by referencing a data structure comprising the regimen setting for the identified model type, product category, or chemistry of the object source.

157. The method of claim 153, further comprising sending the identified model type, product category, or chemical property of the object source to a cloud-based server, and receiving parameters or regimen settings for the object source from the cloud-based server.

158. The method of any one of claims 144 to 152, further comprising: Reading an identifier of the object source; sending the identifier to a cloud-based server; and Parameters or recipe settings for the object source are received from the cloud-based server.

159. The method of any one of claims 144 to 152, further comprising reading parameters or protocol settings of the object source from a local memory of the object source.

160. The method according to any one of claims 144 to 158, further comprising verifying whether a preheating phase and / or a charging phase can be performed on the object source.

161. The method of claim 159, wherein the verification comprises comparing a parameter of the object source to a verification condition.

162. The method of claim 160, wherein the parameter is activation impedance.

163. A method according to any one of claims 144 to 161, wherein selecting the scheme setting includes selecting at least one of: a value or range of the frequency of the heating signal, a value or range of the frequency of the pulse charging signal, a value or range of the current or voltage amplitude of the heating signal, a value or range of the current or voltage amplitude of the pulse charging signal, a duty cycle of the heating signal, a duty cycle of the pulse charging signal, a pulse width of the heating signal, or a pulse width of the pulse charging signal.

164. The method of any one of claims 144 to 162, further comprising performing a pre-heating phase of the regimen on the object source.

165. The method of any one of claims 144 to 163, further comprising performing a pulse charging phase of the regimen on the subject source.

166. The method of any one of claims 144-164, further comprising performing a constant current charging phase of the scheme on the subject source.

167. The method of any one of claims 144 to 162, wherein the scheme comprises preheating the subject source, pulse charging the subject source, and constant current charging the subject source.

168. The method of any one of claims 144 to 166, wherein the object source is a battery module within an electric vehicle.

169. The method of any one of claims 144 to 167, performed by or under the direction of a controller or control system.

170. The method of any one of claims 144 to 166, wherein the object source comprises a lithium-ion battery cell.

171. The method of any one of claims 144 to 166, wherein the object source is a battery module comprising a plurality of lithium-ion battery cells connected in series and / or in parallel.

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